Sokoto Caliphate: It’S Rise and Fall

SHERIFF MUDASIRU

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Islamic and Other Civilization

International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization International Islamic University Malaysia

JUNE 2009 ABSTRACT

Usman Dan Fodio was a Fulani mystic, teacher, philosopher, and revolutionary reformer, born on December 1754 in Gobir, Hausaland (Northern Nigeria). He was not pleased with the situation of things in his community. Therefore, he developed a critique against what the rulers of his time were doing, for what he saw as their greed, heavy taxation on the people, paganism, or violation of the standards of Sharia law, and above all the Hausastates were mingling the Islam with aspects of traditional religions. He launched a Jihad (holy war) between 1804/08, and he was able to defeat most of the rulers of the Hausastates and created in 1809 a new Muslim state, known as Sokoto caliphate that ensured the reformation of the whole society that was set up on the principles of justice and rule of law. The Sokoto Caliphate became one of the most powerful empires in sub-Saharan Africa prior to European conquest and colonization. However, the British influence became more pronounced in this area after the Berlin Conference (1884/85). In 1900, Frederick Lugard became high commissioner of the protectorate of Northern Nigeria, and in 1903, his troops conquered the two major cities of the caliphate, Sokoto and Kano and he took over the affair of the states. This brings about the fall of the caliphate. The Sokoto Jihad affected the course of history throughout the Savanna from Senegal to the Red Sea. In this regard, it is worthwhile looking into what brought about the fall of the caliphate. This research therefore, has examined various factors that led to the Jihad movement and its eventual fall.

ii ﻣﻠﺨﺺ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ

ﻛﺎﻥ ﻋﺜﻤﺎﻥ ﺩﺍﻥ ﻓﻮﺩﻱ ﻋﺎﳌﺎ ﺻﻮﻓﻴﺎ ﻓﻴﻠﺴﻮﻓﺎ ﻭﳎﺪﺩﺍ. ﻭﻟﺪ ﰲ ﺩﻳﺴﻤﱪ، ﺳﻨﺔ 1754ﻡ ﰲ ﻏﻮﺑﺮ، ﺑﻼﺩ ﺍﳍﻮﺳﺎ (ﴰﺎﻝ ﻧﻴﺠﲑﻳﺎ). ﻭﻫﻮ ﱂ ﻳﺮﺽ ﲟﺎ ﻳﺪﻭﺭ ﰲ ﳎﺘﻤﻌﻪ. ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺃﺷﻌﻞ ﺛﻮﺭﺓ ﺿ ﺪ ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﻔﻌﻠﻪ ﺍﳊﻜﹼﺎﻡ ﰲ ﺯﻣﺎﻧﻪ، ﺫﻟﻚ ﻷﻧﻪ ﻻﺣﻆ ﻓﻴﻬﻢ ﺍﳊﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﺸﺪﻳﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻧﻴﺎ، ﻭﻛﺎﻧﻮﺍ ﻳﺮﻫﻘﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺱ ﺑﺎﳉﺰﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﺮﻳﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ. ﺑﺎﻻﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻛﺎﻧﻮﺍ ﻳﻌﺒﺪﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﺛﺎﻥ ﻭﻻ ﻳﺒﺎﻟﻮﻥ ﺑﺘﻌﺎﻟﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ، ﲝﻴﺚ ﺃ ﻥﹼ ﺳﻜﹼﺎﻥ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳍﻮﺳﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﻮﺍ ﳝﺰﺟﻮﻥ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ ﺑﺒﻌﺾ ﺷﻌﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻷﺩﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ. ﻗﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﺦ ﻋﺜﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﳉﻬﺎﺩ ﻣﺎ ﺑﲔ 1804ﻡ/1808ﻡ، ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻄﺎﻉ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻬﺰﻡ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺣﻜﹼﺎﻡ ﻭﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﳍﻮﺳﺎ، ﰒﹼ ﺃﺳﺲ ﰲ ﺳﻨﺔ 1809ﻡ، ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺇﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﻤﺎﺓ ﲞﻼﻓﺔ ﺻﻜﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻮﻟﹼﺖ ﺃﻣﺮ ﺇﺻﻼﺡ ﺍﺘﻤﻊ ﺑﻜﺎﻣﻠﻪ. ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﹸﺳﺴﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﳊﻜﻢ ﲟﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ. ﺻ ﺎ ﺭ ﺕ ﺧﻼﻓﺔ ﺻﻜﺘﻮ ﺇﺣﺪﻯ ﺃﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﻤﺎﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﰲ ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﺟﻨﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍﺀ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻴﲔ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻭﺳﻴﻄﺮﻢ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭﻫﻢ ﳍﺎ. ﻭ ﻟ ﻜ ﻦ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﺍﻟﱪﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﲔ ﺻﺎﺭ ﺃﻛﱪ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺆﲤﺮ ﺑﺮﻟﲔ ﰲ (1884ﻡ/85ﻡ). ﻭﰲ 1900ﻡ، ﺻﺎﺭ ﻓﺮﻳﺪﺭﻳﻚ ﻟﻮﻏﺎﺭﺩ ﺍﳌﻔﻮﺽ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱄ ﶈﻤﻴﺔ ﴰﺎﻝ ﻧﻴﺠﲑﻳﺎ. ﻭﰲ ﺳﻨﺔ 1903ﻡ، ﻫ ﺰ ﻣ ﺖ ﺟﻴﻮﺷﻪ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﱵ ﺍﳋﻼﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺘﲔ، ﻭﳘﺎ ﺻﻜﺘﻮ ﻭﻛﺎﻧﻮ، ﻓ ﺘ ﻮ ﻟﹼ ﺖ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺷﺆﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ. ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﱄ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﳋﻼﻓﺔ. ﺃ ﺛﹼ ﺮ ﺕ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺟﻬﺎﺩ ﺻﻜﺘﻮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﲑﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻋﱪ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﺳﻔﻨﺎﺀ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻐﺎﻝ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﲪﺮ. ﻭ ﻟ ﻜ ﻞﹼ ﻫﺬﺍ، ﳚﺪﺭ ﺑﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺃ ﺩ ﺕ ﺇﱃ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﳋﻼﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻜﺘﻴﺔ، ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺃ ﺩ ﺕ ﺇﱃ ﳒﺎﺡ ﳊﺮﻛﺔ ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺃﺩﺕ ﺇﱃ ﺳﻘﻮﻃﻬﺎ.

