Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Home , Adansonia digitata, Adansonia gregorii, Adansonia suarezensis, Adja language, Anlo Ewe, Anogeissus

The vernacular names listed below have been collected from the literature. Few have phonetic spellings. Spelling is not helped by the difficulties of transcribing unwritten languages into European syllables and Roman script. Some languages have several names for the same species. Further complications arise from the various dialects and corruptions within a language, and use of names borrowed from other languages. Where the people are bilingual the person recording the name may fail to check which language it comes from. For example, in northern Sahel where Arabic is the lingua franca, the recorded names, supposedly Arabic, include a number from local languages. Sometimes the same name may be used for several species. For example, kiri is the Susu name for both Adansonia digitata and Drypetes afzelii. There is nothing unusual about such complications. For example, Grigson (1955) cites 52 English synonyms for the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) in the British Isles, and also mentions several examples of the same vernacular name applying to different species. Even Theophrastus in c. 300 BC complained that there were three plants called strykhnos, which were edible, soporific or hallucinogenic (Hort 1916). Languages and history are linked and it is hoped that understanding how languages spread will lead to the discovery of the historical origins of some of the vernacular names for the baobab. The classification followed here is that of Gordon (2005) updated and edited by Blench (2005, personal communication). Alternative family names are shown in square brackets, dialects in parenthesis. Superscript Arabic numbers refer to references to the vernacular names; Roman numbers refer to further information in Section 4.

337 338 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata

1.1 European names

Danish: abelbrødtræ (monkey tree); abelbrød (fruit, i.e. monkey bread) Dutch: apebroodboom, apenbroodboom (monkey tree); apebrood, apenbrood (fruit, i.e. monkey bread) English: ape breadfruit40, baobab, baobab tree, cream of tartar tree40, dead-rat-tree (name refers to the hanging pods, which look like rats), Ethiopian sour gourd71, Guinea tamarind, lemonade tree, mock cotton tree, monkey bread tree55, monkey tamarind tree55, upside-down tree71; monkey bread, Senegal calabash71 (fruit) English (India): baobab3, baobab tree5, cream of tartar tree, Indian cork-tree3 monkey bread tree3, monkey bread tree of Africa5; sour gourd5 (fruit) English (Sri Lanka): monkey bread tree7; Judas’ bag (fruit so called by Roman Catholics because it contains 30 seeds, i.e. pieces of silver) Englishi (West Indies) Bahamas: Jamaican tamarind56; monkey tamarind56 Dominica: monkey tamarind52, 56 Jamaica: baobab57; Ethiopian sour gourd57; monkey bread57; monkey tamarind52, 56 St. Croix: cushion tamarind, Guinea almond52, Guinea tamarind52 St. Eustatius: Guinea almond52; Guinea tamarind52 French: arbre aux calebasses40, 71 (calabash tree), arbre de mille ans71 (tree of a thousand years), baobab71, calebassier du Sénégal40, 49, 71; calebasse du Sénégal (fruit), pain de singe19, 40, 49, 71 (monkey bread) Finish: apinaleipäpuu, baobabpuu German: affenbrodbaum, affenbrotbaum (monkey bread tree) Italian: baobab; noce delle scimmie (fruit, i.e. monkey’s walnut) Portuguese: baobá, cabaçevre71, calebassier (calabash); cabaçinhas redondas (fruit) Russian: óaoóaó Spanish: baobal Afrikaansii (South Africa): kremetert71, kremetartboom71 (cream of tartar tree)

1.2 African Names

The number of African languages is estimated to be just over 2000, consisting of four large phyla: Niger-Congo (which includes the large Bantu family), Afro- Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan. A phylum is defined as a language grouping larger, less well defined, and less widely accepted than a ‘family’, and typically contains several families (Heine and Nurse 2000). Creoleiii [Krio] (Sierra Leone): monkey brade68 Creolev, Portugueseiv (Mozambique, Angola): imbodeiro10, imbondeiro10 Creole, Portuguese-based Säotomense (Säo Tomé): miondo Creole (West Indies): mapu zombi52, 71 1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata 339

1.2.1 Niger-Congo Phylumv

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Dogon Dogonvi Mali oro38, 71; orobanou58 (red-barked), orodienw58 (black-barked), oropil58 (grey-barked); géye40, tige40 (fruit); pepèru40 (flower) Dogon Toro Niger ɔrɔ74, `ɔrɔ84 Atlantic-Congo, Kordofanian, Heiban Subgroup Heiban dhogwo, khor76 Nuba Abri (= Koalib) Nuba Mtns kwugwor76 Nuba Dire (= Koalib) Nuba Mtns kwugwor76 Jebel Tira Mani dhor76, θɔr84 Kalkadda dhor Khor Gana – dhogwo Jebel Heiban Laro dhogwo76 Atlantic-Congo, Kordofanian, Talodi Subgroup Talodi bosa11, 76 Tisoni bosa Jebel el Liri kishawiyi11, 11, 84, 76, tabarly22 Atlantic-Congo, Kordofanian, Tegali subgroup Tegal ora11 Elliri ora Atlantic-Congo, Mandevii, Eastern Group, Eastern Bisa [Bissa] Birkina Faso mor40, poo-qô68, poya59, poyah Busa Benin fon40 Nigeria kúka40 (ex Hausa) Shanga Nigeria hwon40 Atlantic-Congo, Mande, Eastern Group, Southeastern Guro [Kweni] Ivory Coast bèlé40, 84 Atlantic-Congo, Mande, Western Group, Central-Southwestern, Central Bamanankan [Bambara] Senegal (n)sira84, sira21, 25, 40, 45, sito21, 25, 40, tedum40; môlòdo40 (varietal name) Mali sira25, 40, 57, 59, 82, sito25; siradie71, siradjé58 (grey-barked),siramolni58 (dark-leaved), sirafing71, sirifing58 (black-barked), sirable71, sisrablé58 (red-barked); siraboau57 (leaves); karin du (fruit pulp); molõdo38 (varietal name) Burkina Faso sira40, 46; môlòdo (a varietal name) Jola [Diola, Dioyla, Dyula] Senegal bâ38, sira40 340 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Jola (continued) Ivory Coast bu ba68, sira, sirra66 The Gambia ebakai40 Mali bu ba68 Burkina Faso sira yiri79 Kono Sierra Leone sela40, 84 Malinkeviii [Maninka] Senegal sira38, sita, sito38, sitoo The Gambia ira, sita, sitra; sito (fruit); naa (leaves) Guinea-Bissau citô40 Guinea boki40, 68, sira40 Sierra Leone sira Ivory Coast boki47, 68 Mali boki40, 47, 68 Malinke (Koranko) Sierra Leone sira37, sire38 Mandinka [Manding, Socé] Senegal sita38, 71, sito25, 38, 71 Gambia sira38, sita40, sitra; sito38 (fruit); naa (leaves) Guinea-Bissau citô40 Guinea bõki40, sira40 Sierra Leone sida40, sira40 Mali sira59, sito59 Atlantic-Congo, Mande, Western, Central-Southwestern, Southwestern Loko Sierra Leone sakwi40, mbawi40 Mende Sierra Leone bo-wului68, gbowulo40, 84 Susu [Sousou] Sierra Leone kiri40, 84 Guinea kiri40, 68, 84 Susu-Dyalonke Sierra Leone kidi-na40 Atlantic-Congo, Mande, Western, Northwestern Soninke [Sarakole] Senegal kide40, 84, kidé25 Bobo Madaré [Bobo-Fing] Mali pii84 Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Bijago Bidjogo [Bidyogo] Senegal u-áto40, 84 Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Northern, Bak Balanta-Ganja Senegal laté25, 40, 84 Jola Fogny [Diola Fogny, Dirla Fogny] Senegal ba38, babaq38, 84, buba21, bubak21, bubaq25, bubakaba21, 40, bubakabu25, bubakakou71, fubak21, ghouis38, sira40 Jola Fogny The Gambia babaq25, bubak31, 42, bubakabu25, 40 (the taller), ebakai40, sira42, sita40, sitra; sito31 (fruit); naa (leaves) Guinea Bissau citô40 Guinea bõki40, sira40 1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata 341

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Jola Fogny (continued) Sierra Leone sida40, sira40 Ivory Coast bu ba68, sira Mali bu ba68, sira59, sito59 Mankanya Senegal bedôal25, 40, 84 Mandjak [Mandyak] Guinea-Bissau bebaque40, benaquw, bedom-hal40, brungal40, burungule-burúnque40 Papel [Pepel] Guinea-Bissau burungule40 Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Northern, Cangin Noon [Non, None, Serer- Non] Senegal ba40, boh25, 40 Noon (Nominka) Senegal bak40, ibak40 Palor [Falor] Senegal ba25, bédoal21, laté21 Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Northern, Eastern Senegal-Guinea Basari Guinea-Bissau láté40 Senegal amag21, amak21, 25, a-màk40, 84, màk24, gamag21, gamak21, mamak21; e-tylsy24 (seed) Togo nittr, niturr40 Budik [Bedik, Tenda] Senegal a-màk40, a-maq25, ga-mak84, ga-màk24, gamaq25, 31; ga-kade24, nya-de (fruit shell) Wamei [Konyagi] Senegal a-mbu29, 40, 84, a-mbú24; l-bú24 (fruit pulp) Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Northern, Senegambian Pulaar [Fula-Pulaar, Peuhl, Peul] Mauritania bobbe50, boki50, gokki68, gokkigokki Senegal boiö25, 40, boki25, 40, 64, boré25, 40, bóy25, 40 The Gambia bokchi42, boki40, 31 Guinea Bissau boe64, bóè40 Guinea bohe64, bõki40 Mali babbe71, babbeé, bõki, boki40, 46, 71, bokki, mboki61, olohi45, 71 Pulaar (Tukulor) Senegal bobbe29, 45, bogi21, boiö21, boki21, 45, bôki, bokki pl. bowde29, boré21, boyi21, mbuki21 Burkina Faso bobbe45, boki45, 64, gokki, olohi45 Pulaar [Tukulor- Fulfulde] Senegal boki, bôki, bokki, gui, guye Fulfuldeix [Fulani] Guinea Bissau boe68 Guinea bohe68 Nigeria boki 71, okki40, 71 pl. ode40, oge40; bogeeje40, bokko40 (leaves); ohere40 pl. ohe, oye40 (fruit); njuulaandi40, njuuloondi (fruit pulp); gandiyaare40 pl. gandiyaaje, gorome40(seeds) 342 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Fulfulde (continued) Burkina Faso bokki84, owde pl. owe, obe29, horohi79 Niger bokki40, 84 Serer-Sine [Niominka] Senegal ba21, ba(k)45, bak21, 25, 40, 71, 84, boh21, ibak21, 25, mbak25, 40 Wolof x Mauritania gui50 Senegal ghouis28, 45, goui71, gouiï38, gouis71, goul28, gouye, gui21, 25, 38, 45, 68, 68, 84, guy, guye68; boui71, bui21, 25, 40, 71 (fruit); ndaba21 (fruit pulp); gif21, 25, 40 (seeds), tega25 (bark); lalo21, 25 (dried powdered leaves) Burkino Faso guye68 The Gambia goui40, gui, gwi42; buee42, bui40 (fruit) Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Southern, Limba Limba Sierra Leone kutidi40 Atlantic-Congo, Atlantic, Southern, Mel Themne [Temne] Sierra Leone a-kiri40, an-der-a-bai40, an-dercbai40 (the chief’s body), an-derebai68, an-derbai, andercbai Baga Koga [Koba] Mali kö40, kö-basera40 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Kru, Western Wè [Guéré] Ivory Coast go, pl. gwê40, 84 Wobe Ivory Coast gblè-tu84 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Gur, Central, Northern, Oti-Volt Bieri Togo tebu84, tora84 Tayari Burkina Faso ñor-ga84, ñor-əri84 Nawdm [Nawdam, Losso] Togo todde84, todi44, təəga/teese84, tuura84, Dagbani [Dagbane] Ghana tùá pl. tùhí65, tú-á/-hé84, 28, 40, 84, tuwa17; tuwula pl. tuwuli70, tùyú pl. tùri65 (pod); tuzin70 (pulp); tùkpilli pl. tùkpilà65 (seeds); tukare40, tùkárikúmá65; tùkáyú (lalo); tukare70 (leaves) Moore [Moshi, Mossi] Ivory Coast toéga68 Ghana teega61, 84, teese61, 84, toyega17, 40 Burkina Faso taya, toayga29, 45, 71, toega45, 79, 82, toéga40, toeya, toga, toyégo40, trega71, twega45, 68, 71 Mali toega68, twéga68 Moore-Nawdam Togo kalim40, telo40; kekim40 (whole fruit) Dagara [Dagaare] Burkina Faso todde, tooru84, tuo40, tuura, twoo84 1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata 343

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Dagara (continued) Ghana tuo17, 40 Bwamu [Bwa] Burkina Faso ‘iya84 Buli Ghana lúùn84 Konkomba Ghana nitule40 Ditammari [Somba] Togo turubu38, 40 Benin mouté67, mouto67, moutomu67, turubu40 Sisaala Ghana telin, teli40 Frafra [Nabt, Nankanni] Ghana tua40, tuwa28, 40 Naudem [Losso] Togo todi45 Kabiyé [Kabre] Togo taelu40; tschodum40 (leaves and seeds) Tem [Tshaudjo] Togo taelu40, telu40; tschodum40 (leaves and seeds) Bariba [Bargu Batonnun] Nigeria chon mu38, chonbu38, sona38 Benin chonbu38, chon mu38, conmu, sona38 sônbu67 Pila [Pila Pila, Yom, Yowa] Benin tobra38, tolro40 Gurma [Gourmantche] Burkina Faso bu tobu45, bu tuobu45, tuobu29 Moba Togo kankanssion44, tokala44, tuéleg44 Bimoba Ghana toreg17, 40 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Gur, Senufo Minyanka Mali zige84 Senoufo Ivory Coast ngigne71, ngigné38, nigigué40, nigugué68, nguigué40, zehe84 Mali ngigne71, ngigné38, ngigué68 Burkina Faso ngigne71, ngigné38, ngigue40 Supyire Mali zhέngέ84 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Adamawa-Ubangi, Ubangi Ngbanda Dem. Congo Rep. gbado80 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Kwa, Left Bank Adangme-Krobo [Dagme] Ghana salet∫o17, 40, salέt∫o84, salo17. 40, 84 Fon-Gbexi [Gbe-Fon] Benin kpassa38, 67, 84, zizon38, 84 Ivory Coast zizon68 Mali zizon68 Ewexii [Krepi, Vhe] Ghana alãgba17, a-dido40, (a)dido17, dodo17, 40, do dodo40 Togo adido40, àdìdó84, dudo38, duudo Gen-Gbe [Mina] Togo dido38 Gen-Gbe [Gen] Benin dido40 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Kwa, Nyo Nzema Ghana ekuba17, 40 Basa [Kraché] Ghana ala17, hilai17, kelai Ga [Gã] Ghana eaadzo17, sàalo40, sààlò84, shàaje40 Baule Ivory C oast fromodo38, 40, 68, 71, 84 Ghana fromdo38, fromodo17, 84 344 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Baule (continued) Nigeria fromdo38, 84 Mali frondo68, 84 Wasa Ghana ɔdad(e)e40, odade Akan-Asantexiii Ghana ɔdadee40, odadee40, efoɔbrɔdedua17, efoɔbrɔdedwo17 Akan-Akuapem Ghana ɔdade40 Akan [Twi] Ghana odade, otatowaa, ɔdade84, ɔdad(e)e17, 40, ɔtɔtɔwaa17, 40, 84 Guan [Guang] Ghana tooto, totɔ17, 40, 84 Gonja Ghana kèlárà40, totɔ24, 40 Krache [Krachi] Ghana kelle40, kelai40 Togo kelle40 Abron [Brong] Ghana ala17, 40; hilai17, kelai17, 40, 84, kelau84, nilai40 Atlantic-Congo, Volta Congo, Benue-Congo, Defoid, Yoruboid Igala Nigeria obobo40 Yorubaxiv Nigeria igi óshè68, ose68, osè40 Benin igi-ose, igi óshè40, osché67 Nago Nigeria otché38 Atlantic-Congo, Volta Congo, Benue-Congo, Edoid Edo Nigeria usì40 Atlantic-Congo, Volta Congo, Benue-Congo, Nupoid Gbari [Gwari] Nigeria kwahi40 Nupe-Nupe-Tako [Nupe] Nigeria muci40, 84; èmu40 (fruit); kúka84 (leaves) Atlantic-Congo, Volta Congo, Benue-Congo, Kainji Lopa Nigeria kufwə84 CLela [Lyle, L’éla] Burkina Faso k-kubu84, kukulu40 Ror Nigeria u-kuk84 sSaare Nigeria u-kup84 Rogo Nigeria u-ub84 Atlantic-Congo, Volta Congo, Benue-Congo, Plateau Kuki Nigeria upə84 Təsu [Tesu] Nigeria kúkúrú84 Hasha Nigeria ikum84 Berom Nigeria kugul leng84 Jijili Nigeria ulici84 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Bantoid Bafok Cameroon njobwih40 Longto [Longa] Cameroon njobwih40 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Southern Bantoid Mbonga Cameroon ngubwele40 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Narrow Bantu, Northwestxv Akoose [(Ba)Kossi] Cameroon njobwele40, nujubwele 1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata 345

