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Home , Aldfrith of Northumbria, Bardney Abbey, Battle of Aylesford, Battle of Stamford (918), Battle of York (867), Beornwulf of Mercia

BC c.5000 - Neolithic (new stone age) Period begins; first evidence of farming appears; stone axes, antler combs, pottery in common use. c.4000 - Construction of the "Sweet Track" (named for its discoverer, Ray Sweet) begun; many similar raised, wooden walkways were constructed at this time providing a way to traverse the low, boggy, swampy areas in the Levels, near ; earliest-known camps or communities appear (ie. Hembury, Devon). c.3500-3000 - First appearance of long barrows and chambered tombs; at Hambledon Hill (), the primitive burial rite known as "corpse exposure" was practiced, wherein bodies were left in the open air to decompose or be consumed by animals and birds. c.3000-2500 - Castlerigg (Cumbria), one of Britain's earliest and most beautiful, begun; Pentre Ifan (Dyfed), a classic example of a chambered tomb, constructed; (), known as the "mound in the dark grove," begun, one of the finest examples of a "passage grave." c.2500 - Bronze Age begins; multi-chambered tombs in use (ie. West Kennet Long Barrow) first appearance of "monuments;" construction begun on Silbury Hill, Europe's largest prehistoric, man-made hill (132 ft); "Beaker Folk," identified by the pottery beakers (along with other objects) found in their single burial sites. c.2500-1500 - Most stone circles in erected during this period; pupose of the circles is uncertain, although most experts speculate that they had either astronomical or ritual uses. c.2300 - Construction begun on Britain's largest stone circle at . c.2000 - Metal objects are widely manufactured in about this time, first from copper, then with arsenic and tin added; woven cloth appears in Britain, evidenced by findings of pins and cloth fasteners in graves; construction begun on 's inner ring of bluestones. c.1800-1200 - Secular control of society passes from to those who control the manufacture of metal objects. c.1500 - Farms (houses and separate, walled fields) in use on Dartmoor (Devon) and in uplands of ; stone circles seem to fall into disuse and decay around this time, perhaps due to a re-orientation of the society's religious attitudes and practices; burial mounds cease to be constructed; burials made near stone circles or in flat cemetaries. c.1200-1000 - Emergence of a warrior class who now begins to take a central role in society. Some believe that these people, also known as the Urnfield civilization, are the "proto-Celts." c.1100 - Geoffrey of suggests that Brutus arrives about this time. c.1000 - Earliest hill-top earthworks ("hillforts") begin to appear, also fortified farmsteads; increasing sophistication of arts and crafts, particularly in decorative personal and animal ornamentation. c.600 - Iron replaces bronze, Iron Age begins; construction of begun. c.500 - Evidence of the spread of Celtic customs and artefacts across Britain; more and varied types of pottery in use, more characteristic decoration of jewelry. There was no known invasion of Britain by the Celts; they probably gradually infiltrated into British society through trade and other contact over a period of several hundred years; Druids, the intellectual class of the Celts (their own word for themselves, meaning "the hidden people"), begin a thousand year floruit. c.150 - Metal coinage comes into use; widespread contact with continent. c.100 - Flourishing of Carn Euny (), an iron age village with interlocking stone court- houses; community features a "fogou," an underground chamber used, possibly, for storage or defense.

BC 55 - 's first invasion of Britain.

54 - Julius Caesar's second invasion of Britain. British forces led, this time, by , a capable commander. Despite early Roman advances, British continued to harass the invaders, effectively. A "deal" with the Trinovantes (tribal enemies of Cassivellaunus), and the subsequent desertion of other British tribes, finally guaranteed the Roman victory. Caesar's first two expeditions to Britain were only exploratory in nature, and were never intended to absorb Britain into the Roman sphere, at that time.

54 BC-43 AD - Roman influence manages to increase in Britain during this time, eventhough Roman troops are absent, as a direct result of trade and other interaction with the continent.

AD 5 - acknowledges , King of the Catuvellauni, as king of Britain

43 - Romans, under Aulus Plautius, land at Richborough () for a full-scale invasion of the island. In the south-east of Britain, Togodumnus and Caratacus have been whipping up anti-Roman feeling and have cut off tribute payments to Rome. Caratacus leads main British resistance to the invasion, but is finally defeated in 51.

51 - Caratacus, British resistance leader, is captured and taken to Rome

61 - Boudicca, queen of the Iceni, led uprising against the Roman occupiers, but is defeated and killed by the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus 63 - Joseph of Arimathea came to Glastonbury on the first Christian mission to Britain. c.75-77 - The Roman conquest of Britain is complete, as Wales is finally subdued; Julius Agricola is imperial governor (to 84)

122 - Construction of Hadrian's Wall ordered along the northern frontier, for the purpose of hindering incursions of the aggressive tribes there into

133 - Julius Severus, governor of Britain, is sent to Palestine to crush the revolt

167 - At the request of King Lucius, the missionaries, Phagan and Deruvian,were said to have been sent by Eleutherius to convert the Britons to . This is, perhaps, the most widely believed of the legends of the founding of Christianity in Britain.

184 - Lucius Artorius Castus, commander of a detachment of Sarmatian conscripts stationed in Britain, led his troops to to quell a rebellion. This is the first appearance of the name, Artorius, in history and some believe that this Roman military man is the original, or basis, for the Arthurian legend. The theory says that Castus' exploits in Gaul, at the head of a contingent of mounted troops, are the basis for later, similar traditions about "," and, further, that the name "Artorius" became a title, or honorific, which was ascribed to a famous warrior in the fifth century.

197 - Clodius , governor of Britain, another claimant to the Imperial throne, is killed by Severus at the battle of Lyon

208 - Severus goes to defend Britain, and repairs Hadrian's Wall

209 - St. Alban, first British , was killed for his faith in one of the few persecutions of Christians ever to take place on the island, during the governorship of Gaius Junius Faustinus Postumianus (there is controversy about the date of Alban's martyrdom. Some believe it occurred during the persecutions of Diocletian, in the next century, although we opt for the earlier dating). c.270 - Beginning (highly uncertain dating) of the "" fort system, a chain of coastal forts in the south and east of Britain, listed in a document known as "Notitia Dignitatum."

287 - Revolt by Carausius, commander of the Roman British fleet, who rules Britain as until murdered by Allectus, a fellow rebel, in 293

303 - Diocletian orders a general persecution of the Christians

306 - (later to be known as "the Great") was proclaimed Emperor at . 311 - Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ends.

312 - Constantine defeats and kills Maxentius at battle of Milvian Bridge; Constantine realizes Christian God may be a powerful ally and decides to attempt to co-opt him for his own purposes.

313 - Edict of Toleration proclaimed at Milan, in which Christianity is made legal throughout the empire.

314 - Three British , for the first time, attend a continental church gathering, the Council of Arles.

324 - Constantine finally achieves full control over an undivided empire. He was a skillful politician who is popularly believed to have made Christianity the official religion of the empire because of his personal convictions. In actuality, that act was merely an expedient intended to harness the power of its "God" for the benefit of the state. He re-located the imperial headquarters to Byzantium, whose name he then changed to . Despite his outward enthusiasm for Christianity and its powerful God, he didn't close many pagan temples during his reign. He did, however, strip them of their former wealth, which was then shifted to various Christian churches. This produced the result that many of the fledgling churches were put on a very firm financial footing and many of their members enjoyed great prosperity. The persecution of Christianity had stopped, perhaps, but its co-opting had just begun. Early Christianity had no official hierarchies and functioned best as a series of small church groups worshipping with and caring for their own members while spreading the Gospel in their local areas. Constantine's move created a top-heavy structure that would quickly depart from its original purity; a church beholden to the state, out of touch with the needs of its adherents and concerned only with its own comfort. Eusebius, the early Christian historian, has given us some additional insights into the motivations of the Emperor Constantine in his "Ecclesiastical History"

337 - Constantine received "Christian" on his deathbed. Joint rule of Constantine's three sons: Constantine II (to 340); Constans (to 350); Constantius (to 361)

360's - Series of attacks on Britain from the north by the , the Attacotti and the Irish (Scots), requiring the intervention of Roman generals leading special legions.

369 - Roman general Theodosius drives the Picts and Scots out of

383 - (Macsen Wledig), a Spaniard, was proclaimed Emperor in Britain by the island's Roman garrison. With an army of British volunteers, he quickly conquered Gaul, Spain and Italy.

388 - Maximus occupied Rome itself. Theodosius, the eastern Emperor, defeated him in battle and beheaded him in July, 388, with many of the remnant of Maximus' troops settling in . The net result to Britain was the loss of many valuable troops needed for the island's defense (the "first migration").

395 - Theodosius, the last emperor to rule an undivided empire, died, leaving his one son, Arcadius, emperor in the East and his other son, the young Honorius, emperor in the West. At this point the office of Roman Emperor changed from a position of absolute power to one of being merely a head of state.

396 - The Roman general, Stilicho, acting as in the western empire during Honorius' minority, reorganized British defenses decimated by the Magnus Maximus debacle. Began transfer of military authority from Roman commanders to local British chieftains.

397 - The Roman commander, Stilicho, comes to Britain and repels an attack by Picts, Irish and .

402 - Events on the continent force Stilicho to recall one of the two British legions to assist with the defense of Italy against Alaric and the Visigoths. The recalled legion, known as the Sixth Victrix, was said by Claudian (in "De Bello Gallico," 416) to be "that legion which is stretched before the remoter Britons, which curbs the Scot, and gazes on the tattoo-marks on the face of the dying Pict." The barbarians were defeated, this time, at battle of Pollentia.

403 - Victricius, of , visited Britain for the purpose of bringing peace to the island's clergy, who were in the midst of a dispute, possibly over the Pelagian .

405 - The British troops, which had been recalled to assist Stilicho, were never returned to Britain as they had to stay in Italy to fight off another, deeper penetration by the barbarian chieftain, Radagaisus.

406 - In early January, 406, a combined barbarian force (Suevi, Alans, Vandals & Burgundians) swept into central Gaul, severing contact between Rome and Britain. In autumn 406, the remaining Roman army in Britain decided to mutiny. One Marcus was proclaimed emperor in Britain, but was immediately assassinated.

407 - In place of the assassinated Marcus, Gratian was elevated "to the purple," but lasted only four months. Constantine III was hailed as the new emperor by Roman garrison in Britian. He proceeded to follow the example of Magnus Maximus by withdrawing the remaining Roman legion, the Second Augusta, and crossing over into Gaul to rally support for his cause. Constantine's departure could be what called "the end of the Roman Empire in Britain. . ."

408 - With both Roman legions withdrawn, Britain endures devastating attacks by the Picts, Scots and Saxons.

409 - Prosper, in his chronicle, says, "in the fifteenth year of Honorius and Arcadius (409), on account of the languishing state of the Romans, the strength of the Britons was brought to a desperate pass." Under enormous pressure, Britons take matters into their own hands, expelling weak Roman officials and fighting for themselves.

410 - Britain gains "independence" from Rome. The Goths, under Alaric, sack Rome.

AD

410 - Emperor Honorius of Rome tells Britain to attend to its own affairs. Zosmius reports Roman officials expelled and native government establishes "independence". c.410 - Governor Owain Finddu of is assassinated in Gwynedd. Irish incursions into Gwynedd, , Garth Madrun, Dyfed & the .

411 - Capture, at Arles, of Constatine, last Emperor of Britain. He was executed at Ravenna soon afterward.

413 - Pelagian heresy said to have begun, by Prosper (Tiro) of Aquitaine in his "Chronicle".

420 - Pelagian heresy outlawed in Rome (418) but, in Britain, supposedly enjoys much support from "pro-Celtic" faction. Traditionalists (pro-Romans) support Roman church. During this time, according to Prosper, Britain is ruled by petty "tyrants". c.420 - Death of , probably the last Roman Dux Brittanniarum. The lands of his office in Northern Britain are divided between his descendants and become petty kingdoms of the "Gwyr y Gogledd".

421 - Supposed death of King Gradlon Mawr of . Probable division of Brittany into sub-kingdoms of Cornouaille and Domnonée. c.423 - Birth of St. Patrick in Banna Venta Burniae, thought to be near Birdoswald.

425 - usurps Imperial power in Britain, possibly as High-King. c.425 - Cunedda Wledig and his retinue are moved south from Manau to Gwynedd in order to expel the invading Irish. c.425-50 - King Conomor flourishes in , probably from his capital at Castle Dore.

428 - Vortigern invites a number of Germanic warriors to aid him in consolidating his position in Britain according to the . This appears to have been an early use of German mercenaries, who probably settled in the Dorchester- upon-Thames area. 429 - At the request of Palladius, a British , Pope Celestine I dispatches Bishops Germanus of Auxerre and Lupus of to Britain to combat Pelagian heresy. While in Britain, Germanus, a former military man, leads Britons to "Hallelujah" victory on the Welsh border. St. Cadfan founds the of Barsdey. c.434 - St. Patrick is captured by pirates and taken to as a slave.

435 - Tibatto leads Armorican movement for independence from Roman Gaul. c.435 - War breaks out between the Irish settlers in Garth Madrun and Powys. King Anlach of Garth Madrun is defeated and forced to send his son, , as a hostage to the Powysian Court.

437 - appears as leader of the Pro-Roman faction in Britain (traditionally returning from exile in Brittany). Vortigern's apparent relative, Vitalinus (Guitolinus), fights against Ambrosius at the Battle of Wallop. The latter is probably victorious and is "given all the kingdoms of the western side of Britain". c.437 - The Irish chieftain, Triffyn Farfog takes the Kingdom of Dyfed by marrying the daughter of King Clotri. c.440 - St. Patrick escapes from his captors and returns to Britain. c.440-50 - Period of Civil War and famine in Britain, caused by ruling council's weakness and inability to deal with Pictish invasions; situation aggravated by tensions between Pelagian/Roman factions. Vacated towns and cities in ruin. Migration of pro-Roman citizens toward west. Country beginning to be divided, geographically, along factional lines. King Glywys of Glywysing flourishes in Glywysing. c.440-90 - King Brychan flourishes in . His three wives give birth to many saintly children who evangelize Dumnonia. c.441 - Gallic Chronicle records, prematurely, that "Britain, abandoned by the Romans, passed into the power of the Saxons."

443 - Death of King Constantine Corneu of Dumnonia. His kingdom was divided between his two sons as Dumnonia and Cerniw.

446 - Britons (probably the pro-Roman party) appeal to Aetius, Roman governor of Gaul, for military assistance in their struggle against the Picts and the Irish/Scots. No help could be sent, at this time, as Aetius had his hands full with Attila the Hun. c.446 - Vortigern authorizes the use of Saxon mercenaries, known as foederati, for the defence of the northern parts against barbarian attack and to guard against further Irish incursions. The Saxons are given a little land in . 447 - Second visit of St. Germanus (this time accompanied by Severus, Bishop of Trier) to Britain. Was this visit spiritually motivated, to combat a revived Pelagian threat or was Germanus sent in Aetius' stead, to do whatever he could to help the desperate Britons? Vortigern is accused of incest. Battle of (Kent) in which the rebellious sons of Vortigern, and Cadeyrn, defeat Hengest for the first time. Cadeyrn is killed in the fighting. Germanus expells the Irish from Powys and restores Cadeyrn's son, Cadell Ddernllwg, to the throne. c.447 - Britons, aroused to heroic effort, "inflicted a massacre" on their enemies, the Picts and Irish, and were left in peace, for a brief time. Could this heroic effort have been led, again, by St. Germanus? c.448 - Civil war and plague ravage Britain. c.450 - In the first year of Marcian and Valentinian, Hengest arrives on shores of Britain with "3 keels" of warriors, and are welcomed by Vortigern. This event is known in as the "Adventus Saxonum," the coming of the Saxons. c.452 - Increasing Saxon settlement in Britain. Vortigern marries Hengest's daughter, Rowenna, and supposedly offers the Jutish leader the . Hengest invites his son, Octha, from Germany with "16 keels" of warriors, who occupy the northern lands, to defend against the Picts. Picts never heard from, again. c.453 - Raids on British towns and cities becoming more frequent. Increasing Saxon unrest.

455 - Prince Vortimer apparently rebels against the pro-Saxon policies of his father, Vortigern, and fights Hengest at the Battle of . Hengest is victorious and the flees back to .

456 - The indecisve Battle of Aylesford between Hengest's Saxons and the British under Prince Vortimer. Prince Cadeyrn of Britain and King Horsa of Kent are killed in the fighting. c.456 - St. Patrick leaves Britain once more to evangelise Ireland. tells us of a probably fictitious, but entirely believable, event in which Saxons massacre 300 leading British noblemen at a phony "peace" conference. c.458 - Saxon uprising in full-swing. Hengest finally conquers Kent, in south- eastern Britain. c.458-60 - Full-scale migration of British aristocrats and city-dwellers across the to Armorica, in north-western Gaul (the "second migration"). British contingent led by Riothamus (perhaps a title, not a name). c.459 - Vortigern is burnt to death while being besieged by Ambrosius Aurelianus at Ganarew. c.460-70 - Ambrosius Aurelianus of pro-Roman faction takes full control of Britain; leads Britons in years of back-and-forth fighting with Saxons. British strategy seems to have been to allow Saxon landings and to then contain them there.

464 - Supposed death of the legendary King Aldrien of Brittany.

465 - Battle of Wippedsfleet (or Richborough), in which the Britons defeat the Saxons, but with great slaughter on both sides. The latter are confined to the Isle of Thanet and there is a respite from fighting "for a long time." c.465 - 'King' Arthur probably born around this time. Birth of St. Dyfrig also. c.466-73 - Period of minimal Saxon activity. Re-fortification of ancient hillforts and construction of the possibly takes place during this time. c.469 - Roman emperor, Anthemius, appeals to Britons for military help against the Visigoths. Reliable accounts by Sidonius Apolonaris and Jordanes name the leader of the 12,000 man Breton force, Riothamus. The bulk of the British force was wiped out in battle against Euric, the Visigothic king, and the survivors, including Riothamus, vanished and were never heard from, again. c.471 - The army of King Ceretic of Strathclyde raids the Irish Coast and carries off some of St. Patrick's new flock and sells them into slavery. The king receives a written repremand from the Irish Evangelist.

473 - Men of Kent, under Hengest, move westward, driving Britons back before them "as one flees fire."

477 - Saxon chieftain, Aelle, lands on coast with his sons. Britons engage him upon landing but his superior force besieges them at Pevensey and drives them into the . Over next nine years, Saxon coastal holdings are gradually expanded in Sussex. c.480 - King Erbin of Dumnonia abdicates in favour of his son, King Gerren Llygesoc. Death of King Glywys of Glywysing. His kingdom is divided into , Penychen, Gorfynedd, Edeligion and others. c.485 - Birth of St. Samson. c.485-96 - Period of Arthur's "twelve battles" during which he gains reputation for invincibility.

486 - Aelle and his sons overreach their normal territory and are engaged by Britons at battle of Mercredesburne. Battle is bloody, but indecisive, and ends with both sides pledging friendship. c.487 - Birth of St. David. c.490 - Hengest dies. His son, Aesc, takes over and rules for 34 years. Death of Einion Yrth of Gwynedd. His kingdom is divided into Gwynedd and . St. Cybi Felyn is born in Callington in Cerniw.

493 - Death of St. Patrick, in Glastonbury according to local legend. Down Patrick seems more likely. c.495 - The Germanic King Cerdic and his son, Cynric, land somewhere on the south coast, probably near the -Dorset border. Their followers establish the beginnings of the Kingdom of . King of Gwynllwg carries off Gwladys of Brycheiniog. War between the two kingdoms narrowly avoided by the intercession of the legendary Arthur. The couple marry. c.496 - The Siege of Mount Badon. Britons, under the command of the "war leader" Arthur, defeat the Saxons, under King Esla of and possibly Cerdic of Wessex. c.496-550 - Following the victory at Mt. Badon, the Saxon advance is halted with the invaders returning to their own enclaves. A generation of peace ensues. Corrupt leadership, more civil turmoil, public forgetfulness and individual apathy further erode Romano-British culture over next fifty years, making Britain ripe for final Saxon "picking."

497 - Birth of St. Cadog. Death of King Erbin of Dumnonia. c.500-17 - King Cadwallon Lawhir expels the Irish from Anglesey. c.505 - Death of St. Paulinus.

508 - King Cerdic of Wessex begins to move inland and defeats British king, Nudd- Lludd (Natanleod), at the Battle of Netley. c.510 - The Battle of Llongborth (possibly Langport or ), where King Gerren Llyngesoc of Dumnonia, was killed. Prince Rivod of Brittany murders his brother, King Maeliaw, and usurps the Breton throne. Many of the Breton Royal family flee to Britain, including Prince Budic who seeks refuge at the court of King Aircol Lawhir in Dyfed. c.515 - Death of Aelle. Kingdom of Sussex passed to his son, Cissa and his descendents, but over time, diminished into insignificance.

517 - Death of King Cadwallon Lawhir of Gwynedd. His son, Maelgwn takes the throne, murders his uncle, probably King Owain Danwyn of Rhos, and re-unites the two kingdoms.

517-49 - King Maelgwn flourishes in Gwynedd. Invades Dyfed and generally tries to assert himself as High-King of Britain.

519 - Kingdom of the West Saxons (Wessex) founded with Cerdic its first ruler. c.520 - King Pabo Post Prydain of the Pennines abdictaes his throne and divides the kingdom between his two sons. He retires, as a hermit, to Anglesey. Death of King Riwal Mawr Marchou of Domnonée. King Budic II of Brittany returns to Cornouaille to claim the Breton throne.

521 - St. Samson is consecrated a bishop by St. Dyfrig, Archbishop of Glywysing & Gwent.

523 - Death of King Gwynllyw of Gwynllwg. Gwnllywg and Penychen united under his son, St. Cadog c.525 - St. Samson founds the Monastery of Dol and becomes its first . c.528 - King & Cadog of Glywysing abdicates in favour of King Meurig of Gwent, who is joined in marriage to Cadog's aunt. Banishment of Princess Thaney of Gododdin. Birth of her son, St. Kentigern.

530 - Saint Pabo Post Prydain, ex-King of the Pennines dies at Llanbabo. The British of the Isle of Wight are defeated by King Cerdic of Wessex at the Battle of . c.535 - Kings Sawyl Penuchel of the Southern Pennines is expelled from his kingdom (enemy uncertain) and flees to Powys. Death of King Meirchion Gul of Rheged. The kingdom is divided into North and South. Death of St. Illtud, Abbot of Llanilltud Fawr.

537 - Battle of Camlann, according to Annales Cambriae. Fought between the forces of Arthur and . Death (or unspecified other demise) of Arthur (according to Geoffrey of Monmouth). Saint and King Constantine ruling in Dumnonia. c.538 - King Cynlas Goch of Rhos abandons his wife in favour of his sister-in-law, a who he drags from her convent. Civil War between Cynlas and his cousin, King Maelgwn of Gwynedd. Maelgwn enters a monastery, but soon returns to secular life and murders his nephew in order to marry his widow! Civil War also in Powys due to the tyranny of King Cyngen Glodrydd.

540 - King Jonas of Domnonée is murdered by King Cono-Mark of Cerniw and . Cono-Mark marries Jonas' widow and rules Domnonée. c.540 - Probable writing of ' "De Excidio Britanniae." King Caradog Freichfras of Gwent gives Caerwent to St. Tathyw and moves the Royal court to Portskewett

545 - Death of the joint-Kings Budic II and his son I Mawr of Brittany. King Tewdwr Mawr succeeds to the throne, but is quickly ousted from Cornouaille by King Macliau of the Vannetais. Tewdwr flees to Cerniw and sets himself up as King of the Penwith region. c.545 - The of Brefi is held at Llandewi Brefi to condemn the Pelagian heresy. St. Dyfrig, Archbishop of resigns his position in favour of St. David. David moves the Archdiocese from to St. Davids. Death of St. Dyfrig. He is succeeded as Bishop of Glywysing & Gwent by St. Teilo. Prince Judwal of Domnonée flees from his murderous step-father to the court of King Childebert of the .

546 - St. Gildas returns to Brittany with St. Cadog.

547 - The King of Bryneich is expelled from his fortress of by King Ida of Bernicia. Apparent death of the, probably joint-king, Hoel II Fychan of Brittany. c.548 - King Cono-Mark of Cerniw, Poher and Domnonée marries Princess Triphine of Broërec.

549 - "Yellow" Plague hits British territories, causing many deaths, including King Maelgwn of Gwynedd. Ireland also affected. Saxons, for whatever reason, are unaffected by it. c.550 - Death of St. Ninian, Bishop of Whithorn. Birth of St. Tremeur. Murder of his mother, Triphine, by his father, King Cono-Mark of Cerniw, Poher and Domnonée. Prince Judwal of Domnonée retakes his throne. Cono-Mark flees to Cornwall. The semi-legendary Kingdom of Lyonesse possibly inundated by the sea.

552 - King Cynric of Wessex lays siege to the British at Old Sarum and put them to flight.

555 - St. Cybi Felyn, Abbot of Holyhead, dies at his monastery. Murder of St. Tremeur. Death of his father, King Cono-Mark of Cerniw and Poher. c.555 - Death of King Erb of Gwent. The kingdom is divided into Gwent and .

556 - King Cynric of Wessex lays siege to the British at Barbury Castle and is victorious.

558 - Broërec is attacked by King Childebert of the Franks. King Canao II leads resistance. c.560 - Prince Elidyr of Strathclyde invades Gwynedd in right of his wife. He tries to expel his brother-in-law, King Rhun Hir of Gwynedd, at the Battle of the Cadnant Brook, but is killed in the process.

564 - Death of St. Tugdual, Bishop of Tréguier. c.564 - St. Cadog settles in Weedon in Calchfynedd and is made Bishop there. St. Samson attends the Council of and witnesses several Royal decrees. c.565 - King Riderch Hael of Strathclyde mounts an unsuccessful revenge attack on King Rhun Hir of Gwynedd. Rhun marches on Strathclyde and reinforces the armies of his half-brother, Brudei, in Pictland. Death of St. Samson.

569 - St. David holds the Synod of Victoria to denounce the Pelagian heresy once more.

570 - Death of St. Gildas. c.570-75 - The Northern British Alliance is forged between the kingdoms of North Rheged, Strathclyde, Bryneich and . They fight the Northumbrians at the Battles of Gwen Ystrad and the Cells of Berwyn

571 - King Cuthwulf of Wessex invades Midland Britain and defeats the British, probably under the King of Calchfynedd, at the Battle of Bedford.

573 - Kings Peredyr and Gwrgi of Ebrauc ally themselves with Kings Dunaut Bwr of the Northern Pennines and Riderch Hael of Strathclyde. They north to claim the fort at Caerlaverock from King Gwendoleu of -Gwendoleu. The latter was killed in the Battle of Arthuret and his bard, Myrddin, is forced to flee into the Caledonian Forest.

575 - Prince Owein of North Rheged kills King Theodoric of Bernicia at the Battle of Leeming Lane.

577 - Wessex invades the lower Severn Valley. Kings Ffernfael of Caer-Baddan, Cyndyddam of Caer-Ceri and Cynfael of Caer-Gloui are killed at the Battle of Dyrham. Wessex overuns the area. King Tewdwr Mawr of Brittany returns to Cornouaille, reclaims his throne and kills King Macliau of the Vannetais in battle.

580 - The army of Kings Peredyr and Gwrgi of Ebrauc march north to fight the Anglians of Bernicia. Both are killed by King Adda's forces at Caer Greu. The Deirans rise up, under King Aelle, and move on the City of Ebrauc. King Peredyr's son is forced to flee the Kingdom. St. Cadog is martyred in Calchfynedd by invading Mercians.

584 - Death of St. Deiniol Gwyn, Bishop of Bangor Fawr. The British are victorious over King Ceawlin of Wessex at the Battle of Fethanleigh and kill his brother, Cuthwine. Ceawlin ravages the surrounding countryside in revenge.

585 - Death of King Alain I of Brittany.

586 - Death of King Rhun Hir of Gwynedd. Death of King Judwal of Domnonée.

588 - King Edwin of is ousted from his Kingdom by the Bernicians and seeks refuge at the court of King Iago of Gwynedd.

589 - Death of Saint and King Constantine of Dumnonia. Death of St. David, Archbishop of St. Davids.

590 - The Siege of . The Northern British Alliance (North Rheged, Strathclyde, Bryneich and Elmet) lays siege to King Hussa of Bernicia and almost exterminates the Northumbrians from Northern Britain. King Urien of North Rheged is assassinated at the behest of his jealous ally King Morcant Bulc of Bryneich. The Northumbrians recover while internal squabbles tear the British Alliance apart. c.591 - King Dunaut Bwr of the Northern Pennines mounts an invasion of North Rheged, but is repulsed by its King, Owein, and his brother, Prince Pasgen. Prince Elffin of North Rheged is simultaneously attacked by King Gwallawc Marchawc Trin of Elmet. c.593 - King Morcant Bulc of Bryneich invades North Rheged and kills King Owein in battle. Prince Pasgen of North Rheged flees to the Gower Peninsula. A greatly diminished North Rheged probably continues under the rule of their brother, Rhun.

595 - The aging King Dunaut Bwr of the Northern Pennines dies fighting off a Bernician invasion. His kingdom is overrun and his family flee to join his grandson in Gwynedd.

598 - Kings Mynyddog Mwynfawr of Din-Eidyn & Cynan of Gododdin ride south to fight Saxon Bernicia against enormous odds at the Battle of Catterick. The British are victorious, though King Gerren of Dumnonia is killed in the fighting. He is buried at Dingerein. Probable expansion of North Rheged to fill the vacuum left in North .

AD c.600 - Welsh bard, Prince Aneirin of the Northern Pennines, writes the poem, Y Gododdin, recording the events of the Battle of Catterick.

601 - The Synod of Chester. Death of St. Asaph, Bishop of Llanelwy.

602 - St. Augustine of meets with the Welsh Bishops at Aust near . He accuses them of acting contrary to Church teachings, failing to keep at the prescribed Roman time and not administering baptism according to the Roman rite. He also insists that they help in the conversion of their enemy, the Saxons, and look to Canterbury as their spiritual centre. The Welsh tactfully decline.

604 - The Welsh Bishops meet for a second time with St. . He neglects to rise to greet them, lectures them again and insists they submit to him. The Welsh send him packing. They refuse to recognise the authority of a church within their enemies' territory under such a disrespectful bishop.

607 - Death of King Judhael of Domnonée. His son, Haelioc takes the throne and attempts to exterminate his brothers. 612 - Death of St. Kentigern, Bishop of Glasgow. Death of King Hoel III of Brittany.

613 - King Aethelfrith of Bernicia invades Gwynedd in order to route out his old enemy, King Edwin of Deira. A united British force (Gwynedd, Powys, and Dumnonian warriors) clashes with his army at the Battle of Chester. Kings Iago of Gwynedd and Selyf Sarffgadau of Powys and Prince Cadwal Cryshalog of Rhos are all killed but the victor is unclear. The Battle of Bangor-is-Coed follows in quick succession. King Bledric of Dumnonia is killed in the fighting and 1000 monks are massacred by the Northumbrians.

614 - King of Wessex invades Dumnonia and defeats the local army (possibly under a King Clemen) at the Battle of Bindon. c.614 - Proposed annexation of Powys by the Dogfeiling Prince, Eluan Powys, with the help of his brother, King of Pengwern, "oppressor of the Cadelling". The sons of the Cadelling king, Selyf Sarffgadau of Powys, are later described as "landless oafs". The Tarvin-Macefen boundary between Powys and is delineated.

617 - King Edwin of Deira invades and conquers Elmet. King Ceretic of Elmet is killed in the fighting. c.620 - King Fendigaid of Glywysing & Gwent abdicates in favour of his son, Meurig. King is expelled from South Rheged, probably by King Edwin of Deira. Llywarch flees to Powys and becomes a famous bard. c.623 - King Edwin of Deira is baptised by Prince Rhun of North Rheged, according to the Historia Brittonum. This may have been at the Royal Court of Gwynedd.

625 - King Cadfan of Gwynedd dies and is buried at Llangadwaladr where his memorial stone can still be seen. His son, King Cadwallon, succeeds to the throne. St. Tysilio re-founds the Monastery of Meifod. c.625 - Death of King Haelioc of Domnonée. His brother, Judicael, succeeds to the throne. c.626 - The rivalry between King Cadwallon of Gwynedd and King Edwin of Deira reaches a climax. Edwin invades the Isle of Man and then Anglesey. Cadwallon is defeated in battle and is besieged on Puffin Island. He eventually flees to Brittany.

629 - St. Paulinus meets Blecca, the Praefectus Civitatis of Lincoln, and converts him to Christianity.

630 - The West Saxons invade Gwent. King Meurig defeats them, with the help of his aging father, at the Battle of Pont-y-Saeson. Death of King Neithon of Strathclyde. c.630 - King Penda of Mercia besieges (possibly held by King Clemen of Dumnonia). King Cadwallon of Gwynedd lands nearby, from his Deiran imposed exile in Brittany. He negotiates an alliance with King Penda of Mercia and a united British and Saxon force moves north to re-take Gwynedd. The Deirans are defeated at the Battle of the Long Mountain and Cadwallon chases them back to . The British ransack Northumbria and bring the kingdom to its knees.

632 - King Idris of Meirionydd is killed fighting the West Saxons on the Severn.

633 - The British, under King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, meet the Northumbrians in the Battle of Hatfield Chase. King Edwin of Deira is killed in the fighting and Cadwallon is victorious. Cadwallon is later besieged at York by Edwin's cousin and successor, Osric. The former is again victorious.