iii APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Masters of Islamic and Other Civilization.

……………………………. Hassan El-Nagar Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Masters of Islamic and Other Civilization.

…………………………… Baharudin Ahmad Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC) and is accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Islamic and Other Civilization.

……………………………… Ibrahim M. Zein Dean, International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization

iv DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Sheriff Mudasiru

Signature………………………………. Date…………………………...

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

THE SOKOTO CALIPHATE: IT’S RISE AND FALL

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgment.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Sheriff Mudasiru

………………………………….. ………………………… Signature Date

vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe it to Almighty Allah, for his infinite mercies and guidance since the beginning of my life. I sincerely extend my profound gratitude and appreciation to all my family members and friends, both home and abroad, also I will like to gratefully acknowledge the supervision Prof. Dr. Hasan El-Nagar and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Baharudin Ahmed who despite their tight official engagements took time off to put me through the completion of this work. I express my deep gratitude to all academic and non-academic staff of ISTAC who had helped me immensely in their own special ways, not to forget the following people from whom I had benefited greatly from their wisdom of knowledge, Prof. Dr. Ajmal M. Razak Al-Aidrus, Emeritus Prof. Dr. Osman Bakar, Prof. Dr. Cemil Akdogan, Ustaz (Dr.) Muhammad Uthman El- Muhammady and Bro. Farid Ali. I am greatly indebted to my beloved parents, wife and children whose motivation and prayers have been a tremendous boost for my work. I must also record my appreciation to my friends in ISTAC and IIUM, who have been a source of inspiration, ideas and companionship. My family and friends in Nigeria, United Kingdom and Australia must be mentioned for their constant motivation and prayers for me even when I was away from them. Thank you one and all.

vii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... ii Abstract in Arabic ...... iii Approval Page ...... iv Declaration Page ...... v Copyright Page ...... vi Acknowledgements ...... vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Face of Islam and Traditional religion in Hausaland...... 2 1.2 The Historical Analysis of Hausa Religions ...... 4 1.3 The Historical movement in Hausaland ...... 6 1.4 Usman Dan Fodio: The Man ...... 7 1.4.1 Usman Dan Fodio’s Philosophy of Education and its Jihad……..14 1.4.2 Dan Fodio’s Philosophy of Education …………………………...18 1.4.3 Evolution of the Jihad …………………………………………....22 1.4.4 Usman Dan Fodio’s Influence ……………………………………25 1.5 Objectives and Methodology ……………………………………………29 1.6 Justification ……………………………………………………………...30 1.7 Scope of the Study…………………………………………………….....30