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Bakundu-Balue [Kundu] Cameroon ngubwele40 Balundu-Bima [Lundi, Tanga] Cameroon njubwele40 Boloki [Luki] Democratic nkondo20 Repub. Congo Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, E, Kikuyu-Kambaxvi Kambaxvii Kenya kiamba54, mauye62, muama, muamba54, 62, muyu62, mwaama, mwaamba62, mwamba49, 84, 82, mwambo71; mauyu62 (fruit) Embu [Mbeere] Kenya muramba47, 62, 84 Meru Kenya muramba49, 62, 71, 84, murambu Tharaka Kenya muguna-kirindi62, muramba62 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, E, Nyika Chonyi [Kambe] Kenya muyu62; mauyu62 (fruit) Digo Kenya mbuyu62, 68 Giryana Kenya mbuyu62, muuyu62 Malakote Kenya mubuyu62 Taita Kenya miamba, mlamba84, mbale62, 68 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, F, Nyilamba-Langi Mbugwe Tanzania muwiye55, mwiwi53, 61, mwuwiye53 Rangi Tanzania mwiwi53, 55 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, F, Sukuma-Nyamwezi Sukuma [Kisukuma] Tanzania moandu68, mwanda53, mwandu53, ng’wandu Nyamwezi Tanzania mpele55 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, G, Bena-Kinga Hehe Tanzania mkondo53, 55 Sangu Tanzania mkondo55 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, G, Gogo Gogo Tanzania mpela55 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, G, Shambala Shambala [Shambaa] Tanzania buyu53, muuyu53 Asu [Kipare, Pare] Tanzania mramba53, 55, 82 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, G, Shambala Bondei Tanzania muuyu53 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, G, Swahili Swahili Somalia mbuyu71, 84, muuyu Kenya mbuyu49, 54, 62, 71, 84, 82, muuyu62 Tanzania majani ya nbuyu49, majoni ya mbuyu59, msajoni ya mbuyu, matunta ya mbuyu49, mbuyu55, 61, 71, 84 Mozambique mbuyu71, 84 Swahili [Bjuni (Bajun)] Kenya muru Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, G, Zigula-Zaramao Zigula Tanzania muuyu53 346 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Ruguru [Lugu, Luguru] Tanzania mpela55, mpele53 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, H, Yaka Suku Tanzania mwanda53, 55, mwandu53, 55, ng’ wandu53, ngwandu55 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, K, Kwangwa Mbukushu Botswana divuyu37, divuyu37, dovuyu23 Namibia divuyu37, dovuyu23 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, L, Kaonde Kaonde Zambia mubuyu49 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, M, Bemba Bembaxviii Zambia mu-uyu18, mubuyu18, 49 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, M, Lenje-Tonga Lenje Zambia muUyu18, muyu49 Tsonga [Tonga] Zambia mubuyu18, 49, 84, ximuwu84 Zimbabwe moBuyu15, muBuyu15, mubuyu49, 72, muUyu15 Tsonga [Shangana] South Africa shimuwu, ximuwu23, 84, 78 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, M, Nyakyusa Nyakkyusa-Ngonde [Nkonde] Malawi mbuye49, 71 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, N, Nyanja Nyanja [Chewa, Chichewa] Malawi malambe84, mbuyu, mkulukumbo, mlambe49, 71, mnambe71, mulambe Mozambique malambe84, mnambe, nambe; malabeira (fruit) Zambia mbuyu49, mkulukumba49, mulambe49 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, P, Makua Makhuwa [Makua] Mozambique melapa Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central P, Matumbi Ngindo [Kingindo] Tanzania nonjii Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, P, Yao Yao Malawi mlongje, mlonje49, 71, 84 Mozambique n’bondo; mûcu (fruit) Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, R, Herero Herero [Ovambo] Namibia omukura Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, R, Ndonga Kwanyama [Ambi, Ovamba] Namibia omu-kura84, omukwa pl. omikwa41; ekwa pl. omokwa41 (fruit) Pungu Namibia mukuyu Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, S, Nguni Ndebelexix Zimbabwe umkhomo49, 71, 72, 84 Zuluxx South Africa isimuhu71, isiMuhu23, 78, 82, isimuku78, isimuhu, isiMuku23, 84, umshimuhu71, umShimulu23, 78 1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata 347

Family and Language Country Vernacular name Pondo South Africa mukuyu28 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, S, Shona Shona [Korekore, Zezuru] Zimbabwe muMungu15, muuku15, muuyu49, muUyu15, muVuku15, muWiyo15, muWiyu15, muWuyu15; muwuyu72 Shona-Karanga Zimbabwe mumbuyu, muUyu, muVuku15, muWuyu15; muwuyu72 Kalanga [Western Shona] Zimbabwe mbuyu72; muuyu49, siBuyu, siNdebele, umkomo14 Kalanga [Makalaka] Botswana boana, boyana Manyika Zimbabwe muBuyu9, muUyu9, muVuku9, muWuyu9 Ndau [Chisinga] Zimbabwe mubuyu14, muvei14, muwuyu14 Ndau (Batonga) Botswana boana, boyana Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, S, Sotho-Tswana Sotho Northern [North Sotho] Botswana motsoo84 Tswanaxxi [Bechuana] Botswana moana, movana84, mowana2, 78, muana37, muvana Lozi Zambia mubuyu49 Zimbabwe muBuyu15; mubuyu72 Lozi [Makolokol] Botswana moana Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, S, Tswa-Ronga Tshwa (Hlengwe) Zimbabwe muwu49, 72, 84 Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, Benue-Congo, Central, Central, S, Venda Venda [Luvenda] Zimbabwe muvhuyu South Africa mukuyu28, muvhuyu23, 68, 84, 78

1.2.2 Nilo-Saharan Phylumxxii

Classification Country Vernacular name Eastern Sudanic, Eastern, Nara Nara Eritrea dari Eastern Sudanic, Eastern, Nubianxxiii Jebel ed Daier Sudan fak11, 76 Umm Brembeita Sudan kwora11, 76 Delami Sudan kwora11, 76 Dillingxxiv Sudan tuberli11 Hameg Sudan uffa11 Eastern Sudanic, Western, Daju, Eastern Daju Logorik Sudan bagal11, 76 348 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Classification Country Vernacular name Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Western, Luo, Northern Burun Sudan bul11 Eastern Sudanic, Western, Dinka-Nuer Dinka Sudan dungwol11, 49, 71, 84 Nuer Sudan kusha11, 76 Eastern Sudanic, Western, Luo Northern Shilluk Sudan gag11, 11, 76 Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Eastern Maasai (Arusha) Tanzania mesera55 Maasai Kenya ol-imisera54, 55, 62, 71, ol-mesera84, ol-unisera71, olimisera49, olimisiera82 Tanzania ol mesera53, 55, ol-mesera84, ol-unisera71, olimisera53, 71, olmesera62, olmesere53, olmosera53,ormisira47, 68 Samburu Kenya lamai62 Tanzania lamai84 Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic, Southern Datooga [Barabaig] Tanzania gendergen25, 61 Kunama Kumama Eritrea ol ormisira amai asa Saharan, Western Kanuri Nigeria kuka (leaves for soup)40 (ex Hausa), kúwà84 Songhai, Southern Dendi Niger k`ɔɔ Benin kôô67 Djer Burkina Faso konian45, 62, 71; foku59 (dark leaf) Songhay [Songhai, Sonrai] Mali ko38, 71, kò40 pl. kòà40, 84, komian28, konian40, 71, kowa61 Songhay-Zarma Niger kwo40 Burkina Faso kowa33 Niger konian40 Futr Furxxv Sudan (Darfur) maada pl. maadanga, 25, 76 Maban Maba Chad wereek76 Unclassified Krongo Sudan badhusu, bàtòòsò pl. àtòòsò76 Kababyabaram Sudan badhusu, bàtòòsò76 Kufa [Kanga] Sudan ‘bazu, pl. nzo76 Kaatcha-Kadugli-Miri [Kadu] Sudan mansallo11, mànzɔlɔ pl. ànzɔɔne76 1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata 349

1.2.3 Khoisan Phylumxxvi

Classification Country Vernacular name Hatsa Hadza Tanzania bahepe’a n||obabe83, nobako83 Sandawe Sandawe Tanzania gele55 Southern Africa, Northern Vasekela Namibia mukuyu

1.2.4 Afro-Asiatic Phylumxxvii

Classification Country Vernacular name Berberxxviii, Tamasheq, Southern Tamasheq Kidal [Tadghaq] Burkina Faso tăkudust84 Tamasheqxxix [Tuareg] Mauritania tedoûm Mali tudukust61 Iwellemmeden Mali tadgəmt84 Berber, Zenaga Zenegaxxx Mauritania tadaumit26 pl. tedumit26, tādmūt26, taidoum, täidoum, teïdoûm Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.3 Bana Cameroum kwəwə84 Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.4 Hdi Cameroon ka’u84 Parkwa (Podoko) Cameroon huhuwá Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.5 Giziga Cameroon mbaastay84 Mada Cameroon kokormbana84 Muyang Cameroon ăkrām84 Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.7 Daba Nigeria kàkā84 (fruit) Cameroon kàkā84 (fruit) Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.8 Bacama Nigeria kawtə84 Chadic, Biu-Mandara, A, A.1, Westerm Tera Nigeria kukwa Chadic, Biu-Mandara, B, B.1, Kotoko Proper Mpade (Makary) Cameroon kalkuka Malgbe (Malwə) Cameroon kwakwa Chadic, West, A, A.1 Hausaxxxi Burkina Faso kuka40, kuuka30 Niger kouka59, kuka40, 84 Nigeria bamboo, bambu84, bumbu40, dunku84, kubali40, kulambi40, kumbali40, múrnaà29, mùrnàà84 (Sokoto), gullutu84 350 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Classification Country Vernacular name Hausa (continued) Nigeria (Kabi), kouka71, kubali84 Katsina), kuka38, 45, 68, 71, kulambali84 (Katsina), kuuka40, kúúkà pl. kúúkóókíí84; jar kuka40 (a variety), maiwa40 (a variety); gààtsiikà84 (young tree (Kano) ); bakko40 (leaves, ex Fula), gatsika (young leaves); kúmbàlíí84 gatsik (young leaves); kúmbàli (flower buds (Katsina), gulullutu40, ku(m)bali40, kulambali40 (flower); kuka bul, wáme40, wámé40, wámè84,wámi40, kwámii40 (fruit); w(i)kwayo40 (husk); damsa40, gubdi40, kulkuli40 (fruit pulp); gumayi40, guntsu40, gùntsùù84, gwargwarmi40, gwàrgwámíí84(seeds) Chadic, West, A, A.2, Tangale, Dera Dera (Kanakuru) Nigeria kúrnjé40 Chadic, West, A, A.2, Bole Proper Bole Nigeria dəmbər84 Chadic, West, A, A.2, Bole, K larekare Karekare Nigeria kuci84 Chadic, West, A, A.2, Tangale, Tangale Proper Kushi Cameroon njobwele40 Kossi Cameroon njobwele40, nujubwele Chadic, West, A, A.3, Angas Proper, 2 Tal Nigeria bòkwo84 Chadic, West, B, B.1, Bade Proper Buda [Gashua Bade] Nigeria kukwáu pl. kùkun84 Ngizim Nigeria kuku84 Chadic, West, B, B.1, Duwai Duwai Nigeria kuko Chadic, West, B, B.2 Miya Nigeria kushi84 Chadic, West, B, B.3 Dass [Dot] Nigeria róon84 Guus Nigeria du[ul84 BB3 Jimi Nigeria girim84, girum84 Chadic, West, B, B.3, Boghom Boghom Nigeria mbùπdi84 Mangas Nigeria bokò84 1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata 351