634 - King Cadwallon of Gwynedd slays both Kings Eanfrith of Bernicia and Osric of Deira rather than negotiate peace with them. Eanfrith's half-brother, succeeds to a united Northumbria. He gathers a force and clashes with King Cadwallon of Gwynedd at the Battle of Heavenfield. Cadwallon is killed and Oswald victorius. Cadafael Cadomedd usurps the Gwynedd throne and ousts Prince Cadwaladr. Civil War ensues in the kingdom. Death of the great poet, King Llywarch Hen of South Rheged, supposedly aged one hundred.

635 - King Judicael of Domnonée submits to the overlordship of King Dagobert of the Franks. An alliance is drawn up and the borders of the Breton kingdom agreed. c.635 - King Meurig of Glywysing & Gwent invades Ergyng and re-unites the two kingdoms in the right of his wife.

636 - King Judicael of Domnonée abdicates in order to enter the Monastery of St. Meven at Gaël. His brother, St. , declines the throne and flees to .

637 - Death of the retired King Judicael of Domnonée.

638 - is besieged by the of Northumbria. Princess Rhiainfelt, heiress of North Rheged, marries Prince of Northumbria. Northumbria embraces North Rheged in a peaceful takeover.

640 - Death of St. Tysilio, Abbot of Meifod.

642 - King Penda of Mercia commands a united British and Mercian force against King . The British contingent includes the army of Kings Cadafael Cadomedd of Gwynedd, Eluan of Powys and Cynddylan of Pengwern. Oswald is killed, and possibly Eluan also. The Mercians become dominant in Midland Britain. King Owen of Strathclyde halts Scottish expansion by killing King Domnal Brecc of Dalriada at the Battle of Strathcarron. c.645 - Gwynedd and much of Wales is in the grasp of famine. Would be King Cadwaladr Fendigaid of Gwynedd flees to Brittany. Civil War continues in his kingdom. c.650 - King Cloten of Dyfed marries Princess Ceindrech of Brycheiniog and unites the two kingdoms.

655 - King Cadafael Cadomedd of Gwynedd and his army join King Penda of Mercia and march on the Northumbrians. Penda clashes with King Oswiu at the Battle of Winwaed, but Cadafael withdraws before the battle begins. c.655 - King Morfael of Pengwern (re-)takes Wall (Staffs).

656 - King of Oswiu of Northumbria invades Pengwern and kills King Cynddylan in battle. His brother, King Morfael, and the remains of the family flee to Glastening. Mercians take control of Pengwern and may have invaded Powys at this time.

658 - King Cenwalh and the Wessex Saxons make a push against Dumnonia (possibly under a King Culmin). They are victorious at the Battle of Penselwood and the Dumnonia-Wessex border is set at the . Death of King Judicael of Brittany.

661 - King Cenwalh of Wessex invades Dumnonia. He is victorious at the Battle of Posbury. Saxon settlers found Somerset in Eastern Dumnonia.

662 - Death of King Brochfael of Meirionydd

664 - Plague devastates Gwynedd. Probable death of King Cadafael Cadomedd there. King Cadwaladr Fendigaid of Gwynedd reasserts himself in his kingdom by sending his son, Ifwr, from Brittany to be regent. The Synod of determines that the Northern British should comply with the doctrines of Rome.

665 - The Second

675 - Death of St. Judoc. c.680 - St. Boniface educated at a Celtic Christian Monastery in Exeter.

682 - The West Saxons "drove the British [of Dumnonia] as far as the Sea" (possibly around ).

685 - St. visits . King marches his army north to engage the Picts at the Battle of Nechtansmere. The Scots and Strathclyde Britons probably join the Picts in a thorough defeat of the Saxon forces. The latter withdraw and lose much land south of the Forth to King Dumnagual of Strathclyde in the process.

688 - King Cadwaladr Fendigaid of Gwynedd dies on a pilgrimage to Rome.

690 - Death of King Alain II Hir of Brittany.

700 - King Gerren of Dumnonia receives a letter from St. , Abbot of , during his attendance at a Church Synod in Wessex. He insists that the Celtic Church of Dumnonia comply with the doctrines of Rome, as agreed with the Northern Celtic Church thirty-six years previously at the .

703 - Death of King Daniel Dremrudd of Brittany. c.705 - King Gerren of Dumnonia grants land at Maker to Sherborne in an attempt to strengthen his position in the disputed regions of Dorset.

710 - King Gerren of Dumnonia clashes with King Ine of Wessex who manages to establish a fortress at Taunton. c.710 - King Seisyll of Ceredigion invades Dyfed and conquers Ystrad Towi to create the greater kingdom of Seisyllwg. A reduced Dyfed and Brycheiniog both appear to have taken on the name of Rhainwg: King Rhain's kingdom now sliced in two.

712 - Death of King Idwal Iwrch of Gwynedd

717 - Death of St.Winnoc, Abbot of Wormhout. c.720 - Contact between the Welsh Church and Yvi of Brittany is the last known link between the two Celtic countries. After this, each nation goes its own separate way.

722 - King Ine of Wessex attempts a takeover of Dumnonia. His armies are crushed and have to withdraw. Death of King Bili of Strathclyde. King Teudebur succeeds to the throne. c.730 - Civil War between King Tewdr of Brycheiniog and a rival claimant to his throne, his cousin, Awst. The latter is slain. Tewdr is persuaded to live in peace with Awst's son, Elwystl. c.731 - King Elisedd of Powys expels the Mercians from his kingdom. c.740 - Death of King Rhain of Dyfed & Brycheiniog. His kingdoms are divided between his two sons.

743 - Kings Aethelbald of Mercia and Ceolred of Wessex join forces to attack Gwent and Powys. c.744 - Construction of Wat's Dyke. The border between Mercia and Powys is set here.

750 - The Strathclyde Britons under King Teudebur defeat Prince Talorgen of the Picts at the Battle of Mugdock. Decline of the power of King Angus I of the Picts. c.750 - Prince Elidyr ap Sandde moves the exiled Royal House of South Rheged from Powys to the Isle of Man. King Tewdr of Brycheiniog breaks the peace with his cousin, Elwystl, and murders him. 752 - Death of King Teudebur of Strathclyde. His son, Dumnagual, succeeds to the throne and promptly loses Kyle to King Eadberht of Northumbria.

754 - Death of King Rhodri Molwynog of Gwynedd. His sons, Kings Cynan Tindaethwy and Hywel succeed to the throne.

756 - Kings Angus I of the the Picts and Eadberht of Northumbria attack King Dumnagual of Strathclyde at Dumbarton. However, Eadberht's entire force is subsequently wiped out, probably by the Britons, at the Battle of Newburgh-on- Tyne.

760 - The Battle of is fought probably between the Mercians and the Kingdom of Brycheiniog under King Nowy Hen. Death of King Dumnagual of Strathclyde.

768 - Archbishop Elfoddw of Gwynedd persuades the Welsh Church to accept the Roman dating of Easter as agreed by the Northern British Church at the Synod of Whitby.

784 - Construction of Offa's Dyke, the artificial bank and ditch boundary between England and Wales, is begun at the command of King . c.795 - Quarrels between Kings Cynan Tindaethwy and Hywel leave the way open for Caradog ap Meirchion (of the House of Rhos) to usurp the throne of Gwynedd.

797 - Welsh forces, including those of Powys and Dyfed, clash with the Mercians at the Battle of Rhuddlan, when King Coenwulf tries to re-assert his domination of North-East Wales. King Maredydd of Dyfed is killed in the fighting. The Mercians push on westward.

798 - King Caradog of Gwynedd is killed fighting the Mercians of King Coenwulf in Snowdonia. Kings Cynan Tindaethwy and Hywel retake the throne. c.805 - King Egbert of Wessex formally establishes kingship over the people of Devon after a gradual integration over many years. Dumnonia is reduced to cover only the Cornish in Cerniw.

807 - Death of of King Arthwyr of Ceredigion.

808 - Death of Kings Rhain of Dyfed and Cadell of Powys.

809 - Death of Archbishop Elfoddw of Gwynedd.

810 - St. Davids is burnt.

811 - Death of King Owain of Dyfed. His son-in-law, Hyfaidd takes the throne.

812 - Degannwy, the capital of Gwynedd, is struck by lighning and burnt to the ground. 813 - King Hywel and Cynan Tindaethwy of Gwynedd quarrel again and meet in battle. Hywel is victorious.

814 - Prince Gryffydd of Powys is slain through the treachery of his brother Elisedd. King Cynan Tindaethwy of Gwynedd invades Anglesey and attacks his brother, Hywel. Hywel is victorious and Cynan is driven from his shores.

815 - The Kingdom of Cerniw is raided by King Egbert of Wessex and his Saxon armies from East to West.

816 - King Hywel of Gwynedd is again attacked by his brother King Cynan on Anglesey. Cynan is killed. The English successfully invade Rhufoniog and also ravage the Snowdonia Mountains.

818 - King raids Dyfed.

821 - King Coenwulf of Mercia dies in Basingwerk while preparing for another assault on Powys.

823 - The Mercians invade Powys, but are beaten back by King Cyngen. They also destroy the Gwynedd capital, Degannwy.

825 - Death of King Rhodri of Gwynedd. The kingdom is seized by his grand- nephew, Prince of Man (and South Rheged). The men of Cerniw make a push into Saxon Devon and the two armies clash at the Battle of Galford. The Cornish are probably victorious. c.830 - Nynniaw, Abbot of Bangor Fawr, compiles the Historia Brittonum.

831 - Death of Bishop Sadyrnfyw of St. Davids.

838 - The British of Cerniw join forces with the and attack Saxon Wessex. King Egbert defeats them at the Battle of Hingston Down.

840 - Nobis becomes Bishop of St. Davids.

844 - Death of King Merfyn Frych of Gwynedd. His son, Rhodri Mawr, succeeds to the throne.

848 - The armies of Brycheiniog and Gwent clash at the Battle of Ffinnant. King Ithel of Gwent is killed in the fighting. c.850 - "Eliseg's Pillar" is erected in Llantysilio-yn-Ial by King Cyngen of Powys as a memorial to his great grandfather King Elisedd (or Eliseg) and the power of the Powysian . Bishop Censteg of Dingerein (Cerniw) accepts the authority of Archbishop Ceolnoth of Canterbury.

853 - Mercia and Wessex attack Powys. 854 - King Cyngen of Powys dies on a pilgrimage to Rome. His throne is seized by his nephew, King Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd, and his sons expelled.

855 - Anglesey is ravaged by Vikings.

856 - King Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd & Powys repels a major Viking invasion of Wales and kills their king, Gorm.

871 - Dumbarton, capital of King Artgal of Strathclyde, is destroyed by King Olaf of Norse Dublin and his Viking warriors.

872 - Death of King Gwrgon of Seisyllwg by drowning. The throne is taken by his son-in-law, King Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd & Powys. King Artgal of Strathclyde is slain through the connivance of King Constantine I of Alba and his Viking allies. Artgal's son, , succeeds to the Strathclyde throne.

874 - Death of Bishop Nobis of St. Davids.

876 - Death of Dungarth, the last King of Cerniw. He was drowned during a accident and buried at St. Cleer.

877 - The Vikings invade Wales once more and King Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd, Powys & Seisyllwg is forced to flee to Ireland.

878 - King Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd, Powys and Seisyllwg returns to his kingdoms, but is killed fighting the Mercians of King Ceolwulf II. His kingdoms are divided amongst his three sons, Anarawd, Merfyn and Cadell respectively. The Vikings winter in Dyfed. Death of King Run of Strathclyde. His son, , succeeds to the throne and allies himself with his mother's cousin, King of Alba. The two rule all together as joint-monarchs.

880 - King Anarawd of Gwynedd initiates a revenge attack on the Mercian armies and defeats them on the River Conwy. c.881 - King Anarawd of Gwynedd and his brothers begin extensive military campaigns to quell resistance in Powys and Seisyllwg.

885 - , a relative of Nobis, Bishop of St. Davids, is summoned to the court of King Alfred of England. He agrees to spend six months of the year in the King's service. Asser helps to enhance the literary status of the English Court and also to negotiate the recognition of Alfred as overlord of the South Welsh Kings. c.885 - Kings Hyfaidd of Dyfed, Elisedd of Brycheiniog and Hywel of Glywysing are harassed by the armies of King Anarawd of Gwynedd. They seek the protection of King Alfred of England and submit to his overlordship. Anarawd seeks an alliance with the Norse Kings of York.

889 - Kings Eochaid and Giric of Alba, Strathclyde & the Picts are deposed by Viking invaders. The former's cousin takes the throne as King Donald II. The end of independent Strathclyde rule.

890 - King Donald II of Alba expels the British aristorcracy of Strathclyde. They flee south to .

893 - Death of King Hyfaidd of Dyfed. c.893 - Asser, the Welshman, is made Bishop of Sherborne.

894 - King Anarawd of Gwynedd's shaky alliance with the Vikings collapses. His kingdom is ravaged by the Norsemen. Anarawd is forced to ask for help from King Alfred of England and submits to his overlordship. Alfred imposes oppressive terms and forces Anarawd to confirmation in the Christian Church with Alfred as godfather. Bishop Asser of Sherborne, writes his "Life of King Alfred"

895 - King Anarawd of Gwynedd is supplied with English troops to assist in his reconquest of Seisyllwg. He is successful and his brother, King Cadell, is finally able to take his rightful place on the Seisyllwg throne.

896 - Brycheiniog and Gwent are ravaged by Haesten and his Viking pirate army. c.900 - King Tewdr of Brycheiniog establishes his court on a crannog in the middle of Llangorse Lake.

902 - The Norsemen are expelled from Dublin. They attempt to settle in Seisyllwg, but are driven off by Prince Clydog. They move on and settle in the Wirral.

903 - The Vikings raid Anglesey.

904 - Marriage of Prince of Seisyllwg to Princess Elen of Dyfed. Death of the latter's father, King Llywarch. The throne of Dyfed is claimed by Llywarch's brother, Rhodri, but he is probably forced to flee from Hywel's armies.

905 - Rhodri, nominally King of Dyfed, is caught and executed, at Arwystli, probably by his neice's husband, Hywel Dda. Hywel claims the throne of Dyfed.

909 - Death of Asser, the Welsh Bishop of Sherborne. c.910 - Death of King Cadell of Seisyllwg. His son, King Hywel Dda unites Seisyllwg and Dyfed to form the Kingdom of .

914 - The Vikings harry the Welsh Coast and move up the Severn. They capture Bishop Cyfeilliog of Ergyng, but are driven out by Saxon levies from Hereford and .

916 - Death of King Anarawd of Gwynedd. English raiders attack the court of King Tewdr of Brycheiniog at Llangorse and make off with the Queen and thirty-three of her courtiers. 917 - Brycheiniog is ravaged by the armies of Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians in revenge for the killing of the, now unknown, Abbot Ecgberht.

918 - King Idwal Foel of Gwynedd and King Hywel Dda and Prince Clydog of Deheubarth submit to the overlordship of King of England. The Vikings raid Anglesey.

927 - Kings Hywel Dda of Deheubarth and Owain of Glywysing & Gwent submit to the overlordship of King Athelstan of England at Hereford. The border between England and Wales is set at the .

928 - King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Gwynedd & Powys begins the codification of Welsh customary law.

929 - King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth goes on a pilgrimage to Rome.

931 - King Morgan Hen of Glywysing & Gwent submits to the overlordship of King Athelstan of England and attends his court with Kings Hywel Dda of Deheubarth and Idwal Foel of Gwynedd.

934 - King Tewdr of Brycheiniog attends the court of King Athelstan of England and signs English Land Charters. Kings Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Idwal Foel of Gwynedd and Morgan Mwynfawr of Morgannwg are compelled to accompany Athelstan on his campaign against King Constantine II of the Scots.

937 - King Athelstan of England defeats a combined Northern Army under Kings Olaf of Dublin, Constantine II of Scots and Owain of Strathclyde at the Battle of Brunanbury. Though none of the British monarchs appear to have taken part, the people of Strathclyde were a major contingent under their Scottish King. The battle finally ends all British hope of driving the Saxons from their shores. c.937 - King Idwal Foel of Gwynedd distances himself from his English overlord. The British begin to use the term "Cyrmry" to speak of themselves.

AD anglo saxon england

597 - The Roman brand of Christianity is brought to Britain for the first time by St. Augustine, the missionary sent from Pope Gregory to convert the Saxons. Augustine lands in Kent and is welcomed by King Aethelbert whose Frankish Queen is already a Christian practicing at her church of St. Martin's, Canterbury. Augustine converts Aethelbert and his court to Christianity and founds a monastery at Canterbury. Commencement of the erection of a monastery at St. Augustine's, Canterbury, built from the Roman ruins of the old city. Death of King Ceol of Wessex. He is succeeded by his brother, Ceolwulf.

598 - Kings Mynyddog Mwynfawr of Din-Eidyn & Cynan of Gododdin ride south to fight King Aethelfrith's Bernician army against enormous odds at the Battle of Catterick. The British are victorious. Probable expansion of North Rheged to fill the vacuum left in North Yorkshire.

602 - St. Augustine of Canterbury meets with the Welsh Bishops at Aust near Chepstow. He accuses them of acting contrary to Church teachings, failing to keep Easter at the prescribed Roman time and not administering baptism according to the Roman rite. He also insists that they help in the conversion of their enemy, the Saxons, and look to Canterbury as their spiritual centre. The Welsh tactfully decline. Augustine is proclaimed and commences the erection of his stone-built Cathedral.

604 - The Welsh Bishops meet for a second time with St. Augustine of Canterbury. He neglects to rise to greet them, lectures them again and insists they submit to him. The Welsh send him packing. They refuse to recognise the authority of a church within their enemies' territory under such a disrespectful bishop. The See of Rochester is established and appointed its first bishop. Death of King Sledda of . He is succeeded by his son, Saebert. King Saebert is persuaded to convert to Christianity through the intervention of his uncle, King Aethelbert of Kent. The See of Essex is founded. King Aethelbert of Kent founds the cathedral church of St. Paul in London. St. is appointed the first Saxon (& Essex). King Aethelfrith of Bernicia invades Deira and kills its king, Aethelric. Prince Edwin, son of the late King Aelle of Deira (and possibly nephew of King Aethelric) flees to the Court of King Iago of Gwynedd. Aethelfrith marries King Aelle's daughter, Acha, and takes the kingdom.

605 - Birth of Prince (later King) Oswald of Bernicia. Death of Bishop Augustine of Canterbury. He is buried in St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury and later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by St. Laurence of Canterbury.

606 - Death of King Pybba of Mercia. He is succeeded by his kinsman, Ceorl.

611 - Death of King Ceolwulf of Wessex. He is succeeded by his nephew, Cynegils. King Cynegils shares power to some extent with his eldest son, Cwichelm, who may have been given Upper Wessex.

613 - King Aethelfrith of Bernicia invades Gwynedd in order to route out his old enemy, King Edwin of Deira. A united British force (Gwynedd, Powys, Pengwern and Dumnonian warriors) clashes with his army at the Battle of Chester. King Iago of Gwynedd and King Selyf Sarffgadau of Powys are both killed but the victor is unclear. The Battle of Bangor-is-Coed follows in quick succession. King Bledric of Dumnonia is killed in the fighting and 1000 monks are massacred by the Northumbrians. King Edwin of Deira flees to the Court of King Raedwald of . Birth of Prince (later King) Oswiu of Bernicia. The stone Abbey Church at St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury is completed and dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul.

614 - King Cynegils & his son, Prince Cwichelm, of Wessex invade Dumnonia and defeat the local army (possibly under a King Clemen) at the Battle of Bindon. Birth of Princess (later & Saint) Hilda of Deira. c.615 - King Aethelfrith of Bernicia visits King Raedwald of East Anglia at Rendlesham and persuades him to hand over the former's old enemy, King Edwin of Deira. In return, Raedwald is promised rich rewards, yet war is threatened if he fails to comply. Raedwald's wife however, reminds him of his obligations as Edwin's protector and the King begrudgingly declines the offer. King Edwin of Deira marries Princess Cwenburga, daughter of King Ceorl of Mercia.

616 - King Edwin of Deira, with the help of King Raedwald of East Anglia, conquers Northumbria at the Battle of the . King Aethelfrith of Bernicia & Deira is killed in the fighting and his children are forced to flee north. His heir, Prince Eanfrith, seeks refuge with his mother's family, probably in Gododdin, and then moves further north into Pictland; Princes Oswald, Oswiu and others escape to Court of King Eochaid Buide of Dalriada where they are converted to Christianity by the monks of . Death of Kings Aethelbert of Kent and Saebert of Essex. The former is succeeded by his pagan son, Eadbald, who promptly marries his step- mother, in accordance with pre-Christian custom. King Eadbald loses overlordship of Essex, where the new kings, Saebert's sons, Sexred, Saeward and Sexbald, throw out the Christian missionaries and return to . Bishop (& Saint) Mellitus of London (& Essex) flees with Bishop Justus of Rochester to . King is persuaded to convert to Christianity by St. Laurence, Archbishop of Canterbury.

617 - King Edwin of Deira invades and conquers Elmet. King Ceretic of Elmet is killed in the fighting. Death of King Raedwald of East Anglia. He was probably buried in the Great Ship discovered in the Royal East Anglian Cemetery at Sutton Hoo. Shortlived succession of his brother, Eni.

618 - Raedwald's son. Eorpwald, takes the East Anglian throne from his uncle, King Eni.

619 - Death of Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury. He is buried at St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury and is later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by St. Mellitus.

620 - The church of St. Mary is built at the Royal Abbey complex of St. Augustine's, Canterbury. c.620 - Angles probably under King Edwin of Deira invade South Rheged, and expel King Llywarch Hen who flees to Powys. Edwin's armies also move north into Southern Strathclyde and Gododdin. Prince Eanfrith, heir of Bernicia, marries a Pictish Royal Princess and fathers Prince (later King) Talorcan (I) of the Picts. c.623 - King Edwin of Deira is baptised by Prince Rhun of North Rheged, according to the Historia Brittonum. This was probably at the Royal Court of Gwynedd. He soon relapses back to paganism.

624 - Death of Archbishop Mellitus of Canterbury. He is buried at St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury and is later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by Bishop (& Saint) Justus of Rochester.

625 - King Edwin of Deira marries Princess Ethleburga of Kent. As a Christian, she brings her personal chaplain, Paulinus, north with her. St. Paulinus has already been consecrated Bishop of York. With the help of Pope Boniface, the new Queen encourages her husband to convert to Christianity.

626 - Death of King Ceorl of Mercia. He is succeeded by Penda, son of his predecessor. Prince Cwichelm of Wessex sends an assassin to murder King Edwin of Deira. Edwin is saved from the assassin's dagger by the timely intervention of one of his thanes who is killed in the process. Edwin's daughter, Eanflaed, is born the same night and he promises to give her for baptism to St. Paulinus, if he is victorious over the instigator of this crime. Edwin discovers Cwichelm's treachery and marches on Wessex. Prince Cwichelm and his father, King Cynegils of Wessex, march north to meet the Northumbrians at the Battle of Win Hill & Lose Hill, possibly with the aid of King Penda of Mercia. Despite their army's superior numbers, the Wessex duo are defeated and flee south. Edwin keeps his promise to St. Paulinus. c.626 - The rivalry between King Edwin of Deira and King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, which has grown since childhood, reaches a climax. Edwin invades the Isle of Man and then Anglesey. Cadwallon is defeated in battle and is besieged on Puffin Island. He eventually flees to Brittany.

627 - St. Paulinus converts King Edwin of Deira back to his lapsed Christianity at the Royal Court of Yeavering. The King is baptised in Paulinus' proto-Cathedral in York and persuades his sub-monarch, King Eorpwald of East Anglia to follow suit. Death of Archbishop Justus of Canterbury. c.627 - Possible building of the Western section of the Wansdyke, by King Cynegils of Wessex, in an attempt to counter aggression from King Penda of Mercia.

628 - King Cynegils and his son, Prince Cwichelm, of Wessex clash with King Penda of Mercia at the Battle of Cirencester. Cynegils' son, Cenwalh, may have married King Penda's sister as part of the subsequent peace treaty by which the Mercians take control of the area. King Penda probably establishes the sub-Kingdom of the at this time. Anti-Christian uprising in East Anglia. King Eorpwald is killed by one Ricbert, and his half-brother, Sigebert, flees to France. Ricbert takes the throne. The exiled Prince Oswald of Northumbria accompanies King Connad Cerr of Dalriada to Ireland to fight against Maelcaich and the Irish Cruithne at the Battle of Fid Eoin.

629 - St. Paulinus meets Blecca, the Praefectus Civitatis of Lincoln, and converts him to Christianity.

630 - The West Saxons invade Gwent. King Meurig defeats them, with the help of his aging father, at the Battle of Pont-y-Saeson. c.630 - King Penda of Mercia besieges Exeter (possibly held by King Clemen of Dumnonia). King Cadwallon of Gwynedd lands nearby, from his Deiran imposed exile in Brittany. He negotiates an alliance with King Penda of Mercia and a united British and Saxon force moves north to re-take Gwynedd. The Deirans are defeated at the Battle of the Long Mountain and Cadwallon chases them back to Northumbria. The British ransack Northumbria and bring the kingdom to its knees. St. Felix arrives in Britain from Burgundy with the intention of evengelising the Angles. He stays a while at Canterbury.

631 - Death of King Ricbert of East Anglia. The half-brother of his predecessor, King Eorpwald, returns from exile in France and takes the throne as the Christian King Sigebert. With the new King's encouragement, St. Felix is sent by Archbishop Honorius of Canterbury to evangelise his people. St. Felix establishes his see at . c.631 - King Edwin of Deira re-fortifies the City of York, probably including the building of the so-called Anglian Tower.

632 - The West Saxons cross into Wales and defeat King Idris of Meirionydd on the Severn.

633 - King Edwin of Deira and his Northumbrian army meet the British, under King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, in the Battle of Hatfield Chase. King Edwin is killed in the fighting and Cadwallon is victorious. Edwin's cousin, Osric, succeeds to the throne of Deira and Prince Eanfrith of Bernicia returns from Pictland to claim his rightful . Both are pagans. St. Paulinus, Bishop of York, flees south and is made Bishop of Rochester. Cadwallon is later besieged at York by King Osric. The former is again victorious.

634 - Despite suing for peace, King Cadwallon of Gwynedd slays both King Eanfrith of Bernicia and Osric of Deira rather than negotiate with them. Eanfrith's half- brother, Oswald succeeds, as son of Aethelfrith of Bernicia and Acha of Deira, to a united Northumbria. He is given a force of men (including monks from Iona) by King Domnall Brecc of Dalriada and marches south to claim his inheritance. He clashes with King Cadwallon of Gwynedd at the Battle of Heavenfield. Despite having superior numbers, Cadwallon is killed, and King Oswald victorious. The former Queen Ethelburga of Deira packs up her infant sons and step-grandson and flees to France for fear that, as offspring of her husband, King Edwin, Oswald will have them murdered. The Deiran Royal Court at Yeavering is probably abandoned at this time. Oswald re-introduces Christianity to Northumbria, though is still ministering to the people of Swaledale. The chief among the monks who accompanied the King from Dalriada attempts to convert the Northumbrians, but meets with little success. Oswald calls on Iona to send an evangelical Bishop. King Sigebert of East Anglia retires to the monastery of Burgh Castle and entrusts the kingdom to his cousin, Egric, who had already been deputising in part of the country. St. arrives as a bishop from to convert the people of Mercia. He, however, decides to halt in Wessex instead. He preaches to King Cynegils of Wessex near Cholsey. Birth of St. Cuthbert in Tweedale and St. Wilfred in Northumbria.

635 - King Penda of Mercia aims to gain control of Middle Anglia and therefore attacks his rivals in East Anglia. Ex-King Sigebert is forced to leave his monastery in order to join King Egric of East Anglia in battle against the invaders. Sigebert and Egric are both killed in the fighting. Sigebert is later revered as a saint. Egric's brother, Anna, succeeds to the East Anglian throne. St. Aidan, Bishop of Scattery Island, arrives to evangelise Northumbria and founds the Bishopric and of Lindisfarne. Under pressure from King Oswald of Northumbria, King Cynegils of Wessex, is persuaded to allow St. Birinus to convert him to Christianity. Cynegils' eldest son, Cwichelm, resists. Cynegils is baptised at Dorchester-on-Thames and gives Birinus the town for his cathedral. Birinus is made the first Bishop of Wessex. Oswald acts as godfather and agrees to enter into a strategic alliance with Wessex against Mercia. The agreement is cemented by the marriage of King Oswald to King Cynegils' daughter, Princess Cyniburg. c.635 - St. Finnian and St. Aebbe, half-sister of King Oswald of Northumbria, found the monastery of Coldsbury at St. Abbs.

636 - St. Birinus converts Prince Cwichelm of Wessex to Christianity. The latter dies soon afterward. He is supposedly buried at Scutchamer Knob in .

637 - King Oswald of Northumbria probably sends troops to Ireland to assist King Domnall Brecc of Dalriada in his alliance with King Congal Caech of during the Irish dynastic wars. They are defeated at the Battle of Mag Rath.

638 - King Oswald and his Northumbrian army besiege and conquer Edinburgh. His half-brother, Prince Oswiu of Bernicia, marries Princess Rhiainfelt, heiress of North Rheged. Northumbria probably embraces North Rheged in a peaceful takeover. Oswiu may have been sub-King there for a time. c.640 - St. Maildulph settles in Malmesbury.

640 - Death of King Eadbald of Kent. He is succeeded by his sons, Earconbert as overking and Eormenred as King of West Kent. St. Aebbe moves her monastery from St. Abbs to Priory. Foundation of Abbey by Princess Hieu (of Ireland) who becomes the first Abbess.

641 - Prince Oswiu of Bernicia conquers Gododdin as far north as Manau, on behalf of his half-brother, King Oswald.

642 - King Penda of Mercia commands a united British and Mercian force against King Oswald of Northumbria. The British contingent includes the army of Kings Cadafael Cadomedd of Gwynedd, Eluan of Powys and Cynddylan of Pengwern. Oswald is killed at the Battle of , as is Prince Eowa of Mercia, probably sub-King of Wrocenset. Oswald is buried at Abbey and is later regarded as a saint. He is succeeded by his half-brother, Oswiu, in Bernicia, but he is found to be unacceptable to the Deirans. The Mercians become dominant in Midland Britain. 643 - King Oswiu of Bernicia sends to Kent for Princess Eanflaed, daughter of King Edwin of Deira. She sails north to Bamburgh and the two are married. Despite this, Oswiu still fails to secure Deira. King Penda of Mercia seizes control of Lindsey and Elmet. Death of King Cynegils of Wessex. He is succeeded by his son, Cenwalh, who promptly repudiates his Royal Mercian wife.

644 - Despite armed objections from King Oswiu of Bernicia, Oswine, the son of the late King Osric of Deira, manages to establish himself as King of Deira, possibly with Mercian support. Death of Bishop Paulinus of Rochester.

645 - King Cenwalh of Wessex is driven from his kingdom by his one time brother- in-law, King Penda of Mercia. He flees to the Court of King Anna of East Anglia. Penda overruns Wessex.

647 - Death of Bishop Felix of Dunwich. He is buried at Soham and later revered as a saint. c.647 - Princess (& Saint) Hilda of Deira is persuaded by St. Aidan to enter the monastic life at .

648 - St. Wilfred enters Lindisfarne Priory. King Cenwalh of Wessex returns to reclaim his kingdom and succeeds. He gives 3,000 hides of land around Ashdown to his nephew, Cuthred, possibly sub-King of . c.648 - King Cenwalh of Wessex invites St. Birinus to establish the Old in . Together they have a small stone church built.

649 - Death of Abbes Hieu of Hartlepool. She is succeeded by St. Hilda.

650 - Death of Bishop Birinus of Wessex. He is buried at Dorchester-on-Thames and later revered as a saint. King Cenwalh of Wessex invites the Frankish , St. , to succeed him. c.650 - The Mercians, under King Penda, move on East Anglia, destroy the monastery at Burgh Castle and expel King Anna who probably flees to Magonset. It may have been at this time that Penda takes control of Magonset and installs his son, Merewalh as King there. King Oswiu of Bernicia founds . St. Aidan sends St. Eata to be the first Abbot with St. as his . Oswiu seeks Irish support against the forces of King Penda of Mercia. While in Ireland he has a liaison with Fin, the (grand) daughter of Colman Rimid Ui Neill. Prince Aeldfrith is born soon afterward. Re-establishment of London as a Saxon trading community at Aldwich.

651 - King Oswiu of Bernicia has King Oswine of Deira murdered at Gilling, after the later backs down from armed conflict. Oswine is buried at Priory where he is later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by the late King Oswald of Northumbria's son and Oswiu's nephew, Aethelwald. King Aethelwald of Deira appears to initially accept his uncle's overlordship. Queen Eanflaed donates the estate of Gilling for the foundation of a monastery in recompense for her second cousin's murder. Death of St. Aidan, Bishop of Lindisfarne. He is succeeded by St. Finan. Death of St. Boisil, Prior of Melrose. He is succeeded by St. Cuthbert.

652 - King Penda's Mercian army invades Bernicia and besieges King Oswiu at Bamburgh.