CHAPTER 2: Sokoto Caliphate: Its Rise and Development ...... 31 2.1 The State of the Sokoto Caliphate ...... 32 2.2 The Flag Bearers ...... 34 2.2.1 Zaria, Katsina and Kano ...... 34 2.2.2 Macina ...... 34 2.2.3 Nupe ...... 34 2.2.4 Adamawa ...... 34 2.2.5 Ilorin ...... 35 2.3 At the End of the Jihad ...... 35 2.3.1 Economic Benefit of the Jihad ...... 38 2.3.2 Political and Social Benefits of the Jihad ...... 39

CHAPTER 3: The Fall of the Sokoto Caliphate ...... 42 3.1 Internal Crises and Revolt ...... 42 3.2 Influence of the Old Dynasties ...... 48 3.3 Colonization ……………………………………………………………..49 3.3.1 The Creation of Nigeria …………………………………………...53 3.3.2 Arrival of the Missionaries………………………………………....54

viii CHAPTER 4: Conclusion ...... 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 62

ix CHAPTER 1 ` INTRODUTION

By the late seventeenth century, the Muslim world, which had once been in the fore front around the Mediterranean for its military skill, learning and government, was in decline. In western Sudan the Muslim empires of Songhai and Borno had collapsed, and by 1800C.E there were only small minority groups of Muslims in non-Muslim states. Many Muslim scholars and teachers had become disenchanted with the insecurity that characterized the Muslim world. Scholars of the western Sudan believed this was because most Muslims had abandoned the simple living habits and purity of faith of the earliest Muslims. Therefore, during this century they formed a number of reform movements to restore the Muslim world to its former greatness by renewed devotion to the ideals of Islam. Prominent among these Muslim scholars was

Usman Dan Fodio.

The people despised the Hausa Kings for their sacrifices and belief in spirits, as they were mixing Islam with aspects of traditional religions. These scenarios prompted Usman Dan Fodio to think of a reformist program, revolution that would overthrow the existing authorities. The new state that arose during Usman Dan Fodio's

Jihad came to be known as the Sokoto Caliphate, named after his capital at Sokoto, founded in 1809C.E. The invasion of the British and the French colonialists was the primary cause for the destruction of the Sokoto Caliphate.

1 FACE OF ISLAM AND TRADITIONAL RELIGION IN HAUSALAND

Religion affects social and political order by defining appropriate conduct and morality. That is why religion plays an important role in the life of the people in the society. Many scholars have focused on the fact that religion has been used as a weapon to moderate the society, fight against and in support of opposition, oppression, and corruption. Therefore, religion plays a very vital role in shaping the society to which people belong.

Traditional religion, until the appearance of Islam was the predominant religion in the Hausaland. This seems to belong to a belief system, widely spread in tropical

Africa, involving the belief in a high distant God not actively connected with everyday life of men, supplemented by a chain of supernatural forces directly in touch with men, controlling their destiny in everyday life. These peoples of the Hausa kingdoms venerated one God, Allah, while at the same time working to reconcile themselves to other forces more immediate to their local environments and day-to-day experiences.

A good ruler was one who was able to draw upon the support of Allah when such support was appropriate but who nevertheless maintained forces that would be most responsive to the needs of the kingdom. No conqueror of the Hausa kingdoms could rule effectively without also conquering and taming the local spirits.1 It was of highest importance that the ruler was a master of the spiritual forces available to him.

Moreover, the African has always accepted spiritual power as a quality that gives the right to rule. It is no wonder, therefore, that anyone with leadership ambition looks upon religion as an ally. That is why, both Muslim and non-Muslim used religion as a means of service to lead their people.

1 Herbert L. Bodman & Nayereh Esfahlani Tohidi, Women in Muslim societies: Diversity within unity, (n.p.: Lynne Rienner, 1998), 25-26.

2 Traditional religious powers are normally believed to sustain a moral order in which they prosper and the good are rewarded, not so much in some nebulous after- life as within society itself.2 While, in Islam the caliphate is an institution of the

Muslim religious law, and as such determines the position of the ruler or sultan.3

John Mbiti, describes traditional religion as a system which, before everything else, is a tribal religion. Traditional religions of a particular tribe are not propagated by another tribal group. There is no conversion from one traditional religion to another.