Classification Country Vernacular name Chadic, West, B, B.3, Zaar Proper Geji Nigeria daahooli84 Polci Nigeria pə’t roon84 Saya Nigeria dót84 Zul Cameroon bəlime84 Cushiticxxxi, North Bedawi [Hadendowa] Sudan humar11, 76 Cushitic, Central, Northern Bilen [Bilin] Eritrea dira Cushitic, East, Rendille-Boni Boni Kenya jah54 Cushitic, East, Somali Somali Somalia jach, jag33, yaaq64, yag49, 71, 84, yak62 Kenya (Tana) jag62, yak54 Cushitic, East, Oromo Orma Kenya yak53, 62, 84 Sanya Kenya yaka62 Cushitic, South Burunge Tanzania daka’u84, dakau62 Goroa [Goro, Gorowa] Tanzania dakaa’umó84, dakaumo55 Iraqw Tamzania gendar-yandi53, gendaryandi55 Wasi [Alagwa] Tanzania dakaa’imoo84 Semitic, Central, South Arabicxxxii Egyptian Arabicxxxiii Egypt ba hobab1, 13; habhab45, 71 (fruit); lobb21 (fruit pulp) India babbab81, bahobab, habhab, habhabú, hujed31, 81 Sudanese Arabicxxxiv Sudan homeira11, 49, 71, humar11, 49, 59, humr11, 71 (red-barked), tabal122, tebeldi11, 11, 27, 49, 71; gongoleis11, 71 (fruit), gongoles22, gunguleiz71 Shuwa Arabic [Chadic Arabic] Chad hamao38, hamar59, 71, hamaraya38, 71 (the red), hamray pl. hamar84, kalakûkay pl. kalaküka84, tabalday pl. tabaldi84 Senegal el-omarah, oufa; el-kongles (fruit) Niger hamar40, hamaraya40, homar, humar (red-barked); gongoleis (fruit) Nigeria hamar40, hamaraya40, homar40, humar40, oufa40, tabaldi40, el-omarah40; gongoleis40 (fruit) Arabic-Hassaniyaxxxv Mauritania el qandalîs16, qandallis, taydûme51, teidoum50, 68; 352 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Classification Country Vernacular name Arabic-Hassaniya (continued) teidoûm71, teïdoûm16; teidouma50; teidum50 Senegal qandalis9, taïdoum9 Burkina Faso teidoum47, 64, teïdoûm Niger oufa, tabaldi, tédum el omarah Yemini Arabic Yemen al shajarah – al gharibah60 (the strange tree) Jibbali Oman (Dhofar) enkíjé48, enkízé, mukaza48 Semetic, South, Ethiopian Amharicxxxvi Ethiopia bamba49, 71, 84, dema49, dima47,68, dumma49, 84 , hemer, hemmer49, humme Tigrinya [Tigre] Sudan hamarat pl. hamar11, 75 Eritrea duma84, himeret Ethiopia damba49,, demba, dema49, dima35, 49, dime, dumma49, 71, hemer, hemmer49, 71, hummer35

1.3 Indian Names

1.3.1 Indo-European Phylum

Classification Country Vernacular name Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan Sanskritxxxvii India chitrala36, 81, chorami36, choramli81, dirghadandi36, 81, gajabala81, gandhabahula36, gopali36, 81, gorakkchinch81, goraksacinca81, gorakshi36, gorashi81, goraksi81, kasmiramlika81, pancaparni81, pancaparnika81, panchaparinka36, ravanamlika81, sarpadandi36, 81, sitaphala81, sitaphalam81, sudandika36, 81 Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bengali-Assamese Bengali India gorak amali39, 75, 84, gorakamali80, rukhado75 Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, North-western zone, Sindhi Kachchi [Cutchi] India gorakh chinch39, 74 1 Vernacular names of Adansonia digitata 353

Classification Country Vernacular name Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone Gujaratixxxviii India bukha5, 84, chor amli73 (not genuine tamarind), choyari chinch5, 74 (horse’s tamarind), gandiyu zaad73 (mad tree), ghelu zaad73 (mad tree), gorak-ambli39, 84, 80, gorakh-amli80, gorakh chintø5, 84, gorakh imli73, gorakha-amli5, gorakhamli39, gorakha-amli5, 74, rukhado39,. 80, rukhado73, sumpura6, 71, 80 Panjabi Eastern [Malwa] India kalbriskh5, kalpbriskh5, khuräsäni imli31 Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Western Hindi Hindi India gor amil chora5, gor aml chorai74, gorak amli39, 81, górak amali10, górak amli6, 74, 84, gorak imli39, 81, gõrakh imli31, gorakh amli5, 74, 80, gorakh imli30, 71, gõrakh imli75, gorakamali81, gorakhamali81, gorakhimli80, gorakhchincha, goramlichora81, hathi kathian39, 74, 80, háthi khatiyán6, 71 (elephant’s flax), hatti-kattian81, kalapbirchh31, 74, (the mythical wishing tree), háthi khatiyán74 (elephant’s flax), hátkí khatyán5 (the plant), lochora81, sumpura81, vilaiti imli84 (exotic tamarind), vilayti-imlí5, 30 (exotic tamarind), vilayyati Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Southern zone Marathi India gonik-chintz81, gorak chinch74, gorakh chinch39, 81, gorakh chinchi6, 39, 80, gouruk chintz74, gorakhchinch81, gorakhchincha5, 74, gouruk chintz74, sumpura gorakh chinchi39 Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Sinhalese-Maldivian Sinhala [Singhalese] Sri Lanka aliya-gaha75 (elephant-tree), alliya- gaha 354 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

1.3.2 Dravidian Phylumxxxix

Classification Country Vernacular name Southern, Tamil-Kannada Tamil India aanaipuliya maram81, anaimaram81, anai-puli5, 74, anaippuli36, anaipuliya-maram81, anai-puliyamaram81, anai-puliya-marram5, 6 (the plant), anaipuliamaram39, 80, 81, anaipulia-maram81, anaipuliya-marum71, 74, 81, anaippuli81, anaippuliyamaram81, arucaka81, arucakamaram81, arukkankopikam81, arrukkankopika-maram81, cimaippulu81, korakkarmaram81, korakkarpuli81, malukikam81, malukikamaram81, paparapuli81, paparapulia80, paparaphulia39, papparapapa-puli81, papparappuli6, 36, 71, 74, 80, 81, pappura puli81, parpparappuli81, pepper-appaulu81, perukkamaram81, perukku36, 81, pontaippulimaram81, pontampuli81, puri36, 81, puri-maram81, purimaram81, purinelli81, purippuli81, toti81, totimaram81, totiyam81, totiyamaram81, yanaippuli81, yanaippulimaram81, yanaipuliyamaram81 Sri Lanka anaippuli; papparappuli34, perukka, perukku- maran34; puri Kannada India aane hunise81, anehunese39, 80, bhrahmlica39, 80, brahamlika74, 81, maggivaamu39, 80, magimaavu81, magimavu81 South-Central, Telegu Telugu [Telegu] India brahaamlika74, brahma-mlika71, 74, 81, brahmaamlika39, 80, brahmamlika81, maggimavu81, 2 Malagasy Names of Adansonia 355

Classification Country Vernacular name Telugu (continued) maggivaamu39, 80, seemachintakaaya39, 80, seemasinta71, 74, simachinta81, simae-chinta80, 81 Sources: Alpino (1592)1; Livingstone (1857)2; Masters (1868)3; Firminger (1875)4; Watt (1885)5; Dymock et al. (1890)6; Trimen (1893)7; Stow (1905)8; Basset (1909)9; Heim et al. (1925)10; Broun and Massey (1929)11; Andrews (1953)12; Nicolas (1953)13; Pardy (1953)14; Wild (1953)15; Leriche (1954)16; Irvine (1961)17; White (1962)18; Haerdi (1964)19; Robyns (1964)20; Adam (1970)21; Drar (1970)22; Palmer and Pitman (1973)23; Ferry et al. (1975)24; Kerharo and Adam (1975)25; Lewicki and Johnson (1975)26; Wickens (1977)27; Leger (1978)28; Toutain (1979)29; Vaid and Vaid (1979)30; Armstrong (1980b)31; Weiss (1980)32; Wild and Gonçalves (1980)33; Robyns (1981)34; Jansen (1982)35; Jayaweera (1982)36; Larson (1982)37; Baumer (1984)38; Anonymous (1985)39; Burkill, 1985)40; Rodin (1985)41; Szolnoki (1985)42; Teel (1985)43; Adjanohoun et al. (1986)44; Maydell (1986)45; Thoyer (1986)46; Riley and Brokensha (1988)47; Miller and Morris (1988)48; FAO (1988)49; Jaoen (1988)50,Taine-Cheikh (1988)51; Rashford (1991)52; Hines and Eckman, (1993)53; Beentje (1994)54; Mbuyu et al. (1994)55; Rashford (1994a)56; Nordeide et al. (1996)57; Sidibé et al. (1996)58; Smith et al. (1996a)59; Wood (1997)60; Diallo et al. (1999)61; Johansson (1999)61; Maundu et al. (1999)62; Thulin (1999)64; Blench (2000)65; Ambé (2001)66; Codjia et al. (2001)67; Baerts-Lehmann (2002)68; Gebauer et al. (2002b)71; Okoro (2002)70; Sidibé and Williams (2002)71; Mullins 2003)72; Reddy et al. (2003)73; Singh (2003)74; Vandercone et al. (2004)75; Blench (2004, personal communication)76; Gupta and Tanon (2004)77; Hankey (2005)78; Maurunda and Bouda (2005)79; Monuc (2005)80; FRLHT (2006)81; Sacande et al. (2006)82; Watson (2006, personal communication)83; Blench (2006a)84.

2 Malagasy Names of Adansonia

English (general term): baobab, bottle tree French (general term): baobab 356 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

2.1. Austronesian Phylum

Classification Species Vernacular name Malayo-Polynesian, Barito, East, Malagasyxl Malagasy [Mahafaly] A. za za Bushi [Sakalva] A. digitata baobaba22, bontona14, ‘boringy’14, 15, fontana15, 20, horingy20, rainiala14, 15, 20 (father-of-the-forest), renala18, reniala14, 17, 18 (mother-of-the-forest), ‘ringy’14, 15, 20, sefo2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10. 15, 16, 17 Malagassy A. grandidieri ‘bontony za’11, bontouna13, renala22 (mother-of-the- forest), raine-ala9, rainiala, reine-ala9, reniala2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, réniala3(mother-of-the- forest13), zabe12 A. perrieri bojy19, bozy16 A. rubrostipa boringy14, 22, fony6, 7, 9, 14, 17, 21, ringy2, 3, 6, 8, 14, 17, ‘za’14, za mena6, zamena2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9 (red za8) A. madagascariensis bontona1, 5, 8, 15, 22, boy, bontony17, botony, bontouna, bozy6, 14, bozybe, ‘fony’8, 15, m’boïo17, ‘reine-ala’8, reniala11, 16, renida11, vontona17, 22, ‘za’1, 6, 8, 14, 19, ‘zabe’14 A. za bontona1, 5, 15, 17, boringy14, 84, bozo15, bozy18, bozybe18, reniala11, ringy14, 17, za1, 5, 6, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, za bé3, za mena17, 19 (red za, from the reddish tinge of the| bark), zabe17, 18, zahabe15, 17 Malagasy Antankarana A. suarezensis bojy19, bozy4, 18 Sources: Heckel (1903)1, Heim et al. (1902)2; Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie (1909a, b)3, 4; Heckel (1910)5; Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie (1910)6; Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie (1912)7; Poisson (1912)8, Jumelle and Perrier de la Bâthie (1913)9; Perrier de la Bâthie (1924)10; Perrier de la Bâthie (1952a, b)11, 12 Perrier de la Bâthie (1953)13; Perrier de la Bâthie (1955)14; Pernet (1957)15; Capuron (1961)16; Cabanis et al. (197017; Baum (1995b)18; Bond (2001, personal communicaton)19; Baerts-Lehmann (2002)20; Bond (2002)21; Blench (2006a)22. 4 Notes 357

3 Australian Names of Adansonia gregorii

Englishxli: baob7, baobab7, boab3, 5, 7, boabab3, 5, boadab7, botle-tree3, 7, gouty-stem tree1, 2; nuts5 (pods)

3.1 Australian Phylumxlii

Classification Region Vernacular name Bunaban Bunaba [Bunuba] Fitzroy Crossing, WA larrkarti5; wajarri5 (fruit); ngipi5 (seeds) Djamindjungan Djamindjung [Ngaliwuru] Victoria River, NT kuruwan5 Nungali Victoria River, NT muruwan5 Djeragan Mirriuwung [Miriwoong] Kununurra, WA gadawori4 Pama-Nyungan Ngarinman [Nigarinyman] Victoria River, NT jamulang6 Worrorran Kwini [Gunin] Kalumburu, WA jumulu5 Bremorai Kalumburu, WA dDjungeri3 Sources: Cunningham (1837)1; King (1837)2; Crawford (1983)3; Brown (1985)4; Lowe (1998)5; Smith et al. (1993)6; Ramson (1998)7.

4 Notes

4.1 European Languages i The baobab (Adansonia digitata) is widely known in the West Indies as monkey bread and monkey tamarind tree, and it is generally assumed that it acquired that name because monkeys eat the fruit. However, Rashford (1994a) argues that in the West Indies ‘monkey’ implies imitation and the pulp is called monkey bread because it resembles bread, and monkey tamarind because it tastes like tamarind (Tamarindus indica). However, the term ‘monkey bread tree’ is also used in Africa, where the term ‘monkey’ does not carry the meaning ‘imitation’ and has been adopted into a number of European languages where, in my opinion, its more literal meaning remains valid. The name Guinea tamarind is attributed to the similarity in taste of the baobab seed to the tropical or Barbados almond (Terminalia catappa); however, Irvine (1961) likened the taste to that of the sweet almond (Prunus dulcis). 358 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

ii Africaans is a Dutch dialect influenced by French and Malayan (Cross and Wilson 1991; Heine and Nurse (2000) consider it to be either a separate German ‘language’, or a very distinct overseas ‘dialect’ of Dutch, or a Dutch-‘based’ Creole.

4.2 African Languages iii Owing European colonisation, a simplified form of speech, known as ‘pidgin’, evolved as the linguae francae from the languages of colonial powers and those of local populations. Once pidgin had become the mother tongue of sections of the population, with its own vocabulary and grammar, it became known as a Creole (Wolff, 2000). iv Imbodeiro and imbondeiro are derived from the Mozambique Bantu-Yao name n’bondo (Ficalho 1884; Hiern 1896). v The Niger-Congo languages may have been spoken from 13,000 BC or earlier. The proto-Mande-Congo era was the first important stage in Niger-Congo history, with the cultivation of yams (Dioscorea spp.) and possibly other crops, such the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), by the Atlantic and Ijo-Congo peoples. The first expansion of the Niger-Congo peoples was from the Nuba Mountains in the Sudan, where proto-Kordofanian was spoken, to Mali in the west, and became the territory of the Mande and Atlantic Congo branches. Between c. 8100 to 6000 BC, a period when savannas were more extensive than they are today, the Atlantic and Ijo-Congo peoples spread cross the woodland savannas of West Africa. In the somewhat drier period of c. 5000–4000 BC, proto-Benue-Kwa descendents of the proto-Volta-Congo people expanded southwards into the West African rain forests. Archaeological evidence for the development of stone tools required by the incoming Benue-Kwa cultivators for clearing rain forest for growing yams and oil palms dates from this period. In 3000 BC the Bantu-speaking peoples, an offshoot of the Benue-Kwa, expanded from Cameroon into the Congo rain forests. Over the next 3000 years various Bantu societies spread successively through many parts of the equatorial rain forest and south into the woodland savannas of southern Africa, bringing with them the cultivation of the yam. In roughly the same period the Adamawa-Ubangians carried yam cultivation eastwards through the woodland savannas just north of the equatorial rain forest, across what is now known as the Central African Republic (Ehret 2000). See xv for the Eastern Bantu. vi Little is known of the history of the Dogons but following the collapse of the Mali Empire they are believed to have migrated from the more fertile lands of the Nile Valley and settled in the region of the 250 km long Bandiagara escarpment of south-eastern Mali by the 14th century, a territory which they shared with the Tellem until the 15th or 16th century. The Tellem, a sub-Saharan pygmy group of cliff dwellers, arrived in the area during the 11th century; they had disappeared without trace by the 16th century (Pern 1983; Schuster 2001). 4 Notes 359