653 - King Penda of Mercia establishes full control of Middle Anglia and makes his son, Peada, king there. In return for the hand of the daughter of King Oswiu of Bernicia, Princess Alchflaed, Peada accepts baptism, into the Christian church, by Bishop (& Saint) Finan of Lindisfarne, at Wattbottle. The Middle Anglians have already been influenced by East Anglian Christianity and King Peada allows St. to envangelise his kingdom further. King Sigeberht II of Essex is then also persuaded by Oswiu, his overlord, to adopt Christianity as part of a general mobilization against King Penda of Mercia. Northumbrian missionaries under St. Cedd are despatched to Essex where he founds the monastery at Bradwell-on-Sea. Talorcan I, the nephew of King Oswiu of Bernicia is crowned King of the Picts through right of his mother. He probably accepts Northumbrian overlordship. St. Wilfred leaves Lindisfarne for Kent, then travels on to Lyons and Rome. c.653 - King Aethelwald of Deira rejects his uncle's overlordship and turns to King Penda of Mercia instead. Penda mounts another attack of Bernicia.

654 - King Penda of Mercia and his armies invade East Anglia and kill King Anna. The King is buried at Blythburgh and a monastery is founded at Iken to commemorate his life. Anna's brother, Aethelhere, succeeds as King of East Anglia and accepts Mercian overlordship. St. Cedd returns to Northumbria to be consecrated as Bishop of Essex, with his seat in St. Paul's, London. He is given land by King Aethelwald of Deira on which he founds Lastingham Priory. c.654 - Foundation of the first religious community at Waltham Abbey, with a wooden church.

655 - King Penda of Mercia and a united Greater Mercian and British army march on the Bernicians. Oswiu of Bernicia, with an army only a third the size, retreats to , the mostly northerly city in his kingdom. It lay in the oppressed sub- Kingdom of Manau-Gododdin. From here, Oswiu sends envoys to offer Penda money in return for holding off his armies. Penda appears to have taken the cash and distributed it amongst his British allies. However, having been taken from the oppressed Northern British in the first place, this is viewed as a restitution of rightful property. Penda and his allies invade Bernicia anyway, and the two armies meet at the Battle of Winwaed. Kings Cadafael Cadomedd of Gwynedd and Aethelwald of Deira, however, withdraw before the battle begins. This contributes to Penda's defeat and he and his ally, Aethelhere of East Anglia, are both killed in the fighting. Aethelhere's brother, Aethelwold, succeeds to the East Anglian throne. King Oswiu's son, Ecgbert is released from Mercian hostageship. The Bernicians overrun Mercia, but allow Penda's son, Peada, to continue his rule in Middle Anglia, probably due to his Christian faith. King Peada helps the Mercian nobleman, Saxulf, to found (Medshamstead) Abbey (Cathedral). The latter becomes the first Abbot. Bishop (& Saint) Finan of Lindisfarne sends St. to be the first Bishop of Mercia, Lindsey and Middle Anglia. Oswiu's daughter, Aelfflaed, is given as a novice to her second cousin, St. Hilda, Abbess of Hartlepool, in compliance with a promise King Oswiu had made should he be victorious at Winwaed.

656 - King of Oswiu of Bernicia invades Pengwern and kills its king, Cynddylan, and his brother, King Eluan of Powys, in battle. The Pengwernian Royal family flee to Glastening. Mercians take control of Pengwern and may have invaded Powys at this time. Murder of King Peada of Middle Anglia through the treachery of his wife. Direct Northumbrian rule of all Mercia. c.656 - King Aethelwald of Deira is removed from office by his uncle, King Oswiu of Bernicia, and replaced by the latter's son, Ealhfrith, as sub-king in a united Northumbria.

657 - The foundation of . St. Hilda and her cousin, Princess Aelfflaed, move from Hartlepool to Whitby, where St. Hilda is made Abbess. King Edwin of Deira's body is transferred to Whitby Abbey, where he is revered as a saint. The foundation of Abbey by monks from Melrose. St. Eata, Abbot of Melrose becomes first Abbot of Ripon.

658 - The Ealdormen of Mercia rebel against Northumbrian domination and re- establish their independence under Penda's son, Wulfhere. Death of Bishop Diuma of Mercia, Lindsey and Middle Anglia. He is buried at Charlbury and later revered as a saint. King Cenwalh and the Wessex Saxons make a push against Dumnonia (possibly under a King Culmin). They are victorious at the Battle of Penselwood and the Dumnonia-Wessex border is set at the River Parrett. St. Wilfred returns to Northumbria. c.658 - St. Etheldreda, daughter of the late King Anna of East Anglia, marries King Tondberht of South Gyrwe. The East Anglians gain overlordship of this area of Middle Anglia.

660 - King Sigeberht II of Essex is murdered by his brothers, Swithelm and Swithfrith, and other kinsmen for being "too ready to his enemies" that is to say, the Christians. St. Cedd flees north to the Court of King Aethelwald of East Anglia. Swithelm becomes King of Essex, possibly with Swithfrith as joint-monarch for a period. King Cenwalh of Wessex becomes dissatisfied with his local Bishop, St. Agilbert of Dorchester, as he does not speak West-Saxon. The King splits the See of Wessex in two. Wine becomes the first . Agilbert resigns in protest and travels north to Northumbria. The Mercians take control of Dorchester and appoint Aetla as Bishop. Death of King Talorcan I of the Picts, possible overthrow of Northumbrian overlordship in the kingdom. King Merewalh of Magonset is converted to Christianity. c.660 - King Ealhfrith of Deira begins to follow a religious policy independent of his father, King Oswiu of Northumbria, by rejecting the ways of the Ionian Church in favour of those of Rome. Foundation of the monastery of , by monks from Peterborough. King Merewalh of Magonset founds Priory. 661 - King Cenwalh of Wessex invades Dumnonia. He is victorious at the Battle of Posbury. Saxon settlers found Somerset in Eastern Dumnonia. Death of the Wessex sub-King, Cenberht. He is probably succeeded by his son, Caedwalla. King Wulfhere of Mercia and his army sack the Berkshire Downs around Ashdown and move south to conquer the Meonware and the Isle of Wight. St. Wilfred is given Ripon Abbey by King . St. Eata is removed and Wilfred becomes Abbot. Death of Bishop Finan of Lindisfarne. He is later revered as a saint and succeeded by St. Colman. c.662 - King Swithelm of Essex is converted to Christianity and baptised by St. Cedd at the Court of King Aethelwald of East Anglia who acts as his sponsor. East Anglia may have held some sort of overlordship over Essex at this time.

663 - Bishop Wine of Winchester moves the Bishop's Seat north again to Dorchester and the Mercian Bishop Aetla is removed. c.663 - Probable invasion of Pictland by King Oswiu of Northumbria. He establishes overlordship of, at least, the Southern Pictish sub-kingdoms of and Fib (and possibly Circinn).

664 - The Synod of Whitby is hosted by St. Hilda. It is called to discuss whether the Northern British should comply with the doctrines of Rome, rather than follow the Irish Celtic practices of Iona. Bishop (& Saint) Colman of Lindisfarne, Abbess (& Saint) and Bishop (& Saint) Cedd of Essex speak for the established Celtic ways (with Cedd as interpreter). They are opposed by Abbot (& Saint) Wilfred of Ripon and the former Bishop (& Saint) Agilbert of Dorchester. The latter are triumphant and St. Colman resigns his See in protest. He is replaced by Tuda who dies of the Plague soon afterward. Tuda is then succeeded as Abbot, by St. Eata former Abbot of Ripon who brings his prior, St. Cuthbert, from Melrose Abbey to Lindisfarne. St. Wilfred is appointed Bishop of Northumbria and transfers the See from Lindisfarne to York. Bishop Cedd of Essex also dies of Plague, along with his brother, Cynebil, at his foundation of Lastingham Priory. Cedd is buried there and later revered as a saint. He is succeeded, as Abbot, by his brother, St. Chad, but the See of Essex at London remains vaccant. Death of King Earconbert of Kent. He is succeeded by his son, Ecgbert I, who promptly has his cousins, Aethelred and Aethelbert murdered in order to secure his position. They are subsequently revered as . A great plague sweeps the country. Death of King Aethelwold of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his nephew, Eadwulf. Death of King Tondberht of South Gyrwe. His widow, St. Etheldreda, marries Prince Ecgfrith of Northumbria. c.664 - King Oswiu of Northumbria removes his son, King Ealhfrith, from his throne in Deira. The Bernician throne controls all of Northumbria.

665 - Death of King Swithelm of Essex. He is succeeded by his cousins, Sighere and Sebbi. The followers of King Sighere of Essex apostasize. King Sebbi of Essex remains Christian. Conflict between the two monarchs appears to have been exacerbated by the struggle for overlordship between Mercia and Wessex. Sighere supports the latter, Sebbi the former. King Wulfhere of Mercia eventually establishes himself as overlord of Essex (and London). Bishop of Mercia is despatched with Christian missionaries to reconvert the people of Essex. Wulfhere insists that King Sighere of Essex marry his niece, St. Osyth, daughter of sub-King Frithuwold of . St. Wilfred claims there is no-one with the authority to consecrate him as Bishop in Britain and so travels to Compiegne (France) to be enthroned by the Archbishop of Paris. Overwhelmed by the oppulance of the Frankish Church, Wilfred delays his return. King Oswiu of Northumbria becomes impatient and deposes him as Bishop of York in favour of Abbot Chad of Lastingham. St. Chad travels south to be consecrated by Archbishop Deusdedit of Canterbury, but finds he has died of the Plague. His successor, Wigheard, is journeying to Rome for consecration. Bishop Ithamar of Rochester is also near to death and the only available Bishop is Wine of Dorchester. St. Chad is consecrated Bishop of York by Bishop Wine of Dorchester along with two Welsh Bishops called in to make up the compulsorary threesom. The authority of the latter are disputed by the Saxon Church.

666 - St. Wilfred eventually returns to Britain but is shipwrecked in Sussex. When he finally reaches Northumbria, he finds he has been deposed and is forced to retire to Ripon, as Abbot. He then embarks on a mission through Mercia. St. Eorcenwald founds Chertsey and Barking Abbeys.

667- Death of Bishop Jaruman of Mercia. His See becomes vaccant.

668 - Death of Archbishop-Elect Wigheard of Canterbury of the Plague while returning from his consecration in Rome. He is succeeded by Theodore.

669 - Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury arrives in Britain and, because of his irregular consecration, removes St. Chad from the Bishopric of York. St. Wilfred is reinstated as Bishop of York and Chad humbly returns to Lastingham. King Wulfhere of Mercia later asks the Archbishop for a prelate to replace the late Bishop Jaruman. St. Chad is appointed and he establishes the See at . King Ecgbert I of Kent grants the old Saxon Shore Fort at to a priest named Bassa in order to found a religious community there. c.669 - King Ecgbert I of Kent loses the overlordship of Surrey to King Wulhere of Mercia. 670 - Death of King Oswiu of Northumbria. He is buried at Whitby Abbey and succeeded by his son, Ecgfrith, who appoints his brother Aelfwine as sub-King of Deira. Both are accepted by the Deirans as maternal grandsons of the late King Edwin of Deira. Bishop Wine of Dorchester falls out with King Cenwalh of Wessex and leaves his Bishopric. St. Agilbert is invited back, but declines. His nephew, Leuthere, succeeds in his place. Bishop Wine buys the See of London from King Wulfhere of Mercia. This has been vaccant since St. Cedd's death. The move is not popular amongst other churchmen c.670 - King Wulfhere of Mercia hands the Meonware and the Isle of Wight over to his new ally, King Aethelwalh of Sussex. Wulfhere sponsors Aethelwalh's conversion to Christianity and the latter marries Princess Eafa, daughter of King Eanfrith of Hwicce, another Mercian sub-king. Mercian missionaries arrive in Sussex and found the monastery at Bosham. Death of King Merewalh of Magonset. He is buried at Repton and probably succeeded by his son, Merchelm

672 - Death of King Cenwalh of Wessex. His sub-Kings divide the kingdom amongst themselves, though his widow, Queen Seaxburh, does manage to establish some claim to overlordship. St. Wilfred, Bishop of York, completes his stone buildings at Ripon Abbey, including a crypt. Large numbers of Royalty and nobility attend its consecration. Wilfred encourages Queen (& Saint) Etheldreda of Northumbria to enter the religious life. She leaves her husband and becomes a nun at . The Synod of is held. Death of Bishop Chad of Lichfield of the Plague. He is buried in and later revered as a saint. Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury takes advantage of Bishop Bisi of Dunwich's illness to force him to resign. Theodore divides the see in two, based upon Dunwich and (probably North) Elmham, under Aecce and Beaduwine respectively.

673 - Death of King Ecgbert I of Kent. He is succeeded by his brother, Hlothere. St. Etheldreda returns to East Anglia and founds the Abbey of Ely, with herself as Abbess. On her journey, she founds a religious community at West Halton and probably Flixborough also. Miraculous occurrences while St. Etheldreda stops at Stow encourage her former husband, King Ecgfrith of Northumbria, to found a church and religious community there too. Birth of the Venerable . Death of King Domangart of Dalriada. He is succeeded by his nephew, Maelduin, who probably submits to King Ecgfrith of Northumbria as his overlord. c.673 - King Frithuwold of Surrey flourishes under Mercian domination. The marriage of his daughter, St. Osyth, to King Sighere of Essex breaks down. Osyth desires the religious life and flees from the Royal Essex Court to Bishop Beaduwine at North Elmham, where she becomes a nun. Her husband accepts the situation and grants her land at Cicc where she founds St. Osyth's Priory. Sub-King Coenred of Dorset flourishes. The Picts revolt against Northumbrian overlordship. King Ecgfrith marches north and, with the help of his under-king, Beornhaeth, he defeats them in Manau-Gododdin. King Drest of the Picts is ousted.

674 - Queen Seaxburh of Wessex is removed from power by her late husband's second cousin, Cenfus. King Cenfus dies within the year and is succeeded by his son, Aescwine. Death of King Eanfrith of Hwicce. King Eanhere contines to rule alone. St. Etheldreda, former Queen of Northumbria, gives large areas of land to St. Wilfred, Bishop of York, to found Abbey. He builds three stone churches there, including one with a crypt. Her husband, King Ecgfrith of Northumbria, similarly gives land to St. , sometime Abbot of St. Augustine's, Canterbury, to found an abbey at Monkwearmouth. Benedict sends for Frankish stonemasons to build his new church. c.674 - King Wulfhere of Mercia leads an army against King Ecgfrith of Northumbria, but is defeated in battle and forced to submit to Northumbrian overlordship.

675 - King Aescwine of Wessex checks the military advance of King Wulfhere and his Mercian army at the Battle of Biedanheafde. Death of King Wulfhere of Mercia. He is succeeded by his brother, Aethelred I, and, nominally at least, by his son, Berthwald, who takes on overlordship of the Hwicce and Wessex border area as sub-King, perhaps of Hendrica and Chilternset. King Aethelred of Mercia founds the monastery at Breedon-on-the-Hill on the site of St. Hardulph's hermitage. King Hlothere re-establishes Kentish supremacy in London. Death of King Eanhere of Hwicce. He is succeeded by Osric. King Osric establishes the Bishopric of the Hwicce at Worcester and founds . Prince Hean, nephew of sub-King Cissa of Berkshire, founds . Death of Bishop Wine of London. He is succeeded by St. Eorcenwald.

676 - Death of King Aescwine of Wessex. He is succeeded by his cousin, Centwine, brother of the late King Cenwalh. King Aethelred of Mercia invades Kent in an attempt to enforce overlordship and diminish Kentish influence in Surrey and London. His armies cause so much destruction to the diocese of Rochester that the see is abandoned. St. Aldhelm founds on the site of the hermitage of his old tutor, St. Maildulf.

678 - St. Wilfred, Bishop of York, is at the height of his power and owns vast estates throughout Northumbria. Unhappy at Wilfred's interference in his marriage, King Ecgfrith of Northumbria conspires with Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury to have him banished from Northumbria. The Bishopric is divided between Abbot (& Saint) Eata of Lindisfarne who is given Hexham, and Bosa, a monk of Whitby, who is given York. Eadhaed is given Lindsey. Wilfred travels to Rome to protest.

679 - The Synod of Hatfield is held. The armies of King Aethelred I of Mercia and King Ecgfirth of Northumbria clash at the Battle of the Trent. Sub-King Aelfwine of Deira is killed in the fighting and Mercia retakes Lindsey. Bishop Eadhaed of Lindsey is expelled. He becomes Abbot of Ripon. Northumbria is properly united. King Osric of Hwicce founds the Abbey of St. Peter in Gloucester with his sister, Cyneburg, as the first Abbess. Death of Abbess Etheldreda of Ely, former Queen of both South Gyrwe and Northumbria. She is buried at , succeeded by her sister Princess Seaxburh of East Anglia, and later revered as a saint c.679 - King Aethelred I of Mercia marries Princess , sister of King Ecgfrith of Northumbria.

680 - Death of Abbess Hilda of Whitby. She is buried in her Abbey and later revered as a saint. St. Wilfred returns to Northumbria, with Papal support, but is imprisoned by King Ecgfrith of Northumbria and again exiled. St. Wilfred travels to Sussex. He discovers a small Irish community of Christians, under one Dicul at Bosham, but their attempts at converting the natives have been unsuccessful. Wilfred, however, manages to evangelise the people of both this country and the adjoining Meonware. The Venerable Bede enters the monastic school at Monkwearmouth. c.680 - Princess Milburga, daughter of King Merewalh of Magonset, becomes a nun and founds Wenlock Priory where she becomes the first Prioress. Sub-King Caedwalla becomes overly ambitious in a power-struggle with King Centwine for Wessex overlordship. He is banished from Wessex and wanders through the Chilterns and then Andredsweald.

681 - King Aethelwalh of Sussex gives St. Wilfred lands in to found a cathedral. He becomes the first Bishop of Selsey. The diocese of Hexham is divided in two: St. Eata, is transferred to Lindisfarne and Tunberht takes on Hexham. King Ecgfrith of Northumbria requests that the monks of Monkwearmouth found a new monastery at . They build a complex of stone buildings there. c.681 - The wandering ex-Wessex Sub-King, Caedwalla, seeks St. Wilfred as his spiritual father but does not convert to Christianity. Sub-King Bealdred flourishes in Somerset and .

682 - The West Saxons, led by King Centwine, drive "the British [of Dumnonia] as far as the Sea" (possibly around Bideford).

683 - Death of King Sighere of Essex. His cousin, Sebbi, continues to rule alone. c.683 - Abbot Cuthbald of Peterborough and Bishop Seaxwulf of Lichfield found several daughter Houses for Peterborough, including Brixworth Priory.

684 - King Ecgfrith of Northumbria sends troops, under Dux Berhtred, to ravage Meath in Ireland.

685 - Death of King Hlothere of Kent. He is succeeded by his nephew, Eadric. The exiled Prince Caedwalla of Wessex invades Sussex and, though he kills King Aethelwalh, is driven out by the new joint Kings Berhtun and Andhun. of King Centwine of Wessex in order that he may enter a monastery. He is succeeded by his distant cousin, Caedwalla, who manages to fully re- the sub- kingdoms of Wessex. Death of sub-King Cissa of Berkshire. He is buried in Abingdon Abbey. St. Cuthbert visits Carlisle. Bishop Tunberht of Hexham is deposed. Cuthbert is elected Bishop of Hexham, but agrees to switch jobs with Bishop Eata of Lindisfarne instead. The Picts, under King Bruide ipe Bili, revolt against their Northumbrian overlords. Cuthbert advises King Ecgfrith of Northumbria not to invade Pictland. Undeterred, Ecgfrith marches his army north to engage the enemy at the Battle of Nechtansmere. The Picts, possibly with Scottish and Strathclyde Briton help, thoroughly defeat the Saxon guard. The latter permanently withdraw from Pictish and Scottish lands north of the Forth and also from much of the British territory north of the Tweed. Death of the childless King Ecgfrith of Northumbria. Supporters of the House of Aethelric secure the succession of his illegitimate half-brother, Aeldfrith, possibly with Irish and Scottish help. Aeldfrith is brought south from Iona, where he is studying. Death of King Osric of Hwicce. King Oshere continues to rule alone.

686 - King Caedwalla of Wessex establishes overlordship of Essex. With his new ally, King Sighere of Essex, Caedwalla invades Kent. King Eadric of Kent is expelled and Caedwalla's brother, Mul, installed in his place. Sighere rules in West Kent. King Caedwalla of Wessex conquers Surrey and the Isle of Wight and executes the latter's king, Aruald, and his two brothers. He probably also overruns the Meonware. Caedwalla invades Sussex for a second time, kills King Berhtun of and conquers the kingdom. King Andhun of probably flees. St. Wilfred persuades King Caedwalla to let him evangelise the Isle of Wight. The former is later reconciled with Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury who persuades King Aeldfrith to reinstate Wilfred as Bishop of Hexham following the death of St. Eata.

687 - King Mul of Kent and twelve companions are burnt to death during a Kentish uprising. His brother, King Caedwalla of Wessex ravages the kingdom in revenge. Death of ex-King Eadric of Kent. Bishop Bosa of York is removed from office and St. Wilfred is given the See of York. St. John of is made Bishop of Hexham. Abbot Eadhaed of Ripon is also removed and the Abbacy restored to Wilfred. Bishop Cuthbert of Lindisfarne resigns his office and retires to his hermitage on Inner Farne where he dies. He is buried in Lindisfarne Priory and later revered as a saint. Bishop (& Saint) Wilfred of Ripon temporarily administers the See of Lindisfarne.

688 - Conversion of King Caedwalla of Wessex. He abdicates the throne and departs on a pilgrimage to Rome. The subsequent power vacuum is filled by Ine, the son of his second cousin, sub-King Coenred of Dorset. King Aethelred of Mercia establishes Mercian dominance over most of Southern England. He installs Oswine, a minor member of the Kentish Royal family (and second cousin of King Eadric), as King of Kent. Wessex retains Surrey. Prince Swaefheard of Essex is given West Kent. Eadberht is appointed Bishop of Lindisfarne.

689 - Prince Oswald, brother of King Oshere of Hwicce, founds .

690 - King Oswine of Kent is toppled by Wihtred the brother of the late King Eadric of Kent. King Wihtred takes lands north of the Thames in revenge against the treacherous East Saxons. Death of Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury. He is succeeded by .

691 - St. Wilfred, Abbot of Ripon, tries to make himself Bishop of all Northumbria. King Aeldfrith of Northumbria seizes many of his Ripon Abbey estates and proposes to create a new Bishopric there. Wilfred is banished and flees to Mercia where King Aethelred I makes him Bishop of . Bosa is restored to the Bishopric of York.

692 - King Ine of Wessex installs his kinsman, Nothelm, as King of Sussex.

693 - Death of Bishop Eorcenwald of London. He is buried in St. Paul's Cathedral, London and later revered as a saint. Death of King Oshere of Hwicce. He is succeeded by four apparent joint-kings: Aethelberht, Aethelweard, Aethelric and Osred. c.693 - King Ine of Wessex establishes his West Saxon Law Codes. 694 - King Ine of Wessex attacks Kent and extorts 30,000 pence from its people in recompense for the murder of its late king, Mul. c.694 - Death of sub-King Coenred of Dorset, father of his overlord, King Ine of Wessex.

695 - Death of King Sebbi of Essex in London. He is succeeded by his sons, Swaefred and Sigeheard, as joint-monarchs. c.695 - King Aeldfrith of Northumbria marries Princess Cuthburh, daughter of King Ine of Wessex.

697 - Murder of Queen Osthryth of Mercia by her own noblemen. She is buried at Barney Abbey and later revered as a saint.

698 - Dux Berhtred is killed leading a Northumbrian army against the Picts.

700 - St. Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, attends a Church Synod in Wessex, from which he sends King Gerren of Dumnonia a letter insisting that his kingdom's Celtic Church comply with the doctrines of Rome, as agreed thirty-six years previously at the Synod of Whitby. c.700 - Queen Cuthburh of Northumbria enters the religious life. St. Ecgwine, , and his swineheard found Abbey. King Ine of Wessex begins to dispense with Wessex sub-kings and replace them with ealdormen. Hamwic emerges as a major Wessex trading town. Re-foundation of the British religious community in Wareham at St. Mary's Nunnery.

702 - Archbishop Berhtwald of Canterbury calls the Synod of to decide the rights of St. Wilfred, some-time Bishop of York. St. Wilfred is offered Ripon Abbey if he will relinquish his claims as a Bishop. Wilfred rejects this and appeals to Rome once more.

703 - St. Wilfred travels to Rome again and is supported in his struggle to retain his See of York by the Pope.

704 - King Aethelred I of Mercia retires to the Abbey of Bardney as its Abbot. He nominates his nephew, Coenred, as King. St. Wilfred returns to Northumbria. Death of King Aeldfrith of Northumbria. The throne is seized by one Eadwulf, of unknown descent. St. Wilfred moves to support the new monarch, but his advances are rejected and he instead falls in with the camp of the late King's young son, Osred, and Dux Berhtfrith.

705 - Prince Osred of Northumbria and his party defeat the usurper, Eadwulf, at the Battle of Bamburgh. He becomes King Osred I at the age of nine. King Ine of Wessex becomes estranged from the Kings Swaefred and Sigeheard of Essex who are sheltering exiled rivals to the Wessex throne. At the Synod of Brentford, the latter agree to banish the exiles in return for Ine not attacking their kingdom. Surrey is transferred from the Diocese of London to Winchester. Death of Bishop Headdi of Winchester. The See is divided between Daniel at Winchester and St. Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, at Sherborne.

706 - Archbishop Berhtwald of Canterbury, is obliged by the Pope's insistence, to call the Synod of the River Nidd. St. Wilfred is officially recognised as Bishop of Hexham and Abbot of Ripon. St. , the previous Bishop, is transferred to York. c.707 - Mercia surfers from attacks by their Welsh neighbour.

709 - Kings Swaefred and Sigeheard of Essex share power with Offa, son of King Sigehere. King Coenred of Mercia abdicates the throne and journeys to Rome to become a monk. King Offa of Essex accompanies him. Ceolred, his cousin, succeeds to the Mercian throne. Dynastic rivalries lead to the banishment of their second cousin, Prince Aethelbald, who flees to the East Anglian controlled Crowland Fens. Bishop Wilfred of Hexham dies at Oundle and is buried at Ripon Abbey. He is later revered as a saint.

710 - Kings Ine of Wessex and Nunna of Sussex clash with King Gerren of Dumnonia after which Ine manages to establish a fortress at Taunton. St. Boniface becomes King Ine's envoy to the Archbishop of Canterbury.

711 - Dux Berhtfrith leads a Northumbrian campaign against the Picts and defeats them in Manau Gododdin.

713 - Death of King Eadwulf of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his brother, Aelfwald. Queen Cuthburh of Northumbria travels south to found a monastery at Wimborne.

715 - Kings Ine of Wessex and Coelred of Mercia clash at the Battle of Wodensbarrow. Supposed foundation of on the site of an ancient hermitage, by two brothers named Oddo and Doddo. c.715 - Abbot of Wearmouth & Jarrow advises King Nechtan of the Picts concerning adoption of the ways of the Roman Church. Death of Kings Swaefred and Sigeheard of Essex. They are succeeded by Swaefbert, of unknown relationship. Death of St. Guthlac. King Ine of Wessex faces rebellion within his kingdom.

716 - While feasting, King Coelred of Mercia collapses in a fit and dies. He is succeeded by Coelwald, probably his brother. Prince Aethelbald returns to Mercia from the Crowland Fens and seizes the throne from King Coelwald. King Osred I of Northumbria is killed in combat, possibly by the Picts in Manau Gododdin. The throne is seized by his distant cousin, Coenred, of the House of Ocga.

718 - Death of King Coenred of Northumbria. The throne is seized by one, Osric, probably a younger brother of the late King Osred I. Death of Prince Ingild, brother of King Ine of Wessex. c.720 - King Ine of Wessex builds a stone church at . 721 - King Ine of Wessex slays Prince Cynewulf, an unknown relation making a push for the throne. Death of John of Beverley, Bishop of York. He is buried in Beverley Minster and later revered as a saint.

722 - King Ine of Wessex attempts a takeover of Dumnonia. His armies are crushed and have to withdraw. The fortress at Taunton is demolished.

725 - Death of King Nunna of Sussex. The exiled Prince Ealdberht, possibly a nephew of King Ine of Wessex looking for recognition as his heir, seeks sanctuary in Sussex. Ine attacks the South Saxons and kills Ealdberht. Death of King . The kingdom is divided between his three sons: King Aethelbert II as overking, King Eadbert in West Kent and Alric who dies soon afterward.

726 - Abdication of King Ine of Wessex. He travels on a pilgrimage to Rome. He is succeeded by his brother-in-law (and probably distant cousin), Aethelheard; but this is disputed by another distant cousin, Oswald.

727 - Former Queen Cuthburh of Northumbria, Abbess of Wimborne, dies at her Abbey and is buried there. The former King Ine of Wessex founds a hospice for English pilgrims in Rome.

728 - Death of the former King Ine of Wessex in Rome. He is buried in the Church of San-Spirito-in-Sassia in the district of Borgo and later revered by some as a saint.

729 - King Osric of Northumbria nominates Ceolwulf, a distant cousin and brother of his predecessor as his successor. Death of King Osric. Ceolwulf takes the throne. The House of Aethelric is all but extinct and the House of Ocga in the ascendancy. c.729 - The Northumbrians sign a peace treaty with the Picts.

730 - Death of Prince Oswald, rival claimant to the Wessex throne.

731 - The Venerable Bede completes his history of the Church in England. King Ceolwulf of Northumbria is seized by unknown opponents and forced to enter a monastery. His supporters subsequently restore him to the throne. Bishop Acca of Hexham is expelled from his See. These two events are almost certainly connected. c.731 - The Mercians are expelled from Powys by King Elisedd of that kingdom.

733 - King Aethelbald of Mercia overruns a large portion of Somerset and wrests the county from Wessex control.

735 - Death of the Venerable Bede. The See of York achieves archiepiscopal status.

737 - King Ceolwulf of Northumbria abdicates in favour of his cousin, Eadberht, and becomes a monk at Lindisfarne Priory. 738 - Death of King Swaefbert of Essex. He is succeeded by Saelred, a minor member of the Essex Royal Family.

740 - Death of King Aethelheard of Wessex. He is succeeded by a distant kinsman, Cuthred. King Eadberht of Northumbria marches his army north to attack the Picts. King Aethelbald of Mercia takes advantage of his absence and ravages Southern Northumbria. Internal struggles re-emerge in Northumbria with the murder of Earnwine, son of the late usurping King Eadwulf. c.740 - Death of King Mildfrith of Magonset. He is replaced by a Mercian Ealdorman. King Aethelbald of Mercia takes control of Berkshire from Wessex.

743 - Kings Aethelbald of Mercia and Ceolred of Wessex join forces to attack Gwent and Powys. St. , youngest daughter of the late King Anna of East Anglia, dies at East Dereham Abbey and is buried there. c.744 - Construction of Wat's Dyke. The border between Mercia and Powys is set there.

746 - Death of King Saelred of Essex. He is succeeded by Swithred, grandson of the late King Sigeheard.

748 - Death of King Eadbert of West Kent. He is succeeded by his sons, Eadbert and Eardwulf.

749 - Death of King Aelfwald of East Anglia. He is succeeded by Hun, Beorna and Alberht. Relationship unknown. Beorna emerges as the dominant monarch. King Aethelbald of Mercia calls the Synod of Gumley and agrees to exempt from Royal service.

750 - Dynastic unrest in Northumbria. King Eadnberht imprisons Bishop Cynewulf of Lindisfarne at Bamburgh and besieges Prince Offa, son of the late King Aeldfrith in Lindisfarne Priory. Almost dead from hunger, he is eventually dragged from his sanctuary.

752 - King Eadberht of Northumbria takes Kyle from King Dumnagual of Strathclyde, on the death of the latter's father, Teudebur. King Cuthred of Wessex clashes with King Aethelbald of Mercia at the Battle of Burford and manages to throw off his claim to Mercian overlordship.

756 - Death of King Cuthred of Wessex. He is succeeded by his distant kinsman, Sigeberht. King Eadberht of Northumbria and King Angus I of the Picts successfully besiege King Dumnagual of Strathclyde at Dumbarton. However, Eadberht's entire force is subsequently wiped out, probably by the Britons, at the Battle of Newburgh- on-Tyne.

757 - King Aethelbald of Mercia is murdered by his own household in a dynastic coup by one Beornred. He is buried at Repton. King Beornred is quickly ousted by Aethelbald's distant cousin, Offa. In the meantime, Mercian supremacy over Southern England is lost. King Sigeberht of Wessex acts unjustly and is removed from power by a council of nobles, in favour of his distant kinsman, Cynewulf. Sigeberht is given control of Hampshire, probably as ealdorman; but he murders one of his own men and is driven out and eventually suffers the same fate. First written record of the county of Hampshire.

758 - King Eadberht of Northumbria abdicates in favour of his son, Oswulf. He becomes a monk at York. Death of King Swithred of Essex. He is succeeded by Sigeric I, son of the late King Saelred. c.758 - King Cynewulf of Wessex retakes Berkshire from the Mercians. Death of King Beorna of East Anglia. Apparent succession of Prince Aethelred, a descendant of King Raedwald of East Anglia, as King.

759 - King Oswulf of Northumbria is murdered by his own household at Methel Wongtun. The Deiran patrician, Aethelwald Moll, who probably conspired in the , seizes the throne. He may have been a descendant of King Oswine of Deira.

760 - The Battle of Hereford is fought probably between the Mercians and the Kingdom of Brycheiniog under King Nowy Hen. c.760 - Building work, under Abbot Guba expands the Abbey Church at Glastonbury.

761 - King Aethelwald Moll of Northumbria faces a rebellion under a rival claimant to the throne named Oswine. The latter is defeated after the three day Battle of Eildon.