Each society has its own religious system, and the propagation of such a complete system would involve propagating the entire life of the people concerned. Therefore, a person has to be born in a particular society in order to assimilate the religious system of the society to which he belongs.4 William Howell feels inclined to refer to these traditional religions as native cult. By this he means to convey that the religions are uniquely indigenous. In most instances they have developed among the very tribes they serve.5 The Hausaland, of which Gobir and Katsina were the most powerful, were ruled by traditionalists, or Muslims in name only who mixed traditionalism and Islam

South and west of the great bend of the Niger Bambara.6

By the end of the Eleventh century a number of African rulers in this region had become Muslims, and the majority of the populace of the Berber tribes of the

Western Sahara converted to Islam.7 But, they were undoubtedly unbelievers, even though they may profess the religion of Islam, because they practiced polytheistic

2 I.M. Lewis, Islam in tropical Africa: Islam and traditional belief, (Oxford University: International African Institute, 1966), 58-9. 3 Ibn Khaldun, The muqaddimah: An introduction to history, translated from Arabic by Franz Rosenthal (volume two), (London and Henley: Routledge and Kegan Paul, n.d.), 5. 4 John S. Mbiti, African religions and philosophy (London: Heinemann, 1969), 4. 5 William Howell, The Heathens (Garden city, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday and Co., 1962) 5. 6 J.B Webster, A.A Boahen, and Michael Tidy, The revolutionary years: West Africa since 1800, (Hong Kong :Sheck Wah Tong Printing limited, n.d.), 1. 7 John Hunwick, “The Islamic manuscript heritage of Timbuktu,” (accessed 11 August, 2008).

3 rituals and turned people away from the path of God. They raised the flag of worldly kingdoms above the banner of Islam.

However upon the introduction of Islam, what is clear is that indigenous religious practices were still very much alive in the Hausaland. Many Muslim converts tolerated indigenous practices, and most of the rural areas were probably unaffected by Islam. As far as Islam is concerned, many scholars have argued that it is a religion with a revolutionary force, one that shapes national and international politics.8 At this point, it must be mentioned that some scholars argue that the introduction of Islam to Nigeria was largely the work of the Muslim traders from northern Africa, although sources relating to the introduction of Islam into western and central Sudan are so meager and unreliable. What, is clear is the slow peaceful nature of its spread and the weakness of its impact upon Sudanese religions and social life. This is due to the peculiarities of its adoption as a class religion with a place within the ruling pagan social structure done in such a way that its effect as a religious law and spiritual transformer was completely neutralized.9 However, the changes which Islam brings to traditional religion are the consequence of the systems of today.10

THE HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF HAUSA RELIGIONS

History has shown that primitive tribal religion has a self-centered orientation which tends to resist any alien system. Songhai and Fulani gradually decentralized the tribal

8 See the following: A. Dessouki, ed., Islamic Resurgence in the Arab World. New York: Praeger, 1982; Z. Sardar, Islamic Futures: the Shape of Ideas to Come, (London: Mansell, 1985); B. Rubin, Islamic Fundamentalism in Egyptian Politics, (London Macmillan,1990); H. Roberts, "Radical Islamism and the dilemma of Algerian nationalism: the embattled Arians of Algeirs,” Third World Quarterly, 10, 22, 1988, pp. 567-75D. Pipes, "Understanding Islam in Politics," Middle East Review, 16, 2, 1983-4, pp. 3-16; and W. W. Montgomery, Islamic Fundamentalism and Modernity, (London: Routledge, 1990). 9 J. Spencer, 23-33. 10 W. M. Watt, Islam and the integration of society (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961).

4 cults and introduced a superior basis for religion.11 Islam was the first alien religion to have a major impact upon the ancient religions of Nigeria.12 In northern Nigeria, traditional religion has changed in various ways due to the long influence of Islam.