vii With the rise of the Berber ‘Almoravid’ movement in the western Sahara and the conquest of the Maharab between 1054 and 1077, Muslim influence grew and the Kingdom of Ghana, in what is now southern Mauritania and eastern Mali, prospered. The people are believed to be the ancestors of the Soninke. In about 1203 the Kingdom of Ghana was conquered and became a vassal of the Mandinka Kingdom to the south, and in 1240 was absorbed into the vast, newly created Kingdom of Mali founded by the Mande-speaking people, which lasted for some 400 years. Today the Mande languages include Malinke, Bambara, Soninke and Kpelle-Mende (Moss and Wilson 1991). viii The ancestors of the Malinke (Mandingo) of Mali, Senegal and Guinea were once members of the powerful Kingdom of Mali. In the 19th century AD they occupied a small state near the Niger River in present-day Mali. They are part of a people spread throughout West Africa speaking dialects of Manding (Moss and Wilson 1991). ix The nomadic, cattle-owning Fulani (who call themselves Foula or Pullo) are a large and conspicuous tribal group, made up of a number of substantial isolated populations spread across the grassland savannas from Senegal to Chad, and extending into the Sudan. In the Sudan they are known as Fellãta and some of them have intermarried with the local Baggara. The Fulani originated in the far west of the Sahel as livestock specialists who coexisted with subsistence farmers in the Takrur Kingdom of 11th century Senegal. By establishing similar patterns of coex- istence with other subsistence farmers, they extended their use of the Sahelian grazing lands eastwards, reaching northern Nigeria by the 17th and 18th centuries. Their spread culminated in the establishment of the Fulani-Hausa Empire of the Sultanate of Sokoto; their language is Fulfulde. x According to tradition the Wolof of western Senegal and The Gambia came from the north and settled in an area between the Rivers Senegal and Gambia, where another group, the Jola, were already well established. By the 15th century the Wolofs had conquered many of the other groups in the area apart from those along the coast, and had created a large empire (Moss and Wilson 1991). xi The Fon migrated from south-west Nigeria during the 13th century and settled in Ketou, where overcrowding forced them to settle in southern Benin. Here, together with the Adja, and Arada, they established the kingdom of Allada. Leaders from the core group then went on to found the smaller kingdoms of Whydah, Jakin, Za and Tori along the coastal and lagoon areas. The Allada kingdom of the Fon and its offshoots remained tributary states of the Oyo Empire. The Fon speak a tonal language very closely related to Ewegbe. xii The Ewe are people who migrated from south-west Nigeria to the coastal and inland areas of Ghana and Benin. According to oral tradition the Ewegbe- speaking peoples trace their origins to the early migrations of the Yoruba, whose 10th century kingdom existed along the northern rain forest edges of present-day eastern Nigeria. These pre-Ewe peoples are said to have joined the drought- and famine-enforced migrations of the Yoruba and Adja peoples to Ketou in present- day Benin. In the 13th century over-population forced the pre-Ewe people to seek new territory. They migrated westward and split into two groups. One group settled 360 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names near the Mono River and founded the settlement of Tado, where it again split, one subgroup migrating to the plateau between the Mono and Haho rivers. The second Tado subgroup migrated further eastward in Benin and founded the Adja kingdom of Alladah; they are said to be the ancestors of the Anlo-Ewe who settled in Nuatja. During the mid-17th century groups of people fled from Nuatja. A northern group settled in the uplands and valleys, a middle group near the Akwapin-Togo ranges (Togo Mountains), and a southern group in the lagoon and coastal region. xiii The Ashanti are a large branch of the Akan peoples whose ancestors are believed to have settled in the Black Volta basin and adjoining Ivory Coast during the 10th century. According to oral tradition these Ashanti ancestors migrated to the forest regions more than 2000 years ago. Considerable racial mixing occurred during centuries of continuous north-ward and southward migration. The Akan descended from immigrants who mingled with pre-existing groups and developed the Twi language. Straddling the trade routes from the nearby Empire of Mali to the gold fields in the southern forest zone, the Akan divided into clans and close-knit lineage groups, and prospered. xiv The origins of the Yoruba in south-west Nigeria, Benin and central Togo are unknown but by the 11th century they had developed a rich urban and court life. Between the 17th and 18th centuries both Oyo and Benin had became large empires, that of Oyo collapsing in the 1800s (Moss and Wilson 1991). xv Beginning in the 3rd millennium BC from a homeland in Cameroon the Benue-Kwa peoples, speakers of Bantu languages, spread east and south into the equatorial rain forests of the Congo. During the first millennium BC the Mashariki or Eastern Bantu, descendants of the proto-Bantu communities, began to spread eastward beyond the rain forest borders into the Great Lakes region. Finally, between 300 BC and 100 BC, the Mashariki communities expanded fairly rapidly across eastern Africa, from Uganda and Kenya south to KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. During their migrations they encountered people from the Nile region and from Arabia. At about the same time, other Bantu peoples moved south from the rain forest into the savannas of Angola and Zambia. In southern and many parts of eastern Africa, the expansion of Bantu-speaking peoples proceeded at the expense of the Khoisan language, while in East Africa Bantu sometimes replaced the Southern Cushitic and Eastern Sahelian languages. From the 9th century onwards the coastal peoples had became important merchants, trading with the Middle East, being converted to Islam. Their language is now a mixture of Bantu and Swahili (Moss and Wilson 1991; Ehret 2000). As well as the Bantoid subgroup, all of the vast Benue-Congo group of languages are spoken in Nigeria and Cameroon. It is suggested that the region where the Bantoid subgroup of languages originated was the central Benue valley. This view contradicts the earlier assumption that the Bantu-speaking peoples originated in and migrated southwards from the Lakes region of East Africa. Given the wide extension of the Bantu languages and the small differentiation among them, it follows that this was a fairly recent movement, and that Bantu culture is a relatively recent southeastwardly expansion of the Guinea-coast type of culture (Greenberg 1970). 4 Notes 361

Bantu-speaking peoples broke up into a number of distinct societies. As they became fragmented, they developed language offshoots from the original Bantu- based language, including Bemba, Chokwe, Fang, Ganda, Herero, Kamba, Kikuyu, Kimbudu, Kikongo [Kongo], Kuba, Lesotho, Loangos, Luba, Lunda, Maasai, Makua. Maravi, Mbundu, Mukande, Ndebele, Ngundi, Nyika, Ovamba, Ovimbundu. Pondo, Swazis, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa and Zulu (Moss and Wilson 1991). There are clearly two competing Bantu roots in eastern and southern Africa, #mbuyu and #muramba, or something similar. It is possible that the similar forms in Swahili and Tonga are loans rather than true genetic cognates. Nevertheless, the South African Bantu names are clearly akin to #mbuyu and it is therefore possible that the baobab was carried southwards with Bantu expansion (Blench 2003). xvi According to Kikuyu tradition, Kikuyu clans began to expand in the 16th century from their homelands in the northern part of their present-day territory, purchasing land for farming from the Athi people (Moss and Wilson 1991). xvii By the 16th century the cattle-owning Kamba had developed into a distinct society in the plains around Mount Kilmanjaro but facing competition from the Maasai in the early 17th century, they gradually migrated north-eastward during the following two to three centuries. By the late 1600s they had settled in the higher hilly parts of central Kenya (Moss and Wilson 1991). xviii The Bemba of the plateau region of north-western Zambia are believed to have entered Zambia from neighbouring Zaire in the late 17th century or earlier (Moss and Wilson 1991). xix The warrior Ndebele of Matabeleland in southwestern Zimbabwe are a breakaway group of the Zulu people. Founded in 1831, they moved northward from South Africa into Matabeleland, where they subjected the Shona to their rule (Moss and Wilson 1991). xx The Zulu of KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo Provinces of South Africa are cattle-herders and warriors. They are descendents of the Ntungwa-Nguni peoples who inhabited south-eastern Africa in the 15th century. In about 1700 a subgroup, the ancestors of the Zulu, migrated towards present-day KwaZulu-Natal where, by the late 1700s, overpopulation forced them to spread out across the land (Moss and Wilson 1991). xxi The Tswana of Botswana and South Africa speak Setswana. The various Tswana groups trace their origins to expansions of the Sotho, chiefly families who originated in present-day central and southern Limpopo Province. Beginning in about the 14th century, the expansions of the original migrating groups became fragmented by internal strife and drought. By the 15th century, the Rolong (BaRolong) had emerged as a powerful kingdom, stretching from near present-day Pretoria westward into Botswana. By the 17th century several other chiefly lines were established in eastern Botswana (Moss and Wilson 1991). xxii Bender (2000) regards the Nilo-Saharan phylum is the least widely accepted of the four phyla recognised by Greenberg (1970). xxiii The numerous vernacular names for Adansonia digitata found in the Republic of the Sudan among the inhabitants of the Nuba Mountains originate from the time when the Nuba, or brown races, sought refuge among the mountains following the Arab invasion of the Sudan lowlands. The Nuba are by no means a 362 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names homogenous group of people; they speak more than 63 distinct languages and many different dialects. The inhabitants of several hills may share the same language, but in some areas the language spoken in one village may be unintelligible in a neighbouring village (Greenberg, 1970). Note that one of the vernacular names used, tabarly, near Jebel el Liri, shows an affinity with the Sudanese Arab tebeldi. xxiv Dilling is on the periphery of the Nuba Mountains, and tuberli suggests an affinity with the Sudanese Arab tebeldi. xxv Fur-speaking peoples are the principal inhabitants of Darfur Province in the Sudan, with a small group in eastern Chad. Fur is a term that properly applies to the language; the people claim to belong to the Keira dynasty but are known more widely as Fur. The Upland Fur occupy the Jebel Marra massif, and the largely Arabized Lowland Fur the surrounding plains. Their origins are obscure. Three dynasties, the Daju, Tunjur and Keira/Fur, are believed to have emerged from the original Neolithic Tora population; traditionally all three arose from intermarriage with and absorption of earlier dynasties. By 1200 AD the Daju from Ouadaï (Wadai) in Chad ruled Darfur, to be replaced in 1350 by the Tunjur in the northern and central areas, people who are believed to have come from the Dongola area. Shortly after 1500 Darfur became part of the great Bornu Empire, which extended from northern Nigeria to the Nile until it collapsed in 1603. The Keira/Fur dynasty succeeded that of the Tungur at about the same time (Balfour-Paul 1955; Barbour 1961). xxvi The origin of the Khoisian, the oldest African phylum is uncertain, possibly dating from as far back as 20,000 BP. Is it a genetic unity or a collection of languages that has, over many millennia, grown together and acquired certain typological features? The genetics of the Khoisian languages has been further confused by the extinction of unrecorded languages and by insufficient study of those still spoken. The term Khoisan was created to refer to the related Hottentot and Bushman peoples and is compounded from Khoikhoi (men of men) and San, the names by which the Hottentots and Bushmen respectively call themselves. San were the original inhabitant of the Kalahari region and were followed by the Khoikhoi, who probably originated from a San group. Hottentots are mainly pastoral with a somewhat complex political organisation and sense of ethnic distinctness, while Bushmen are generally hunters and gatherers. Both speak languages featuring click-sounds, which have been borrowed by neighbouring Zulu and southern Soto. Sandawe and Hadza (Hatsa) languages spoken in Tanzania, also feature click con- sonants, and are remotely related to Khoisan. The Sandawe are hunter-gatherers and agricultural and pastoral people of south-east Lake Victoria, Tanzania; the Hadza, also known as Hadzapi, Kindega, Wakindega or Watindenga, are a small group of hunter-gatherers who live some distance north-west of the Sandawe. The Khoisan of today are the remnants of an ancient hunting and gathering people that once occupied eastern Africa from Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope. These nomadic people were moving south at about the same time, 3000 to 1000 BC, as the Bantu of West Africa began expanding eastward and southward, arriving in Botswana between 200 and 500 AD. What appears to have been an amicable relationship was established between the three nations. By the 15th century AD the old Khoisan traditions survived only in the south-west of Africa. Towards the coast the land was suitable for cattle grazing and the Khoikhoi became herders, while those nearer the Kalahari, the 4 Notes 363

San, continued as hunters and gatherers, with their distinct life-styles, the two groups became independent of each other. The Khoi intermarried with their Bantu neighbours, separating them further from the San (Greenberg, 1970; Moss and Wilson 1991; Ehret 2000; Güldemann and Vossen 2000; Heine and Nurse 2000; Greenway 2001). xxvii The Afro-Asiatic phylum (formerly known as Hamito-Semitic) has more than 250 languages among its Cushitic, Omotic and Chadic branches, including ancient Egyptian, the Berber languages of northern and Saharan Africa, and the outlying Semetic languages of south-west Asia. The first divergence of ancestral proto-Afroasiatic produced the Omotic branch, now confined to the Ethiopian highlands, and to the more widespread Erythraic branch. Later, the proto-Erythraic diverged to produce the Cushitic branch centred on the Horn of Africa and the Red Sea Hills, and North Erythraic branch of northern Africa which, in turn, gave rise to the Chadic, Berber and Semetic languages. In about the 6th millennium BC speakers of proto-Chadic spread south from the central Sahara to the eastern Lake Chad basin. During the following 5th to 3rd millennia proto-Chadic people spread across much of northern Nigeria and central Chad; the best-known language is Hausa. xxviii During the 3rd millennium BC proto-Berber speakers spread from the central Maghreb to the borders of Middle Kingdom Egypt. A further Berber expansion over large parts of North Africa took place during the first millennium BC. The final Berber spread occurred during the first millennium AD, when the camel-owning Tuareg occupied the central Sahara. In historic times sub-Saharan peoples and Sanhadja Berbers settled in Mauritania. The region became the cradle of the Berber Almoravid movement, which by the 11th century AD resulted in the spread of an austere form of Islam to neighbouring countries (Deschamps 2002). The baobab would previously have been unknown to the Berbers (and Arabs) and therefore required a name. In classical Arabic the name for a large tree is doûm and the baobab was given the Berber feminine form of tedoûm, which the Arabs then adopted as teïdoûm (Leriche, 1954). The Arabic vernacular name for the palm Hyphaene thebaica is also doûm and it would have been essential to distinguish between these two economically important trees, hence the use of the feminine form for the baobab. The Berbers took part in the Fatimite conquest of Egypt from Libya and north-west Africa in the 10th century AD, settled in Upper Egypt and became Arabicized. Following their defeat in a rebellion against the ruling Mamelukes many fled to northern and western Sudan and settled. When Arabs began pouring into the Sudan from Egypt during the 13th century many of the Berber tribes were assimilated into Arab tribes. By 1386 some of the nomadic Arab tribes had spread westwards to Lake Chad; some tribes may even have reached Mauritania (Arkell 1961; Barbour 1961; Hourani 1991), where they would have met other Arab invaders who had arrived via Morocco. xxix The Tuareg, whose language is Tamasheq, are Muslim camel-herders and traders of the western Sahara (southern Algeria, north-eastern Mali and north-western Niger), and farmers to the south of the desert. By the 7th century they had moved, in a series of migrations, from north-east Africa into the southern desert. At first centred on the oasis of Tuat in south-west Algeria, they took control of the Ahaggar and Aïr regions. By 1000–1300 AD they had spread south-west into the Tombouctou region. Other related Berber peoples had earlier spread south through the western 364 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names