762 - Death of King Aethelbert II of Kent. His nephew, King Eadbert of West Kent, possibly rules all Kent for a time. Sigered, probably an East Saxon, succeeds in West Kent. Death of King Eadbert also, followed by the establishment of Eanmund as King of Kent. King Aethelwald Moll of Northumbria marries his queen, Aethelthryth, at Catterick.

764 - King Offa of Mercia brings an end to the rule of Kings Eanmund and Sigered of Kent. He imposes Mercian overlordship on the kingdom, but allows a local king, Heabert, to rule there. Death of ex-King Ceolwulf of Northumbria. He is buried at Lindisfarne Priory and later revered as a saint.

765 - King Heabert of Kent is joined in ruling Kent by King Aethelbert II's son, Ecgbert II. King Aethelwald Moll of Northumbria is deposed at Pincanheale, possibly by at a gathering of his own . He enters a monastery. The throne is taken by Ealchred, a distant cousin of the late King Oswulf.

768 - Death of the former King Eadberht of Northumbria. In an attempt to strengthen his position, King Ealchred of Northumbria marries Princess Osgyfu, daughter of the late King Oswulf of Northumbria. c.770 - King Ealchred of Northumbria takes an interest in continental missionary activities and sends Willehad to Frisia.

771 - King Offa of Mercia defeats the Haestingas and joins their little region to his sub-kingdom of Sussex.

772 - Possible deposition of King Ecgbert II of Kent with subsequent direct rule from Mercia.

773 - King Ealchred of Northumbria makes overtures of friendship toward King of the Franks.

774 - Unrest in the Northumbrian Church appears to lead to the expulsion of King Ealchred who is driven from York. He sails from Bamburgh into exile amongst the Picts. He is replaced by Aethelred I, the eleven year old son of the late King Aethelwald Moll of Northumbria.

776 - King Ecgbert II of Kent defeats the Mercians at the Battle of and re- asserts himself as King of Kent.

778 - Unrest in Northumbria leads to King Aethelred I ordering the execution of three of his Duces. This considerably weakens his position.

779 - Offa, King of Mercia, becomes "King of All England". Offa defeats King Cynewulf of Wessex at the Battle of Bensington and seizes control of Berkshire, and probably London as well. Death of King Aethelred of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his son, Aethelberht. King Aethelred I of Northumbria is driven from the kingdom by Prince Aelfwald, son of the late King Oswulf who takes the throne as Aelfwald I. c.780 - The rise of Aldwich as an important trading centre under Mercian control. King Offa of Mercia possibly establishes a Royal Palace at Aldermanbury, on the site of the old Roman Cripplegate fort and Amphitheatre.

781 - The King Charlemagne of the Franks summons the monk and scholar of York to head the palace school at Aachen.

784 - Construction of Offa's Dyke, the artificial bank and ditch boundary between England and Wales, is begun at the command of King Offa of Mercia. Prince Ealmund of Wessex appears as King of Kent, possibly as a joint-monarch in some sort of alliance with his brother-in-law, King Ecgbert II.

785 - King Offa of Mercia re-asserts his control of Kent, deposes King Ecgbert II and establishes direct Mercian rule. Ecgbert's brother, Prince Eadbert Praen flees to the Court of King Charlemagne of the Franks and enters holy orders.

786 - The Yorkist scholar Alcuin accompanies the Papal Legates, Bishops George of Ostia and Theophylact of Todi, from France to the Mercian Royal Court. King Aelfwald I of Northumbria also receives Bishop George at a Northumbrian ecclesiastical council. The exiled Wessex noble, Cyneheard, brother of the late King Sigeberht of Wessex, ambushes King Cynewulf of Wessex while he is at Meretun with his mistress, and kills him. He is buried at Winchester. The Wessex nobles refuse to recognise Cyneheard as king. They execute him and, through the support of King Offa of Mercia, elect one Beorhtric instead. Cyneheard is buried at Axminster. Beorhtric's rival claimant to the Wessex throne, a very distant nephew of the late King Ine named Egbert, is driven across the Channel. Egbert settles at the Court of King Charlemagne of the Franks.

787 - Kings Offa of Mercia and Beorhtric of Wessex call the Synod of Chelsea, which is attended by the Papal Legate. There, Offa persuades the Papacy to grant Archiepiscopal status to the Mercian See of Lichfield. Bishop Hygeberht is thus elevated and given control of Hereford, Worcester, Leicester, Lindsey, Dunwich and Elmham, as well as Lichfield. In order to secure the Royal succession, Offa has Hygeberht crown his son, Ecgfrith, King of Mercia within his father's own lifetime, possibly at Brixworth. Offa founds Abbey. Archbishop Jaenberht of Canterbury is alienated from Mercia.

789 - Assassination of King Aelfwald I of Northumbria, probably at Chesters, at the instigation of Patrician Sicga. He is buried at Hexham Abbey and his sons, Oelf and Oelfwine, seek sanctuary in . The son of the late King Ealchred is installed as King Osred II of Northumbria. The Vikings attack Britain for the first time with three ships raiding Portland. Thinking them to be peaceful traders, High- Reeve Beaduheard of Dorchester rides out to greet them and his killed. King Beorhtric of Wessex marries Princess , daughter of King Offa of Mercia, and accepts Mercian overlordship.

790 - King Aethelred I returns to Northumbria, captures King Osred II, forces him to become a monk and ejects him from the kingdom. He flees to the Isle of Man. Aethelred then faces a rebellion by a rival, named Eardwulf. The latter is captured and hanged outside the gates to Ripon Abbey. The body is taken into the Abbey where Eardwulf recovers and escapes to exile. King Charlemagne of the Franks begins to nurture Northumbrian friendship in order to circumscribe the power of King Offa of Mercia. c.790 - King Offa of Mercia takes control of East Anglia. King Aethelberht mints his own coins in defiance of his overlord.

791 - Princes Oelf and Oelfwine of Northumbria are persuaded to leave their sanctuary in York Minster and are immediately forcibly drowned in Wonwaldremere at the instigation of King Aethelred I.

792 - King Aethelred I of Northumbria marries Princess Aelfflaed, daughter of King Offa of Mercia, at Catterick. Unrest in Northumbria tempts the exiled King Osred II back to his kingdom from the Isle of Man. His supporters dessert him and he is killed by King Aethelred's men at Aynburg. He is buried at Tynemouth Priory. King Offa of Mercia arranges coastal defences to fend off Viking attacks.

793 - Vikings attack Britain in a surprise raid on the monastic community at Lindisfarne Priory.

794 - King Aethelberht of East Anglia visits the Royal Mercian Court at Sutton Walls, with a view to marrying Princess Elfthryth. Her father, King Offa of Mercia, already unhappy with Aethelberht's rejection of his overlordship, has him executed, supposedly after the wicked Queen Cynethryth of Mercia accuses Aethelberht of making advances towards her. He is buried at Marden and later revered as a saint. East Anglia ruled directly from Mercia.

795 - King Offa of Mercia receives gifts from King Charlemagne of the Franks. Offa re-founds St. Albans Abbey, supposedly in thanks for overrunning East Anglia.

796 - King Offa of Mercia and King Charlemagne of the Franks a trading agreement and a marriage alliance is proposed. However, King Offa dies soon afterward. He is buried at Bedford and succeeded for a short time by his son, Ecgfrith, and then a distant cousin, Coenwulf. Prince Eadbert Praen leaves the church, returns to Kent and claims his throne. One Eadwald proclaims himself King of East Anglia, but is later ousted by King Coenwulf of Mercia. Direct rule from Mercia is re-established. King Aethelred I of Northumbria is murdered, probably at Corbridge, by his Ealdormen, Ealdred and Wada. Ealdorman Torhtmund slays Ealdred in revenge. The kingdom is plunged into confusion. The Patrician Osbald is placed on the throne, but is deserted by his supporters after only twenty-seven days. He flees from Lindisfarne to Pictland. Another faction, brings back King Aethelred I's old back-from-the-dead rival, Eardwulf, as King. King Eardwulf dismisses his wife and publicly takes a concubine. He is alienated from Archbishop II of Canterbury. King Coenwulf of Mercia gives protection to Eardwulf's enemies. The Yorkist Scholar, Alcuin, is made Abbot of Saint-Martin in Tours by King Charlemagne of the Franks.

797 - King Coenwulf of Mercia tries to re-assert his domination of North-East Wales. He clashes with Welsh forces, including those of Powys and Dyfed, at the Battle of Rhuddlan. King Maredydd of Dyfed is killed in the fighting. The Mercians push on westward.

798 - The Mercians of King Coenwulf invade Gwynedd and kill King Caradog of that country in Snowdonia. The Mercians also defeat and capture King Eadbert Praen of Kent. King Coenwulf of Mercia introduces his brother, Cuthred, as a sub- King of Kent. King Sigeric I of Essex abdicates and departs for Rome. His son, Sigered, takes the throne. Ealdorman Wada attempts to return King Osbald to the Northumbrian throne. The Yorkist Abbot Alcuin of Saint-Martin, Tours writes to the exiled Osbald in order to dissuade him. Wada is defeated by King Eardwulf of Northumbria at the Battle of Billington Moor.

799 - Death of the former King Osbald of Northumbria as an Abbot in exile. He is buried in York. King Eardwulf of Northumbria worried about further rivals, has Ealdorman Moll, probably a relation of the late King Aethelwald Moll, killed.

800 - King Eardwulf of Northumbria has his men seize Prince Ealhmund, son of the late King Ealchred, and put him to death. He is buried at and later revered as a saint. c.800 - Retirement of Archbishop Hygeberht of Lichfield. He is succeeded by Aldwulf. King Coenwulf of Mercia is on better terms with the Archiepiscopate of Canterbury than his predecessor, and unsuccessfully attempts to have the Mercian Archiepiscopal See transferred to London.

801 - King Eardwulf of Northumbria invades Mercia in order to flush out his enemies taking refuge there under King Coenwulf. After a long campaign the nobles and Bishops on both sides negotiate a peace and the two Kings confirm this under oath.

802 - Death of King Beorhtric of Wessex. He is buried at Wareham. Prince Egbert returns to Wessex and is accepted as King. Ealdorman Aethelmund of Hwicce attacks Wessex. He is met by Ealdorman Weohstan of Wiltshire and both are killed at the Battle of Kempsford, though the men of Wiltshire are victorious. Aethelmund is buried at Deerhurst Abbey. Cunred, a relative of King Coenwulf of Mercia, is appointed Abbot of St. Augustine's, Canterbury. First written record of the county of Wiltshire.

803 - The Synod of Clofeshoh (possibly Brixworth) is held, at which the Archbishopric of Lichfield is demoted to an ordinary Bishopric, with Papal permission obtained by King Coenwulf of Mercia.

806 - King Eardwulf of Northumbria is expelled from his kingdom by one Aelfwald who takes the throne as King Aelfwald II. Eardwulf flees to the Imperial Frankish Court of Charlemagne and later visits Pope Leo III in Rome.

807 - Death of King Cuthred of Kent. Kent possibly under direct Mercian rule.

808 - With the active support of Emperor Charlemagne of the Franks and Pope Leo III, the exiled King Eardwulf of Northumbria is able to return to his kingdom and oust the usurper, King Aelfwald II.

809 - The Papal Legate is kidnapped by Vikings while sailing for Northumbria. c.810 - Death of King Eardwulf of Northumbria. He is succeeded by his son, Eanred. is probably demolished by Archbishop of Canterbury and rebuilt on a more extravagant basilican scale c.812 - King Sigered of Essex is reduced to the rank of Dux by his Mercian overlords.

818 - King Coenwulf of Mercia raids Dyfed.

821 - King Coenwulf of Mercia dies in Basingwerk, while preparing for another assault on Powys, and is buried in . His son, Cenelm, is chosen to succeed him, but he is killed, probably fighting the Welsh, though supposedly through the treachery of his jealous sister, Cwenthryth. He is also buried at Winchcombe Abbey and later revered as a saint. The Mercian throne passes to Coenwulf's brother, Ceolwulf I. One Athelstan makes a push for the East Anglian throne, but is halted by Ceolwulf I of Mercia.

823 - The Mercians invade Powys, but are beaten back by King Cyngen. They also destroy the Gwynedd capital, Degannwy. Death of King Ceolwulf I of Mercia. He is succeeded by Beornwulf, a descendant of the late King Beornred. Rise of King Baldred of Kent. His allegiance is uncertain, but he was propbably a relative of King . Athelstan of East Anglia attempts to claim the East Anglian throne again.

825 - King Egbert of Wessex defeats the mighty Mercians at the Battle of Ellandon. He invades Kent and expels King Baldred. The former's son, Aethwulf, is installed as King of Kent. The sub-Kingdoms of Essex, Sussex and Surrey submit to Egbert. The Mercians are allowed to retain Berkshire and its boundaries are formally set. Athelstan of East Anglia begins to re-assert East Anglian independence. King Beornwulf of Mercia invades East Anglia, but is killed in battle. He is succeeded by one Ludecan. The men of Cornish Dumnonia clash with the Saxons of Devon at the Battle of Galford. First written record of the county of Devon in the Saxon form of the name.

827 - Athelstan of East Anglia establishes himself as King of that country after killing King Ludecan of Mercia in battle. Ludecan is succeeded in Mercia by Wiglaf, father-in-law (and probably distant cousin) of the late King Ceolwulf I's daughter.

828 - King Egbert of Wessex is recognized as overlord of other English Kings. He overruns Mercia, ousts King Wiglaf and attempts to rule directly from Wessex.

829 - King Eanred of Northumbria and King Ecgbert of Wessex clash at the Battle of the River Dore. Supposed submission of Northumbria to Wessex overlordship.

830 - King Wiglaf regains control of Mercia from Wessex. c.833 - Rise of a Dux Sigeric II of Essex under Mercian patronage.

835 - The comes under Viking attack.

836 - The army of King Egbert of Wessex is defeated by invading Vikings at the Battle of .

838 - The British of Dumnonia join forces with the Vikings and attack Wessex. King Egbert defeats them at the Battle of Hingston Down.

839 - Death of King Egbert of Wessex & All England. His son, King Aethelwulf of Kent succeeds as King of Wessex. Aethelwulf's brother, Aethelstan, is made sub- King of Kent, Essex, Surrey and Sussex. Death of King Athelstan of East Anglia. He is succeeded by one Aethelweard. 840 - Viking raids turn away from Britain as the Frankish Empire is weakened by the Death of Emperor Louis the Pious. Death of King Wiglaf of Mercia. He is buried at Repton and briefly succeeded by his grandson, . King Wigstan prefers the religious life and asks his widowed mother, Princess Elfleda to act as regent. A noble of the line of the late King Beornred, named Berhtric, wishes to marry this lady, but as he is a relative, Wigstan refuses the match. Berhtric murders Wigstan at Wistow. He is buried at Repton and later revered as a saint. The Mercian throne is seized by Berhtric's father, Beorhtwulf. First written record of the county of Dorset.

841 - Death of King Eanred of Northumbria. He is succeeded by his son as King Aethelred II.

844 - King Aethelred II of Northumbria is expelled from the kingdom by one Raedwulf, who takes the throne. King Raedwulf is later killed in battle against the Vikings, along with many of his noblemen, during a major raid. King Aethelred II returns.

845 - The ship of King Ragnar Lothbrok of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) is supposedly blown off course and he lands in East Anglia. He is entertained at the Royal Court but internal politics leads to him being kidnapped and smuggled into Northumbria where he is executed in a pit of vipers. Glastonbury Abbey is probably damaged by Viking raiders. Ealdorman Eanwulf of Somerset defeats them at the Battle of the River Parrett. First written record of the county of Somerset. c.846 - King Aethelred II of Northumbria sends military assistance to the Picts in their fight against invading Scots.

848 - Assassination of King Aethelred II of Northumbria. He is succeeded by Osbeorht, of unknown lineage.

849 - Birth of Prince (later King) Alfred of Wessex at Wantage.

850 - The Saxons inflict a major naval defeat on Viking raiders off the Sandwich Coast.

850-858 - King Kenneth mac Alpin of Alba (Scotland) invades Northern Northumbria six times, burning and Melrose.

851 - Death of sub-King Athelstan of Kent, Essex, Surrey and Sussex. He is succeeded by his nephew, Aethelbert.

852 - Death of King Beorhtwulf of Mercia. He is succeeded by his kinsman, Burghred.

853 - Mercia and Wessex attack Powys.

855 - Death of King Aethelweard of East Anglia. He is the last of the Royal House of East Anglia and a successor from their homeland in Angeln is sent for. A distant cousin, Edmund, arrives and takes the throne. 858 - Death of King Aethelwulf of Wessex. He is succeeded by his son, Aethelbald.

860 - Death of King Aethelbald of Wessex. He is succeeded by his brother, sub- King Aethelbert of Kent, Essex, Surrey and Sussex. These latter kingdoms are formally merged with Wessex. The Viking Chief Weland, based in the Somme, sails to England and attacks Winchester. He is defeated and returns home. First written record of the county of Berkshire.

863 - King Osbeorht of Northumbria engages in a major dispute for Royal Power with a rival claimant named Aelle. He is variously described as Osbeorht's brother or specifically not of . Osbeorht is badly defeated, though not expelled from his kingdom. King Aelle II wields power in Northumbria, but the Civil War continues.

865 - Death of King Aethelbert of Wessex. He is succeeded by his third son, Aethelred I. The '' of Vikings, led by Princes Ivarr the Boneless and Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia), invades East Anglia (supposedly in revenge for the execution of their father, King Ragnar Lothbrok). King Edmund of East Anglia buys peace with a supply of horses.

866 - 'The Great Heathen Army' of the Vikings ride north to Northumbria and mount a surprise attack on the City of York which they quickly capture.

867 - The rival monarchs of Northumbria, Aelle II and Osbeorht, join forces to expel the Vikings, but are thoroughly defeated at the by Princes Ivarr the Boneless and Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia). Osbeorht is killed, while Aelle II is supposedly captured and 'Spread-Eagled', for complicity in the murder of the invaders' father, King Ragnarr Lothbrok. Deira passes into Viking hands and what is left of the Northumbrian Royal Court flees north into Bernicia. Ecgberht I is established as a puppet King of Northumbria. The Viking armies make forays into Mercia. They are besieged at by a joint Saxon force under Kings Aethelred I of Wessex and Burghred of Mercia. The Vikings withdraw to York.

869 - While Prince Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) remains in York, his brothers, Ivarr the Boneless and Ubbe Ragnarrson, turn their 'The Great Heathen Army' on East Anglia once more. They are resisted by King Edmund.

870 - King Edmund of East Anglia is captured by Princes Ivarr the Boneless and Ubbe Ragnarson of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) who give him to their archers for use as target practice at Hellesdon. His head is then chopped off. He is buried in a small chapel near the place of his death and later revered as a saint. His brother, St. Edwold, flees to Cerne Abbas and becomes a hermit. The Vikings allow native sub-kings to rule in East Anglia for a while, starting with King Oswald. are ravaged by the invaders. The local people take refuge in Peterborough (Medshamstead) Abbey (Cathedral), but they are all slaughtered and the Abbey destroyed. Prince Ivarr the Boneless leaves for Northumbria and then Dublin where he becomes King. Coldingham Priory is destroyed by his Viking raiders. Ivarr's brother, Halfdan Wide-Embrace moves the Viking army to Wessex via the Thames and takes Reading which he makes his headquarters. The Vikings clash with Ealdorman Aethlewulf of Berkshire at the Battle of Englefield. The invaders are driven back to Reading and besieged by King Aethelred I and his brother, Alfred. Ealdorman Aethelwulf is killed in the fighting. The Danes are victorious and drive the English into the marshes.

871 - The English retreat onto the Berkshire Downs. Prince Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) is joined by a 'Great Summer Army' under Prince Bagsecg and together they march out after the Saxons. Prince Alfred of Wessex leads the English against them in the . His brother, King Aethelred I of Wessex, joins in after having been delayed at his . The English are victorious and many Vikings, including Prince Bagsecg, are killed. Further, less fortunate, clashes, however, occur at the Battle of Basing and the Battle of Martin. King Aethelred I is mortally wounded at the latter and dies soon afterward. He is buried at nearby Wimborne Minster. He is succeeded by his brother, Alfred. King Alfred fights the Danes at the Battle of Wilton and his severely defeated.

872 - King of Wessex buys a peace with the Vikings and they remove the 'Great Heathen Army' from Reading to London. Death of King Ecgberht I of Northumbria. The Vikings install one Ricsige in his place.

873 - The 'Great Heathen Army' of Vikings returns to York from where they attack Mercia. They capture the Royal capital at Repton and spend the winter there.

874 - From their base at Repton the Vikings drive King into exile, conquer his kingdom and install his political opponent, Ceolwulf, as sub-King there. He was probably a member of the House of Ceolwulf I.

875 - 'The Great Heathen Army' of Vikings is divided. Prince Halfdan Wide- Embrace Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) takes a contingent back to York to consolidate his position there, while the 'Great Summer Army' moves on under , Oscetel and Anund. This latter force then returns to Wessex. King Alfred the Great fights them in a Naval engagement.

876 - The Vikings take Wareham under their leader, Guthrum, and King Alfred the Great of Wessex is forced to buy peace once more. The invaders retreat to Exeter. Death of sub-King Oswald of East Anglia. He is succeeded by one Aethelred. With the removal of the puppet King Ricsige of Northumbria, Prince Halfdan Wide- Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) formally establishes the Norse Kingdom of York with himself as its first monarch. The Viking settlement of the kingdom begins.

877 - King Alfred the Great of Wessex raises a large force of men and marches on the Viking Camp at Exeter. Although his navy is almost destroyed in a storm near , his army besieges Guthrum and forces the Vikings to flee north to Gloucester. The Northern Vikings take Eastern Mercia under direct rule. King Halfdan I Wide-Embrace of Norse York leaves for Ireland in an attempt to recover his brother's Dublin throne. He is killed and a probable follows in York. c.877 - Eadulf of Bamburgh establishes himself as King of Bernicia. Cut-off from the rest of Saxon England, he is only recognised outside his kingdom as High-Reeve or Ealdorman of Bamburgh. He may or may not have been related to previous Kings of Northumbria. Eadulf allies himself with King Alfred the Great of Wessex.

878 - While spending the winter at , King Alfred the Great of Wessex is surprised by the a Viking attack and he and his men flee into the for safety. From his headquarters at Athelney, Alfred wages a guerrilla war against the Vikings. The supposed "Burning of the Cakes" episode occurs. The English gain a victory at Countisbury Hill and then Alfred decisively defeats the Vikings at Edington. Guthrum and his men are pushed back to Chippenham and besieged for three weeks. Eventually the Peace of Wedmore is agreed. England is divided between Wessex in the south and the Vikings in the up north. Guthrum embraces Christianity, is baptised as Aethelstan and returns to East Anglia. The main Viking force winters in . King Ceolwulf II of Mercia clashes with the Welsh and kills King Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd, Powys and Seisyllwg in battle.

879 - Death of sub-King Aethelred of East Anglia. The Vikings impose their own monarch on the kingdom. Guthrum takes the throne. King Alfred the Great of Wessex begins to build a large mobile army and naval fleet in order to counter any future Viking invasions. He also establishes defensive burghs around the country. Death of King Ceolwulf II of Mercia. One Aethelred takes the throne as King Aethelred II of the Mercians.

880 - The Mercian armies are defeated on the River Conwy by King Anarawd of Gwynedd in revenge for the death of his father, King Rhodri Mawr.

883 - Abbot of Carlisle travels across the Tyne (apparently at the request of the spirit of St. Cuthbert) and persuades the Viking Army there to elect a Christian slave named Guthfrith Hardicnutson as King of Norse York. The new king recognises the rights of the See of Chester-Le-Street.

884 - King Aethelred II of the Mercians marries Princess Aethelflaed, daughter of King Alfred the Great of Wessex, accepts Wessex overlordship and apparently demotes himself to become Lord of the Mercians.

885 - King Alfred the Great of Wessex summons Asser, a relative of Bishop Nobis of St. Davids, to the English Court. He agrees to spend six months of the year in the King's service. Asser helps to enhance the literary status of the English Court and also to negotiate the recognition of Alfred as overlord of the South Welsh Kings. The Vikings attack Rochester but are beaten back by King Alfred. c.885 - Kings Hyfaidd of Dyfed, Elisedd of Brycheiniog and Hywel of Glywysing, being harassed by the armies of King Anarawd of Gwynedd, seek the protection of King Alfred the Great of Wessex and submit to his overlordship. King Anarawd of Gwynedd seeks an alliance with the Norse King Guthfrith I of York. 886 - King Alfred the Great of Wessex recaptures London from the Vikings. He moves the community from Aldwich to within the safety of the city walls and hands the place over to his son-in-law, Lord Aethelred II of the Mercians. Alfred becomes the supreme monarch in the country and "all the English submitted to him, except those who were under the power of the Vikings".

888 - Foundation of Abbey. King Alfred the Great of England founds Athelney Abey in thanksgiving for his triumph over the Vikings. c.888 - Lord Aethelred II of the Mercians is struck down with a debilitating illness. His wife, Princess Aethelflaed of Wessex joins him as joint ruler of Mercia.

889 - Lord Aethelred II and Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians begin their policy of fortifying Mercian cities as defensive burghs, starting with Worcester. c.890 - Lord Aethelred II and Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians found the Priory of St. Oswald in Gloucester (probably originally dedicated to St. Peter). c.893 - Asser, the Welshman, is made Bishop of Sherborne.

894 - King Anarawd of Gwynedd is forced to ask for help from King Alfred the Great of England when his kingdom is ravaged by the Norsemen. He submits to Alfred's overlordship, but the latter imposes oppressive terms and forces Anarawd to confirmation in the Christian Church with Alfred as godfather. Bishop Asser of Sherborne, writes his "Life of King Alfred".

895 - King Alfred the Great of England supplies King Anarawd of Gwynedd with English troops to assist in his successful reconquest of Seisyllwg on behalf of his brother, King Cadell. Death of King Guthfrith I Hardicnutson as King of Norse York. He is buried in York Minster.

899 - Death of King Alfred the Great of Wessex & All England. He is succeeded by his son, Edward.

901 - King Edward the Elder of Wessex takes the title "King of the Angles and Saxons". His mother, Dowager-Queen , founds the Nunnaminster at Winchester and retires into a religious life there. Death of King Aethelstan (alias Guthrum) of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his son, Eric.

902 - The Norsemen are expelled from Dublin. After a brief foray into Seisyllwg, a group, under one Ingimund, settle in the Wirral with the agreement of Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians.

905 - The Norse settler, Ingimund, and his men revolt against the Mercians and try to take the city of Chester. They are beaten off.

907 - Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians refortifies Chester against Viking attacks. King Edward the Elder of England founds . Ealdorman Aethelmar founds on the site of the hermitage of St. Edwold.

909 - Death of Bishop Asser of Sherborne. The See is divided and the new Bishoprics created at Wells, Crediton and Ramsbury & Sonning. King Edward the Elder of England and his sister, Princess Aethelflaed of Mercia, raid Danish East Anglia and bring back the body of St. Oswald in triumph. Aethelflaed presents it to her foundation in Gloucester.

910 - King Edward the Elder of England attacks the Joint-Kings Halfdan II, Eowils Ragnarson of Norse York. All three monarchs are killed at the Battle of Tettenhall and their kingdom crippled. Ragnall I Ivarrson, grandson of Ivarr the Boneless, seizes the throne after years of roaming the Western Seas.

911 - Death of Lord Aethelred II of the Mercians. He is buried in St. Oswald's Priory, Gloucester and is succeeded by his wife, Princess Aethelflaed of Wessex, as Lady of the Mercians. Her brother, King Edward the Elder of England insists on taking control of London and .

912 - The increasing thread of Viking invasions encourages Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians to expand her policy of building defensive burghs within her kingdom.

913 - King Edward the Elder of England recaptures Essex from the Danes. Death of High-Reeve Eadulf of Bamburgh. He is succeeded by his son, Ealdred I, who is almost immediately driven out by King Ragnall I Ivarrson of Norse York. Ealdred flees to the Court of King Constantine II of Alba.

914 - High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh persuades King Constantine II of Alba to invade Norse controlled Bernicia in an attempt to restore his position. The Vikings defeat the Scots at the First Battle of Corbridge. Other Vikings harry the Welsh Coast and move up the Severn. They capture Bishop Cyfeilliog of Ergyng, but are driven out by Mercian levies from Hereford and Gloucester. c.915 - The body of St. Edmund of East Anglia is transferred to Bury St. Edmunds.

916 - English raiders attack the court of King Tewdr of Brycheiniog at Llangorse and make off with the Queen and thirty-three of her courtiers.

917 - Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians cements an alliance with Kings Constantine II of Alba and Constantine mac Aed of Strathclyde against Norse York. She captures the city of Derby, while her brother, King Edward the Elder of England, takes Towcester. Aethelflaed's armies also ravage Brycheiniog in revenge for the killing of the, now unknown, Abbot Ecgberht.

918 - Death of King Eric of East Anglia. East Anglia brought under Wessex rule. High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh again persuades King Constantine II of Alba to help him reclaim his position in Bernicia. They mount a second invasion of his now Norse controlled lands. The Vikings defeat the Scots again at the Second Battle of Corbridge, but take heavy casualties themselves. Ealdred probably manages to retake most of Northern Bernicia. Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians begins to intrigue with diaffected factions within the Norse Kingdom of York and peacefully overruns the Borough of Leicester. Her brother, King Edward the Elder of England, takes Stamford by force. King Idwal Foel of Gwynedd and King Hywel Dda and Prince Clydog of Deheubarth submit to the overlordship of King Edward. Death of Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians at Tamworth. She is buried in St. Oswald's Priory in Gloucester and nominally succeeded by her daughter, the twenty year old Princess Aelfwynn.

919 - Lady Aelfwynn of the Mercians is brought to the court of her maternal uncle, King Edward the Elder of England, and deprived of her authority in Mercia. King Edward formally annexes the country. The end of independent Mercian rule.

920 - High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh and his brother, Uhtred, submit to the overlordship of King Edward the Elder of England. Death of King Ragnall I Ivarrson of Norse York. He is succeeded by his brother, King Sigtrygg Caech of Norse Dublin.

924 - Death of King Edward the Elder of England at Farndon-upon-Dee. He is succeeded by his son, Athelstan, who becomes King of Wessex and effective ruler of most of England. His appointment is opposed by one Alfred of unknown origin. c.924 - St. Eadburga, daughter of King Edward the Elder of England, enters the Nunnaminster at Winchester, at an extremely young age.

925 - King Athelstan is finally crowned at Kingston-on-Thames. He founds Bury St. Edmunds Abbey around the of St. Edmund of East Anglia.

926 - Athelstan annexes Northumbria, and forces the kings of Wales, Strathclyde, the Picts, and the Scots to submit to him

927 - The border between England and Wales is set at the River Wye when Kings Hywel Dda of Deheubarth and Owain of Glywysing & Gwent submit to the overlordship of King Athelstan of England at Hereford. Death of King Sigtrygg Caech of Norse York. King Athelstan of England claims his kingdom and receives the submission of High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh. Practicalities probably actually meant that ealdred looked more towards King Constantine II of Alba as his overlord.

930 - Death of High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh. He is succeeded by his son, Osulf. High-Reeve Osulf attests a number of Wessex charters during his reign showing his close association with the English Court.

931 - Kings Morgan Hen of Glywysing & Gwent, Hywel Dda of Deheubarth and Idwal Foel of Gwynedd submit to the overlordship of King Athelstan of England and attend him at court.

933 - Prince Aelfweard, brother of King Athelstan of England, is drowned en route to France and buried at Saint-Bertin. 934 - King Tewdr of Brycheiniog attends the court of King Athelstan of England and signs English Land Charters. Kings Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Idwal Foel of Gwynedd and Morgan Mwynfawr of Morgannwg are compelled to accompany Athelstan on his campaign against King Constantine II of Alba.

937 - : Athelstan defeats alliance of Scots, Strathclyde Britons and Vikings, and takes the title of "King of all Britain" c.937 - King Idwal Foel of Gwynedd distances himself from his English overlord.

939 - King Athelstan founds Abbey. Death of King Athelstan at Gloucester. He is buried at Malmesbury Abbey and succeeded by his half-brother, Edmund the Magnificent.

942 - Kings Idwal Foel of Gwynedd openly rebels against the overlordship of the English monarchy. Both he and Llewelyn of Powys are killed fighting English armies.

945 - St. becomes Abbot of Glastonbury.

946 - Edred, younger brother of Edmund, King of England (to 955); Dunstan is named his chief minister.

949 - King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Gwynedd & Powys attends the court of King Eadred of England.

954 - Death of King of Norse York. King Eadred of Wessex becomes King of All England. High-Reeve Osulf of Bamburgh is appointed Ealdorman of Northumbria.

955 - Kings Iago of Gwynedd, Owain of Deheubarth and Morgan Hen of Glywysing & Gwent attend the court of King Eadred of England. Edwy, son of Edmund, King of England (to 959). c.955 - Archbishop Oda of Canterbury rebuilds Canterbury Cathedral.

956 - St. Dunstan is sent into exile by King Edwy.

957 - Mercians and Northumbrians rebel against King Edwy.

959 - Edgar the Peaceable, younger brother of Edwy, King of England (to 975).

960 - Death of Princess Eadburga, aunt of King Edgar the Peaceable of England, at the Nunnaminster in Winchester where is as a nun. She is buried there and later revered as a saint.

961 - Abbey is founded by Ealdorman Ordgar of Devon. 963 - Death of Ealdorman Osulf of Northumbria. He is succeeded by his son, Waltheof I. Death of Bishop Brihthelm of Winchester. He is succeeded by St. Aethelwold, Abbot of Abingdon.

964 - Foundation of Milton Abbey.