Islam, by contrast, is superiority over tribal, providing an option for disoriented tribal members and creating a new religious identity which is often more meaningful than the tribe of birth. The secret of Islam’s powerful appeal lies in the fact that it is not only a religion regulating the spiritual side of the believer, but also an all-embracing way of life governing the totality of the Muslim’s life.13

The Islamization of the Hausa was not a quick or simple conversion of the masses by any measure. The process had profound sociological and political impact that carried consequences for both traditional religion and Islam.14

Starting from about 1804C.E the Fulani succeeded in extending Islam into the so-called pagan strongholds, as far south as the Niger River into Kwara and Afemai.15

Muslim scholars pointed out that all the activities of the Hausa kings were illegal according to Quranic law. They preached reform, and attracted not only Muslims but also traditionalists ready to support reform even if they did not like the Muslim religion. What the reformers now needed was a leader.16 Islam was reinvigorated when Usman Dan Fodio and his follower, launched a holy war to stamp out ancestral paganism and to restore, spread and consolidate Islam. It must be clearly understood that the nature of the disputes between the Hausa kings and Usman Dan Fodio at the beginning of the nineteenth century was similar to the character of those between

11 Gilliland, African religion meet Islam: Religious change in "northern Nigeria. (America: University Press of America, 1986), 12. 12 Ibid., 2. 13 Caesar E. Farah, Islam: Beliefs and observances, (Barron's Educational Series, 2003), 14. 14 Gilliland, 4. 15 John O. Huwinck, Religion and national integration in Africa, (n.p.: n.d),102-103. 16 J.B Webster, 3-4.

5 Songhai and Morocco at the end of the sixteenth century. Songhai and Hausa kings were defending traditional African values of government. On the other hand, Morocco and the jihad movement headed by Usman Dan Fodio were promoting the Islamic religion.17 The Sokoto leaders never intended to create an empire, ruled by force.

Rather, they wished to create a caliphate, a confederation of states held together by common aims and religious allegiance to the Amir al-Mu’minin (Leader of the

Faithful).

THE HISTORICAL MOVEMENT IN HAUSALAND

The connection between religion and politics is deeply rooted in the historical and religious development of Northern Nigeria. Unlike Christianity, the link between religion and politics has been an important part of Muslim thought and practice.18 For many African historians, traditional religion is simply a starting point for measuring the historical impact of Islam and Christianity.

Historical movements are often presented within a background of political and social institutions, designated by Western terminology, as most of the African history has been written and produced by the living historian. That is citizens of the western world. According to Ifi, this is “one of the dangers of having our feet struck in western-produced literature is the tendency to use European terms and expressions uncritically in addressing non-European cultures and expressing”.19 Hence, this has disfigured the face of African history. According to Kenneth W. ‘European scholarship has for a long time wallowed in the infatuation that African history and

17 Okon Akiba, Constitutionalism and society in Africa, (n.p.: Ashgate publishing, ltd., 2004), 30. 18 Ogbu Kalu, Chima Korieh, G. Ugo Nwokeji and Obioma Nanaemeka, Religion, history and politic in Nigeria, (n.p.: n.p., n.d.), 110. 19 Ifi Amadiune, Re-inventing Africa: Matriarchy, religion and culture, (n.p.: Zed Books, 1998), 1.

6 literature are nothing but reaction to or extension of its history and literature.’20 In order to give better understanding of the African history, it is necessary for the Africa historian to have some acquaintance with related fields of study. Too often the history called 'Muslim history is actually the more limited history of the Muslim Middle East.

USMAN DAN FODIO: THE MAN

The Usman Dan Fodio holy war starts in the first decade of the nineteenth century, which reorganized the Hausa society and brought the Fulani into power.21 He was, one of the most significant Muslim leaders in West Africa (usually arabicized as ‘Uthman ibn Fudi). Known as the “Shehu” in his own country, Usman reformed Islam. He was a spiritual leader, a writer, and an intellectual. His teachings were new, and his writings were both numerous and influential; many of them are still read in West

Africa.22 He was one of a class of urbanized ethnic Fulani living in the Hausaland in what is today’s northern Nigeria. The history of the Fulani (The Shehu’s tribe) goes as far back as the Seventh Century, when the Berbers traveled down south to the Futa

Toro plains. Here they inter-married with the sedentary Fulani cultivators producing a semi nomadic Fulani who grew prosperous and migrated to the East. By the

Fourteenth Century, This semi nomadic Fulani had reached Masina and by the

Fifteenth Century, they appeared among the Hausas. Smaller groups moved into the

Adamawa region now divided between Nigeria and Cameroon. Shehu’s ancestors, the

Torankawa Fulani, were part of this migration. By the Fifteenth Century, they had settled in what later came to be Konni, part of Gobir, a leading Hausaland.

20 Kenneth W. Harrow, Faces of Islam in african literature, eds. Heinemann Portsmouth and James (London: Currey, 1991), 3. 21 Mark Bray, Universal primary education in Nigeria: A study of Kano State, (n.p.: Routledge, 1981), 55. 22 B. G. Martin, Muslim brotherhoods in nineteenth-century Africa, (US: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 13.