Sahara. The Tuaregs and other Berbers took up raising camels between 100 and 500 AD, and the possession of these animals allowed them to spread southwards across the Sahara (Moss and Wilson, 1991). xxx A caravan route continued to link Mauritania with Morocco during the 15th century AD. Arab tribes followed this route into Mauritania and soon outnumbered the Berbers; a mixed Arab-Berber (Moorish) culture was the result. The Zenaga represent such Arabicized Berber stock (Murdock 1959), as shown by their use of the Berber name teydûm for the baobab. xxxi Hausa is a major language, perhaps the most widely spoken in sub- Saharan Africa. Other related languages from the Lake Chad area exhibit pronomi- nal and verbal forms similar to those of Hausa, but they are not recent borrowings from Arabia as sometimes suggested (Greenberg 1970). According to tradition there were originally seven true Hausa kingdoms. By the 11th or 12th centuries these kingdoms may have developed from family-linked groups into the present-day territory-based system (Moss and Wilson 1991). xxxii The Semetic languages spread to south-west Asia well before 5000 BC. In about the 6th century BC an Ethiopic group derived from a Epigraphic South Arabian dialect was carried to Eritrea by settlers from Yemen, who spread their language to many of the indigenous Cushites. Following the rise of Islam in the 7th century AD, conquests and population movements resulted in the spread of dialects of another Semetic language, Arabic, across North Africa and the Sahel (Erhet 2000). xxxiii In the 14th century the descendents of the camel-owning Arab nomads migrated from Upper Egypt into the Sudan, where they invaded existing African kingdoms and intermarried with Nubians and other peoples. As they progressively occupied the savanna region, they divided into two tribal groups, northern camel-owning Gammala and southern cattle-owning Baggara (Moss and Wilson 1991). Many Arabic plant names used in the Sudan have a common root that can be traced through the Sahel and Egypt to Arabia. Thus, when the Arabs invaded the Sahel during the late 13th and 14th centuries they must have brought with them many vernacular names that they had previously used in the Middle East, and applied them to similar-looking plants in the new territories. However the baobab would have been both a remarkable tree and com- pletely unfamiliar to them, so they adopted the Berber name of tebeldiya. Alpino (1592) knew the fruit as Ba hobab, the vernacular name used by the Cairo merchants. Perversely, baobab has become the common European name for the tree while the fruit is now known, tautologically, as baobab fruit. Ba hobab is not appear in any French-Egyptian Arabic dictionary prior to 1952 (Leriche 1954), nor is known in any of the African languages. Consequently the name has given rise to much speculation as to its origin and etymology. To complicate matters further, the baobab does not occur wild in Egypt and the nearest possible source of the fruit is northern Sudan, where the tree is widely known as tebeldi, and the fruit as gongoleis. Ghaleb (1965) suggests that baobab means ‘a thousand years’ but does not give his reasoning. Mauny (1951) and Drar (1970) suggest a derivation from the Arabic lobab or lobb meaning ‘fruit pulp’; similarly Storrs (1983) suggests a derivation from idob, an Arabic variant of lobab. However, Leriche (1954) argues that lobab is derived from the classical Arabic word lubâb, meaning ‘heart’. The more likely 4 Notes 365 derivation is the Arabic bu hibab, ‘the fruit with many seeds’ or abu hoboub, ‘the father of seeds’ (Beauverie 1934; Nicolas and Nicolas 1955; Adam 1962; Wickens 1983a; Baumer 1995). Arab traders are believed to have been responsible for introducing the baobab into India during the Middle Ages, because it is mainly associated with ports along the western coast and in the Deccan among the Islamic towns of the former Moghul Empire. xxxiv In the Sudan the Arabic name for the baobab is tebeldi or tebeldiya, which is not a word of Arabic origin. Douglas Newbold in Newbold (1924) and in Parr et al. (1924) correctly guessed a Berber origin pointing out that the ‘te’ prefix appeared Hamito-Semitic, while the root of the name was possibly derived from Belbeday, a place-name at Jebel Haraza in northern Kordofan. Newbold (1924) speculated that either the Garamantes or their medieval successors brought the name tebeldi to the Sudan during one of the early Berber invasions from the west. Some baobabs used for storing water are self-filling, the rainwater running down the branches into natural hollows in the trunk. These are called Um Lagai, El Lagai or Lagat (Blunt 1923), names which Newbold thought suggestive of a Berber dialect, since the Berber root ‘lgh’ means ‘well’ or ‘water supply’. In both the Sudan and Nigeria, among the Arabic-speaking peoples, baobab fruits are known as gongleis, a word that could be of Berber origin. The Nigerian name possibly came from the Tuareg, whose camel trains carried salt from the Sahara to Nigerian cities. Their camel trains were very much in evidence during the early 1950s; one of their camels died in my ‘front garden’ at Dogan Daji! Despite the baobab’s disjunct distribution across the Sahel, this historical review offers an explanation for the similarity in vernacular names used in northern Sudan and West Africa. xxxv The Moors of Mauritania speak Hassaniya, a dialect that draws its grammar from Arabic but whose vocabulary contains both Berber and Arabic words (Deschamps 2002). Leriche (1954) reported that the noted Moorish poet and author from Mauritania, En-Nâbigha Muhammad b. Umar al- Ghallâwi Ha Hodh as- Shinqiti (c. 1839–1903) (see Rebstock and Mayer 2001), used qandalis as the Hassaniya name for the tree despite the word’s unlikely Arabic origin. Other authors of Hassaniya, including Basset (1909), Jaouen (1988) and Taine-Cheikh (1988, 1990) give the Berber name teydûm for the tree. xxxvi The Amhara of the central and northern highlands of Ethiopia came from a mixture of Abyssinian (early Ethiopian) stock and immigrant traders from southern Arabia. Amharic has been the official language of Ethiopia since the 13th century.

4.3 Indian Languages

xxxvii Sanskrit is the official language of India (Gordon 2005). xxxviii Burton-Page (1971) commented on the onomastic nature of khuräsänî imli and görakh imli; imli means tamarind (Tamarindus indica). The sobriquet may 366 Appendix 1 Vernacular Names refer to the acid pulp of baobab fruits. The epithet khuräsäni is fanciful, since the baobab is unknown in the Khurasan region of Iran and probably an elegant way of implying ‘foreign’, as in ‘American cloth’ or ‘Russian salad’. The association with Görakh or Goraksanätha, patron saint of an order of yogis, is obscure. There may be some association with death, since executions traditionally took place under the baobab. Varmah and Vaid (1979) hesitantly suggested that the tree may be so named after Grakhnath because this saint saved the ancient sacred site of Jhusi at Prayag from destruction by the mythical rajah Harbong! Kalapbirchh is the former mythical wishing tree at Tilpat of uncertain identity that died in 1963 (Baden-Powell including Wilson 1879). Kalapbirchh or kalpa-vri- sha’ has been identified by Vaid (1964, 1979a) as Adansonia digitata. See Chapter 3 for further information. xxxix The Dravidian phylum is a large group of families spoken mainly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, especially by aboriginal population of southern India.

4.4 Malagasy Languages

xl Madagascar was an uninhabited island until it was occupied in a series of migrations from Indonesia and Africa during the first five centuries AD. While it is possible that the Indonesians made the 6400 km direct crossing of the Indian Ocean to Madagascar in their outrigger canoes, it is more likely that they followed a coastal route via India and East Africa. The common language is Malagasy which, written in the Latin alphabet, is a standardised version of a mingling of Merina and the Sama-Bajaw group of Austronesian languages. It is now accepted that the closest relative to Malagasy is the Maanjan language of south-east Borneo. The ancestors of the Maanjan are said to have been part of a Barito group from Borneo who travelled to Sumatra and Java during the first five centuries AD, acquiring Sanskrit words in the process. The strong African element in the coastal populations is probably from later migrations, since their language is essentially Malayo-Polynesian with only slightly more Bantu-Swahili words than elsewhere on the island. Words for domestic animals are derived from Kiswahili, probably indicating that the early Indonesian settlers did not bring animals with them in their outrigger canoes. Arab traders arrived later and, since the Arabic language disappeared quite quickly, the traders, pre- dominately male, probably married local Malagasy women, and became absorbed into the community. They left a few Arabic loan words and Islamic customs to tell of their former presence. By the 18th century three major kingdoms ruled the island, Sakalava in the west, Merina in the central highlands and Betsimisaraka in the east. There are more than 15 ethnic groups, including the Antaisaka, Antandroy, Betsilo, Betsimisaraka, Merina and Sakalave. Each clings to its traditions and continues 4 Notes 367 to speak its own dialect of Malagasy. The Merina people of the highlands most closely resemble the Indonesians, while the Bara or Makoa in the south-west are closest to their African origins. The Bara people are cattle nomads and their name is said to be derived from a Bantu word. The Makoa arrived as slaves captured from the Makua people of Mozambique (Brown 1979; Morris and Wilson 1991; Bradt 2002; Deschamps and Kent 2002; Burney et al. 2004; Ellis and Randrianja 2004; Blench 2006b).

4.5 Australian Languages

xli Both King (1837) and Cunningham (1837) referred to the Australian baobab as the ‘gouty-stem tree’ It was first recognised as a species of Adansonia by Mueller (1858), although he also continued to refer to it as the ‘gouty-stem tree’ (Mueller 1857a, 1858. 1893). According to Ramson (1998) the first to coin the name ‘boab’ was Alexander Forrest (1881), a term which Cowan (1886) expanded to ‘boabab’, while Glass (1946) shortened baobab to ‘baob’. Although ‘baobab’ continued to be used (Clune 1947), the shorter and more easily pronounced ‘boab’ is now widely used. xlii There are approximately 260 Australian Aboriginal languages, forming a group of interrelated tongues that embrace the entire Australian continent and the western islands of Torres Strait, excluding Tasmania. Twenty-eight language f amilies are recognised, of which 24 are spoken in Arnhem Land and three in the Kimberley region. Every group speaks at least one distinct dialect, while bilingualism and multilingualism are common in many areas. There is no known link between these Aboriginal languages and any outside language, although it is believed that the people who entered northern Australia in the Late Pleistocene introduced languages ancestral to those spoken today (Brown 1997; Wurm 2000). There has been long-term contact on the coast with fishermen from the Malaysian and Indonesian archipelagos, and some words have been adopted from these islanders. Otherwise, overseas contact was rare. The Chinese Treasure Fleets of 1411–1413 circumnavigated the world and founded colonies in Australia; the colonies were abandoned in 1644, when the Qing dynasty imposed China’s long, self-imposed isolation from the outside world. The 16th and 18th centuries saw the arrival of European explorers. Today, many native languages have been lost; however, efforts are now being made to maintain those still being spoken and to revive those with only a handful of speakers still living (Menzies 2003, Lowe 2005, personal communication). Appendix 2 Economics

1 Economics of Wild Resources

Economists evaluate agricultural crops in terms of inputs and outputs, even when subsistence farmers grow these crops solely for domestic use without any monetary involvement. However, they often find great difficulty in evaluating scattered, free- for-all commodities from wild resources, which are harvested by an unknown number of people for domestic use. The baobab falls into this resource category. The usages of baobabs are, like those of any other commodity, governed by need, supply and demand. The choice of what is used reflects the quantity and seasonal availability, the economics in monetary or non-monetary terms, the relative advantages and disadvantages of the available alternatives, and local customs. For example, the inhabitants of the higher rainfall areas of the Sudan make less use of baobabs for food because they have a wider range of food plants to choose from than people in the drier regions, where the climate limits choice (Snow 1948). Chevalier (1951) noted that when baobabs were introduced into regions where they were unknown, such as the Central African Republic, the local people did not utilise them, even after 50 years. As rural populations ‘progress’ towards western standards the traditional wild food resources become less sought after (Arum 1989a, b), although paradoxically, when processed they may become acceptable to urban populations. The commercial significance of a product need not be commensurate with its fundamental importance, i.e. the extent to which it promotes people’s well being. For example, baobab leaves are widely harvested in West Africa. Their harvesting and consumption as food remains almost entirely a local affair, with only a small proportion being marketed. However, their use varies according to tribal custom. For example, the Socé families in Senegal favour baobab leaves as their main sauce ingredient for cereal dishes, whereas the Peuhl and Wolof prefer the exudate of Sterculia setigera (Poulsen 1982; Bergeret and Ribot 1990). In Dakar, where some marketing is organised, most of the product is harvested either locally or elsewhere within Senegal. The sheer volume harvested annually and consumed either fresh or dried, means that a far from insignificant labour investment is being willingly made by local people without any large-scale cash

368 1 Economics of Wild Resources 369 payments. The implication is that the people consider the leaves an important and highly nutritive and free food beneficial for their health and vigour. Poulsen (1982) argued that the health benefits of baobab leaves, a non-wood forest product (NWFP), are possibly more important to the local people’s well-being than the income earned by a commercially marketable NWFP such as gum arabic from Acacia senegal. The result of deforesting savanna woodland for cultivation and fuel, leaving traditional fruit-bearing trees, is anthropogenic parkland; species such as Adansonia digitata and Faidherbia albida bear silent witness to the economic value placed by the local people on the retention of such trees. According to Ibiyemi et al. (1988), a mature baobab should produce more than 250 fruit and provide at least 30 kg of food annually. Guinko and Pasgo (1992) made a 7-month study of 18 NWFP on sale in the local food markets of central Burkina Faso. They counted from 31 to 110 people, mainly women, regularly selling a variety of NWFP: baobab leaves and fruit, the calyx and flowers of the red kapok (Bombax costatum), kernels and shea butter from the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), seeds of the African locust tree (Parkia biglobosa) and leaves and fruit of the tamarind (Tamarindus indica). The majority of vendors were selling baobab leaves and fruit; only three to 30 people were selling the other 13 products. Another marketing survey in the south-east of the country by Mertz et al. (2001) showed the importance of the baobab, red kapok tree and African locusts (Schistocerca gregaria), a member of the Orthoptera, as wild food sources. Baobab leaves were second in importance to sorrel, Corchorus spp., in quantity for sale and were present in 23.5% of the meals consumed, the main season for their consumption being the early part of the rainy season, from May to June. Another study in western Burkina Faso by Lamien et al. (1996) found baobab leaves in 41% of the soups; 85% of the leaves had been purchased. Mertz et al. (2001) and Kristensen and Lykke (2003) working in southern Burkina Faso identified the baobab as one of the top four species in the domestic economy. A survey of wild foods eaten by the Malinké of northern Ivory Coast by Ambé (2001) also found baobab leaves and fruit popular. Lamien and Traore (2002) argued that the baobab leaf markets in Burkina Faso were out-of-date, with problems of oligopory and oligopsoly, i.e. where sellers and purchasers are few and the action of anyone in either group could materially affect the price. Savard et al. (2002) pointed out that despite the desire in Mali for market gardens for baobab leaf production and the establishment of market boards, there remained problems with seed germination, water supply and economic rents. In northern Benin there is a thriving trade in baobab leaves, pulp and seeds, which are sold to neighbouring countries. In one small market near Boukoumbé, 6,923 kg of pulp was sold for nearly 900,000 F CFA in 2001. There is also a local market for baobab syrup and purée worth 2,500 F CFA l−1 and 300 F CFA jar−1 respectively (Codjia et al. 2001, 2003). The Hadza are an egalitarian tribe of hunters and gatherers from the Lake Eyasi area of northern Tanzania, distantly related to the Khoisan people of southern Africa; baobab fruits are an important part of their diet, representing 14% of the daily calorie intake (Marlowe 2003). 370 Appendix 2 Economics

The baobabs are not as fully exploited in Madagascar as in Africa; neither are they put to such a variety of uses. For much of the area this is largely due to the wider range and more abundant supply of wild and cultivated foods because of the higher rainfall. However, in south-west Madagascar the low irregular rainfall and shallow soils make the land less productive, and people rely more on wild foods, including Adansonia. Interestingly, of the food plants listed by Woodburn (1968) for the Hadza in Africa, seven are common to the diet of Kimberley Aborigines, including Adansonia, important to both groups (Crawford 1982). In most areas there has been a decline in traditional Aboriginal plant use and knowledge, which Smith et al. (1993) attributes to a loss of access to traditional lands, a loss of plants caused by pastoral activities and lack of interest due to western influences. However, the baobab, better known in Australia as the boab, is readily accessible; Lowe (1998) considers the main reason for the decline in its use is the modern western lifestyle of the younger generations, who are more attracted to fast foods and cool drinks and prefer playing video games to learning from their elders. A similar trend has been noted among Africans by Arum (1989a, b).