966 - Re-foundation of Peterborough (Medshamstead) Abbey as a Benedictine Monastery by Bishop Aethelwold of Winchester.

967 - Re- foundation of Romsey Abbey by King Edgar of England and Ealdorman Aethelwold of Wessex, with St. Merewenna as Abbess.

969 - Foundation of .

970 - Re-foundation of Pershore Abbey. It acquires of St. Eadburga from Winchester.

971 - St. Aethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, instigates massive building operations at Winchester. He extends the Old Minster westward with two enormous apses and a crossing tower to cover St. 's external tomb and make it the centre of a 'shrine-church'. It supposedly rains there for "forty days and forty nights". Foundation of .

973 - After his , King Edgar of England marches his army north to Chester. His navy meets him there via the Irish Sea. This show of strength persuades the Northern Kings to submit to his overlordship. Legend says he is rowed across the Dee by Kings Kenneth of Alba, Malcolm of the Cumbrians, Magnus of Man & the Isles, Donald of Strathclyde, Iago of Gwynedd, Princes Hywel of Gwynedd, Ithel and Siferth (the latter two of unknown origin). The Council of Winchester calls for English monastic reform and draws up a code of practice known as the Regularis Concordia. Foundation of .

974 - King Edgar gives English help to Prince Hywel in ousting his uncle, King Iago of Gwynedd from his kingdom. The tomb of St. Swithun is opened at Winchester Old Minster and his body dismembered. His head shrine is placed in the sacristy and his major shrine behind the high altar.

975 - , son of Edgar, King of England (to 978). c.977 - St. Aethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, rebuilds the western end of Winchester Old Minster, with twin towers and no apses.

978 - Edward the Martyr murdered at Corfe Castle upon the orders of his step- mother; Aethelred II, the Unready (ill-counselled), younger brother of Edward the Martyr, King of England (to 1016). English troops are deployed on the Lleyn Peninsula on behalf of King Hywel of Gwynedd in order to prevent his uncle, Iago, invading with Viking allies from Dublin. St. Dunstan completes the cloisteral buildings and his western extensions to the Abbey Church of St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury. The church is rededicated to St. Peter, St. Paul and St. Augustine.

980 - The Danes renew their raids on England attacking Chester and . Manx Vikings led by King Godfred I ally themselves with Prince Custennin of Gwynedd and raid Anglesey and the Lleyn Peninsula. Custennin is killed. Foundation of Amesbury Abbey.

983 - Ealdorman Aelfhere of Mercia allies himself with King Hywel of Gwynedd and together they attack the lands of Prince Einion of Deheubarth.

984 - Death of Bishop Aethelwold of Winchester. He is buried in Winchester Old Minster and later revered as a saint.

985 - The English kill King Hywel of Gwynedd by treachery.

987 - Re-foundation of Cerne Abbey. c.988 - Manx Vikings, under King Godfred I, ravage Anglesey.

991 - : Byrhtnoth of Essex is defeated by Danish invaders; Aethelred II buys off the Danes with 10,000 pounds of silver ().

992 - Aethelred makes a truce with Richard I of .

993 - King Aethelred the Unready appoints Aelfhelm as Ealdorman of Northumbria in place of the aging Waltheof I. Re-foundation of .

994 - Danes under Sweyn and Norwegians under Olaf Trygvesson sail up and besiege London; bought off by Aethelred.

995 - Uhtred, son of Ealdorman Waltheof I of Northumbria, establishes an episcopal see at and moves the monastic community of Chester-Le-Street there. Foundation of . c.1000 - Medshamstead is made into a Burgh. It soon becomes known as St. Peter's Burgh (Peterborough).

1003 - Sweyn and an army of Norsemen land in England and wreak a terrible vengeance.

1006 - Ealdorman Aelfhelm of Northumbria falls foul of King Aethelred the Unready who has him murdered.

1007 - Aethelred buys two years' peace from the Danes for 36,000 pounds of silver. Uhtred, son of Ealdorman Waltheof I of Northumbria, is appointed to his father's old position.

1011 - Thorkell the Tall and his brother, Hemming, plunder Canterbury, burn the city and the Cathedral, and make off with Archbishop Alphege to . St. Alphage refuses to be ransomed and the Vikings throw ox-bones at him in a drunken orgee and kill him.

1012 - The Danes sack Canterbury: bought off for 48,000 pounds of silver.

1013 - King of Denmark lands in England and is proclaimed king; Aethelred II the Unready flees to Normandy. c.1013 - Archbishop Lyfing probably restores Canterbury Cathedral, adding porticus towers and a massive 'westwerk'.

1014 - The English recall Aethelred II the Unready as King on the death of King Sweyn Forkbeard; the latter's son, Canute (II), retreats to Denmark and turns his attention to annexing Norway.

1015 - King Canute II of Denmark & Norway again invades England; war between Danes and Saxons.

1016 - , son of Aethelred II the Unready of England, becomes King. He and King Canute II of Denmark & Norway meet on the Isle of Alney near Deerhurst and agree to divide the kingdom: Canute holds the north and Edmund Wessex; Edmund is assassinated; Canute takes the throne as King Canute the Great of England.

1017 - King Canute the Great divides England into four earldoms.

1019 - King Canute the Great marries the Dowager-Queen Emma, widow of Aethelred II. Canute gives the relics of St. Wigstan to Evesham Abbey. They are translated from Repton.

1026 - King Canute the Great's steward, Orc, founds .

1035 - Death of Canute the Great of England, Denmark & Norway: his possessions are divided; Harold I Harefoot, becomes King of England (to 1040).

1040 - Hardicanute, King of England (to 1042); he dies of drink.

1042 - , son of Aethelred II, King of England (to 1066).

1046 - Sweyn, son of of Wessex, attempts to marry Abbess Eadgifu of Leominster. c.1050 - Abbot Wulfric of St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury embarks on a flamboyant programme of building-work at his abbey. He adds a further western chapel and bell-tower to the monastic complex and begins to join St. Mary's to the Abbey Church with a huge rotunda based on that at St. Benigne at Dijon.

1051 - Earl Godwin exiled (until 1052): he returns with a fleet and wins back his power. 1052 - Edward the Confessor founds Abbey, near London.

1053 - Death of Godwin: his son Harold succeeds him as Earl of Wessex. Earl Harold of Wessex begins a programme of building work at Waltham Abbey which includes the addition of a huge eastern crossing.

1055 - Harold's brother Tostig becomes Earl of Northumbria.

1058 - The See of Sherborne is joined to that of Ramsbury & Sonning.

1063 - Harold and Tostig subdue Wales.

1064 - Harold is shipwrecked in Normandy; while there, he swears a solemn oath to support William of Normandy's claim to England.

1065 - Northumbria rebels against Tostig, who is exiled

1066 - Harold II is crowned king the day after Edward the Confessor dies. Tostig and Harold Hardraada of Norway invade England: Harold defeats them at the Bridge, killing both; Battle of : 19 days after battle of Stamford Bridge, William of Normandy lands at Pevensey, defeats and kills Harold; William I, the Conqueror, first Norman King of England (to 1087)

1067 - Work is begun on building the .

1068 - The continues until 1069: William subdues the north of England (the "Harrying of the North" ): the region is laid waste

1070 - Hereward the Wake begins a Saxon revolt in the Fens of eastern England; Lanfranc, an Italian lawyer, becomes William's formidable Archbishop of Canterbury. Lanfranc rebuilds Canterbury Cathedral and establishes the primacy of the see of Canterbury over York, but does not enforce clerical celibacy.

1072 - William invades Scotland, and also receives the submission of Hereward the Wake.

1080 - William, in a letter, reminds the bishop of Rome that the King of England owes him no allegiance.

1086 - is completed in England

1087 - William II, Rufus, King of England (to 1100); his elder brother, Robert, is

1093 - Donald Bane, King of Scots (to 1097), following the death of his brother, Malcolm III, in battle against the English 1097 - Edgar, second son of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scotland (to 1107); he defeats Donald Bane with the assistance of William II of England

1099 - Crusaders capture ; Godfrey of Bouillon is elected King of Jerusalem

1100 - I, youngest son of , King of England (to 1135), following assassination of William Rufus

1106 - Henry I defeats his brother Rober, Duke of Normandy, at battle of Tinchebrai: Robert remains captive for life

1113 - Founding of the Order of St. John is formally acknowledged by the papacy

1114 - Matilda (Maud), daughter of marries Emperor

1118 - Hugues de Payens founds the order of of Templars

1120 - William, heir of Henry I of England, is drowned in wreck of the ""

1129 - , widow of Henry V, marries Geoffrey the Handsome, Count of , nicknamed " Plantagenet "

1139 - Matilda lands in England

1141 - Matilda captures Stephen at the , and reigns disastrously as queen; she is driven out by a popular rising and Stephen restored

1148 - Matilda leaves England for the last time

1152 - Marriage of Louis VII of France and of Aquitaine is annulled on grounds of blood relationship; Eleanor marries Henry of Anjou, allying Aquitaine to his lands of Anjou and Normandy, two months after her divorce

1153 - Henry of Anjou, son of Matilda, invades England and forces Stephen to make him heir to the English throne

1154 - Henry II, King of England (to 1189); he also rules more than half of France; Pope Adrian IV (to 1159) (Nicholas Breakspear, the only English pope)

1155 - Henry II appoints the Archdeacon of Canterbury, Thomas a Becket, as Chancellor

1159 - Henry II levies , payment in cash instead of military service 1162 - Becket is appointed Archbishop of Canterbury and at once quarrels with Henry II over the Church's rights

1164 - Constitutions of Clarendon; restatement of laws governing trial of ecclesiastics in England; Becket is forced to flee to France 1170 - Becket is reconciled with Henry II, returns to Canterbury; is murdered by four knights after Henry's hasty words against him

1173 - Rebellion of Henry's eldest sons, Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey, supported by their mother, ; Thomas a Becket canonized

1189 - Richard I, Coeur de , eldest surviving son of Henry II, King of England (to 1199)

1191 - The bodies of King Arthur and were reported to have been exhumed from a grave at Glastonbury Abbey; Richard I conquers Cyprus and captures the city of

1192 - Richard I captures Jaffa, makes peace with Saladin; on the way home he is captured by his enemy, Duke Leopold of Austria

1193 - Leopold hands Richard over to Emperor Henry VI, who demands ransom

1194 - Richard is ransomed and returned to England

1199 - John Lackland, youngest son of Henry II, King of England (to 1216)

1203 - John of England orders the murder of his nephew Arthur, Duke of Brittany

1207 - Pope Innocent III appoints Stephen Langton Archbishop of Canterbury (Langton is the man who divided the books of the into chapters); John refuses to let him take office

1208 - Innocent III lays England under interdict

1209 - Cambridge University is founded in England; Innocent III excommunicates John for attacks on Church property

1213 - Innocent III declares John deposed; John resigns his kingship to the pope and receives it back as a holding from the Roman legate, thereby ending the interdict.

1215 - Signing of ; English force John to agree to a statement of their rights

1216 - Henry III becomes king of England at age nine (to 1272)

1227 - Henry III begins personal rule in England

1256 - Prince Llewellyn sweeps English from Wales

1264 - Simon de Montfort and other English barons defeat Henry III at battle of Lewes 1265 - De Montfort's : burgesses from major towns summoned to Parliament for the first time; Henry III's son Edward defeats and kills Simon de Montfort at battle of Evesham

1269 - Rebuilding of begun by Henry III.

1272 - Edward I, King of England (to 1307)

1283 - Edward I defeats and kills Llewellyn, , and executes Llewellyn's brother David; conquest of Wales complete

1290 - Edward I expells all Jews from England

1291 - Scots acknowledge as suzerain; he arbitrates in succession dispute

1295 - Model Parliament of Edward I : knights and burgesses from English and towns summoned. First representative parliament

1296 - Edward I of England deposes from Scottish throne

1297 - Battle of Cambuskenneth: Scottish patriot William Wallace defeats

1298 - Edward I defeats Wallace at battle of Falkirk and reconquers Scotland

1301 - Edward I of England invests his baby son Edward as Prince of Wales

1305 - The English capture and execute William Wallace

1306 - New Scottish rebellion against English rule led by Robert Bruce. Robert I, the Bruce crowned King of Scotland (to 1329) at Scone 1307 - Edward I dies on march north to crush Robert Bruce. Edward II, King of England (to 1327)

1310 - English barons appoint 21 peers, the Lords Ordainers, to manage Edward II's household

1312 - Order of abolished

1314 - : Robert Bruce defeats Edward II and makes Scotland independent

1326 - Queen Isabella and Roger sail from France with an army to rebel against Edward II of England

1327 - Parliament declares Edward II deposed, and his son accedes to the throne as Edward III. Edward II is hideously murdered, nine months later

1328 - Charles IV dies, ending the . Philip of Valois succeeds him as Philip VI. 1329 - Edward III of England does simple for Aquitaine (Guienne), but refuses to do liege homage. 1333 - Edward III invades Scotland on Balliol's behalf and defeats the Scots at

1336 - Edward places an embargo on English exports of wool to . 1337 - Philip declares Edward's fiefs forfeit and begins harassing the frontiers of Aquitaine; Edward III, provoked by these attacks on his territories in France, declares himself king of France; "The Hundred Years' War " begins (ends 1453)

1338 - Treaty of Koblenz: alliance between England and the ; Edward III formally claims the French crown.

1340 - Naval victory at Sluys gives England the command of the English Channel; English Parliament passes four statues providing that taxation shall be imposed only by Parliament

1346 - Edward III of England invades France with a large army and defeats an even bigger army under Philip VI at the Battle of Crécy

1347 - The English capture

1348 - Edward III establishes the ; (bubonic plague) reaches England

1351 - The English remove the Pope's power to give English benefices to foreigners

1353 - Statue of : English Parliament forbids appeals to Pope

1356 - , son of Edward III, defeats the French at the , capturing King John II

1358 - The Jacquerie 1360 - Peace of Bretigny ends the first stage of the Hundred Years' War. Edward III gives up claim to French throne

1369 - Second stage of war between England and France begins

1370 - French troops commanded by ; Edward, the Black Prince, sacks Limoges

1372 - French troops recapture Poitou and Brittany; Naval battle of La Rochelle: French regain control of English Channel 1373 - , , son of Edward III, leads new English invasion of France

1374 - John of Gaunt returns to England and takes charge of the government; Edward III in his dotage, the Black Prince is ill

1375 - Truce of ends hostilities between England and France

1376 - The in England, called by Edward the Black Prince, introduces many reforms of government; Death of Edward the Black Prince, aged 45; The Civil of John Wyclif, an Oxford don, calling for Church reforms

1377 - Richard II, son of the Black Prince, King of England (to 1399)

1381 - Peasants' Revolt in England; John Wyclif, an Oxford theologian, publishes his "Confession", denying that the "substance" of bread and wine are miraculously changed during the . 1382 - John Wyclif is expelled from Oxford because of his opposition to certain Church doctrines

1386 - John of Gaunt leads an expedition to Castile, which he claims in his wife's name; fails 1388

1387 - begins work on

1389 - Richard II, aged 22, assumes power

1394 - Richard II leads expedition to subdue Ireland; returns to England 1395

1396 - Richard II marries the seven-year old Princess

1399 - Death of John of Gaunt; Gaunt's eldest son, Henry of Bolingbroke, lands in Yorkshire with 40 followers, and soon has 60,000 supporters: Richard II is deposed; Bolingbroke becomes Henry IV, King of England (to 1413)

1400 - Richard II murdered at ; proclaims himself Prince of Wales and begins rebellion

1401 - Persecution of Lollards for revolting against clergy.

1402 - Henry IV enters Wales in pursuit of Glendower

1403 - Battle of ; rebellion by the Percy family: Henry IV defeats and kills Harry "Hotspur" Percy

1406 - Henry, Prince of Wales, defeats Welsh 1413 - Henry V, King of England (to 1422)

1415 - Henry V invades France, and defeats the French at Agincourt

1416 - Death of Owen Glendower

1420 - 1422 - Deaths of and Charles VI of France; Henry VI, King of England (to 1461)

1424 - John, , regent for Henry VI of England, defeats the French at Cravant

1428 - Henry VI begins siege of Orleans

1429 - A French force, led by military commander (Jeanne d'Arc), relieves the siege of Orleans; Charles VII crowned king of France at Rheims

1430 - Burgundians capture Jeanne d'Arc and hand her over to the English

1431 - Jeanne d'Arc burned as a witch at Rouen; Henry VI of England crowned king of France in Paris

1453 - falls to the French, Hundred Years' War ends; England's only French possession is Calais; In England, Henry VI becomes insane

1454 - Richard, , is regent of England while Henry VI is insane; Printing with movable type is perfected in Germany by Johannes Gutenberg

1455 - Henry VI recovers. Richard of York is replaced by Somerset and excluded from the Royal Council; War of the Roses - civil wars in England between royal houses of York and Lancaster (until 1485); Battle of St. Albans. Somerset defeated and killed

1460 - . Richard of York is defeated and killed; Earl of Warwick (the Kingmaker) captures London for the Yorkists; Battle of : Henry VI is captured by Yorkists

1461 - Battles of Mortimer's Cross and Towton: Richard's son, Edward of York, defeats Lancastrians and becomes king; Edward IV, King of England (to 1483)

1465 - Henry VI imprisoned by Edward IV

1466 - Warwick's quarrels with Edward IV begin; forms alliance with Louis XI 1470 - Warwick turns Lancastrian: he defeats Edward IV and restores Henry VI

1471 - Battle of Barnet. Edward IV defeats and kills Warwick; Henry VI dies, probably murdered in the Tower of London 1475 - Edward IV invades France; Peace of Piequigny between England and France

1476 - William Caxton sets up printing press at Westminster

1483 - Death of Edward IV; Edward V, King of England; he is deposed by his uncle, Richard ; Richard III, King of England (to 1485); Edward V and his brother are murdered in the Tower of London

1484 - Caxton prints Morte D'Arthur, the poetic collection of legends about King Arthur compiled by Sir Thomas Malory

1485 - : Henry Tudor, with men, money and arms provided by Charles VIII of France, defeats and kills Richard III in the decisive (but not final) battle of the . 1486 - Henry VII (Tudor) married uniting houses of York and Lancaster.

1487 - Battle of Stoke Field: In final engagement of the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII, defeats Yorkist army "led" by Lambert Simnel (who was impersonating Edward, the nephew of Edward IV, the only plausible royal alternative to Henry, who was confined in the Tower of London).

1496 - Henry VII joins the Holy League; commercial treaty between England and Netherlands.

1497 - John Cabot discovers Newfoundland

1502 - Margaret, daughter of Henry VII, marries James IV of Scotland.

1509 - Henry VIII, becomes king.

1513 - Field (fought at Flodden Edge, ) in which invading Scots are defeated by the English under their commander, 70 year old Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey; James IV of Scotland is killed.

1515 - , Archbisop of York, is made of England and Cardinal

1517 - The Protestant begins; Martin Luther nails his "95 Theses" against the Catholic practice of selling indulgences, on the church door at Wittenberg

1520 - Field of Cloth of Gold: Francois I of France meets Henry VIII but fails to gain his support against Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V 1521 - Henry VIII receives the title "" from for his opposition to Luther 1529 - Henry VIII dismisses Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey for failing to obtain the Pope's consent to his divorce from ; Sir appointed Lord Chancellor; Henry VIII summons the "Reformation Parliament" and begins to cut the ties with the Church of Rome

1530 - Thomas Wolsey dies

1532 - Sir Thomas More resigns over the question of Henry VIII's divorce

1533 - Henry VIII marries and is excommunicated by Pope Clement VII; appointed Archbishop of Canterbury

1534 - Act of Supremacy: Henry VIII declared supreme head of the

1535 - Sir Thomas More is beheaded in Tower of London for failing to take the

1536 - Anne Boleyn is beheaded; Henry VIII marries ; dissolution of monasteries in England begins under the direction of , completed in 1539.

1537 - Jane Seymour dies after the birth of a son, the future Edward VI

1539 - Dissolution of Glastonbury Abbey; buildings torched and looted by king's men; Abbot Richard Whiting is executed by hanging atop Glastonbury Tor.

1540 - Henry VIII marries Anne of Cleves following negotiations by Thomas Cromwell; Henry divorces Anne of Cleves and marries Catherine Howard; Thomas Cromwell executed on charge of

1542 - Catherine Howard is executed

1543 - Henry VIII marries ; alliance between Henry and Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) against Scotland and France

1544 - Henry VIII and Charles V invade France

1547 - Edward VI, King of England: acts as Protector

1549 - Introduction of uniform Protestant service in England based on Edward VI's Book of Common

1550 - Fall of Duke of Somerset:; succeeds as Protector 1551 -Archbishop Cranmer publishes Forty-two Articles of religion

1553 - On death of Edward VI, proclaimed queen of England by Duke of Northumberland, her reign lasts nine days; Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England (to 1558); of Roman Catholic bishops in England

1554 - Execution of Lady Jane Grey

1555 - England returns to Roman Catholicism: Protestants are persecuted and about 300, including Cranmer, are burned at the stake

1558 - England loses Calais, last English possession in France; Death of Mary I; , daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, becomes Queen; Repeal of Catholic legislation in England

1560 - between Elizabeth I and Scottish reformers; Treaty of Edinburgh among England, France, and Scotland

1563 - The Thirty-nine Articles, which complete establishment of the Anglican Church

1564 - Peace of Troyes between England and France

1567 - Murder of Lord Darnley, husband of Mary Queen of Scots, probably by Earl of Bothwell; Mary Queen of Scots marries Bothwell, is imprisoned, and forced to abdicate; James VI, King of Scotland

1568 - Mary Queen of Scots escapes to England and is imprisoned by Elizabeth I at Fotheringay Castle

1577 - Alliance between England and Netherlands; Francis Drake sails around the world (to 1580)

1584 - William of is murdered and England sends aid to the Netherlands; 1586 Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies; Conspiracy against Elizabeth I involving Mary Queen of Scots

1587 - Execution of Mary Queen of Scots; England at war with Spain; Drake destroys Spanish fleet at Cadiz

1588 - The Spanish Armada is defeated by the English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake, and Sir John Hawkins: war between Spain and England continues until 1603

1597 - Irish rebellion under Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone (finally put down 1601)

1600 - Elizabeth I grants charter to East Company

1601 - Elizabethan Poor Law charges the with providing for the needy; Essex attempts rebellion, and is executed

1603 - Elizabeth dies; James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England 1604 - Hampton Court Conference: no relaxation by the Church towards ; James bans Jesuits; England and Spain make peace

1605 - Gunpowder Plot; and other Roman Catholic conspirators fail in attempt to blow up Parliament and James I.

1607 - Parliament rejects proposals for union between England and Scotland; colony of is founded at Jamestown by ; Henry Hudson begins voyage to eastern Greenland and

1610 - discovered

1611 - James I's authorized version (King James Version) of the Bible is completed; English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle in Ulster

1614 - James I dissolves the "Addled Parliament" which has failed to pass any legislation

1618 - Thirty Years' War begins, lasts until 1648

1620 - Pilgrims land at Rock on Cape Cod, , in the "Mayflower"; found New Plymouth

1622 - James I dissolves Parliament for asserting its right to debate foreign affairs

1624 - Alliance between James I and France; Parliament votes for war against Spain; Virginia becomes crown colony

1625 - Charles I, King of England (to 1649); Charles I marries , sister of Louis XIII of France; dissolves Parliament which fails to vote him money

1628 - Petition of Right; Charles I forced to accept Parliament's statement of civil rights in return for finances

1629 - Charles I dissolves Parliament and rules personally until 1640

1630 - England makes peace with France and Spain

1639 - First Bishops' War between Charles I and the Scottish Church; ends with Pacification of Dunse

1640 - Charles I summons the "Short " Parliament ; dissolved for refusal to grant money; Second Bishops' War; ends with Treaty of Ripon; The begins. 1641 - Triennial Act requires Parliament to be summoned every three years; and High Commission abolished by Parliament; Catholics in Ireland revolt; some 30,000 Protestants massacred; Grand Remonstrance of Parliament to Charles I

1642 - Charles I fails in attempt to arrest five members of Parliament and rejects Parliament's Nineteen Propositions; Civil War (until 1645) begins with between () and (Parliamentarians)

1643 - Solemn League and Covenant is signed by Parliament

1644 - Battle of Marston Moor; defeats Prince Rupert

1645 - Formation of Cromwell's ; ; Charles I defeated by Parliamentary forces

1646 - Charles I surrenders to the Scots

1647 - Scots surrender Charles I to Parliament; he escapes to the Isle of Wright; makes secret treaty with Scots. 1648 - Scots invade England and are defeated by Cromwell at Pride's Purge: Presbyterians expelled from Parliament (known as the ); Treaty of Westphalia ends Thirty Years' War 1649 - Charles I is tried and executed; The Commonwealth, in which ; England is governed as a republic, is established and lasts until 1660; Cromwell harshly suppresses Catholic rebellions in Ireland

1650 - Charles II lands in Scotland; is proclaimed king. 1651 - Charles II invades England and is defeated at ; Charles escapes to France; First Navigation Act, England gains virtual monopoly of foreign trade

1653 - Oliver Cromwell dissolves the "Rump" and becomes

1654 - Treaty of Westminster between England and

1655 - England divided into 12 military districts by Cromwell; seizes from Spain

1656 - War with Spain (until 1659)

1658 - Oliver Cromwell dies; succeeded as Lord Protector by son Richard; Battle of the Dunes, England and France defeat Spain; England gains

1659 - Richard Cromwellforced to resign by the army; "Rump" Parliament restored

1660 - Convention Parliament restores Charles II to throne

1661 - Clarendon Code; "" Parliament of Charles II passes series of repressive laws against Nonconformists; English acquire Bombay 1662 - Act of Uniformity passed in England 1664 - England siezes from the Dutch, change name to New York

1665 - Great Plague in London

1666 -

1667 - Dutch fleet defeats the English in Medway river; treaties of among Netherlands, England, France, and Denmark

1668 - of England, Netherlands, and Sweden against France

1670 - Secret Treaty of between Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France to restore Roman Catholicism to England; Hudson's Bay Company founded

1672 - Third Anglo-Dutch war (until 1674); William III (of Orange) becomes ruler of Netherlands

1673 - aims to deprive English Roman Catholics and Nonconformists of public office

1674 - Treaty of Westminster between England and the Netherlands

1677 - William III, ruler of the Netherlands, marries Mary, daughter of James, Duke of York, heir to the English throne 1678 - '' in England; falsely alleges a Catholic plot to murder Charles II

1679 - Act of passed, forbidding imprisonment without trial; Parliament's Bill of Exclusion against the Roman Catholic Duke of York blocked by Charles II; Parliament dismissed; Charles II rejects petitions calling for a new Parliament; petitioners become known as Whigs; their opponents (royalists) known as

1681 - Whigs reintroduce Exclusion Bill; Charles II dissolves Parliament

1685 - James II of England and VII of Scotland (to 1688); rebellion by Charles II's illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, against James II is put down

1686 - James II disregards Test Act; Roman Catholics appointed to public office

1687 - James II issues Declaration of Liberty of Conscience, extends toleration to all religions

1688 - England's 'Glorious '; William III of Orange is invited to save England from Roman Catholicism, lands in England, James II flees to France 1689 - Convention Parliament issues Bill of Rights; establishes a constitutional monarchy in Britain; bars Roman Catholics from the throne; William III and Mary II become joint monarchs of England and Scotland (to1694), Toleration Act grants freedom of worship to in England; Grand Alliance of the League of Augsburg, England, and the Netherlands. 1689 - Parliament draws up the Declaration of Right detailing the unconstitutional acts of King James II. James' daughter and her husband, his nephew, become joint sovereigns of Britain as King William III and Queen Mary II. Parliament passes the Bill of Rights. Toleration Act grants rights to Trinitarian Protestant dissenters. Catholic forces loyal to James II land in Ireland from France and lay siege to Londonderry

1690 - King William defeats the Irish and French armies of his father-in-law at the in Ireland

1691 - The Treaty of allows Cathloics in Ireland to exercise their religion freely, but severe soon follow. The French War begins

1692 - The Glencoe Massacre occurs

1694 - Death of Queen Mary; King William now rules alone. Foundation of the Bank of England. Triennial Act sets the maximum duration of a parliament to three years

1695 - Lapse of the Licensing Act

1697 - between the allied powers of the League of Augsburg and France ends the French War. Act votes funds for the maintenance of the Royal Household

1701 - The Act of Settlement settles the Royal Succession on the Protestant descendants of . Death of the former King James II in exile in France. The French king recognizes James II's son as "King James III". King William forms a grand alliance between England, Holland and Austria to prevent the union of the Spanish and French crowns. The War of the Spanish Succession breaks out in Europe over the vacant throne

1702 - Death of King William III in a riding accident. He is succeeded by his sister- in-law, Queen Anne. England declares war on France as part of the War of the Spanish Succession

1704 - British, Dutch, German and Austrian troops, under the Duke of Marlborough, defeat the French and Bavarians at the Battle of Blenheim. British, Bavarian and Austrian troops under Marlborough defeat the French at the Battle of Ramillies, and expel the French from the Netherlands. The British capture Gibraltar from Spain

1707 - The Act of Union unites the kingdoms of England and Scotland and transfers the seat of Scottish Government to London

1708 - The Duke of Marlborough defeats the French at the Battle of Oudenarede. The French incur heavy losses. Queen Anne vetoes a parliamentary bill to recognise the Scottish . This is the last time a bill is vetoed by the sovereign

1709 - Marlborough defeats the French at the Battle of Malplaquet

1710 - A ministry is formed, under Harley, with the impeachment of Dr. Sacheverell and the fall of the Whig government

1713 - The Treaty of Utrecht is signed by Britain and France, thus concluding the War of the Spanish Succession

1714 - Death of Queen Anne at Kensington Palace. She is succeeded by her distant cousin, the Elector George of Hanover, as King George I. A new parliament is elected with a strong Whig majority, led by Charles Townshend and Robert Walpole

1715 - The Jacobite Rebellion begins in Scotland with the aim of overthrowing the Hanovarian succession and placing the "Old " - James II's son - on the throne. The rebellion is easily defeated

1716 - The Septennial Act sets General Elections to be held every seven years

1717 - Townshend is dismissed from government by George I, causing Walpole to resign. The Whig party is split. Convocation is suspended

1719 - South Sea Bubble bursts, leaving many investors ruined after speculating with stock of the 'South Sea Company'

1721 - Sir Robert Walpole returns to government as First Lord of the Treasury. He remains in office until 1742 and effectively becomes Britain's first Prime Minister

1722 - Death of the Duke of Marlborough. The Jacobite 'Atterbury Plot' is hatched

1726 - First circulating library in Britain opens in Edinburgh. Jonathan Swift publishes his 'Gulliver's Travels'

1727 - Death of great British scientist, Sir and of King George I (in Hanover). The latter is succeeded by his son as King George II

1729 - publishes his ' Dunciad'

1730 - A split occurs between Walpole and Townshend

1732 - A is granted for the founding of Georgia in America

1733 - The 'Excise Crisis' occurs and Walpole is forced to abandon his plans to reorganise the customs and excise 1737 - Death of King George II's wife, Queen Caroline

1738 - John and Charles Wesley start the Methodist movement in Britain

1739 - Britain goes to war with Spain in the 'War of Jenkins' Ear'. The cause: Captain Jenkins' ear was claimed to have been cut off during a Naval Skirmish

1740 - Commencement of the War of Austrian Succession in Europe

1742 - Walpole resigns as Prime Minister

1743 - George II leads British troops into battle at Dettingen in Bavaria

1744 - Ministry of Pelham

1745 - Jacobite Rebellion in Scotland led by 'Bonnie Prince Charlie'. There is a Scottish victory at Prestonpans

1746 - The crushes the Scottish Jacobites at the

1748 - The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle brings the War of Austrian Succession to a close

1751 - Death of Frederick, Prince of Wales. His son, Prince George, becomes heir to the throne

1752 - Adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in Britain

1753 - Parliament passes the Jewish Naturalization Bill

1754 - The ministry of Newcastle

1756 - Britain, allied with Prussia, declares war against France and her allies, Austria and Russia. The Seven Years' War begins

1757 - The Pitt-Newcastle ministry. Robert Clive wins the Battle of Plassey and secures the Indian province of Bengal for Britain. William Pitt becomes Prime Minister

1759 - Wolfe captures Quebec and expels the French from Canada

1760 - Death of King George II. He is succeeded by his grandson as George III

1761 - Laurence Sterne publishes his 'Tristram Shandy'

1762 - The Earl of Bute is appointed Prime Minister. He becomes very unpopular and employs a bodyguard 1763 - Peace of Paris ends the Seven Years' War. Grenville ministry.