7 D. T. Niane, gives his view on what the term Hausa is, ‘Hausa referred only to the mother tongue of the inhabitants of the territory, it appeared as the ethnic name for the people of this territory in the written Arabic sources only in the sixteen and seventeenth centuries. Until that time, these people were known by the name of their particular cities or kingdoms’.23 But according to the popular Kano chronicle the emergence of the Hausas dates back to the Tenth Century. They seemed to have migrated from the North, settled and mixed with the indigenous hunters and eventually established mastery over them.

Usman Dan Fodio was born in the 17th century (1755 C.E), by a renowned scholar named Muhammad Fodiye, who emerged from the Toronkawa clan, which had emigrated from Futa-Toro in Senegal about the 15th century. While he was still young, he moved south with his family to Degel, where he studied the Quran with his father. Subsequently he moved on to other of his relatives that are scholars, traveling from teacher to teacher in the traditional way and reading extensively in the Islamic sciences. He was a follower of the Maliki School in law and the Qadiri order in

Sufism (the Sufi brotherhood that dates back to the 12th century).

About 1774, when he was about twenty years old, he set out on his chosen career as an itinerant Muslim missionary, preaching up and down the Hausa kingdom of Gobir, and then the neighboring kingdoms of Zamfara and kebbi. For the next 12 years he combined study with peripatetic teaching and preaching in Kebbi and Gobir, followed by a further five years in Zamfara.

His main purpose was to reform imperfect Muslims in order to combat the mixing of Islam with polytheism, which has taken to climax in the Hausaland at this period. The fact that there was a social basis for the holy war cannot be denied. Cases

23 Ed. D. T. Niane Berkeley “The Hausa and their neighbour in central Sudan,” In general history of Africa, (vol.4), Africa from the Twelfth to the sixteenth century, (n.p.: n.p., n.d)

8 of exploitation and injustice in pre-holy war era in Hausaland have been extensively documented. The society at this time was not doing very well. A series of corrupt kings had developed, and Islamic ideals were indistinguishable from local superstitions and practices. There were dangerous undercurrents in the society during this period. Economic decline, the need for more areas to graze cattle fuelled the demand for change. Political marginalization of the poor, the exclusion of the Fulani from power, and bad management added to the economic trouble. There was also a great deal of overburdening people with taxes, government corruption, dynastic rules, oppression, tribalism, and heavy oppression of women. The jihadist’s aim was to correct all these lapses. Previous religious wars elsewhere and the doctrine of holy war as a legitimate religious war have been used as evidence to conclude that Dan Fodio had entirely religious motives.

Allah the Most High, out of His mercy for mankind, promised to raise individual (s) who will undertake the task of Tajdeed at the head of each century. As

Abu Dawud narrated in an authentic hadith “From Abu Huraira, may Allah be pleased with him, the Prophet (S.A.W.) said: Verily Allah will raise for this Ummah at the head of every hundred years one (s) who will renew for her, her Deen (way of life).”

By 1780C.E, he has gained appreciable support in Gobir, Kebbi and Zamfara. He then approached Bawa Jangwarzo the then king of Gobir to propose a religious reform to him. The societies at this point in time were in the state of mixing Islamic religion with some aspects of traditional religion. They depended largely upon the protection of their ancestral polytheistic cult.

During this latter period, though committed in principle to avoiding the courts of kings, Dan Fodio visited Bawa, the king of Gobir, from whom he won important concessions for the local Muslim community (including his own freedom to propagate

9 Islam). At this point it is good to mention how he was able to achieve it. This occurred when he was preaching in Zamfara. Bawa the King of Gobir invited all scholars in

Gobir and Usman Dan Fodio in particular to celebrate the Eid al-Kabir of 1788 (or

1789C.E) at the town of Magami. Though this was said to have been a plan to get rid of him, at the end, gifts were distributed to all the scholars. They all accepted the king’s gift with the exception of Usman, who said he and his people were not in need of Bawa’s wealth but would like instead to make five demands:

1. “To allow me to call people to God in your country.