2 Commercial Baobab Products

2.1 Commercial Production in Africa

African commercial production based on baobabs is largely limited to baobab fruit juices and sweets for local consumption, and basketry for the tourist trade. The export possibilities have barely been explored, although Mshigeni and Hangula (2001) reported a lucrative export of baobab seeds from Tanzania to the Arab States for use as a relish. Foodtech Tanzania Enterprises in Dar-es-Salaam is currently marketing a ‘baobab sauce’ from the fruit (Philemon 2004). In Malawi a project instigated by the Wildlife and Environmental Society of Malawi and funded by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammen-arbeit (GTZ) is marketing baobab juice. Baobab fruit are brought to the factory at Mwanza, where the pulp is separated from the shell. The latter is dried and burnt to heat the pulp, which is then soaked and strained. Sugar and pre- servatives are added to the juice before bottling (Anonymous 2004e). Another company, Cheetah Malawi Ltd, a member of the trade association PhytoTrade Africa, is about to venture into pulp and oil production (Dohse 2004, personal communication). PhytoTrade Africa represents producers of natural goods in southern Africa and has two offices, in Harare, Zimbabwe and in London. It is currently investigating the market possibility of baobab fruit pulp as a thick fruit juice with a high fruit pulp content, for use as an ingredient of smoothies. In Zimbabwe yet another small company, C&K Investments, a group of producers under SAFIRE, and also a member PhytoTrade Africa, recently started to extract oil from baobab seeds for 2 Commercial Baobab Products 371 use in the cosmetics industry. Employing five people, the company is currently processing 6 t of seed a month (Welford 2004; Welford 2004, personal communication). PhytoTrade Africa reports that in Zimbabwe the monthly income during the baobab harvest season is 250% greater than during the remaining months of the year (Gruenwald and Galizia 2005). Luckert et al. (2001) reported that in Zimbabwe commercial baobab products, whether for food, domestic use or the tourist trade, played a vital role in the livelihoods of the rural households, ranking second only to crops. The increasing village populations have brought about a steady increase in baobab production activities, with 43% of the households currently employed in them. Eco products, an independent South African company is also marketing baobab fruit pulp as a natural cream of tartar, and baobab oil for therapeutic cosmetic purposes in South Africa. In Senegal, the Vegétaux d’ailleurs association has a garden centre at Richard Toll from where bonsai baobabs are exported to Europe.

2.2 Commercial Production in Madagascar

There has been some commercial interest. In c.1874 the representative of Maritime Communications at Morondava conceived the idea of processing A. grandidieri seeds for their edible oil. From then until early in the 20th century the seeds were exported to Marseille, where they were mixed with other oilseeds and cooking oil was extracted. The scheme eventually failed due to an irregular and insufficient supply to sustain the market. Some seeds were also processed at Morondava. The oil, of good quality, fetched 1 franc per litre, and was widely used by the local people (Gouvernement Général de Madagascar et Dépendances 1899; Rey 1912; Perrier de la Bâthie 1925b, 1953; Jourdan 1961). However, the oil is now known to contain cyclopropenic fatty acids, which are harmful if consumed in quantity and must be either removed or ren- dered harmless (Aitzetmüller 1996). See Chapter 4 for further discussion. Keraudren (1963) claims that in c.1900 Malagasy seeds were imported to the UK for making dry tea cakes. Unfortunately she did not disclose her information source and I have been unable to discover any Victorian recipe for such cakes.

2.3 Commercial Production in Australia

The commercial growing of A. gregorii for their young edible roots and young leaves is currently under investigation in Australia. There is a small market for boab root chutney and marmalade (Johnson et al. 2002, 2006). Melisssa Boot in Kununurra is using fruit pulp for flavouring chocolate (Nekrasov 2001). The Australian Food Standards Agency considers the boab as ‘not novel’; it was given food status in March 2005 (PhytoTrade Africa 2006). 372 Appendix 2 Economics

2.4 Commercial Production in Canada

A. digitata is listed in Canada as a substance used in cosmetics and care products regulated under the Foods and Drug Act between 1 January 1987 and 13 September 2001 (PhytoTrade Africa 2006).

3 Marketing Adansonia Products in the European Union

The Harmonized Commodity Descriptive System (HS) is a six-digit international code used to identify commodities; countries are free to use further subheadings where necessary. Although baobab fruit pulp has no specific HS-Code, it is currently imported under HS-Code 0813 4095 for dried fruit. This is because of the powdery consistency of ripe baobab pulp, otherwise it could be classified under HS-Code 1106 30 90 for flour and powdered fruit. Baobab fruit pulp is an interesting candidate for a new generation of functional foods and drinks. A variety of health claims are made about its prebiotic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions and its high Ca content. It is also being promoted for use in food-technology because of its high pectin and fibre content, which gives beverages a thicker consistency, and makes it useful as a filler. The first western processor of leaves, fruit and seeds was the Baobab Fruit Company, founded in Verona in 2001; seedling tubers are also being considered. The company markets unpatented dietary supplements and cosmeceuticals (therapeutic cosmetics) in Italy, mainly in herbal stores and pharmacies (Fig. 44). Since 2004 the company has entered the international market, especially in Spain. The company’s use of ultrasound at ambient temperatures to extract the oil ensures a better qualitative to quantitive ratio without any modification of the active ingredients by preventing the disintegration of thermolabile active ingredients, such as essential oils and vitamins, and caramelisation of sugars. Intermediate products are sold to other manufacturers; these include 1:3 fruit pulp concentrate without fibre and vitamin A, frozen fibre concentrate, and natural fruit pulp flavouring; a glycol fruit pulp extract is sold to the cosmetic industry.

Fig. 44 Examples of therapeutic cosmetics and dietary supplements from Adansonia digitata fruit pulp and seed oil marketed in Europe. 3 Marketing Adansonia Products in the European Union 373

Raw materials are imported from Senegal through the independent Baobab Fruit Company, Senegal (Plate 24). The Italian company imported 70 t of raw material in 2003 and 140 t in 2004, corresponding to 44 t of fruit pulp worth €83,000. Another Italian company, Specchiasol, manufactures the symbiotic health product Ferzym from prebiotic baobab fruit pulp, which is used for enveloping probiotic bacteria. The German company Börland has developed an aftershave from hydrolysed A. digitata extract (Gruenwald and Galizia 2005). Baobab fruit, also known as ‘pain de singe’, is sold in areas of Paris with a large population of West and Central African immigrants (PhytoTrade Africa 2006). An application has been made to the EU by PhytoTrade Africa (2006) for dried baobab fruit pulp to be used in such products as smoothies, cereal bars and other health food products.

3.1 Tariffs, Quotas and Prices

All goods entering the EU are subject to import duties, the level of tariff being determined by the country of origin and the product. Because of its powdery consistency, baobab pulp can be imported as ‘dried fruit’ under HS-Code 0813 4095, and has an import duty of 2.4%. Value added tax (VAT) systems have yet to be harmonised within the EU. The Baobab Fruit Company imports baobab fruit pulp and pays 4% VAT. Prices are dependent on supply and demand. The supplier receives between US $3 and US $20 per kg (Freight on Board), depending on quality and quantity as well as other trade terms. Baobab fruit pulp is not very well known and has not been heavily exploited commercially. In 2005 the current EU wholesale and retail prices of baobab fruit pulp were approximately €35 and €50 per 250 g respectively. The current retail and wholesale prices are relative high for a vegetable product but are expected to fall as competition between producers increases. The processing does not require expensive technology, and can be carried out in the country of origin. The return on production costs for fruit pulp is 8–12%. Seeds make up 38–40% of the fruit by weight and processed for oil (Gruenwald and Galizia 2005).

3.2 EU Directives

Under EU Directive 2001/83/EC, no preparations of any kind can be sold as medical products for treating, preventing or diagnosing diseases unless authorised by the European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicines (EMEA) or the national authority of an EU member country. The necessary procedure consists of tests, clinical trials and detailed documentation of quality, safety and efficacy. The product must be pure and its ingredients defined. The complex nature of plant substances is such that compliance with the regulations is difficult, as well as expensive 374 Appendix 2 Economics and time-consuming. Such stringent requirements would prohibit the legal distribution of most traditional herbal products within the EU. For this reason, Directive 2004/24/EC provides a simplified procedure for traditional herbal medicines. To qualify, a product must have been used medicinally for 30 or more years, and at least 15 years within the EU or its current territories. In the past, baobab bark has been used commercially in Europe as a substitute for cinchona bark for treating fevers but no information has been found to show that baobab fruit pulp had been used for at least 15 years within Europe. If it could be proven that the pulp had been used for pharmaceutical purposes in, for example, Reunion, a French territory in the Indian Ocean, registration under the simplified procedures would be possible. Directive 2002/46/EC concerning food supplements, currently (in 2005) applies only to vitamins and minerals but is likely to be expanded to include plant and herbal extracts. No medicinal claims may be made, only nutritional claims. Such products may be classified as foods, not as medicines, and no medical claims may be made. Furthermore, only very low, non-pharmaceutically active dosages of herbs are allowed. “EU directives must be ratified by the EU nations. Because of this, the individual countries interpret and apply the directives differently. This is why, in Italy vegetable ingredients with nutritional or physiological functions fall under the food supplement directive.” There was no special guidance on food supplements in Italy prior to the EU directive. From 27 January 1992, food supplements, including herbal supplements, came under Italian law No, 109 as simple food products. In practice, food and herbal supplements were often registered and authorised as dietary supplements for particular nutritional uses, and Italian law No. 111 applies from 27 January 1992 implementing EU Directive 89/398/EC concerning food for special uses. The Baobab Fruit Company’s authorisation for the use of baobab fruit pulp comes under this directive. Regulation 1997/258/EC is a non-tariff barrier for novel foods. For a food product to be accepted for marketing within the EU, a significant quantity must been on sale in at least one member state prior to 15 May 1997, otherwise the product is considered a ‘novel food’ and must undergo an expensive process to prove its safety. PhytoTrade Africa is currently (2005/2006) attempting to obtain approval for a simplified procedure from the UK’s Advisory Committee on Novel Food and Processes in order to pursue the further commercialisation of baobab fruit pulp. EU Directive 76/768/EC concerns cosmetic products and their ingredients. It includes an appendix on the International Nomenclature Cosmetic Ingredients (INCI), which lists products in the Inventory of Cosmetic Ingredients. Manufacturers are responsible for the safety of non-regulated cosmetic ingredients and since 1997 have supplied dossiers on their products. Cosmetic ingredients must be registered with their INCI name. Adansonia digitata fruit, leaf and seed extracts and seed oil are all registered. While the INCI name identifies the ingredient, it does not guarantee the safety of the product. WHO Guidelines on Good Agriculture and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants (World Health Organization 2003) covers the quality of raw 3 Marketing Adansonia Products in the European Union 375

material as well as packaging, marketing and labelling requirements; EU Directive 94/62/EC prescribes minimum standards for packing materials. The manufacture of pharmaceuticals is covered by A WHO Guide to Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) Requirements (World Health Organization 1997); this guide was harmonised with EU Directive 2003/94/EC (Gruenwald and Galizia 2005). Appendix 3 Nutrition

The nutritional value of the baobabs is of great importance to the local people. However, there is a considerable disparity in the results of various analyses, which may be due to a number of causes. These include the effects of the soil and climate, genetic make-up of the tree, age of the sample, conditions under which the sample was stored and prepared for analysis, analytical techniques used, and in the presen- tation of the results. Where possible, values are expressed as 100 g g−1 dry weight.

1 Energy

Baobab roots, leaves, fruit pulp and seeds are healthy foods and an important source of energy (Table 29).

2 Roots

Johnson et al. (2002) reported the results of an analysis of the young roots (under a year, exact age not stated) of A. gregorii, which was being investigated for consumption as a possible commercial vegetable (Table 30). The roots are rich in potassium, a moderate source of starch and sugars and, for a root vegetable, have a relatively high protein content; no toxic substances were found. Antioxidants are discussed in Section 3 and the Integral Antioxidant Capacity of A. digitata roots is shown in Table 35.