1765 - Rockingham ministry. The American Stamp Act raises taxes in the colonies in an attempt to make their defence self-financing

1766 - Chatham ministry. Repeal of the American Stamp Act

1768 - Grafton ministry. The Middlesex Election Crisis occurs

1769 - James Watt patents the Steam Engine

1769-70 - Captain James Cook's first voyage to explore the Pacific

1770 - Lord North begins service as Prime Minister. The Falkland Island Crisis occurs. Edmund Burke publishes his 'Thoughts on the Present Discontents'

1771 - The Encyclopedia Britannica is first published

1773 - American colonists protest at the 's monopoly over exports to the colonies, at the so-called ' Tea Party'. The World's first cast- iron bridge is constructed over the at Coalbrookdale

1774 - Parliament passes the Coercive Acts in retaliation for the 'Boston Tea Party'

1775 - American War of Independence begins when colonists fight British troops at Lexington. James Watt further develops his steam engine

1776 - On 4th July, the American Congress passes their Declaration of Independence from Britain. Edward Gibbons' publishes his 'Decline and Fall' and Adam Smith, his 'Wealth if Nations'

1779 - The rise of Wyvill's Association Movement

1780 - The Gordon Riots develop from a procession to petition parliament against the Catholic Relief Act

1781 - The Americans obtain a great victory of British troops at the surrender of Yorktown

1782 - End of Lord North's time as Prime Minister. He is succeeded by Rockingham in his second ministry. Ireland obtains short-lived parliament

1783 - Shelburne's ministry, followed by that of William Pitt the Younger. Britain recognises American independence at the Peace of Versailles. Fox-North coalition established

1784 - Parliament passes the East India Act 1785 - Pitt's motion for Parliamentary Reform is defeated

1786 - The Eden commercial treaty with France is drawn up

1788 - George III suffers his first attack of 'madness' (caused by porphyria)

1789 - Outbreak of the

1790 - Edmund Burke publishes his 'Reflections on the Revolution in France'

1791 - James Boswell publishes his 'Life of Johnson' an Thomas Paine, his 'Rights of Man'

1792 - Coal gas is used for lighting for the first time. Mary Wollstonecraft publishes her 'Vindication of the Rights of Women'

1793 - Outbreak of War between Britain and France. The voluntary Board of Agriculture is set up. Commercial depression throughout Britain

1795 - The 'Speenhamland' system of outdoor relief is adopted, making wages up to equal the cost of subsistence

1796 - Vaccination against is introduced

1798 - Introduction of a tax of ten percent on incomes over £200. T.R. Malthus publishes his 'Essay on Population'

1799 - Trade Unions are suppressed. is appointed First Consul in France

1799-1801 - Commercial boom in Britain

1800 - Act of Union with Ireland unites of England and Ireland

1801 - Close of Pitt the Younger's Ministry. The first British Census is undertaken

1802 - Peace with France is established. Peel introduces the first factory legislation

1803 - Beginning of the Napoleonic Wars. Britain declares war on France. Parliament passes the General Enclosure Act, simplifying the process of enclosing common land

1805 - Nelson destroys the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar, but is killed in the process

1808-14 - Peninsular War to drive the French out of Spain

1809-10 - Commercial boom in Britain

1810 - Final illness of George III begins 1811 - Depression caused by Orders of Council. There are Luddite disturbances in and Yorkshire. The King's illness leads to his son, the Prince of Wales, becoming Regent

1812 - Prime Minister Perceval is assassinated in the House of Commons by a disgruntled bankrupt

1813 - Jane Austen's 'Pride and Prejudice' is published. The monopolies of the East India Company are abolished

1815 - The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo marks the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Peace is established in Europe at the Congress of Vienna. The Corn Laws are passed by Parliament to protect British agriculture from cheap imports

1815-17 - Commercial boom in Britain

1817- Economic slimp in Britain leads to the 'Blanketeers' March' and other disturbances

1818 - Death of the King's wife, Queen Caroline. Mary Shelley's publishes her 'Frankenstein'

1819 - Troops intervene at a mass political reform meeting in , killing and wounding four hundred people at the 'Peterloo Massacre'

1820 - Death of the blind and deranged King George III. He is succeeded by his son, the Prince Regent, who becomes King George IV. A radical plot to murder the Cabinet, known as the Cato Street Conspiracy, fails. Trial of Queen Caroline, in which George IV attempts to divorce her for adultery

1821 - Queen Caroline is excluded from the coronation

1821-23 - Famine in Ireland

1823 - The Royal of Music is established in London. The is extended and extensively rebuilt to house an expanding collection

1824 - The is established. Commercial boom in Britain

1825 - Nash reconstructs Buckingham Palace. The World's first railway service, the Stockton and Darlington Railway opens. Trade Unions are legalized. Commercial depression in Britain

1828 - The Duke of Wellington becomes British Prime Minister

1829 - The Metropolitan Police Force is set up by Robert Peel. Parliament passes the Catholic Relief Act, ending most restrictions on Catholic Civil Rights. They are allowed to own property and run for public office, including parliament

1830 - Death of King George IV at Windsor. He is succeeded by his brother, William IV. Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Rise of the Whigs, under Grey

1830-32 - First major cholera epidemic in Britain

1831 - 'Swing' Riots in rural areas against the mechanization of agricultural activities. The new London Bridge is opened over the River Thames

1832 - The first or great Reform Act is passed. This climax of a period of political reform extends the vote to a further 500,000 people and redistributes Parliamentary seats on a more equitable basis

1833 - Abolition of Slavery throughout the . Parliament passes the Factory Act, prohibiting children aged less than nine from working in factories, and reducing the working hours of women and older children. Start of the Oxford Movement in the Anglican Church

1834 - Parliament passes the Poor Law Act, establishing workhouses for the poor. Robert Owen founds the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union. The government acts against 'illegal oaths' in such unionism, rsulting in the Tolpuddle being transported to Australia. Fire destroys the

1835 - Parliament passes the Municipal Reform Act, requiring members of town councils to be elected by ratepayers and councils to publish their financial accounts

1835-36 - Commercial boom with 'little' railway mania across Britain

1837 - Death of King William IV at Windsor. He is succeeded by his niece, Victoria. Births, deaths and marriages must be registered by law. publishes 'Oliver Twist,' drawing attention to Britain's poor.

1838 - The Anti-Corn Law League is established. Publication of the People's Charter. The start of Chartism

1839 - Chartist Riots take place

1840 - marries Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The post is instituted

1841 - The first British Census recording the names of the populace is undertaken. The Tories come to power. Sir Robert Peel becomes Prime Minister

1844 - Parliament passes the Bank Charter Act. Foundation of the Rochdale Co- Operative Society and the Royal Commission on the Health of Towns

1844-45 - Railways mania explodes across Britain. Massive investment and speculation leads to the laying of 5,000 of track

1845-49 - Irish Potato Famine kills more than a million people

1846 - End of Sir Robert Peel's Ministry. Whigs come to Power. Repeal of the Corn Laws

1848 - Major Chartist demonstration in London. in Europe. Parliament passes the Public Health Act

1851 - The Great Exhibition is staged in Hyde Park. Thanks to Prince Albert, it is a great success

1852 - Death of the Duke of Wellington. Derby's first minority Conservative government. 's coalition government is established

1853 - Vaccination against smallpox is made compulsory. Queen Victoria uses chloroform during birth of Prince Leopold. Gladstone presents his first budget

1854 - The Northcote-Trevelyan civil service report is published The Crimean War begins, as Britain and France attempt to defend European interests in the Middle East against Russia

1855 - End of Aberdeen's coalition government. Palmerston's first government comes to power

1856 - Crimean War comes to an end. The Victoria Cross is instituted for military bravery

1857-58 - The Second Opium War opens China to European trade. The Indian Mutiny erupts against British Rule on the sub-continent

1858 - Derby establishes his second minority government. Parliament passes the India Act

1859 - End of Derby's second minority government. Palmerston brings his second Liberal government to power. Charles Darwin publishes his 'The Origin of the Species'

1860 - Gladstone's budget and the Anglo-French Cobden Treaty codifies and extends the principles of free trade

1861 - Death of Prince Albert, Prince Consort

1862 - Parliament passes the Limited Liability Act in order to provide vital stimulus to accumulation of capital in shares

1863 - Edward, Prince of Wales, marries Princess Alexandra of Denmark. The Salvation Army is founded 1865 - Death of Palmerston. Russell establishes his second Liberal government

1866 - Russell and Gladstone fail to have their moderate Reform Bill passed in parliament. Derby takes power in his third minority Conservative government

1867 - Derby and Disraeli's Second Reform Bill doubles the franchise to two million. Canada becomes the first independent dominion in the British Empire under the Dominion of Canada Act

1868 - Disraeli succeeds Derby as Prime Minister. Gladstone becomes Prime Minister for the first time

1869 - The Irish Church is disestablished. The Suez Canal is opened

1870 - Primary education becomes compulsory in Britain through the Forster- Ripon English Elementary Education Act. Parliament also passes the Women's Property Act, extending the rights of married women, and the Irish Land Act

1871 - Trade Unions are legalized

1872 - Secret voting is introduced for elections. Parliament passes the Scottish Education Act

1873 - Gladstone's government resigns after the defeat of their Irish Universities Bill. Disraeli declines to take up office instead

1874 - Disraeli becomes Conservative Prime Minister for the second time

1875 - Disraeli purchases a controlling interest for Britain in the Suez Canal. Agricultural depression increases

1875-76 - Parliament passes R.A. Cross's Conservative social reforms

1876 - Queen Victoria becomes Empress of India. The massacre of Christians in Turkish Bulgaria leads to anti-Turkish campaigns in Britain, led by Gladstone

1877 - Confederation of British and Boer states established in South Africa

1878 - The Congress of Berlin is held. Disraeli announces 'peace with honour'

1879 - A trade depression emerges in Britain. The Zulu War is fought in South Africa. The British are defeated at Isandhlwana, but are victorious at Ulundi

1879-80 - Gladstone's Midlothian campaign denounces imperialism in South Africa and Afghanistan

1880 - Gladstone establishes his second Liberal government 1880-81 - The first Anglo-Boer War is fought

1881 - Parliament passes the Irish Land and Coercion Acts

1882 - Britain occupies Egypt. A triple alliance is established between Germany, Austria and Italy

1884 - Parliament passes the third Reform Act which further extends the franchise

1885 - Death of General Gordon at Khartoum. Burma is annexed. succeeds Gladstone with his first minority Conservative government. Parliament passes the Redistribution Act

1886 - Gladstone's third Liberal government fails to pass its first Irish Home Rule Bill through the House of Commons. Gladstone resigns as Prime Minister. Split in the Liberal Party. Salisbury establishes his second Conservative-Liberal-Unionist government. The Royal Niger Company is chartered. Gold is discovered in the Transvaal

1887 - Queen Victoria celebrates her Golden Jubilee. The Independent Labour Party is founded. The British East Africa Company is chartered

1888 - The County Councils' Act establishes representative county based authorities

1889 - London Dockers' Strike. The British South Africa Company is chartered

1892 - Gladstone forms his fourth Liberal government

1893 - Second Irish Home Rule Bill fails to pass the

1894 - Rosebery takes power with his minority Liberal government

1895 - Salisbury forms his third Unionist ministry

1896 - The British conquest of the Sudan begins

1897 - Queen Victoria celebrates her Diamond Jubilee

1898 - British rule over Sudan fully established. German Naval expansion begins

1899 - British disasters in South Africa

1899-1902 - Boer War in South Africa

1900 - Salisbury wins the Khaki election. The Labour Representation Committee is formed. Parliament passes the Commonwealth of Australia Act 1901 - Death of Queen Victoria. She is succeeded by her son, Prince Albert, as King Edward VII

England in the 20th Century Changes in Empire and at Home The popular,aged Victoria was succeeded by Edward VII, who reigned for nine years (1901-10). The jovial, popular, avuncular Prince of Wales had waited a long time to accede to the throne. Known as Edward the Peacemaker for his diplomacy in Europe, he used his knowledge of French, Spanish, Italian and German to good advantage. Matters seemed fine in the island kingdom of Britain, feeling secure as the head of the largest empire the world had ever known. Yet the image of splendid and carefree easy living portrayed by the King was in direct contrast to the growing forces of discontent and resentment felt by too many members of British society.

England in the Edwardian Age existed in a twilight zone; the balance of power in so many areas was shifting in a Europe in which the decisive factor was the rise of a united Germany, and in a world in which the United States would soon dominate. To prepare for the future, one politician, Arthur Balfour, Prime Minister 1902-5, saw that Britain needed to advance its educational system and to strengthen its defenses. His Education Bill of 1902 abolished the School Boards and placed primary, technical and secondary education under the control of local authorities. This helped to create an "education ladder" by which abler children were able to win scholarships to enter the secondary grammar schools (the mis-named Public Schools continued as private enclaves for the rich and very rich). The Civil Service was thus able to find itself enriched by a steady stream of educated, qualified young men (and later young women).

Balfour made effective the Committee of Imperial Defence to carry out the reforms made necessary after the humiliations of the Boer War. The Committee also improved Britain's naval defenses; and under John Fisher, the Admiralty began building the Dreadnought a new type of heavily-armed warship. To further meet the threat from the new German fleet, he also concentrated the in home waters instead of having it dispersed all over the world. Balfour, however, was completely unable to prevent the inevitable. Though many historians see the death of King Edward as marking the dividing line between the security and stability of the 19th century and the uncertainties of the twentieth, there had been ominous warnings before 1910.

In Wales, conditions in the tin plate industry had been severely depressed by the 1891 McKinley Tariff of the United States; the deplorable conditions endured by coal miners led to the creation of a new force in British politics: the trade union. There had been many earlier attempts to form unions, mostly unsuccessful because of determined resistance from the mine and factory owners. Workers had been fired for trying to form unions; their leaders were once denounced by the leading Welsh newspaper as "gin-swilling degenerates." In 1834, when Robert Owen had attempted to improve factory conditions and the lives of the workers through his Grand National Consolidated Trade Union, six English farm laborers were sentenced to deportation for secretly forming a branch of the GNCTU (they were the famous Tolpuddle Martyrs).

In , in 1869, the formation of the Amalgamated Association of Miners led to fierce resistance from the coal owners and was forced to disband. A united front against the unionists was then forged by the formation of the and South Wales Coal Owners Association in which 85 companies owned over 200 mines. The workers persisted in their attempts to form unions, however, and in 1877 the Cambrian Miners Association began in the Valley under the inspired leadership of William Abraham (Mabon). Abraham was elected Lib-Lab M.P. for Rhondda in 1885 and kept the peace between owners and miners for twenty years. (The Lib-Labs represented an informal agreement with local Liberal organizations to run a number of trade union candidates, rather than a party of organized labor.)

In 1888, a successful strike of girls in the sweated trade of match-box making occurred. One year later the Gas Workers Union secured a reduction from twelve to eight hours in their working day. A strike by London Dock workers the same year was equally successful. Their disciplined behavior won them widespread support When their demands were finally conceded, the Dockers Union gave considerable stimulus to recruiting for other trade unions, who were quick to see the strike as a means to solve their grievances.

The Fabian Movement began in 1884, its composition of middle-class intellectuals (including dramatist and critic George Bernard Shaw) giving it considerable weight as an instrument in bringing forth political and social reform. As a response to poor working conditions, the Independent Labour Party was formed in 1893. Six years later the Miner's Federation of began at Newport, South Wales. The Federation argued for the creation of a Board of Arbitration to replace the infamous sliding scale and the restriction of the work day to eight hours (also that year the Women's Social and Political Union was formed by Emmeline Pankhurst with the goal of achieving voting rights for women. In 1918, women over thirty were granted the right to vote, following their efforts as factory workers taking the places of men called up for the military).

When judgement was given in favor of the owners and against the striking workers in the Taff Vale Railway Company dispute of 1900, the huge costs levied against the union practically ensured the creation of a new party in British politics. The unions saw clearly that they had to have legislation to guarantee their rights, and thus they needed representation in Parliament. The Labour Representative Committee answered their needs: in 1906, it became known as the Labour Party, but it took many years before it could muster enough strength to offer a worthy challenge to the Liberal and the Conservative Parties.

George V (1910-1936) The new King, George was the second son of Edward VII and Queen Alexander, Prince Albert Victor had died in 1892. It was George who changed his family name from the German Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to that of the English Windsor. With his wife Mary, he did much to continue the popularity of the monarchy. They were helped enormously by the advent of the BBC in 1922 which probably did more to perpetuate the national sense of common identity than any other factor save war. In 1934, George began his broadcasts to Britain and the Empire. Radio, newspapers (and later television) all added to the mystique and prestige of the royal family when so much more was in a state of flux, and old traditions were being challenged everywhere.

The pre-War years saw major changes in England's domestic policies. The question of tariff reform divided the Conservatives. One group wished to use the tariff to protect British industries and boost inter-imperial trade and co-operation; the other, fearing the social and political consequences that higher food prices would bring as a result of the tariff, was in favor of Free Trade. A crisis occurred in 1906.

In that year, left-wing Liberal, Welshman David Lloyd George became Chancellor of the and pushed through Parliament his "People's Budget" that proposed a tax on the rich to pay for reforms and the rebuilding of the Royal Navy. The rapid rise of such men as Lloyd George from humble origins to high positions in the government showed only too clearly the changing nature of political life in the country, a change that the House of Lords was slow to accept. The Upper House, packed with its hereditary peers, was particularly upset by what it considered the socialistic and confiscatory nature of the budget and rejected it.

Two general elections were held to resolve the deadlock. The Liberals were able to win a landslide victory and remained in power until the wartime coalition government was formed in 1915. In the interim, the Lords continued to reject the Budget, which finally passed in 1911 when the Commons approved the Parliament Bill to limit the delaying power of the House of Lords. From now on, the Lords could no longer reject bills outright and there was to be a general election every five years (instead of seven).

The year 1911 saw the greatest industrial unrest in Britain's history. Nationwide strikes of dock workers, railway men and miners brought the country to a standstill. The government was forced to respond. The National Insurance Act was passed to ensure that the worker, the employer and the government all contributed to a general fund to pay for free medical treatment, sick pay, disability and maternity benefits. It also introduced a measure of unemployment benefits, free meals for school children as well as periodic medical exams. Through the efforts of Winston Churchill there had been the setting up of Labour Exchanges where the unemployed worker could sign on for vacant jobs. Foundations were being laid for a veritable sea of change in the way the state was to assume responsibility for the welfare of its citizens.

Many reforms took place in a veritable flood of "socialist experiment." The introduction of a salary for M.P.'s allowed the entry of working class members to Parliament; the trade unions were freed from the liability for strike damage and allowed to use their funds in politics. Hours and conditions of labor were regulated, slum -clearances effected, eighty-three labor exchanges set up, and old-age pensions inaugurated as the first installment of social security. All this cost a great deal of money. it came from the pockets of the rich. They were further incensed by the Home Rule Bill of 1912.

Irish M.P.'s had helped the Liberals gain power; they wanted their reward in Home Rule. To the Conservatives, however, the idea of Britain splitting up (in the face of increasing German hostility) seemed ludicrous, to be avoided at all costs. They were aided by the Protestant forces of Ulster (most of Northern Ireland), equally alarmed at the prospect of being ruled from Dublin. A major civil war loomed in Ireland, and the British Army regulars made it clear in the so-called "mutiny" at the Curragh, that they would not fight against their brothers in Ulster. In 1914, the Home Rule Bill was finally pushed through, but the outbreak of the Great War pushed everything else aside; it was said that "the public had forgotten the Irish for the Belgians."

World War I (1914-1918) By the turn of the century, it had become increasingly apparent to many, both in and out of government, that the possession of an Empire would not be enough to cure Britain's domestic problems. Gladstone, in particular, had the wisdom (and the courage) to admit that though the Empire was a duty and responsibility that could not be shrugged off, there could be little advantage, and possibly only future problems, in expanding it. For him, in contrast to the imperialist Disraeli, and later, the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, Britain's strength lay in its own people, in their own land. Foreign adventures could only waste the nation's resources, sorely needed to aid its own people. He had been proved right in the costly adventures in Afghanistan, the Sudan and South Africa. (As a sideline, the poor physical condition of the British soldiers in South Africa during the fight against the Boer farmers, led Baden-Powell, who had successfully defended Mafeking, to found the Boy Scout Movement in 1908.)

In the heady day of Empire, William Ewart Gladstone had believed in peace with justice. He respected the rights of small nations to seek their own forms of government; hence his support of Home Rule for Ireland. He died in 1898, four years after being defeated in Parliament. He had relentlessly condemned the Conservative government's overseas policies. Sadly, though he recognised what was going on in Ireland, he had failed to see that a genuine nationalist movement had surfaced in Egypt, where Britain was forced to stay, once involved, until the middle of the next century. He had noticed, however, that Germany's support of the Boer farmers, in the way of arms and guns, boded ill for future relations between the two countries. A new rivalry developed over their respective navies. More than one historian has pointed out that the German navy was floated on a tide of Anglophobia.

It was thus that Britain's foreign policy, during the first few years of the new century, changed drastically. Instead of the old cordiality towards Germany and fear of a combined France and Russia, she now became friendly towards France and Russia and hostile to Germany. An Anglo-French agreement in 1904, mainly over their respective interests in Egypt and Morocco, alarmed the Germans. The new Liberal government's Foreign Secretary, Lord Grey, had no intention of dissolving its association with France (and with Japan and Russia, who were at war with one another in 1905).

The question now arose of what would be Britain's response should Germany attack France over a dispute concerning Morocco. The answer can be found in the summer maneuvers of the English army that assumed Germany, not France, would be the enemy. Germany also felt humiliated by the Treaty of Algeciras that temporarily settled the Morocco question, and felt surrounded by hostile powers, a feeling that grew alarmingly after the 1906 Anglo-Russian Entente. Its reply was to build up its navy, including the Dreadnought, a threat to England's long-held supremacy at sea. World War I broke out in August 1914, when Germany declared war on Russia. Trouble in the Balkans precipitated the outbreak of hostilities, but they had been stewing for a long time.

Perhaps the War came about as the result of a breakdown in the European diplomatic system -- the bad judgment of a number of individual politicians. Perhaps it was inevitable -- the result of the profound economic changes that had been at work that had caused a "structural failure" of European society. In England, domestic problems, as much as the crisis in the , had dictated foreign policy decisions. In any case, Britain was not willing to see Germany defeat France again; nor did she want to lose her position as the world's leading power. The troubles began in Bosnia.

Austria seized Bosnia in 1908; Italy then took Tripoli, Cyrenaicia and some islands to show that Turkey could no longer defend what was left of her empire in Europe. Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany were all hungry for spoils in the area. When Greece allied with Serbia and Bulgaria (all satellites of Russia), to defeat the Turks, Austria became alarmed; her own empire contained many Slavic peoples. Germany, too, feared Russian expansion in the Balkans. A conference in London in 1913 failed to pacify the region, in which the late victorious Balkan states were now quarrelling among themselves. Serbia's successes further alarmed empire of Austria-Hungary.

With the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June, 1914, all hell broke loose. The military chiefs of many nations were all ready to go to war. Historians have succinctly pointed out that an inexorable military machine quickly overwhelmed the improvisations of diplomacy. With the Kaiser's support, Austria declared war on Serbia. Germany declared war on Russia and on France, creating a huge dilemma for Britain: should she give full military support to France and her allies or to stay out of Europe altogether in a policy of complete neutrality. The latter policy would have opened the door for Germany, however, and when that country violated the neutrality of Belgium in August, Britain went to war on the side of France. The decision to aid Belgium, one of small-statured Lloyd George's "little 5--5 nations," marked the beginning of the end for his country's world dominance.

The length of the war, and its enormous toll on life and resources, was completely unpredicted. A German plan for a rapid victory in the West was thwarted by the combined French-British armies at the Marne. When the German offensive began down the North Sea coast of Belgium, the battles at Ypres managed to stem their advance, but at heavy cost. The years of trench warfare then began in a costly war of attrition with neither side gaining any real advantage.

At sea, the war produced one large-scale battle and a few smaller engagements. The action at Jutland, despite British losses, resulted in the German fleet heading for home, allowing the Royal Navy to continue to dominate the sea routes, to supply new fronts in the Eastern Mediterranean (with limited successes), and to impose an economic blockade upon Germany and her allies. In reply, the consequent German submarine campaign showed only too well the strengths of this new kind of weapon. The sinking of the Lusitania off Head, Ireland in May 1915, however, had enormous consequences for the later stages of the war. In the meantime, in order to aid rapidly weakening Russia, the allies decided to strike at Turkey and the rear of Austria-Hungary by way of the Balkans.

Both Lloyd George and Winston Churchill argued for the Gallipoli campaign of 1915. The campaign was designed to attack weaker spots of the enemy's front by combining military and naval forces; to force Turkey to abandon her support of Germany, circumvent Bulgaria's entry into the war, and bring Greece into the side of the allies. In the campaign, failure to co-ordinate their activities, however, left great numbers of British, New Zealand and Australian troops stranded on the Gallipoli Peninsular unable to break through the Turkish defenses. All the objectives of the bold but totally mismanaged campaign were lost (much hostility resulted in the of Australia and New Zealand that is still evident today in their progress towards republican status, despite lingering affection for the mother country). On the Western front, allied losses also caused great concern.

The German attack at Ypres, where gas was used for the first time, and the failure of the British counter-offensive, brought a government crisis in Britain. Lloyd George became minister of Munitions and Arthur Henderson, Secretary of the Labour Party was admitted to the Cabinet, a decision that clearly showed the growing importance of organized labour. A German offensive at Verdun then blunted the allied plans for a simultaneous attack; and the Battle of the Somme ended in disaster for the allies, who lost around 600,000 men in futile attacks against a firmly entrenched enemy. At the same time, the Russian state began to show signs of collapse.

In late December, 1916, Lloyd George took charge of a coalition ministry in which he showed the energy and capacity for getting things done in a time of great crisis. The conduct of the war, the losses incurred, and the difficulties in Ireland (where the brutal suppression of the Easter Rising almost certainly turned that nation against Britain when a more just solution may have kept the nation loyal to the Crown), needed drastic measures. Military deadlock, the successful U-boat offensive, as well as the onset of revolution in Russia, provided a new test of character of the British people.

The introduction of an organized convoy system put a huge dent in the success rate of the German submarines in sinking allied supply ships. British efforts were rewarded by the entry of the United States into the War in April, 1917. The great French offensive early 1917 failed hopelessly. It was followed by an equal failure of Haig's offensive in Flanders and the misery of the mud at Passchendaele Ridge. The Italians were then overwhelmed by the German-Austrian army at Caporetto before stabilizing their line with help from British and French troops. To make matter worse for the allies, the new Russian revolutionary government made peace with Germany, freeing nearly fifty German divisions for service on the Western front.

Things then began to change. German intrigue with Mexico (still simmering over the loss of much of its territory to its powerful northern neighbor) along with the unrestricted submarine warfare of 1917 brought the USA into the war. President Wilson's "Fourteen Points," set forth in an address to Congress, had a great impact on world opinion at the time when all belligerents except the US were exhausted by the war effort. In the spring of 1918, the Germans planned their great offensive to capture the Channel ports. In spite of early successes, however, attrition had taken its heavy toll. Aided by their new weapon the tank, British forces turned the tide at Amiens, a battle that German Commander Ludendorf decided was critical.

Britain's seizure of Palestine from the Ottoman Turks (aided by the successes of the famed Lawrence of Arabia), was followed by the Balfour Declaration of November 11, 1917 that favored the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. Further allied successes on the Eastern front, the defeat of the Bulgarians, the capitulation of Turkey, a victory by the Italians at Vitoria Veneto, a mutiny of the German fleet at Kieland a revolt by the German people against their military leaders, all convinced the German high command to enter into peace negotiations. The abdication of the Kaiser was followed by the imposition of severe armistice terms by the allies at Compiegne. They were accepted on November 11, 1918; what had been the costliest war in human history was over.

The cost to Britain was the loss of an entire generation, one whose contribution to national life was to be sadly missed during the political mismanagement of the postwar years. The blood baths of the Somme and Passchendaele could never be adequately described by the nation's poets and prose writers, most of whom had been conscripted into the army when the regulars, as a fighting force, had ceased to exist. So many of Britain's physical and intellectual best were killed off in the endless fighting to gain a few of muddy ground.

During the War, there was also unrest at home, particularly in the industrial belt of Scotland where Intense labor conflict gave the name "Red Clyde" to its shipbuilding region. A series of episodes took place there that have since assumed legendary proportions, almost on the scale of the Jacobite rebellion. The conflicts, pitting management's use of semi- or unskilled labor against the militant unions, produced such well-known activists as James Maxton, John Wheatley, John Maclean and Emmanual Shinwell. The troubles culminated in the George Square riot in Edinburgh of 1919 that practically ensured the Labour Party's national victory in the General Election of 1922. They have been regarded by many in the Labour Movement as forming part of the "glad, confident morning" of Scottish socialism.

As noted earlier, however, it was the Liberal Party under Lloyd George that was most effective in bringing needed changes to Britain. The introduction of salaries for M.P.'s in 1911l meant that the Labour Party could now field many candidates from the ranks of the trade unions. Scotsman Keir Hardie, the socialist ex-miner, had been elected to Parliament by the Merthyr constituency (South Wales) in 1891. In the hallowed halls of Westminster, he defiantly chose to wear his cloth deer- stalker hat (transmogrified by legend into a working man's cloth cap) in place of the usual top hat.

It wasn't only conditions in industry that were being transformed by the growth of Labour. There were also many changes taking place in British agriculture during the early years of the century. A rapid increase in population due to a declining death rate meant that farmers were unable to meet the increasing demand for butter, cheese, margarine and lard (used for cooking until the switch to vegetable oil right up until the 1960's), and a reliance grew upon Denmark for these products. English farmers turning to market gardening and fruit growing. Fuel shortages in 1916 motivated Parliament to pass a "summer time" act, advancing clocks one hour to make the most of available light. Farmers protested in vain.

To meet domestic demand, imports of US pork, Argentine beef and New Zealand lamb continued to rise, but a significant contribution to raising protein levels of urban English diets came with the introduction of the fish and chip shop. It utilized the product of fast, deep-sea trawlers that packed their catch in ice and rapidly shipped it to British markets. A new addition to the British diet was baked beans, first test marketed in by the American Heinz Company in 1905, but which became a staple of British diets beginning in 1928 when the first canning factory began at Harlesden, near London.

Between the Two World Wars Following the Armistice of 1918, the first order of the day for the victorious allies (Britain, France, the USA, Italy, Japan and to a lesser extent Russia) was to hammer out the peace terms to be presented to the defeated powers (Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Turkey and Hungary). At Versailles, Lloyd George represented Britain; pressing for severe penalties against the Germans, he came up against the idealism of US President Wilson, anxious to have his plans for a League of Nations implemented; and Clemenceau of France, who wished for even more severe recriminations against Germany.

The final treaty came in June, 1919. The reparations and "war-guilt" clauses were later seen by English economist John Maynard Keynes as a future cause of discontent; they later became an excuse for Herr Hitler to begin his efforts to countermand them. The US did not ratify the treaty, and the disunity that prevailed after its signing did not bode well for the future of Europe. In addition, the United States and Russia did not join the League of Nations that met for the first time in Geneva in November, 1920.

The matter of Ireland then became a serious source of hemorrhage to the confidence of a seemingly-united Great Britain. The war had presented the opportunity the Irish nationalists had been waiting for since the postponement of the Home Rule Act of 1914. When they seized their opportunity to attack British rule in Ireland, the execution of many of their leaders following the Easter Monday Rising in Dublin, made reconciliation between the two countries impossible. The British government failed to separate its important Irish prisoners. An internment camp at Frongoch, in North Wales, later known as "Sinn Fein " University, brought together many who would later become key figures in the fight for independence, including Michael Collins (later to become Director of Intelligence as well as chief organizer) and Richard Mulcahy (later to become Chief of Staff). Prisoners were inspired by hearing the all around the camp declare a republic in which Gaelic would be the national language. In 1918, following the General Election, the successful Sinn Feiners refused their seats at Westminster and formed the Dail Eireann that proclaimed the Irish Republic on January 21, 1919.

The war against British rule then began, lasting until December 1920 when atrocities and counter atrocities by both sides (not only those committed by the infamous "Black and Tans.") finally led to the Government of Ireland Act. The Act divided Ireland into Northern Ireland (containing the largest part of Ulster) and Southern Ireland, giving both parts Home Rule, but reserving taxation powers for the Westminster Parliament. It seemed that no one in Ireland was satisfied and guerrilla warfare intensified. The coalition government in London was finally convinced that a policy of reconciliation was needed and a truce in July, 1921 was followed by the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December.

Mainly through a threat of an all-out war, Lloyd George somehow managed to persuade the Irish delegation, led by Michael Collins, to accept the offer of Dominion status within the Commonwealth rather than hold out for an independent republic, and the Irish Free State came into being. A basic British condition was that the six counties of Northern Ireland, mainly Protestant (who equated Home Rule with Rome Rule) should not be coerced into a united Ireland, the other 32 counties, mainly Catholic.

Eamon De Valera (one of the participants in the Easter Rising, but who had escaped from Lincoln Gaol) objected to the oath of allegiance to the Crown and formed a new party, the Republican Party against the government of Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins. It began a bitter civil war in which Collins, leader of the Dail's military forces and a much revered Irish patriot lost his life leading the Free-State forces against the Republicans. The bloody civil war ended in April 1923 when De Valera, who had been elected President of the Irish Free State in 1919, ordered a cease fire. Eire was finally declared a republic in April 1948, with Northern Ireland remaining as part of the United Kingdom.

The Great Depression In the meantime, there had been a major downturn in the British economy since the end of the World War. Government promises of a better society in which there would be a higher standard of living and security of employment had not been fulfilled. The productivity rate was falling rapidly behind that of other nations; there was simply too much reliance on the traditional industries of cotton, coal mining and shipbuilding, all of which were finding it difficult to compete in world markets and all of which were managed by those who could not adapt to more modern methods. Many countries which had been dependent upon British manufactured goods were now making their own. A great slump in which millions were unemployed was left to work itself out when planned government expenditure would have helped mobilize the unused resources of the economy.

The Liberal Party, which had done so much to alleviate conditions of poverty and had made so many significant strides in improving social conditions in general, began to lose its standing in the polls after 1922. The political program of the Labour Party advocated increased social security measures, including a national , the nationalization of basic industries such as coal, railways and electricity; and the imposition of higher taxation to pay for social welfare and to reduce the burden of the National Debt. The "dole" (unemployment benefit) allowed workers to survive while unemployed (it was probably the reason why there was not greater social unrest or even revolution).