2. Not to stop anybody who intend to respond to my call.

3. To treat with respect anyone with a turban.

4. To free all the (political) prisoners.

5. Not to burden the subjects with taxes”.24

Bawa Jangwarzo (died 1789/1790C.E). But the situation became more critical, when Yakubu succeeded Bawa. He had a deaf ear to Usman Dan Fodio’s call for an

Islamic reform of the society. Although, Yakubu reign was brief (1794-1795C.E), throughout the 1780C.E and 1790C.E, Usman’s reputation increased, as did the size and importance of the community that looked to him for religious and political leadership. Yakubu was succeeded by Nafata, who reigned until 1801C.E. Usman Dan

Fodio and his groups faced greater challenges during Nafata reign. In 1790C.E, when

Usman seemed to have lived continuously at Degel, a conflict developed between his substantial community and the Gobir ruling dynasty. Dan Fodio used his influence to secure approval to create a religious community in his hometown of Degel, with the hope that it will be a model town for him to propagate the kind of Islamic religion and society which he had visualized.

24 F.H. El-Masri ‘The life, of Usman Dan Fodio before the Jihad’, (J.H. S.F. ii, 4(1963), 44.

10 About 1797–98C.E, king Nafata, who was aware that Usman had permitted his community to be armed and who no doubt feared that it was acquiring the characteristics of a state within the state, reversed the liberal policy he had adopted toward him ten years earlier and issued his historic proclamation forbidding any but he ordered that only Dan Fodio could preach, that those already converted should revert back to their old religion, and prohibited the wearing of turbans and veils. This was an attack on the Islamic community and the sources of their identity, coming at a time when Dan Fodio was also pushing for the adoption of the sharia (Islamic law).

By the time that Yunfa succeeded Nafata as king. In 1802C.E, it was clear that the palace must regain its dominance. Repression followed, to destroy the Islamic community. It was reported that Yunfa studied under Usman Dan Fodio, but, whatever his previous ties with Dan Fodio may have been, he did not improve the status of Usman’s community. Both Hausa and Fulani had many grievances against the mainly non-Muslim ruling aristocracy. The breakdown, when it eventually occurred, turned on a confused incident in which some of the Usman supporters forcibly freed Muslim prisoners taken by a Gobir military expedition. Usman, who seemed to have wished to avoid a final breach, nevertheless agreed that Degel was threatened.

Yunfa turned against him, revoking Degel’s autonomy and attempting to assassinate him. Thus Usman Dan Fodio resisted confrontation with the Hausa establishment for several years despite the urging of members of his growing community who thought that they were ready for confrontation. The preferred choice of Dan Fodio was a peaceful transformation. In the light of this, there was a prolonged period of appeals to Hausa rulers to abandon their bad ways and “return to the pure

11 faith of Islam purged of heresies and accretions”.25 He may have thought that his job was essentially to educate the society. Confrontation was not on the agenda even when the indications showed confrontation was likely. More so, Usman Dan Fodio may have thought that his community was not quite ready to go through the rigour and deprivation a confrontation entails. Or rather, He may have also realized that confrontation requires a much higher level of organization and discipline than was available in his community at the time. Gradually, the number of Usman Dan Fodio’s followers grew, until he was at a point where whenever he traveled he took 1000 of his scholars with him.

Usman carried out a Hijrah (migration) to Gudu, 30 miles (48 km) to the northwest, similar to that of the Prophet Mohammad’s emigration from Mecca to

Medina. History tells us the condition of past nations is reflected in their (national) character. It makes us acquainted with the biographies of the prophets and with the dynasties and policies of rulers.26 It was an unambiguous declaration that a Muslim would not live under the authority of a pagan ruler. Usman Dan Fodio was proclaimed

Amir al-Mu’minin (Leader of the Faithful) in Gudu, despite his own apparent reluctance. The new caliphate was formally established. The kings became nervous because of the number of people he drew away from them. By the 1802C.E, his community was seen as a threat to established interests. While Yunfa considered this as rebellion he then launched an attack on them. This scenario, gave him the authority to declare what resulted in to what is known today as Fulani holy war.

On June 21, 1804, the first battle took place twenty miles outside of Dugu. It was a sweet initial victory for Dan Fodio and his men, who defeated a superior force because of their own determination, high morale and the need to survive. Very

25 J. S. Trimingham, A history of Islam in West Africa, (n.p.: Oxford, 1962), 199-200. 26 Ibn Khaldun, 15.

12 rapidly, other Fulani and thousands of poor people joined Dan Fodio. Other Hausa states panicked, and their persecution of Dan Fodio’s followers served to enlarge the rank of the jihadists. In April 1805, the jihadists captured the important town of Birnin

Kebbi and moved to Gwandu to establish a lasting base. From here, attacks ranged far and wide, and success came with the capture of one Hausa state after another. With the fall of Alkalawa, the powerful capital of Gobir, in four years they overthrew, not only the kingdom of Gobir, but all the neighboring Hausa states such as Kano, Zaria, and Nupe, creating a Fulani-ruled society of emirates unified (1808C.E). The news spread and weakened other Hausa states. Alkalawa, now known has Sokoto.