3 Leaves

The leaves of A. digitata are rich in mucilage, tannins, calcium oxalate, sodium chloride, potassium acid tartrate and catechins; a flavonic pigment and an adansonia flavonoside, are also present (Anonymous 1906, 1907b; Adam 1962; Watt 376 3 Leaves 377

Table 29 Metabolizable energy values 100 KJ (kcal) g−1 dry weight of leaves, fruit pulp and seeds of Adansonia digitata Leaves Fruit pulp Seeds References – 1,430 (342) 2,149 (514) Busson (1965) 1,860 (445) – – Nordeide et al. (1996) – 820.5 (196) 760 (182) Odetokun (1996) – 849 (204) 1,898 (454) Murray et al. (2001) – 555 (131) – Manfredini (2002)

Table 30 Average results from nutritional and toxicological analyses of young Adansonia gregorii roots. (From Johnson et al. 2002.) Non-minerals % Minerals Mineral content Moisture 6.7 B 13.0 mg kg−1 Crude protein 5.4 Ca 0.68 g 100 g−1 Crude fibre 21.0 Cl 0.61 g 100 g−1 Ash 7.9 Cu 4.6 mg kg−1 Ether extract 3.6 F 0.05 g 100 g−1 Starch 16.7 K 2.73 g 100 g−1 CHO 16.0 Mg 0.36 g 100 g−1 Sugars 19.0 Mn 28.0 mg kg−1 Phytate 1.02 Na 0.05 g 100 g−1 Total tannin 0.95 S 0.06 mg kg−1 −1 Catechin 2.8 S04 < 0.2 g 100 g Cyanides <0.5 Zn 20.0 mg kg−1

and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Busson 1965; Kerharo and Adam 1974; Oliver-Bever 1986). The fresh and dried leaves (lalo) form an important item in the local diet, especially in West Africa. The proximate analysis of the leaves is shown in Table 31. The proximate analysis is unexceptional although the chemical score for the amino acids is high (Table 32). The leaves contain significant amounts of essential (or indispensable) amino acids that animals are incapable of synthesizing within their own bodies and are essential for human growth, maintenance and reproduction. Not only are baobab leaves an important source of tryptophan for people who eat them, but part of the human nicotinic acid (niacin) requirement can also be satisfied by the conversion of tryptophan to nicotinic acid, the anti-pellagra vitamin B3 (Yazzie et al. 1994; Nordeide et al. 1996). Nicotinic acid deficiency is common in areas where maize is the staple diet; it can cause dementia, diarrhea and dermatitis (Falconer and Arnold 1988). The total lipid content of Adansonia digitata leaves was 55 mg g−1 dry weight and includes the following essential fatty acids: myristic a trace, palmitic 0.24 mg g−1 dry weight, palmitoleic 0.011, stearic 0.035, oleic 0.058, linoleic 0.10, α-linolenic 0.081 and arachidonic a trace (Glew et al. 1997). 378 Appendix 3 Nutrition

Table 31 Proximate analysis of Adansonia digitata leaves (100 g g−1 dry weight) Toury et al. Nordeide et al. Lockett et al. Mean (1957)1 (1996)1 (2000)2 values Dry matter 88.5 93.6 8.2 63.4 Crude protein 13.1 15.0 10.1 15.0 Crude fibre – – 27.5 12.1 Ash 8.8 11.5 15.9 4.4 Ether extract 2.3 4.6 6.3 – N-free extract – 69.0 40.2 – Gross energy kJ – 1,866 (445) – – (kcal) Metabolisable – 1,480 (353) – energy kJ (kcal) 1fresh leaves; 2sun-dried leaves

Table 32 Amino-acid composition of Adansonia digitata leaves. The ideal essential amino acid requirements for pre-school children are those of WHO/FAO (1973) Yazzie et al. Nordeide et al. Glew et al. WHO/FAO (1994) (1996) (1997) (1973) mg g−1 % of mg g−1 % of ideal % Amino acid dry wt. total mg g−1 N dry wt. total of total Essential Lysine 6.1 ± 0.9 5.7 293 6.1 5.9 5.5 Methionine 2.4 ± 0.4 2.3 57 1.0 1.0 3.51 Threonine 4.1 ± 0.7 3.9 300 3.7 3.6 4.0 Tryptophan 1.6 ± 0.5 1.5 105 2.1 2.0 1.0 Isoleucine 6.7 ± 1.1 6.3 293 5.5 5.3 4.0 Leucine 8.7 ± 1.4 8.2 501 8.8 8.5 7.0 Valine 6.3 ± 0.1 5.9 330 6.6 6.4 5.0 Phenylalanine 5.7 ± 1.0 5.4 308 5.0 4.8 6.02 Arginine 8.5 ± 2.9 8.0 – 7.1 6.9 – Histidine 2.1 ± 0.5 2.0 130 2.2 2.1 – Non-essential Glycine 6.0 ± 0.9 5.6 – 5.6 5.4 – Cysteic acid 2.7 ± 1.2 2.5 170 2.1 2.0 – Serine 4.7 ± 1.1 4.4 – 4.6 4.5 – Proline 5.6 ± 0.7 5.3 – 6.8 6.6 – Alanine 6.9 ± 1.0 6.5 – 6.6 6.4 – Aspartic acid 10.3 ± 2.5 9.7 – 12.9 12.5 – Glutamic acid 13.4 ± 3.8 12.6 – 11.4 11.0 – Tyrosine 4.5 ± 0.8 4.2 215 4.2 4.1 – 1methionine + cystine; 2phenylalanine + tyrosine

The leaves contain substantial quantities of many of the essential trace elements, including Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, P and Zn (Table 34). The wide range of mineral content shown in Table 33 may be due to any of a number of reasons, such as minerals present in the soil, seasonal and genetic variations, age and maturation 3 Leaves 379

Table 33 Mineral content (100 mg g−1 dry wt.) of Adansonia digitata leaves No. of Mineral Minimum Average Maximum samples References Al 22.8 144.3 287 3 3 Ba 18.2 27.4 45.4 3 3 Ca 307 1663 2640 10 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 Cu 0.29 1.17 31.2 9 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 Fe 0.32 113.36 254 13 1, 3,4, 5, 6, 7 K 140 777 1567 4 1, 3 La <1.0 <1.38 1.73 4 3, 5 Mg 93.6 328.3 549 13 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Mn 1.85 6.16 9.84 13 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Mo 0.91 1.55 1.98 3 3 Na 0.86 81.9 163.0 2 1, 5 P 47 384 984.2 10 1, 2, 5, 6, 7 Sr 16 27.5 34.3 3 3 Ti <0.5 <2.05 2.91 3 3 Zn 0.74 7.87 24.6 12 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 1 = Andy and Eka (1985); 2 = Prentice et al. (1993); 3 = Yazzie et al. (1994); 4 = Smith et al. (1996a); 5 = Glew et al. (1997); 6 = Barminas et al. (1998); 7 = Lockett et al. (2000)

Table 34 Mean vitamins A, B and C content (mg 100 g−1) of Adansonia digitata leaves Delisle et al. Andy and Eka (1985) Smith et al. (1996b) (1997) Fresh Sun-dried Fresh young Dry Dry leaves leaves leaves leaves leaves Carotene (A) 10.25 8.51 – – 8.61 ± 5.4 α-carotene – – 1.01 0.17 – β-carotene – – 5.92 1.63 – β-cryptoxanthin – – 0.81 0.11 – β-carotine cis-isomers – – 1.15 0.37 –

Thiamine (B1) 0.48 0.57 – – –

Riboflavin (B2) 1.23 1.15 – – – Total ascorbic acid (C) 203.8 171.0 – – – Reduced ascorbic acid 131.2 48.0 – – – of the sample and differences in analytical methods. There are also the possibilities of adulteration or contamination during processing. For example, Anonymous (1998) and Scheuring et al. (1999) warn against analysing market samples of leaves or fruit pulp because they are commonly extended with innocuous material, such as pulped cereal stalks. Conversely, A. digitata seeds have been found contaminating consignments of unshelled groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea) at Marseille (Chevalier 1923). The effect of the mineral content of the soil on that of the baobab has yet to be investigated. It is known that acid mineral soils increase the soil concentration of Al and Mn, decrease cation concentration of Ca, Mo and K and the solubility of Mo and P, while alkaline soils decrease the Fe, P and Zn concentration and the solubility of Mn and Zn (Marschner 1995). These effects alone will make any general 380 Appendix 3 Nutrition recommendation for the daily intake of leaves (or fruit pulp) to meet human mineral requirements questionable. Iron deficiency anemia is common in many parts of Africa where the baobab grows. Both Yazzie et al. (1994) and Glew et al. (1997) suggested that baobab leaves could be an important source of dietary Fe, although the bioavailability of the minerals in the leaves and protein digestibility have not yet been determined. Both Irvine (1952a) and Glew et al. (1997) commented on the high Ca content of leaves, while Woolfe et al. (1977) suggest that such levels may occur only in trees growing on alkaline soils; the comparative Ca content for trees growing on other soil types has not been investigated. The high Ca content of leaves from trees growing on alkaline, if not on others, will ensure an adequate Ca intake from the daily consumption 35–49 gm of lalo (dried baobab leaves). Prentice et al. (1993) noted that in The Gambia dried baobab leaves had the highest Ca content (17,500 mg kg−1) among the locally obtainable raw ingredients; small quantities of which were used as a condiment. Boukari et al. (2001) recommend attention should be paid to the ratios between Ca, Zn and phytates since a synergism exists between the Ca and Zn ions resulting in a Ca:Zn:phytate complex that is less soluble than phytate complexes formed by either ion alone. Baobab leaves are also a valuable source of vitamins (Table 34) in an otherwise vitamin-deficient diet. Interestingly, the baobab leaves analysed by Ijomah et al. (2000) had an ascorbic acid content of 856.8 ± 4.08 mg g−1. Unfortunately, the age and state of the leaves was not given. Baobab leaves are a rich source of carotinoids, the precursors of vitamin A (9–28 mg kg−1 Retinol Equivalents, depending on the tree and drying method. Vitamin A deficiency is a serious nutritional problem among many developing countries. Vitamin A is necessary for the maintenance of epithelial cells and mucous membranes, the immune system, normal growth, development and reproduction and night vision. Blindness in many children in Africa may be because of this deficiency (Schémann et al. (2002). To meet WHO (1990) standards, adolescent males and females aged 15 + would need to eat 61 g and 51 g day−1 respectively of fresh leaves or 221 g and 185 g day−1 respectively of dried leaves. While the daily consumption of baobab leaves may not fully meet these targets, other items in the diet should help make good any shortfall. Although fresh leaves are available only during the rainy season, dried leaves can be obtained throughout the year (Smith et al. 1996b). Trees may vary in the size of leaves and number of leaflets they bear. Sidibé et al. (1998a) found a correlation between the leaf size and their carotinoid content. Trees with small leaves (around 15 cm long) typically had 6–7 leaflets while trees with large leaves (around 20 cm long) had 5 leaflets. Irrespective of the age, the small leaves had a significantly higher carotinoid content than large leaves. They also found that while shade-drying took 2–3 days longer than the commonly practiced sun-drying, the vitamins were far better preserved. They also found that the provitamin A content of shade-dried leaves was roughly twice that of sun-dried leaves and that of small leaves half as much again. Good provitamin A levels are also better maintained by storing 3 Leaves 381 entire leaves rather than powdered leaves. As an additional benefit, the shade-dried leaves have a better flavour as well as being darker in colour. In Kenya the local farmers claim to recognise three types of baobab by the size and shape of the tree or its pods, the taste of the fruit pulp, some being sweeter than others, and by the season of flowering (Maundu et al. 1999). The seasonal folic acid (a constituent of the vitamin B complex) content of the leaves was examined using Lactobacillus casei to determine the availability in the human diet; it ranged from 0.39 to 0.46 µg g−1 dry weight. The estimated daily intake from three meals per day was approximately half the FAO/WHO Expert Group (1970): 200 µg g−1 for adults and 300–400 µg g−1 for pregnant women (Huq et al. 1983). However, it is unclear whether fresh or dried leaves were examined. Oxidative stress is a secondary effect of many human diseases, and the consumption of antioxidant-containing foods can reduce oxidative damage to human cells and tissues as well as offer protection against any depressed cellular immune function caused by malnutrition, and possibly delay the progress of HIV infection to AIDS. Cook et al. (1998) used the Trolox ( (S)-(2)-6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethyl- chroman-2-carboxylic acid) assay to compare the antioxidant content of a number of edible wild plants from Niger with those of spinach (Spinacia oleraceae) and the potato (Solanum tuberosum), which contain 14.3 and 7.1 µmol Trolox equivalents g−1 dry weight respectively. Baobab leaves had an antioxidant capacity of 7.7 µmol Trolox equivalents g−1 dry weight. The specific antioxidant was not determined but it could be ascorbic acid, in which baobab leaves are rich, although flavonoids are also a possibility. A Trolox assay was also carried out by Vertuani et al. (2002) using photochemiluminescence to compare the antioxidant capacity of aqueous and methanol extracts of baobab leaves and fruit pulp with those of various known to have a high vitamin C content. A similar study carried out by Besco et al. (2006) produced similar results (Table 35). The Integral Antioxidant Capacity is the sum of the water and lipid antioxidant capacities, calculated in mmol equivalents in activity of Trolox. This is a useful index of the capacity of complex vegetative samples to counteract reactive oxygen, especially the very toxic superoxide anion. In both the leaves and fruit pulp of the baobab, the water-soluble and lipid-soluble antioxidant capacities were high, and those of the funicles (red fibres) extremely high, suggesting the future use of red fibres as a valuable, new, health ingredient for food preparation and/or nutritional application. The highest results produced by the other fruits were for the water-soluble antioxidants, suggesting that ascorbic acid was the major contributor to the baobab’s antioxidant activity. In the case of the orange, which has about one sixth the ascorbic of the baobab fruit, the water-soluble antioxidant capacity was about one seventieth that of the baobab fruit (Vertuani et al. 2002; Besco et al. 2006). The leaves of A. digitata embody 12% of a mucilage containing uronic acids, rhamnose and other sugars, which are believed to have an adverse effect of food absorption. On hydrolysis the mucilage was found to contain mainly galacturonic and glucuronic acids with minor quantities of glucose, galactose, rhamnose and 382 Appendix 3 Nutrition

Table 35 Comparisons of water-soluble and lipid-soluble antioxidant capacities of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp and leaves with other fresh-fruit pulps. (From Besco et al. 2006.) Water-soluble Lipid-soluble IAC % Integral ascorbic acid Trolox µmol g−1 water/dry antioxidant equivalents µmol g−1 equivalents extract capacity Baobab fruit pulp 75.0 ± 0.005 25.0 ± 0.001 11 240.5 Dry leaves 23.0 ± 0.002 24.5 ± 0.003 10 89.0 Seeds 16.0 ± 0.0007 6.5 ± 0.00004 18 51.4 Funicles (red fibres) 386.0 ± 0.058 508.0 ± 0.008 8 1617.3 Seedling root 1.2 ± 0.0001 1.0 ± 0.00002 88 4.3 Seedling root cuticle 8.5 ± 0.0003 11.0 ± 0.0003 88 35.3 Kiwi fruit pulp 0.73 ± 0.015 0.27 ± 0.015 84 2.4 Orange fruit pulp 17.0 ± 0.015 0.29 ± 0.015 86 24.3 Strawberry fruit pulp 1.72 ± 0.006 0.36 ± 0.006 90 5.3 Bilberry fruit pulp 1.95 ± 0.017 2.00 ± 0.017 82 2.6

Table 36 Mean values of toxic substances present in fresh Adansonia digitata leaves. (from Andy and Eka 1985.) Field samples Market samples Toxins 100 mg g−1 Total oxalates 4.37 ± 0.14 5.26 ± 0.21 Soluble oxalates 1.75 ± 0.07 1.96 ± 0.10 Phytic acid 0.05 ± 0.01 0.04 ± 0.01 Phytic acid (% total P) 10.6 ± 0.04 6.8 ± 0.02 Tannins 19.8 ± 0.3 17.8 ± 0.3 Hydrocyanic acid 40.5 ± 3.2 37.2 ± 2.6 arabinose. Plant gums normally have protein and minerals associated with the polysaccharides but the baobab mucilage (like that of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus, which was also studied) had an unusually high concentration of non-carbohydrate components. It was also unusual in consisting mainly of an equal mixture of galacturonic and glucuronic acids. The mucilage attained maximum viscosity in the neutral pH range. However, the solution is unstable, losing much of its viscosity when heated (Oliver 1959; Woolfe et al. 1977; Gaiwe et al. 1989). Druses consisting of insoluble calcium oxalate crystals are present in the paren- chymatous tissues (Solereder 1908; Metcalfe and Chalk 1950). Whereas insoluble oxalates (calcium and acid oxalates) in the diet are excreted without ill effects, soluble sodium or potassium oxalates are absorbed rapidly into the blood stream and precipitate the Ca, thus preventing Ca absorption by the body (Everist 1972; Blackwell 1990). The levels of oxalates and other toxicants present in fresh leaves are shown in Table 36 and are below the harmful levels of toxicity in humans (Andy and Eka 1985). Any analysis for Ca will also include that present in calcium oxalate. Apart from direct toxicity, the phytic and oxalic acids present may render the Ca, Fe, Mg and Zn less available for absorption in the gut. However, it is doubtful if the oxalates will pose a problem except in cases of minimal mineral intake where unusually large quantities are ingested (Robinson 1973; Ensminger et al. 1994). 4 Fruit Pulp 383

Tannins are complex phenolic compounds, two types of which are recognised. The condensed tannins interfere with the utilisation of proteins and amino acids in the gut, but again the effect is minimal due to the small quantity present. The hydrolysable tannins are broken down by enzymes and do not react with the protein (Hagerman et al. 1992). The effect of the hydrocyanic acid would also be negligible.