Labour had become the chief challenger to the Conservative Party, and formed its first government in 1924 under James Ramsey MacDonald. In October of that year, however, Britain once more turned to the Conservatives under Stanley Baldwin. As had Labour, however, it proved ineffective to handle the nation's industrial problems.

Further mass unemployment resulted when Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill returned Britain to the gold standard in 1925. The return was made at the old pre-war gold and dollar value of the pound. As a result, the pound was devalued; British goods (coal, steel, machinery, textiles, ships, cargo rates and other goods and services) became over-priced, and Britain's share of the world export market declined rapidly. The resulting unemployment and wage cuts caused serious repercussions in the industrial areas, where strikes became common. Iron, steel, coal, cotton and ship building suffered the most, the very industries that Britain's free trade economy relied upon to provide the bulk of the consumer and capital goods exported to provide for the large imports of food and raw materials. A general strike took place in 1926.

A huge drop in coal exports, the government's refusal to nationalize the coal industry and the setting of wages by the pit-owners triggered the unrest. In April of that year, the miners' leader, A.J. Cook coined the phrase "not a penny off the pay, not a minute on the day." The mine owners refused to compromise. A showdown came about when the government indicated that it would not continue negotiations under the threat of a general strike. On May 4, 1926 the great strike went into effect, but lack of support for the unions, the use of volunteers to keep essential services going, the intransigence of the government, and the gradual wearing away of the resistance of the miners by the coal owners eventually ended the stoppage. But grievous harm had been done to the miners, who came out of the business with longer hours and less pay.

Under the Conservative government of Stanley Baldwin, only a modest program of social reform took place, mainly to appease working class opinion. The Widows, Orphans and Old Age Health Contributory Pension schemes extended the Act of 1911 and insured over 20 million people. In 1928, the Equal Franchise Act gave the parliamentary vote to all women over twenty one. Under Health Minister Neville Chamberlain, the Local Government Act of 1929 reduced the number of local government authorities and extended the services they provided. There was still lacking a coherent policy to deal with the relief of unemployment. A Labour government, elected in 1929, came to power at the beginning of a world-wide depression triggered by the Wall Street Crash, but like the Conservative government before it, could do little to remedy the situation at home.

In the 1930's things improved a little under a national government comprised of members from all parties, led by Ramsey MacDonald. The abandonment of the gold standard and the decision to let the pound find its own value against the US dollar made British export prices more competitive in world markets. Agriculture was aided by the adoption of a protective tariff and import quotas in 1931. A building boom followed the increase in population that new health measures made possible. Old industries were replaced by newer ones such as automobiles, electrical manufactures, and chemicals. There were also changes made in the relationship of Britain to her colonies.

Since the Durham Report of 1839, the white-settled colonies of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa had been virtually independent of Britain. The Statute of Westminster, passed in November, 1931, removed much legal inferiority not addressed in 1839. The independence of the was now established. The Crown remained as a symbol of the free association of the members of the British Commonwealth. The Imperial Economic Conference met in Ottawa, Canada in July 1932 to hash out the problems of Dominion economic policies and to settle the matter of their exports to Britain.

At the conference, Britain agreed to abandon free trade, imposing a 10 percent tariff on most imported goods, but exempting Commonwealth nations. In turn, they were to provide markets for British exports, including textiles, steel, cars and telecommunications equipment (thereby discouraging innovation in many industries, which was to put Britain further behind other countries).

The colonies had come of age; the conference showed only too well that Britain was no longer a magnet for Commonwealth goods. In 1932, however, King George initiated the Day radio broadcasts that served to link the Commonwealth countries in a common bond with England. Their loyalty was to be proven in World War II during the reign of George VI. George had come to the throne in 1936 after the abdication of his older brother Edward VIII (tradition ensured that the Edward had to renounce the throne if he were to marry the American divorcee Mrs. Simpson).

In the late 1930's Britain's foreign policy stagnated; there were too many problems to worry about at home. While domestic policies still had to find a way out of the unemployment mess, it was vainly hoped that the League of Nations would keep the peace, and while the aggressive moves by Germany, Italy and Japan may not have been totally ignored in Westminster, their implications were not fully grasped. It seems incredible, in retrospect, how all the signs of a forthcoming major war were conveniently ignored.

In Germany, Hitler had become Chancellor in July 30, 1934 on a rising tide of nationalism and economic unrest. After he proclaimed the Third Reich in March, his regime was given dictatorial powers. Also in March, the Nazis opened their first concentration camp for Jews, gypsies and political prisoners. In August, Hitler became President of the Reich at the death of Hindenburg. He announced open conscription early in 1935, in defiance of the conditions laid down at Versailles. Unencumbered by obsolete equipment and even more obsolete thinking that hindered the British and the French, the German republic was able to rebuild her army and airforce from scratch. They were soon to be used in a bid to dominate Europe.

Italy had entered the scramble for Africa in 1881 by taking over Assab in northern Ethiopia. It then expanded its holdings in the East African highlands. In 1887 the Italian-Ethiopian War began. Three years later, Italy made Assab the basis of an Eritrean colony. By 1896, however, a series of defeats led to the Italians withdrawing from their protectorate. In 1906, a Tripartite Pact declared the independence of Ethiopia but divided the country into British, French, and Italian spheres of interest.

In Italy, in November 1922, general fears of communism led King Victor Emmanuel to summon Benito Mussolini to form a ministry in which he would be given dictatorial powers to restore order and bring about reforms. Earlier in the year, Mussolini had led his black-shirts Fascists into Rome. He secured his fascist Dictatorship the following year through political chicanery and began protesting the terms of Versailles in 1930.

When Italian and Ethiopian troops clashed on the frontier between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia in 1934, Mussolini had an excuse to invade Ethiopia. After his troops had occupied Addis Abbaba, he announced the annexation of Ethiopia and joined Eritrea and Italian Somaliland to create Italian East Africa. The League of Nations proved totally ineffective to prevent this seizure of the last bastion of native rule in Africa.

Lack of British resolve against the ambitions of Mussolini may have spurred Hitler to act. In March, 1936, at the height of the crisis in Ethiopia, he sent his armies into the Rhineland. France was afraid to react without British support. It proceeded to fortify its Maginot Line as Hitler began to fortify the Rhineland. The dictators of Germany and Italy then signed the pact known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. Both leaders then supported General Franco's fascists in the Spanish Civil War (1936- 39). Britain and France stood back for fear of precipitating a general European war; in their efforts to appease, they protested but did nothing except to embolden Hitler even further. His troops marched into Austria in March, 1938.

Hitler's next move was first to surround Bohemia and then to demand modifications to the Czech frontier, including the Sudetenland (with a large German population). Fearing a catastrophic war, and with the vivid memory of the carnage of World War I in mind, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain then agreed, along with the French Premier, to hand over the Sudetenland to Germany. He thought he had bought "peace with honor." Hitler then showed his true intention by seizing the rest of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlains finally saw what Germany intended, to dominate Europe, and his extension of a guarantee to Poland practically ensured war.

World War II In the late 1930's Britain's foreign policy stagnated; there were too many problems to worry about at home. While domestic policies still had to find a way out of the unemployment mess, it was vainly hoped that the League of Nations would keep the peace. While the aggressive moves by Germany, Italy and Japan may not have been totally ignored in Westminster; their implications were not fully grasped. It seems incredible, in retrospect, how all the signs of a forthcoming major war were conveniently ignored.

In Germany, Hitler had become Chancellor on July 30, 1934, on a rising tide of nationalism and economic unrest. After he proclaimed the Third Reich in March, his regime was given dictatorial powers. Also in March, the Nazis opened their first concentration camp for Jews, gypsies and political prisoners. In August, Hitler became President of the Reich at the death of Hindenburg. He announced open conscription early in 1935, in defiance of the conditions laid down at Versailles. Unencumbered by obsolete equipment and even more obsolete thinking that hindered the British and the French, the German republic was able to rebuild her army and airforce from scratch. They were to be used soon in a bid to dominate Europe.

Italy had entered the scramble for Africa in 1881 by taking over Assab in northern Ethiopia. It then expanded its holdings in the East African highlands. In 1887 the Italian-Ethiopian War began. Three years later, Italy made Assab the basis of an Eritrean colony. By 1896, however, a series of defeats led to the Italians withdrawing from their protectorate. In 1906, a Tripartite Pact declared the independence of Ethiopia but divided the country into British, French and Italian spheres of interest.

In Italy, in November 1922, general fears of the spread of Communism led King Victor Emmanuel to summon Benito Mussolini to form a ministry in which he would be given dictatorial powers to restore order and bring about reforms. Earlier in the year, Mussolini had led his black-shirt Fascists into Rome. He secured his fascist dictatorship the following year through political chicanery and began protesting the terms of Versailles in 1930.

When Italian and Ethiopian troops clashed on the frontier between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia in 1934, Mussolini had an excuse to invade Ethiopia. After his troops had occupied Addis Abbaba, he announced the annexation of Ethiopia and joined Eritrea and Italian Somaliland to create Italian East Africa. The League of Nations proved totally ineffective to prevent this seizure of the last bastion of native rule in Africa.

Lack of British resolve against the ambitions of Mussolini may have spurred Hitler to act. In March 1936, at the height of the crisis in Ethiopia, he sent his armies into the Rhineland. France was afraid to react without British support. It proceeded to fortify its Maginot Line as Hitler began to fortify the Rhineland. The dictators of Germany and Italy then signed the pact known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. Both leaders then supported General Franco's fascists in the Spanish Civil War (1936- 39). Britain and France stood back for fear of precipitating a general European war; in their efforts to appease, they protested but did nothing except to embolden Hitler even further. His troops marched into Austria in March 1938. There was no resistance.

Hitler's next move was to surround Bohemia and then demand modifications to the Czech frontier, including the Sudetenland (with a large German population). Fearing a catastrophic war, and with the vivid memory of the carnage of World War I in mind, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain agreed, along with the French Premier, to hand over the Sudetenland to Germany. He thought he had bought "peace with honor." Hitler then showed his true intention by seizing the rest of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain finally saw what Germany intended to dominate Europe, and his extension of a guarantee to Poland, a country which geography he was incapable of aiding, practically ensured war.

In Britain, though there were two million unemployed, but things were generally looking prosperous following the slump of the Great Depression. Nevertheless, it was a totally unprepared Britain that declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939; two days after Hitler's armies had invaded Poland. Conscription was ordered for all men 20 years and older. Somewhat better prepared France followed Britain by declaring war on Germany.

German armies swept through Poland in 18 days. The allies turned to Russia for support, but Stalin had ideas of his own, coming to a marriage of convenience with Hitler in which Poland became a pawn in the hands of both. Stalin also took advantage of the situation to attack Finland.

Britain then prepared for total war. Cities were blacked out, rationing was imposed and rigidly enforced; children from the larger cities were moved into the countryside, clouds of barrage balloons filled the English skies, housewives turned in their pots and pans for scrap, iron fences, railing and gateposts disappeared into blast furnaces, gas masks were issued to every single person, including babies; total blackout was imposed and rigorously enforced by air Ðraid wardens. While the country waited to see if the French could successfully resist the Nazi armies, British beaches were mined, protected by barbed wire; tank traps and other obstacles to invading forces appeared everywhere; air raid shelters were dug in back gardens and London subway stations prepared for their influx of nightly sleepers.

Trapped behind their so-called "impenetrable" Maginot Line, the French could not hold back the German tide, and the new weapon of war, the Blitzkrieg, swept all through it. Hitler's legions first occupied Denmark and then brushed aside a Franco-British force sent to help Norway.

Beginning their march to the Channel in the Ardennes, after they had easily bypassed the Maginot Line, German forces took only five days to take Holland. They then raced forward at lightning speed to capture Paris. In one of the most successful campaigns in the history of war, German forces soon controlled France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Norway and Romania, leaving Britain alone in the West to face the Nazi hordes.

In May 1940, after a disastrous British attempt to force the Germans out of Narvik, Norway, a humiliated Chamberlain (who had earlier crowed that "Herr Hitler had missed the boat") resigned in favor of Winston Churchill. The 65-year-old veteran of many a political campaign was to prove a remarkable leader. The country quickly rallied behind him to expend its "blood, toil, tears and sweat" to eventually emerge victorious in what was to become a long, bloody war that, if it did not involve nearly every country on earth, certainly affected them.

British industry mobilized every person not on military service into production. Even the old and retired were called on to play their part as plane spotters, air-raid wardens and night watchmen. But single women played a major role. They had to report immediately to work in war industries or to work on the nation's farms in the so-called Women's Land Army. Women also entered the armed services by the thousands, to work as radar operators, mechanics, truck drivers and pilots in non- combat roles, even the retired.

After the complete collapse of France in June 1940, when it signed an armistice, Mussolini entered the war on the side of Germany, believing that Britain was doomed and that he could pick up rich spoils in Africa. When France fell, the British army was forced to evacuate the continent at Dunkirk, but somehow halting a German division at Arras, managed to save most of its cadre to train millions of new soldiers it needed to defend its Empire. One of the strangest fleets in history had rescued the bulk of the British Expeditionary Force from the burning beaches of Dunkirk. In the meantime, Soviet troops entered the Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania to incorporate them into the USSR.

New Prime Minister Winston Churchill informed the British people that the Battle for France was over: the Battle for Britain was about to begin. He stressed that Hitler would have to break Britain in order to win the war, and that no nation would be safe from sinking into the resulting darkness, not even the United States.

When France formed a "Vichy" government under Petain, the Royal Navy destroyed the French fleet anchored at Oran in North Africa. In the Atlantic, German U-boats were destroying thousands upon thousands of tons of allied shipping, but Britain precariously held out (those of us who were living in Britain at the time realize just how near to collapse we were). All Britain could do was to hang on, to fight on until the situation might eventually change. Hitler expected Britain to come to terms, but Churchill's defiant riposte was that he wasn't on speaking terms with Adolph Hitler.

Realizing that she would not come to terms, Hitler then planned an , but first he would have to destroy the Royal Air Force. The task seemed easy enough; he had a decided advantage in the number of planes and in trained pilots. From airfields in conquered France, the English coast was only a few minutes away. At a time when the war at sea was rapidly turning in Germany's favor, the Battle of Britain began with an attack of German bombers on England, July 10, 1940 and artillery began shelling the English coast. The final assault was planned for August 13th. Hitler planned to have 125,000 men ashore by the end of the second day. Plans were meticulously drawn up for the government of a conquered Britain.

There was great fear throughout Britain during that late summer. In many villages, church bells rang in the mistaken belief that the invasion had begun. There wasn't much to stop the invader. Though 1,500,000 men in Britain had joined the Home Guard, they had only 70,000 rifles; the regular army had left most of its hardware behind in the evacuation from France. All that stood between the German armies and the planned invasion of Britain was the Fighter Command of the Royal Air Force.

During the early air war, the German Air Force conducted over 1500 missions a day over England, concentrating mainly on airfields and radar installations. Hitler's second-in-command Herman Goering miscalculated the resilience of the Royal Air Force. When British planes bombed Berlin to retaliate for bombs dropped on London (the German pilots had lost their way and missed their intended targets), Hitler determined to teach the British people, those "night gangsters, " a lesson. Insisting on a thousand-fold revenge, he ordered the Luftwaffe to destroy London. It was a grave error.

The British Air Force did not rise to the bait to defend London; they conserved what was left of their strength. More important, their airfields (and pilots) were given a much-needed respite to rebuild. Skilled use of a secret new weapon, Radar, then gave them a decided advantage over incoming German airplanes.

Though almost exhausted and down to its last few pilots, the RAF fought on in what was becoming a war of attrition in the air. Eventually, the heavy losses sustained by the Luftwaffe put an end to any real chances of German forces crossing the Channel. On September 17, following decisive losses, Hitler postponed the invasion of Britain. Instead of keeping up the pressure, the frustrated German dictator decided to ignore Goering's pleas for just a few more days to destroy Britain's air forces and turned eastward, to attack Russia.

In June 1941 when the German armed divisions poured into the east, Britain breathed a huge sigh of relief. Hitler's hatred of Communism blinded him to the risks involved; it was a colossal mistake. His involvement in the Balkans, where he feared a British attack against his flank from Greece, had delayed his assault on Russia. The oncoming winter would prove to be a deciding factor in the holocaust that ensued.

In September 1940, following a total blockade of the British Isles ordered by Hitler, U-boats sank 160,000 tons of British shipping. (In a time of great food shortages, even the Royal Family was issued ration books). These were called "the happy times" for German U-boat crews, idolized by adoring crowds as they set out into the Atlantic to wreak havoc on merchant ships bringing supplies from America. The British people, huddled in their air-raid shelters awaited the worst. Their defiance of the might of the German air force, their courage in carrying on "business as usual" and their slogan "London can Take it"" (relayed to the United States by radio commentators such as Edward R. Murrow) had a profound effect upon American opinion, especially upon the President.

In opposition to many in America who still thought that Britain's total defeat was only a mater of time, and a very short time at that, President Roosevelt came to the aid of the beleaguered island nation. He ordered his fleet to sink German submarines on sight. To meet the U-boat challenge, the US then provided Britain with Lend-Lease supplies in addition to handing over to the Royal Navy 50 much- needed destroyers. In November, British ships destroyed the Italian fleet at Taranto, putting it, like most of the French fleet before it, out of action for the rest of the war. Mussolini's grand boast of dominating what he called "mare nostrum" was defeated. The Royal Navy managed to keep control of the Mediterranean throughout the war.

In September, Japan had concluded a pact with the Axis powers in order to fulfil her designs on the Pacific, ranging from Hong Kong to Australia. On December 7, 1941 she seized her opportunity to attack. On the "day of infamy" so strongly proclaimed by Roosevelt, the Imperial Air force crippled the US Navy at Pearl Harbor. On , Germany declared war on the US. Japanese forces then captured the British possessions of Malaya, Burma, Hong Kong and , the great symbol of the British Empire. They then advanced practically unopposed to the borders of India in the West and Australia in the South.

The Turn of the Tide It seemed that the Japanese were unstoppable, but as had the Germans, they over- reached themselves. A string of successes was halted in May 1942 when they sustained heavy losses in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Germany too, suffered its first defeat when Hitler underestimated the strategic importance of Egypt. There, the British Eighth Army (the "Desert Rats") under Montgomery destroyed a German fighting machine of 250,000 men at the Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. After being blocked by the winter snows and the fierce resistance of the Russians, in February 1943, a huge German army surrendered at Stalingrad.

Later in the year, Allied forces recaptured Sicily to invade Southern Italy, and all through the year, Russian troops continued to inflict heavy casualties on the Germans, who lost over 2,000 tanks and 1,392 airplanes at the decisive Battle of Kursk. The tide of war had turned irrevocably on the side of the allies. It was still heavy going in Italy, but bit by bit allied armies advanced up the peninsular, despite determined German resistance, recapturing Rome to bring Italy out of the war. The whole country had been taken by the spring of 1945. It was now time for the allies to invade fortress Europe.

On the sixth of June 1944, "D-Day" the invasion of the Continent by allied forces in Operation Overlord marked the beginning of the end of the war in the West. Years of meticulous planning and careful preparation paid off and hundreds of thousands of allied soldiers were landed within a few days with their equipment. Deceptive messages had led the Germans to concentrate their forces around the port of Calais. An expected German counterattack at the landing beaches did not come.

Some failures in the re-conquest of western Europe inevitably ensued, notably the efforts of Montgomery to end an early stalemate in Normandy by the airborne attempt to capture bridges over the , but steady progress brought British, Canadian, French and American forces into Germany. A failure of allied intelligence to spot 24 Nazi divisions gave the enemy temporary success in the Ardennes, at the Battle of the Bulge, but it was beaten back with heavy German losses. Hitler's exhausted forces in the west were finally brushed aside.

Back home, Londoners were once again forced into their underground shelters as V-1 rockets began to fall upon the city with terrifying effects. By September 1944, Germany still had enough resources to produce a thousand V-2 rockets a month, most of which were directed toward London. Only defeat of Germany would end the threat. In March 1945, the allies crossed the Rhine. In the east, a new Russian offensive began with 3,000,000 men polishing off one German division after another on an inexorable march to Berlin. In April, east met west as allied forces met with the Russians at the Elbe. On May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered.

The fall of Saipan in July had the same effect in the East. The War in Europe came to an end on May 8. The news eclipsed the news from Burma, where British forces under William Slim had stopped the Japanese efforts to invade India through Assam. By May 6, 1945, Burma had been retaken. The re-conquest was the most successful of all the campaigns British forces had undertaken during the whole war. It was the climax of a most difficult but brilliantly executed campaign.

The War in the Pacific came to an end on August 14, 1945. Japan surrendered only after the American Airforce dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The Post-War Years The great social-leveling influence of the War meant that Britains were anxious for change. Countless thousands of returning soldiers and sailors wanted a turn-around in the status quo. Members of British armed forces were considerably better educated than they had been in World War I. The soldier returning from the war was no longer in awe of his leaders; he had mixed loyalties. He was resentful of unemployment, wishing for a greater share in the nation's post-war restructuring, and he did not trust a Conservative government to tackle the enormous social economic and political problems, that they had done very little to solve between the wars. He wished for a change.

As a consequence, Winston Churchill, who led Britain to victory during the war, found himself as a member of the opposition when the election of 1945 returned the Labour Party to power with a huge majority. Under the Parliament of Clement Attlee, the new government began some of the greatest changes in Britain's long history---nothing less than a reconstruction of the nation.

The Labour Government struggled heroically to deal with the problems: to improve standards of living, move to a "mixed economy." close the trade gap, maintain its armed forces in sufficient strength to meet a new threat from Communist Russia, and to keep of its overseas bases. It succeeded in these aims remarkably well. During the dark early days of the War, economist William Beveridge had put forward proposals for postwar "cradle-to-grave" social security. The Government had taken on an emergency welfare responsibility; it provided milk for babies; orange juice and cod-liver oil for children.

It was now time for Labour to put the Beverage Plan into full operation. Family allowances had already been introduced before the War's end. A National School Lunch Act was passed in June, 1946. In 1948, the government introduced the National Health Service to proved free medical treatment for all, from the spectacles and false teeth, to maternity and child welfare services. Nationalization of the hospitals made nationwide care available for the injured and seriously ill. The "Welfare State" had begun.

The second major change brought about by the Labour Government, under Attlee, was to take control of industry and public utilities, and a two-year period beginning in 1946, saw the nationalization of the Bank of England; the coal industry; electricity and gas; air transport, along with road, rail and waterways. A total of 20 percent of all British industry had been taken into public ownership by 1950. (In August, 1947, the government operated its first atomic pile, at Harwell). Central control of the economy, which had proved so successful in wartime, was now a major undertaking in peacetime. It was achieved under terribly adverse economic conditions. Another crisis occurred in 1947.

Stringent financial measures, imposed to meet the enormous war debt, caused undue hardship that was only made worse by one of the worst winters on record, monstrous gales and floods wiped out farms and destroyed agricultural products. A fuel shortage severely curtailed exports, food was still severely rationed, and in 1948 even bread and potatoes were rationed (both had been exempt during the War). The author remembers well the little ditty "It had to B.U." that parodied a popular song of the time by referring to the Bread Unit.

In 1947, relief appeared in the form of the Marshall Plan, introduced by the US to help the European Economy recover. Along with the devaluation of the pound and an expansion of world markets, there was a revival of the spirit that had united the country during the War. The introduction of the Land-Rover to world markets in 1948 was a godsend for British exports. Britain was even able to join with the US in ferrying supplies to Berlin in the famous "Airlift" that began in July of that year. By 1950, rationing began to be phased out, though not until 1954 was meat rationing abolished.

Though the Labour Government did very little to develop the private sector, it can take credit for the building of giant hydro-electric schemes in the later 1940's, especially in the undeveloped areas of Scotland and Wales. In 1951, the Conservatives resumed control of the government. Under its slogan "You've Never Had It So Good," led by the aging Winston Churchill, economic prospects seemed to be on the upturn. In less than one year, the balance of payments deficit had become a surplus. Compared to those of the developing nations of Southeast Asia and the rebuilt economies of Japan and Germany, however, Britain's pre-war industrial strength was severely weakened. The much-heralded Festival of Britain, held in London in 1951 has been seen by many in retrospect, not as a demonstration of the nation's strength, but as a product of British postwar weakness and a signal pointing to further decline. A fashionable joke at the time was that, like the Festival's Skylon, the country had no visible means of support. The Nation and the Commonwealth mourned the death of King George VI, who along with his queen Elizabeth, had done much to bring back dignity and honor to the monarchy. Yet there was a mood of optimism that received an another upturn with the coronation of the young queen Elizabeth, the first such ceremony to be televised.

Something of a occurred just when the world's oil producing nations doubled the cost of their product: Britain herself became a major oil producer. Since 1962, she had been conducting seismic prospecting for oil and natural gas in the North Sea, and full-scale activities had begun in 1964, the first oil find came five years later. Great expansion of the oil fields then took place in the 1970's so that in 1979, the country's oil production exceeded its imports for the first time. Britain's ports also adapted to the new container vessels, spelling the end for such great traditional ports as Liverpool, Glasgow and East London.

Continuing violence between Catholics, committed to union with Eire and Protestants, committed to retaining their British identity, led to the Government imposing direct rule over Northern Ireland, but hopes for peace were shattered on "Bloody Sunday" when British troops opened fire on protesters at Londonderry (January 30, 1972). The IRA brought their violence to Britain, killing a leading Conservative M.P. in March. In Ireland, violence continued and Lord Mountbatten was killed by an IRA bomb in August.

In 1974, the whole of Britain felt itself under siege from a vicious bombing campaign. Violence continued almost unabated. In 1985 the Anglo-Irish Agreement was an attempt to end it, with both Britain and the Irish Republic agreeing to confer over the problems and to work together against terrorism. It took the outrage of the Inniskillen bombing in 1998, however, to shock both sides into realizing that governments could do little; peace had to come from the initiatives of the people themselves.

Along with most of the industrialized nations of the world, Britain entered a period of depression in the 1970's. A tremendous blow to British pride came in February, 1971 when Rolls-Royce declared bankruptcy, forcing the government to bail out the company to avoid job losses and to restore national prestige. Britain's post-war lead in the production of motor-cycles had long been surrendered to the Japanese. In 1974, the great strike by the country's coal miners (over the government's "freeze" on wages) caused the Conservatives to lose the general election but under Labour, inflation spiraled and economic decline continued despite the social contract between the government and the trade unions. Bitter confrontation between unions and government continued to escalate. A strike by London dock workers idled hundreds of ships and prevented goods from being exported. In March, 1979 Prime Minister Callaghan lost a vote of confidence by one vote in the House of Commons and Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher became the nation's first woman Prime Minister in May. Her promises to cut income taxes, scale down social services and reduce the role of the state in daily life had wide appeal and gave her a large majority. Many in Britain also wished to curb the power of the unions, which they believed had grown into a monster, almost out of control.

Margaret Thatcher Though married to a millionaire, Margaret Thatcher was perceived as a grocer's daughter, hard-working and thrifty, a complete no-nonsense person. She was the first female Prime Minister in the nation's history and gained her reputation as "the iron lady" for her tight control of Britain's monetary policy. Her emphasis on "self- help" encouraged private enterprise, but her cutting back of expenditures on health, social services and education made her extremely unpopular with the masses. Then, in 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, claiming sovereignty over the small group of islands they called the Islas Maldivas in the South Atlantic that was home to a few thousand British settlers.

Prime Minister Thatcher sent a task force to recapture the islands; and after two months, the better-trained and disciplined British infantry, aided by its highly maneuverable airplanes (launched from carriers), won the day. The nation was jubilant, and Mrs. Thatcher was regarded as something of a national hero. The problems resulting from the country fast-becoming multi-national, with whole areas of the larger cities occupied by those whose religion, dress, food and social mores were considered "anti-British" were swept aside in a euphoria of jingoism.

Mrs. Thatcher's government was also helped by the splitting off of some Labour members to the Social Democratic Party, who later joined with the Liberals in "the Alliance." Then, in Mrs. Thatcher's second government, begun on such an optimistic note, the miners went on strike to protest the closing of many pits deemed unprofitable. Under their dynamic and outspoken leader Arthur Scargill, the miners also protested against overtime work. The bitterness caused by the strikes and the insensitivity of the government to their demands deeply divided the whole of British society. The Conservatives, once again helped by a split in opposition ranks, retained their control of the government. Its legislation, the closing of so many pits, and the switch to oil, had defeated the unions.

Mrs. Thatcher continued her policies of tight economic control, the privatization of industry and "dismantling" (when possible) of the Welfare State. Privatization of British Gas, British Telecom, the Water Authorities, British Airways and the electricity industry (termed by Macmillan as 'the family silver") proved a godsend to government revenues and also created a new class of British shareholders. The 1980's indeed, despite riots in the deprived areas of some of England's biggest cities, and continued IRA terrorist attacks, were a decade of prosperity (many immigrants, at the bottom of the social scale, especially those from the West Indies and some African states would disagree). The number of videos acquired by British families was far greater than those in the US or Europe. The British were, on the whole, better fed, better housed, better clothed, cleaner and warmer than at any time in their history. No wonder the Labour opposition was in complete disarray. Spirits were also warmed in July, 1981 when Prince Charles married Lady Diana Spencer (and another kind of spirit benefited from the "real-ale" campaign that protested against the mass production of pasteurized beer).

In addition, many promising development in science occurred. In 1974, mainly with income derived from the sale of Beatles records, the computed axial tomography scanner was developed in England, revolutionizing diagnostic medicine in immunology, (essential for organ transplants). In July, 1978, British doctors at London's Oldham Hospital created the world's first "test tube baby" Louis Brown. British scientists retained their lead. The 1990's saw the birth of the famous sheep Dolly (the first mammal produced from a donor cell taken from an adult rather than from an embryo), and then Polly, a transgenic animal produced through cloning.

Britain was also busy creating its own "silicon valleys" adapting the new micro-chip technology to replace traditional industries. In 1981, the Bridge was completed; at 4,626 feet the world's longest Suspension Bridge. The world's longest high-speed optical fiber link connected Birmingham with London. British television projected an image of quality throughout the world. In addition, one of Britain's oldest shoe companies, now named Reebok, made impressive gains in the world market in competition with Nike.

General optimism, however, was tempered with distrust of one who was acquiring almost dictatorial powers, and in 1990, the Iron Lady's imposition of the "" caused unrest and street demonstrations. (The tax was an attempt to reform local government and finance by replacing household rates, which made each voter bear a full share of the costs incurred by prodigal spending). Inflation and interest rates also remained alarmingly high. Mrs. Thatcher's decision to send British land and sea forces into the Gulf to participate in the United Nations multi-national task force raged against the government of Iraq divided the country, especially when it was learned that English casualties came mostly from "friendly" (i.e. US) fire.

The government was mainly split by the question of integration into Europe, with some prominent members disagreeing with the purchase of the Westland Helicopter by Americans rather then Europeans. Other such issues, heightened by what Sir Geoffrey Howe (deputy leader of her own party) called her anti-European paranoia, brought a challenge to Thatcher's leadership, and in November, 1990, the Thatcher Era came to an end. The longest ministry of the century, it had glorified the Victorian values of self-help and nationalism.

For many, the main achievement of the Iron lady was to free her country from the iron grip of the trade unions. For others, it was the restoration of British pride in the victory in the Falklands. For most, it was apparent that Britain was beginning to come to terms with the loss of much of its heavy industry and the increasing reliance on finance, communications, oil, insurance, tourism, accounting and other service industries. John Major & Tony Blair John Major then took over the reigns of the Conservative Party as Prime Minister. He was committed to keeping "Thatcherism" alive. The unions were not going to regain their former powers, despite public sentiment in favor of the miners and as debatable as the benefits of privatization had proved, there was no going back to the old days of nationalized industries (and council houses, which had been offered for sale to private owners).

What must not be overlooked in the polices of "Thatcherism" was the influence upon intellectuals and government policymakers alike of "The Road to Serfdom" by F.A. Hayek (first published in 1944). On Hayek's 90th birthday, Mrs. Thatcher wrote that none of what her government had achieved would have been possible without the values and beliefs "that set us on the right road and provide the right sense of direction." As a result of reading the book, Anthony Fisher founded the Institute of Economic Affairs in London which was to be the most important source of free-market ideas in Britain. By the mid-90's, there was very little to divide the Labour and Conservative parties on the central principles of economic management.

When Major was first elected, Britain was still saying "No" to socialism. By the general election of 1992, leading magazines (particularly in the US) wrote of the death of the Labour Party eventhough it had abandoned its policy of nuclear disarmament, forgotten that it had preached in favor of public ownership of the means of production and exchange, embraced the European community and purged from within the unrepresentative labor bosses. Its motto "It's Time for a Change" seemed to appeal to most Britons; not a single poll showed the Conservatives winning. But once again, the desire for continuity overrode the desire for change, John Major was returned to power.

Yet as early as 1993, the winds of change were blowing strong. Many Conservative M.P.'s were in open rebellion over Europe. They were told to support Major's European policy or bring down the government. The warm afterglow of the Gulf War had dissipated rapidly and continuing economic problems and uncertain leadership ate away Major's popularity.

Leading Tories wanted to scuttle any deals Britain had made at Maastricht; they feared that British industry would be subject to European regulations in working conditions and labor relations. Hundreds of Tory candidates were in open rebellion over Major's fence straddling on Europe; the Euro-skeptics determined to sabotage their leader. Why should they force Britain to enter a stagnant Europe? In addition, continuing revelations in the daily newspapers about scandals involving leading Tories doomed Mr. Major.