The success of the jihad and the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate had a profound influence on the nineteenth-century western Sudan. In fact, much of Usman

Dan Fodio’s criticism of the rulers in the Hausaland stemmed from the fact that the patronage of Muslim scholars did not necessarily indicate an acceptance of the restrictions and demands which an orthodox Muslim ruler should place upon the polity and society.27 However, the holy war resulted in a federal theocratic state, with extensive autonomy for emirates, recognizing the spiritual authority of the caliph or the sultan of Sokoto,28 therefore, the state developed as a state concerned primarily with military and economic expansion with organized Islamic rule of law. The contribution of people towards the success of holy war can not be over emphasized, particularly his close associates were his younger brother, Abdullahi, and his son,

Muhammad Bello, and both were actively involved in the holy war that brought about the Caliphate.

27 Waldman (1965) 28 Eds. Christopher Steed, David Westerlund and Ingvar Svanberg, Islam outside the Arab world. (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 1999)

13 After 1811C.E, Usman retired and left the administration of the empire in both the hands of Abdullah and Bello. In theory, he presided over both halves, but in fact he devoted himself more on his scholarship, and continued writing about the righteous conduct of the Muslim belief. Under him the empire was divided into two divisions, half west and east with Abudllah and Bello as the head respectively. Upon his death in

1817C.E, his son, Muhammed Bello, succeeded him as Amir al-Mu’minin (Leader of the Faithful) and became the ruler of the Sokoto Caliphate which was the biggest state south of the Sahara at that time. Usman’s brother Abdullahi was given the title emir of

Gwandu and he was placed in charge of the Western Emirates, Nupe and Ilorin. The

Sokoto caliphate became one of the largest and most powerful empires in sub-Saharan

Africa before the arrival of the colonial masters.

Usman Dan Fodio’s Philosophy of Education and its Jahad

The primary concern of the scholar in the Islamic intellectual tradition is to improve the intellectual and moral state of the individual, and safeguard the well-being of the community. Scholarship is essentially important to the intellectual and moral upbringing of individual human beings, as well as positive transformation and development of the society. The learned, are the pattern of conduct to be emulated by the people. They are the ‘master’ that nurtures the individual to excellence, and for the society social changes, they serve as a focus. The scholar in this tradition and especially in the West African setting emerges with a distinct and unique personality, such individual as Abd al-Karim al-Maghili, Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti, Mukhtar al-

Kunti, and Usman Dan Fodio.

Islam tries to emphasis the issue of acquisition of knowledge and it aims at the perfection of human personality irrespective of gender, class, race or ethnic affiliation.

14 Apart from the fact that knowledge in Islamic perspective is universal in nature, this is stated by the Holy Prophet when he declares that piece of knowledge is a lost property of a Mumin (believer); He grasps it whenever he finds it and another tradition of his where he directs his companions and followers to seek knowledge even if it be in

China. Apart from all these, Quran also led some emphasis on the different branches of knowledge.

Three things constitute human perfection; will, knowledge and work.

According to Ibn Badis “Man’s life from its beginning to its end, is based on these three elements: will, knowledge and work. These three are in their turn dependent on another three: work is dependent on the body, knowledge on the mind, and will on the behaviour. Sound knowledge and strong will are the products of wise behaviour, useful work and robust body. Therefore, mankind must care for and look after these three; the mind, behaviour and body. The mind should be fed on knowledge, the behaviour of the Holy Prophet should be approximated, and strength should be given to the body by balancing diet, avoiding injury and working”.29

The Sokoto jihad, a movement which is the backbone of Dan Fodio teaching philosophy and the soul of his reform strategy, hence the genesis of what is known as

Sokoto caliphate. The waves it generated were all the products of scholarly movements which were inspired by Islam. These movements were heirs to the Islamic tradition of learning and reform, spanning several centuries. Intellectual was a cornerstone of the wide spreading of his community, resulting in prodigious literary output and active teaching as the path to spirituality and literacy. Thus, scholarship became the very basis of the states created and the main thrusts of the institutions of the states.

29 El-Tayeb, “The Ulama and Islamic renaissance in Algeria,” American journal of Islamic social sciences, vol. 6, (1989: 271).