Despite the fact that the economy was recovering and inflation was at a 30-year low, the sale of tens of thousands of public housing (at bargain prices), perhaps the greatest gift of wealth to the working class in British history, putting the country far ahead of the US and Europe in the percentage of housing units owner-occupied, and despite the highest growth rate and the lowest unemployment in Europe, Labour won a landslide victory in 1997. Tony Blair was thus able to inherit an economy free from the dreaded "British disease" (militant trade unions, over-regulation, vacillating government policies and a foolish disdain toward enterpreneurship).

The election took place only two years after Labour had rid itself of the clause in its constitution that called for the "common ownership of production, distribution and exchange." It was particularly anxious to keep the billions of dollars that had been invested annually in the UK by the US, Japan, Korea and others during the 16 years of Conservative rule. The new brand of socialism was hardly distinguishable from that of Mrs. Thatcher but the move of Labour to the center was expedited by the popularity of its leaders.

The question of just how much should Britain integrate itself into Europe remained a thorny issue with the new government. It was now joined by a much more ancient problem: that of devolution with the British Isles, with powerful voices being raised in Scotland and Wales for more self-government, and the seemingly insoluble problem of Northern Ireland casting a deep shadow over the entire so-called United Kingdom.

On March 1, 1979 (St. David's Day) the people of Wales voted overwhelmingly against devolution. The reasons were many (they are discussed in full in my "Brief History of Wales" and "The Referendum of 1979." Too many feared changes in the statues quo; the work of the anti-devolutionists, led by such influential Welsh M.P.'s as Neil Kinnock (with his eyes on the Prime Minister's job) was done only too well. But in 1997 a new referendum was held in which, by a small majority, the people of Wales chose an Assembly of their own, despite heavily financed campaigns against it. This time, they had been supported by the Labour Party, led by Tony Blair.

Scotland, meanwhile, voted overwhelmingly in favor of its own Assembly. The reasons are given at length in my "Brief ," but are also summarized below:

Though very much a minority party, and still suffering from the stigma attached to the very idea of nationalism during war years, (the Scottish National Party) SNP had begun to build its organizational skills and work on political strategy; its share of the vote steadily grew. This was also a period of intense activity in Wales by members of Plaid Cymru, the Party of Wales, and by the fervent and some say overzealous and destructive activities of the Welsh Language Society Cymdeithas yr Iaith Cymraeg. In any case, discontent in both areas of Britain led to a feverish proliferation of committees soon at work in Westminster looking at further measures of devolution for Scotland and Wales.

The government published its proposals for a devolved Scottish assembly in November 1975. It would have no revenue raising powers and sovereignty would be retained in Westminster. Though prospects for passage looked good, the wide range of competing priorities for government attention took away the time needed for the Callaghan government to devote to the issue. Labour, fearing loss of support in Scotland to the SNP, was also still deeply divided on the question and the extent of devolution. The government's program was bound to fail: the Bill was headed for defeat.

Eighteen years later, the results were reversed. On September 11, 1997, four days after the trauma of Lady Diana's funeral, the referendum resulted in the decision to give back a Parliament to Scotland by a 3-1 margin. British Prime Minister Tony Blair, whose Labour Party had actively campaigned for passage of the devolution bill, called the results a step in the process of "modernizing Britain." Hollywood movie star, Scotsman Sean Connery (who did not appear in "") campaigned hard and contributed a great deal of cash to the campaign, invoking the 1370 , "It is not for glory, riches or honours we fight, but only for liberty, which no good man loses but with his life."

The decision gives Scotland an Assembly with tax-levying powers, unlike the much weaker "talking-shop" that the Welsh are going to be saddled with as the result of their own (barely) successful referendum. The Scots will be given the broad authority to legislate in a host of sectors, but Westminster has the right to "reserve" or "withhold" many powers (constitutional matters, foreign policy, defense, and national security, border controls, monetary and fiscal matters, common markets for goods and services, employment law, and social security).

For the people of Wales and Scotland (and no less, the people of England), the decision to approve the Labour Government's plans for separate assemblies, may prove to be one of the most important ones in their long histories. In the councils of Europe, three voices will be heard instead of one: three equal voices, sharing a unique British heritage, but each proud of its own distinctiveness as cultural and political units. Westminster must have breathed a sigh of relief that the problems of devolution for Wales and Scotland were settled so amicably. Would the Irish question follow the same road? The problem of Europe remained for Tony Blair; in addition, there was the age-old question of what to do about the House of Lords.

In many ways, the Upper Chamber had become an anachronism. The very idea of non-elected, hereditary legislators seemed ridiculous in a country that prided itself on its democratic institutions. The old arguments about the need for a second chamber to act as a brake on any impetuousness showed by the government of the day had long since disappeared. Time and time again the Lords had obstructed legislation that would have surely benefited the nation. Their defense of ancient privilege had often blinded them to the realities of British political life since the time of Oliver Cromwell. Their record on Ireland was appalling, with their obstruction of Home Rule Bills, but it could be matched by many other areas in which they had excelled in their obstinacy.

Leaving aside century after century of attacks on the privileges (and power) enjoyed by the Lords, it was the budget of Lloyd George in 1909 that really stirred up the pot. The landed aristocracy saw his attempts to tax the rich as the beginning of the end of all rights of property. When the Lords rejected his bill, Lloyd George threatened to swamp them with five hundred new peers. Yet all attempts at reform eventually died down lacking a concerted opinion as to what kind of second chamber the country should support. The Parliament Bill of 1911 was thus a weak compromise: all the hereditary peers and bishops would stay in the House, but their powers of delay would be reduced to two years: it continued to remain a powerful revising chamber.

The advent of the First World War postponed the move to exclude hereditary peers from the Upper House. A conference held in 1917, however, faced the old difficulty of "the paralysing perplexity of so many alternatives." The Commons also feared that an elected upper chamber would offer a serious challenge to its own powers. In 1922, Lloyd George became notorious for selling lordships to the highest bidder; and the old aristocracy found itself rapidly outnumbered by the new captains of industry and leading financiers on the benches of the chamber. The newcomers proved just as anxious to preserve their newly-gained privileges as their hereditary colleagues.

Another crisis occurred in 1960 when Antony Edgwood Benn, a promising and ambitious Labour M.P. was duly elevated to the peerage upon the death of his father (who had been appointed as a Labour peer only twenty years before). As a peer, the younger Benn was refused admission to the Hose of Commons when he came to take his usual seat. A private bill, to allow him to resign his peerage, was defeated. It took four years of contentious debate to settle the matter, but it was evident that the House of Lords needed some drastic changes. The days of complacency were over.

In 1967, the Labour Party announced its plans to reduce the powers of the Lords and to eliminate its hereditary basis. Once again, however, it was willing to compromise in the uncertainly of what was to replace the second chamber. Many Labour M.P.'s wished to abolish the Upper House altogether, but a compromise was reached: only minor changes were effected. In the late 1990's, the government of Tony Blair and is centrist Labour Party, is still grappling with the problem of the Lords, a problem that perhaps exemplifies the struggle of Britain to adjust itself to the modern world.

There is nothing in the nation's proud past that would prevent a satisfactory solution to the problem of the privileges enjoyed by the House of Lords. While England my no longer Rule the waves, it is perfectly capable of putting its own house in order, as Wales and Scotland have shown. The past two thousand years have shown a resilient people, proud and independent; a people who will continue to give so much to the world, in art, literature, politics, science and technology, exploration, social welfare and sport; but above all, in the difficult art of compromise. STONEHENGE Stonehenge is surely Britain's greatest national icon, symbolizing mystery, power and endurance. Its original purpose is unclear to us, but some have speculated that it was a temple made for the worship of ancient earth deities. It has been called an astronomical observatory for marking significant events on the prehistoric calendar. Others claim that it was a sacred site for the burial of high-ranking citizens from the societies of long ago.

While we can't say with any degree of certainty what it was for, we can say that it wasn't constructed for any casual purpose. Only something very important to the ancients would have been worth the effort and investment that it took to construct Stonehenge.

The stones we see today represent Stonehenge in ruin. Many of the original stones have fallen or been removed by previous generations for home construction or road repair. There has been serious damage to some of the smaller bluestones resulting from close visitor contact (prohibited since 1978) and the prehistoric carvings on the larger sarsen stones show signs of significant wear.

Construction of the Henge In its day, the construction of Stonehenge was an impressive engineering feat, requiring commitment, time and vast amounts of manual labor. In its first phase, Stonehenge was a large earthwork; a bank and ditch arrangement called a henge, constructed approximately 5,000 years ago. It is believed that the ditch was dug with tools made from the antlers of red deer and, possibly, wood. The underlying chalk was loosened with picks and shoveled with the shoulderblades of cattle. It was then loaded into baskets and carried away. Modern experiments have shown that these tools were more than equal to the great task of earth digging and moving.

The Bluestones About 2,000 BC, the first stone circle (which is now the inner circle), comprised of small bluestones, was set up, but abandoned before completion. The stones used in that first circle are believed to be from the Prescelly Mountains, located roughly 240 miles away, at the southwestern tip of Wales. The bluestones weigh up to 4 tons each and about 80 stones were used, in all. Given the distance they had to travel, this presented quite a transportation problem.

NEW - More information on the Stonehenge Bluestones! Click Here.

Modern theories speculate that the stones were dragged by roller and sledge from the inland mountains to the headwaters of Milford Haven. There they were loaded onto rafts, barges or boats and sailed along the south coast of Wales, then up the Rivers Avon and to a point near present-day Frome in Somerset. From this point, so the theory goes, the stones were hauled overland, again, to a place near Warminster in Wiltshire, approximately 6 miles away. From there, it's back into the pool for a slow float down the River Wylye to Salisbury, then up the Salisbury Avon to West Amesbury, leaving only a short 2 drag from West Amesbury to the Stonehenge site.

Construction of the Outer Ring The giant sarsen stones (which form the outer circle), weigh as much as 50 tons each. To transport them from the Marlborough Downs, roughly 20 miles to the north, is a problem of even greater magnitude than that of moving the bluestones. Most of the way, the going is relatively easy, but at the steepest part of the route, at Redhorn Hill, modern work studies estimate that at least 600 men would have been needed just to get each stone past this obstacle. Once on site, a sarsen stone was prepared to accommodate stone lintels along its top surface. It was then dragged until the end was over the opening of the hole. Great levers were inserted under the stone and it was raised until gravity made it slide into the hole. At this point, the stone stood on about a 30° angle from the ground. Ropes were attached to the top and teams of men pulled from the other side to raise it into the full upright position. It was secured by filling the hole at its base with small, round packing stones. At this point, the lintels were lowered into place and secured vertically by mortice and tenon joints and horizontally by tongue and groove joints. Stonehenge was probably finally completed around 1500 BC.

Who Built Stonehenge? The question of who built Stonehenge is largely unanswered, even today. The monument's construction has been attributed to many ancient peoples throughout the years, but the most captivating and enduring attribution has been to the Druids. This erroneous connection was first made around 3 centuries ago by the antiquary, . Julius Caesar and other Roman writers told of a Celtic priesthood who flourished around the time of their first conquest (55 BC). By this time, though, the stones had been standing for 2,000 years, and were, perhaps, already in a ruined condition. Besides, the Druids worshipped in forest temples and had no need for stone structures. The best guess seems to be that the Stonehenge site was begun by the people of the late Neolithic period (around 3000 BC) and carried forward by people from a new economy which was arising at this time. These "new" people, called Beaker Folk because of their use of pottery drinking vessels, began to use metal implements and to live in a more communal fashion than their ancestors. Some think that they may have been immigrants from the continent, but that contention is not supported by archaeological evidence. It is likely that they were indigenous people doing the same old things in new ways.

As Legend Has It The legend of King Arthur provides another story of the construction of Stonehenge. It is told by century writer, Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his History of the Kings of Britain that brought the stones to the Salisbury Plain from Ireland. Sometime in the fifth century, there had been a massacre of 300 British noblemen by the treacherous Saxon leader, Hengest. Geoffrey tells us that the high king, Aurelius Ambrosius, wanted to create a fitting memorial to the slain men. Merlin suggested an expedition to Ireland for the purpose of transplanting the Giant's Ring stone circle to Britain. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, the stones of the Giant's Ring were originally brought from Africa to Ireland by giants (who else but giants could handle the job?). The stones were located on "Mount Killaraus" and were used as a site for performing rituals and for healing. Led by King Uther and Merlin, the expedition arrived at the spot in Ireland. The Britons, none of whom were giants, apparently, were unsuccessful in their attempts to move the great stones. At this point, Merlin realized that only his magic arts would turn the trick. So, they were dismantled and shipped back to Britain where they were set up (see illus. at right) as they had been before, in a great circle, around the mass grave of the murdered noblemen. The story goes on to tell that Aurelius, Uther and Arthur's successor, Constantine were also buried there in their time*.

Present Day Stonehenge Situated in a vast plain, surrounded by hundreds of round barrows, or burial mounds, the Stonehenge site is truly impressive, and all the more so, the closer you approach. It is a place where much human effort was expended for a purpose we can only guess at. Some people see it as a place steeped in magic and mystery, some as a place where their imaginations of the past can be fired and others hold it to be a sacred place. But whatever viewpoint is brought to it and whatever its original purpose was, it should be treated as the ancients treated it, as a place of honor .

The modern age has not been altogether kind to Stonehenge, despite the lip service it pays to the preservation of heritage sites. There is a major highway running no more than 100 yards away from the stones, and a commercial circus has sprung up around it, complete with parking lots, gift shops and ice cream stands. The organization, English Heritage, is committed to righting these wrongs, and in the coming years, we may get to see Stonehenge in the setting for which it was originally created. Despite all its dilapidation and the encroachment of the modern world, Stonehenge, today, is an awe-inspiring sight, and no travel itinerary around Britain should omit it.

Magna Carta The Great Charter of English liberty granted (under considerable duress) by King John at Runnymede on June 15, 1215

John, by the grace of God King of England, Lord of Ireland, Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, and Count of Anjou, to his archbishops, bishops, , , barons, justices, foresters, sheriffs, stewards, servants, and to all his officials and loyal subjects, greeting.

Know that before God, for the health of our soul and those of our ancestors and heirs, to the honour of God, the exaltation of the holy Church, and the better ordering of our kingdom, at the advice of our reverend fathers Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England, and cardinal of the holy Roman Church, Henry archbishop of Dublin, William bishop of London, Peter bishop of Winchester, Jocelin bishop of Bath and Glastonbury, Hugh bishop of Lincoln, Walter Bishop of Worcester, William , Benedict bishop of Rochester, Master Pandulf subdeacon and member of the papal household, Brother Aymeric master of the Knights of the Temple in England, William Marshal, , William , William earl of Warren, William earl of Arundel, Alan de Galloway constable of Scotland, Warin Gerald, Peter Fitz Herbert, Hubert de Burgh seneschal of Poitou, Hugh de Neville, Matthew Fitz Herbert, Thomas Basset, Alan Basset, Philip Daubeny, Robert de Roppeley, John Marshal, John Fitz Hugh, and other loyal subjects:

1. First, that we have granted to God, and by this present charter have confirmed for us and our heirs in perpetuity, that the English Church shall be free, and shall have its rights undiminished, and its liberties unimpaired. That we wish this so to be observed, appears from the fact that of our own free will, before the outbreak of the present dispute between us and our barons, we granted and confirmed by charter the freedom of the Church's elections - a right reckoned to be of the greatest necessity and importance to it - and caused this to be confirmed by Pope Innocent III. This freedom we shall observe ourselves, and desire to be observed in good faith by our heirs in perpetuity. We have also granted to all free men of our realm, for us and our heirs for ever, all the liberties written out below, to have and to keep for them and their heirs, of us and our heirs:

2. If any earl, , or other person that holds lands directly of the Crown, for military service, shall die, and at his death his heir shall be of full age and owe a `relief', the heir shall have his inheritance on payment of the ancient scale of `relief'. That is to say, the heir or heirs of an earl shall pay for the entire earl's barony, the heir or heirs of a l00s. at most for the entire knight's `fee', and any man that owes less shall pay less, in accordance with the ancient usage of `fees'

3. But if the heir of such a person is under age and a ward, when he comes of age he shall have his inheritance without `relief' or fine.

4. The guardian of the land of an heir who is under age shall take from it only reasonable revenues, customary dues, and feudal services. He shall do this without destruction or damage to men or property. If we have given the guardianship of the land to a sheriff, or to any person answerable to us for the revenues, and he commits destruction or damage, we will exact compensation from him, and the land shall be entrusted to two worthy and prudent men of the same `fee', who shall be answerable to us for the revenues, or to the person to whom we have assigned them. If we have given or sold to anyone the guardianship of such land, and he causes destruction or damage, he shall lose the guardianship of it, and it shall be handed over to two worthy and prudent men of the same `fee', who shall be similarly answerable to us.

5. For so long as a guardian has guardianship of such land, he shall maintain the houses, parks, fish preserves, ponds, mills, and everything else pertaining to it, from the revenues of the land itself. When the heir comes of age, he shall restore the whole land to him, stocked with plough teams and such implements of husbandry as the season demands and the revenues from the land can reasonably bear.

6. Heirs may be given in marriage, but not to someone of lower social standing. Before a marriage takes place, it shall be' made known to the heir's next-of-kin.

7. At her husband's death, a widow may have her marriage portion and inheritance at once and without trouble. She shall pay nothing for her , marriage portion, or any inheritance that she and her husband held jointly on the day of his death. She may remain in her husband's house for forty days after his death, and within this period her dower shall be assigned to her.

8. No widow shall be compelled to marry, so long as she wishes to remain without a husband. But she must give security that she will not marry without royal consent, if she holds her lands of the Crown, or without the consent of whatever other lord she may hold them of.

9. Neither we nor our officials will seize any land or rent in payment of a debt, so long as the debtor has movable goods sufficient to discharge the debt. A debtor's sureties shall not be distrained upon so long as the debtor himself can discharge his debt. If, for lack of means, the debtor is unable to discharge his debt, his sureties shall be answerable for it. If they so desire, they may have the debtor's lands and rents until they have received satisfaction for the debt that they paid for him, unless the debtor can show that he has settled his obligations to them.

10. If anyone who has borrowed a sum of money from Jews dies before the debt has been repaid, his heir shall pay no interest on the debt for so long as he remains under age, irrespective of whom he holds his lands. If such a debt falls into the hands of the Crown, it will take nothing except the principal sum specified in the bond.

11. If a man dies owing money to Jews, his wife may have her dower and pay nothing towards the debt from it. If he leaves children that are under age, their needs may also be provided for on a scale appropriate to the size of his holding of lands. The debt is to be paid out of the residue, reserving the service due to his feudal lords. Debts owed to persons other than Jews are to be dealt with similarly.

12. No `scutage' or `aid' may be levied in our kingdom without its general consent, unless it is for the ransom of our person, to make our eldest son a knight, and (once) to marry our eldest daughter. For these purposes ouly a reasonable `aid' may be levied. `Aids' from the are to be treated similarly.

13. The city of London shall enjoy all its ancient liberties and free customs, both by land and by water. We also will and grant that all other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports shall enjoy all their liberties and free customs.

14. To obtain the general consent of the realm for the assessment of an `aid' - except in the three cases specified above - or a `scutage', we will cause the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons to be summoned individually by letter. To those who hold lands directly of us we will cause a general summons to be issued, through the sheriffs and other officials, to come together on a fixed day (of which at least forty days notice shall be given) and at a fixed place. In all letters of summons, the cause of the summons will be stated. When a summons has been issued, the business appointed for the day shall go forward in accordance with the resolution of those present, even if not all those who were summoned have appeared.

15. In future we will allow no one to levy an `aid' from his free men, except to ransom his person, to make his eldest son a knight, and (once) to marry his eldest daughter. For these purposes only a reasonable `aid' may be levied. 16. No man shall be forced to perform more service for a knight's `fee', or other free holding of land, than is due from it.

17. Ordinary lawsuits shall not follow the royal court around, but shall be held in a fixed place.

18. Inquests of novel disseisin, mort d'ancestor, and darrein presentment shall be taken only in their proper county court. We ourselves, or in our absence abroad our chief justice, will send two justices to each county four times a year, and these justices, with four knights of the county elected by the county itself, shall hold the assizes in the county court, on the day and in the place where the court meets.

19. If any assizes cannot be taken on the day of the county court, as many knights and freeholders shall afterwards remain behind, of those who have attended the court, as will suffice for the administration of justice, having regard to the volume of business to be done.

20. For a trivial offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a serious offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood. In the same way, a merchant shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandman the implements of his husbandry, if they fall upon the mercy of a royal court. None of these fines shall be imposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood.

21. Earls and barons shall not be amerced save through their peers, and only according to the measure of the offence.

22. No clerk shall be amerced for his lay tenement ecept according to the manner of the other persons aforesaid; and not according to the amount of his ecclesiastical benefice.

23. Neither a town nor a man shall be forced to make bridges over the rivers, with the exception of those who, from of old and of right ought to do it.

24. No sheriff, constable, coroners, or other bailiffs of ours shall hold the pleas of our crown.

25. All counties, hundreds, wapentakes, and trithings--our demesne manors being exccepted--shall continue according to the old farms, without any increase at all.

26. If any one holding from us a lay fee shall die, and our sheriff or bailiff can show our letters patent containing our summons for the debt which the dead man owed to us,--our sheriff or bailiff may be allowed to attach and enroll the chattels of the dead man to the value of that debt, through view of lawful men; in such way, however, that nothing shall be removed thence until the debt is paid which was plainly owed to us. And the residue shall be left to the executors that they may carry out the will of the dead man. And if nothing is owed to us by him, all the chattels shall go to the use prescribed by the deceased, saving their reasonable portions to his wife and children.

27. If any freeman shall have died intestate his chattels shall be distributed through the hands of his near relatives and friends, by view of the church; saving to any one the debts which the dead man owed him.

28. No constable or other bailiff of ours shall take the corn or other chattels of any one except he straightway give money for them, or can be allowed a respite in that regard by the will of the seller.

29. No constable shall force any knight to pay money for castleward if he be willing to perform that ward in person, or--he for a reasonable cause not being able to perform it himself--through another proper man. And if we shall have led or sent him on a military expedition, he shall be quit of ward according to the amount of time during which, through us, he shall have been in military service.

30. No sheriff nor bailiff of ours, nor any one else, shall take the horses or carts of any freeman for transport, unless by the will of that freeman.

31. Neither we nor our bailiffs shall take another's wood for castles or for other private uses, unless by the will of him to whom the wood belongs.

32. We shall not hold the lands of those convicted of felony longer than a year and a day; and then the lands shall be restored to the lords of the fiefs.

33. Henceforth all the weirs in the Thames and Medway, and throughout all England, save on the sea-coast, shall be done away with entirely.

34. Henceforth the writ which is called Praecipe shall not be to served on any one for any holding so as to cause a free man to lose his court.

35. There shall be one measure of wine throughout our whole realm, and one measure of ale and one measure of corn--namely, the London quart;--and one width of dyed and russet and hauberk cloths--namely, two ells below the selvage. And with weights, moreover, it shall be as with measures.

36. Henceforth nothing shall be given or taken for a writ of inquest in a matter concerning life or limb; but it shall be conceded gratis, and shall not be denied.

37. If any one hold of us in fee-farm, or in socage, or in burkage, and hold land of another by military service, we shall not, by reason of that fee-farm, or socage, or burkage, have the wardship of his heir or of his land which is held in fee from another. Nor shall we have the wardship of that fee-farm, or socage, or burkage unless that fee-farm owe military service. We shall not, by reason of some petit- which some one holds of us through the service of giving us knives or arrows or the like, have the wardship of his heir or of the land which he holds of another by military service.

38. No bailiff, on his own simple assertion, shall henceforth any one to his law, without producing faithful witnesses in evidence.

39. No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseized, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way harmed--nor will we go upon or send upon him--save by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land.

40. To none will we sell, to none deny or delay, right or justice.

41. All merchants may safely and securely go out of England, and come into England, and delay and pass through England, as well by land as by water, for the purpose of buying and selling, free from all evil taxes, subject to the ancient and right customs--save in time of war, and if they are of the land at war against us. And if such be found in our land at the beginning of the war, they shall be held, without harm to their bodies and goods, until it shall be known to us or our chief justice how the merchants of our land are to be treated who shall, at that time, be found in the land at war against us. And if ours shall be safe there, the others shall be safe in our land.

42. Henceforth any person, saving fealty to us, may go out of our realm and return to it, safely and securely, by land and by water, except perhaps for a brief period in time of war, for the common good of the realm. But prisoners and outlaws are excepted according to the law of the realm; also people of a land at war against us, and the merchants, with regard to whom shall be done as we have said.

43. If any one hold from any escheat--as from the honour of Walingford, Nottingham, Boloin, Lancaster, or the other escheats which are in our hands and are baronies--and shall die, his heir shall not give another relief, nor shall he perform for us other service than he would perform for a baron if that barony were in the hand of a baron; and we shall hold it in the same way in which the baron has held it.

44. Persons dwelling without the forest shall not henceforth come before the forest justices, through common summonses, unless they are impleaded or are the sponsors of some person or persons attached for matters concerning the forest.

45. We will not make men justices, constables, sheriffs, or bailiffs unless they are such as know the law of the realm, and are minded to observe it rightly.

46. All barons who have founded abbeys for which they have charters of the king of England, or ancient right of tenure, shall have, as they ought to have, their custody when vacant. 47- A11 forests constituted as such in our time shall straightway be annulled; and the same shall be done for river banks made into places of defence by us in our time.

48. A11 evil customs concerning forests and warrens, and concerning foresters and warreners, sheriffs and their servants, river banks and their guardians, shall straightway be inquired into each county, through twelve sworn knights from that county, and shall be eradicated by them, entirely, so that they shall never be renewed, within forty days after the inquest has been made; in such manner that we shall first know about them, or our justice if we be not in England.

49. We shall straightway return all hostages and charters which were delivered to us by Englishmen as a surety for peace or faithful service.

50. We shall entirey remove from their bailwicks the relatives of Gerard de Athyes, so that they shall henceforth have no bailwick in England: Engelard de Cygnes, Andrew Peter and Gyon de Chanceles, Gyon de Cygnes, Geoffrey de Martin and his brothers, Philip Mark and his brothers, and Geoffrey his nephew, and the whole following of them.

51. And straightway after peace is restored we shall remove from the realm all the foreign soldiers, crossbowmen, servants, hirelings, who may have come with horses and arms to the harm of the realm.

52. If any one shall have been disseized by us, or removed, without a legal sentence of his peers, from his lands, castles, liberties or lawful right, we shall straightway restore them to him. And if a dispute shall arise concerning this matter it shall be settled according to the judgment of the twenty-five barons who are mentioned below as sureties for the peace. But with regard to all those things of which any one was, by king Henry our father or king Richard our brother, disseized or dispossessed without legal judgment of his peers, which we have in our hand or which others hold, and for which we ought to give a guarantee: We shall have respite until the common term for crusaders. Except with regard to those concerning which a plea was moved, or an inquest made by our order, before we took the cross. But when we return from our pilgrimage, or if, by chance, we desist from our pilgrimage, we shall straightway then show full justice regarding them.

53. We shall have the same respite, moreover, and in the same manner, in the matter of showing justice with regard to forests to be annulled and forests to remain, which Henry our father or Richard our brother constituted; and in the matter of wardships of lands which belong to the fee of another--wardships of which kind we have hitherto enjoyed by reason of the fee which some one held from us in military service;--and in the matter of abbeys founded in the fee of another than ourselves--in which the lord of the fee may say that he has jurisdiction. And when we return, or if we desist from our pilgrimage, we shall straightway exhibit full justice to those complaining with regard to these matters. 54. No one shall be taken or imprisoned on account of the appeal of a woman concerning the death of another than her husband.

55. All fines imposed by us unjustly and contrary to the law of the land, and all amerciaments made unjustly and contrary to the law of the land, shall be altogether remitted, or it shall be done with regard to them according to the judgment of the twenty five barons mentioned below as sureties for the peace, or according to the judgment of the majority of them together with the aforesaid Stephen archbishop of Canterbury, if he can be present, and with others whom he may wish to associate with himself for this purpose. And if he can not be present, the affair shall nevertheless proceed without him; in such way that, if one or more of the said twenty five barons shall be concerned in a similar complaint, they shall be removed as to this particular decision, and, in their place, for this purpose alone, others shall be subtituted who shall be chosen and sworn by the remainder of those twenty five.

56. If we have disseized or dispossessed Welshmen of their lands or liberties or other things without legal judgment of their peers, in England or in Wales,--they shall straightway be restored to them. And if a dispute shall arise concerning this, then action shall be taken upon it in the March through judgment of their peers- -concerning English holdings according to the law of England, concerning Welsh holdings according to the law of Wales, concerning holdings in the March according to the law of the March. The Welsh shall do likewise with regard to us and our subjects.

57. But with regard to all those things of which any one of the Welsh by king Henry our father or king Richard our brother, disseized or dispossessed without legal judgment of his peers, which we have in our hand or which others hold, and for which we ought to give a guarantee: we shall have respite until the common term for crusaders. Except with regard to those concerning which a plea was moved, or an inquest made by our order, before we took the cross. But when we return from our pilgrimage, or if, by chance, we desist from our pilgrimage, we shall straightway then show full justice regarding them, according to the laws of Wales and the aforesaid districts.

58. We shall straightway return the son of Llewelin and all the Welsh hostages, and the charters delivered to us as surety for the peace.

59. We shall act towards Alexander king of the Scots regarding the restoration of his sisters, and his hostages, and his liberties and his lawful right, as we shall act towards our other barons of England; unless it ought to be otherwise according to the charters which we hold from William, his father, the former king of the Scots. And this shall be done through judgment of his peers in our court.

60. Moreover all the subjects of our realm, clergy as well as laity, shall, as far as pertains to them, observe, with regard to their vassals, all these aforesaid customs and liberties which we have decreed shall, as far as pertains to us, be observed in our realm with regard to our own.

61. Inasmuch as, for the sake of God, and for the bettering of our realm, and for the more ready healing of the discord which has arisen between us and our barons, we have made all these aforesaid concessions,-- wishing them to enjoy for ever entire and firm stability, we make and grant to them the folIowing security: that the baron, namely, may elect at their pleaure twenty five barons from the realm, who ought, with all their strength, to observe, maintain and cause to be observed, the peace and privileges which we have granted to them and confirmed by this our present charter. In such wise, namely, that if we, or our justice, or our bailiffs, or any one of our servants shall have transgressed against any one in any respect, or shall have broken one of the articles of peace or security, and our transgression shall have been shown to four barons of the aforesaid twenty five: those four barons shall come to us, or, if we are abroad, to our justice, showing to us our error; and they shall ask us to cause that error to be amended without delay. And if we do not amend that error, or, we being abroad, if our justice do not amend it within a term of forty days from the time when it was shown to us or, we being abroad, to our justice: the aforesaid four barons shall refer the matter to the remainder of the twenty five barons, and those twenty five barons, with the whole land in common, shall distrain and oppress us in every way in their power,--namely, by taking our castles, lands and possessions, and in every other way that they can, until amends shall have been made according to their judnnent. Saving the persons of ourselves, our queen and our children. And when amends shall have been made they shall be in accord with us as they had been previously. And whoever of the land wishes to do so, shall swear that in carrying out all the aforesaid measures he will obey the mandates of the aforesaid twenty five barons, and that, with them, he will oppress us to the extent of his power. And, to any one who wishes to do so, we publicly and freely give permission to swear; and we will never prevent any one from swearing. Moreover, all those in the land who shall be unwilling, themselves and of their own accord, to swear to the twenty five barons as to distraining and oppressing us with them: such ones we shall make to wear by our mandate, as has been said. And if any one of the twenty five barons shall die, or leave the country, or in any other way be prevented from carrying out the aforesaid measures,--the remainder of the aforesaid twenty five barons shall choose another in his place, according to their judgment, who shall be sworn in the same way as the others. Moreover, in all things entrusted to those twenty five barons to be carried out, if those twenty five shall be present and chance to disagree among themselves with regard to some matter, or if some of them, having been summoned, shall be unwilling or unable to be present: that which the majority of those present shall decide or decree shall be considered binding and valid, just as if all the twenty five had consented to it. And the aforesaid twenty five shall swear that they will faithfully observe all the foregoing, and will caue them be observed to the extent of their power. And we shall obtain nothing from any one, either through ourselves or through another, by which any of those concessions and liberties may be revoked or diminished. And if any such thing shall have been obtained, it shall be vain and invalid, and we shall never make use of it either through ourselves or through another.

62. And we have fully remitted to all, and pardoned, all the ill- will, anger and rancour which have arisen between us and our subjects, clergy and laity, from the time of the struggle. Moreover have fully remitted to all, clergy and laity, and--as far as pertains to us--have pardoned fully all the transgressions committed, on the occasion of that same struggle, from Easter of the sixteenth year of our reign until the re-establishment of peace. In witness of which, more-over, we have caused to be drawn up for them letters patent of lord Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, lord Henry, archbishop of Dubland the aforesaid bishops and master Pandulf, regarding that surety and the aforesaid concessions.

63. Wherefore we will and firmly decree that the English church shall be free, and that the subjects of our realm shall have and hold all the aforesaid liberties, rights and concessions, duly and in peace, freely and quietly, fully and entirely, for themselves and their heirs from us and our heirs, in all matters and in all places, forever, as has been said. Moreover it has been sworn, on our part as well as on the part of the barons, that all these above mentioned provisions shall observed with good faith and without evil intent. The witnesses being the above mentioned and many others. Given through our hand, in the plain called Runnymede between Windsor and Stanes, on the fifteenth day of June, in the seventeenth year of our reign