4 Fruit Pulp

The dry, powdery or spongy fruit pulp is white to cream, sometimes pink. Gaertner (1791) refers to it as ‘pulpa fungosa-farinosa-rubicunda-acidula’; Dalziel (1937) notes that the pulp is ‘sometimes of a pinkish tinge’, while Green (1940) records a ‘pink acid-tasting pith’ as if it was nothing unusual. Carr (1958) took pulp that had been stored for 18 months and exposed it to direct sunlight and air for 7 weeks; the pulp changed colour from cream to a brownish pink. Dohse (2005, personal communication) and Sidibé (2005, personal communication) suggest the change to be the result of oxidation under light; it can also occur when a crack appears in the pod. The pink coloration could also be the result of a fungal infection when fruit is stored in humid or other poor conditions (Baum, 1996). Ottaviana (2005, personal communication) suggested the coloration could be due to the release of anthocyanidines and polyphenols from the funicles (red fibres), and be accompanied by an increase in antioxidants. These ideas certainly require further investigation. Phytochemical screening of the dry fruit pulp surrounding the seeds indicated the presence of sterols and/or triterpenes, saponins, tannins, carbohydrates and glycosides; cardiac glucosides, flavonoides and alkaloids were absent (Ramadan et al. 1994). About 50% of the pulp of A. digitata was soluble in water, half of which con- sisted of reducing sugars, organic acids, proteins and ash, while about 20% of the remainder were pectic substances (Greene 1932). Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen (1888) and Anonymous (1906) found tartaric acid and potassium hydrogen tartrate (potassium acid tartrate) present, while Slocum (1880a, b) and Millard (1890) found potassium hydrogen malate (potassium acid malate), but Slocum, unlike Millard, found no traces of tartaric acid; however, there is some confusion regarding the species examined. The nutritional compositions of baobab fruit pulp are shown in Table 37. Before World War II the Argentine and the wine-producing countries of the Mediterranean were the main source of supply to the UK for lees, argot and some calcium tartrate. With the cutting off of these sources of supply domestic wineries initiated large-scale tartrate recovery programs (Osol and Farrar 1955), which included tartrates from Adansonia. Murray et al. (2001) noted that some authors reported only cellulose or crude fibre instead of total dietary fibre, and thereby underestimated the fibre content and overestimated the amount of digestible carbohydrates present after subtracting the 384 Appendix 3 Nutrition

Table 37 Comparative data on the nutritional composition of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp Crude protein Fibre Ash Fat CHO Moisture 100 g g−1 dry weight References 17.9–33.8 1.4–2.1 – 3.3–3.4 0.1–0.7 – Toury et al. (1957)1 – 2.5 11.42 4.0 0.8 81.35 Busson (1965) 7.0 3.2 9.43 5.5 0.3 81.65 Wehmeyer (1966) 5.2 14.3 10.7 7.3 13.9 51.4 Lee (1979) 6.7 2.6 5.73 5.3 0.2 86.25 Nour et al. (1980) 19.9 19.1 – 2.4 5.1 73.45 Obizoba and Amaechi (1993) 13.2 3.1 8.33 5.0 4.3 79.45 Saka and Msonthi (1994) 6.2 10.9 6.23 2.0 4.3 45.2 Odetokun (1996) 10.55 2.2 11.2 5.7 0.4 70.05 Locket et al. (2000b) 4.7 4.7 45.14 5.1 0.7 46.66 Murray et al. (2001) – 5.3 44.04 – 0.2 30.0 Manfredini (2002) 10.4 3.2 5.4 4.5 0.3 76.25 Osman (2004) 1three fruits sampled; 2cellulose only; 3crude fibre only; 4total dietary fibre; 5carbohydrate determined by difference; 6sum of starch determined by enzymatic analysis, and mono- and disaccharides determined by difference protein, fibre, ash and fat from the total. This resulted in an overestimate of the calculated energy value of the food. The fruit pulp provides up to 45 g 100g−1 total fibre, of which 22.5% is soluble and 22% insoluble. In vitro studies appear to show that the high soluble and insoluble fibre content of the baobab fruit has an interesting action on the growth of intestinal microflora. Insoluble fibre is not absorbed by the intestine but is useful against constipation and promotes satiety due to the increase in faecal mass and stimulation of peristalsis, which may be also useful in cases of a hypocaloric diet. The water-soluble fraction has a prebiotic effect, i.e. it contains an indigestible carbohydrate which stimulates the growth or metabolic activity of the intestinal microflora, such as lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, including Bifidobacterium bifidum A3 and B16, B. infantis and B. longum, thereby improving the balance of the microflora and lactose digestion, preventing diarrhoea and stimulating the immune system (Vertuosi et al. 2001; Manfredini 2002). The dry pulp has a slightly tart, refreshing taste and is highly nutritious, with particularly high values for carbohydrates, energy, Ca, K (very high), thiamine

(vitamin B1), nicotinic acid (vitamin B3) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C – very high) (Arnold et al. 1985). The pulp is also a valuable source of amino-acids (Table 38). The pulp is rich in mucilage, pectins, tartrates, free tartaric acid (Busson 1965) and minerals. A. digitata pulp contains 23% pectin, but the quality is inferior to that of commercial pectin, which is usually obtained from apple pomace and unripe pawpaw fruits (Carica papaya), with respective yields of 18% and 15% (Sanghi et al. 1978; Nour et al. 1980). Ensminger et al. (1994) noted that the pulp’s Ca content compared favourably with that of milk (119 mg). The mineral content of A. digitata pulp is shown in Table 39. 4 Fruit Pulp 385

Table 38 The amino acid content (100 g g−1 protein) of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp Essential Manfredini Osman Non-essential Manfredini Osman amino acids (2002) (2004) amino acids (2002) (2004) Lysine 14.62 1.7 Glycine – 2.9 Methionine 4.92 0.2 Serine – 3.2 Cysteine – 1.0 Proline 2.35 – Cystine 11.23 – Alanine – 3.3 Threonine 2.96 2.8 Aspartic acid – 6.4 Trytophan 1.49 – Glutamic acid 4.02 6.5 Isoleucine 10.73 2.2 Tyrosine – 20.6 leucine 8.41 4,3 Valine 1.62 4.8 Phenylalanine – 4.4 Arginine 6.04 7.6 Histidine 2.71 1.2

Table 39 The mineral content (100 mg g−1 dry weight) of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp Nour Eromosele Prentice Saka and Smith Glew Lockett et al. et al. et al. Msonthi et al. et al. et al. Mineral (1980) (1991) (1993) (1994) (1995a) (1997) (2000) Ca 655 60.0 390 115.6 0.43 341 211 Cu – 0.60 – – – – 0.55 Fe 8.6 4.40 – 5.8 1.2 1.7 4.23 K – – – 2836.4 – – – Mg – 208.8 – 209 78.1 209 123 Mn – 0.60 – – 0.59 – 0.39 Mo – – – – – – – Na – – – 18.8 – 5.46 - P 50.8 5.0 35 45 – 73.3 49.79 Zn – 2.40 – – 0.47 1.04 0.47

Insignificant amounts of vitamin A precursors were found in the pulp, with only low concentrations of carotenoids present (Smith et al. 1996b), whereas the seed oil, although not a good source of vitamin A, contained 43.46 µg 100 g−1 of β-carotene (Essien and Fetuga 1989). The pulp (100 g) also contained 0.48 mg vitamin B1 (thiamine), 0.28–0.06 mg vitamin B2(riboflavin), which is essential for certain enzyme systems important in the metaolism of food, 2.16–3 mg vitamin B3 (niacin), part of two important enzymes regulating energy metabolism, promoting good physical and mental health, and 2.13 mg vitamin B6 (pyridoxin), an essential vitamin for growth and health (Manfredini 2002; Baobab Fruit Company 2003a). Working in Nigeria Okoh (1984) dried baobab leaves and fruit pulp in the sun for 7–10 days to about 5% moisture. There were no significant differences in the fat, protein, carbohydrate and mineral contents between the fresh and dried samples, but the vitamin B1 (thiamine) content of the dried leaf and pulp samples were reduced by 36% and 18% respectively, and the vitamin C. content by nearly 100% and 97% respectively. 386 Appendix 3 Nutrition

Table 40 Dry matter, pH and ascorbic acid content of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp Ascorbic acid Country Dry matter (%) pH (at 25°C) (100 mg g−1 dry wt.) References Senegal – – 151–156 Diop et al. (1988) Senegal – – 168–173 Nigeria – – 375 Nicol (1957) Nigeria – – 337 Eromosele et al. (1991) Sudan – 3.3 300 ± 6.2 Noor et al. (1992) Malawi 86.8 3.3 179 Saka and Msonthi (1994) Zimbabwe 85.9–90.0 – 175–445 Carr (1955) Zimbabwe 85.1–89.8 – 240–422 Carr (1958)

The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content of the pulp of A. digitata (Table 40) is among the highest known among the African wild fruits, and 6 to 10 times that of oranges (FAO 1988). There are, of course, higher sources: the richest in the world is believed to be the fruit of the Australian gubinge tree (Terminalia ferdinandiana), containing 50 times the vitamin C of oranges (Brand et al. 1982)! Carr (1958) found that unripe pods with 80% moisture contained no ascorbic acid. After 2 weeks the moisture fell to between 64.6% and 76.2% and the ascorbic acid varied from nil to 111.7 mg 100 g−1. In ripe pods no relationship between moisture and ascorbic acid content. He also found an increase in moisture during storage, which he attributed to an increase in atmospheric humidity. In another experiment the ascorbic acid content of pulp that had been stored for 6 months fell from 295 mg 100 g−1 to 264 mg, and after 18 months and exposure to direct sunlight for 7 weeks, 161 mg; the pulp had also changed colour to a brownish pink. However, the ascorbic acid content was not examined prior to expose to sunlight so it is uncertain whether the final decrease was due to age or sunlight. Diop et al. (1988) noted that while climatic, cultural and other conditions might explain some of the high results obtained by other authors, poor specificity of the titration and colorimetric methods could also be responsible. They also found that the titration methods used by AOAC (1984) produced higher results on the same baobab sample than liquid chromatography, while Orata and Ondachi (2001) found that surface modified electrodes showed a greatly enhanced ascorbic acid redox peak, and that the oxidation/ reduction peaks coincided with those of the corresponding standard. The degree of ripeness of the fruit is also a factor that should be examined. The vitamin C content of the fruit pulp was examined for a range of morphotypes in Mali based on bark colour, and by regions selected for ethnic grouping, rainfall and soil type. The leaves and fruit of baobabs with black bark were valued more highly by the local people than those with red bark. The mean values per tree, irrespective of bark colour, ranged from 1,505 to 4,991 mg kg−1, with an average content of 2,800 mg kg−1. This suggests additional reasons for the wide variations noted in Table 40. While an analysis of variance revealed a highly significant correlation between individual trees, there were no significant consistent differences in vitamin C content between regions or types of trees. The baobabs were re-sampled and the vitamin C 4 Fruit Pulp 387

Table 41 Anti-nutrient contents of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp. (From Ghani and Agbejule 1986.) Anti-nutrient % dry wt. Tannin 0.0062 HCN 0.0049 Total oxalates 0.0044 Soluble oxalates 0.0013

content was found to be remarkably stable in individual trees from year to year, thus making it possible accurately recommend the local human consumption requirement, and to select elite trees with a high vitamin C content to provide scions for grafting onto saplings (see Chapter 11) The results from an orchard of grafted trees established in Mali should be available in 2010 (Sidibé et al. 1996, 1998b; Scheuring and Sidebé 1998; Boffa 1999; Scheuring et al. 1999). The recommended minimum daily dose of vitamin C for healthy, non-smoking adults is 65 mg, higher amounts being required for smokers, nursing mothers and others with special needs. For a full saturation of the total vitamin C pool in the body the daily requirement is around 140 mg (Sauberlich 1994). Based on an average fruit vitamin C content of 2,800 mg kg−1, the recommended daily dose could be obtained from 23 gm of powdered baobab pulp. The daily saturation of the body’s vitamin C pool would require 50 gm, while convalescents and nursing mothers would need 90 gm. While there are enough baobabs to meet the vitamin C requirements of people in semi-arid West Africa, the people need to be better informed about its use and value (Sidibé et al. (1996). Diop et al. (1988) concluded that a daily intake of 70 g of baobab pulp would meet the maximum physiological needs (200 mg) of the inhabitants of West Africa for vitamin C. Because of the pulp’s high acidity and low moisture content, it can be conserved for several months without loss of vitamin C (Carr 1955, 1958). However, vitamin C can be adversely affected by moisture during storage, the drying process in the preparation of lalo (dried, powdered leaves), and by heat during cooking (Adam 1962). Fortunately the traditional methods of storage and food preparation of baobab powder in West Africa are very favourable to vitamin preservation. The baobab powder is often conditioned and marketed in polyethylene sachets, which offer protection against ambient moisture. The powder is used almost exclusively in cool and hot drinks and gruel; it is never cooked but added to the heated food and drink after they have cooled (Sidibé et al. 1996). It is now available in the health food shops of Europe. The anti-nutrients present in baobab pulp are shown in Table 41. Condensed tannins are undesirable because of their reaction with the protein, but the amount is too little to have any adverse effects. Tannins are also said to gradually disappear as the fruit ripens. The HCN level is also well below the minimum toxic level of 0.035 g, to reach which a person would have to eat at least 10 fruits at a sitting! The oxalate level is insignificant since only the soluble Na and K salts are toxic to humans, the lethal dose being 2–5 g (Ghani and Agbejule 1986). 388 Appendix 3 Nutrition

Afolabi and Popoola (2005) examined the effects of the addition of powdered baobab pulp on the micro flora involved in tempe fermentation of soya beans (Glycine max). Tempe is a nutritious food obtained by fermenting soya beans with Rhizopus oligosporus. Traditionally an Asian food, it is now eaten in Africa. In Nigeria is fermented with powdered baobab pulp. In addition to the inoculum Rhizopus, the dominant micro-organisms were mainly lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. fermentum, L. lactis and L. plantarum. When the ratio of pulp to soya exceeded 3:10 fermentation ceased because Rhizopus was unable to survive, while lowering the amount of pulp increased the risk of pathogenic micro- organisms such as Bacillus sp., Salmonella sp. and Streptococcus sp. The pulp of A. gregorii was positive to the Liebermann/Burchard colour test for −NO and –OH groups, positive to the Silicotungstic acid test for saponins and to Dragendorff’s and Mayer’s reagents for alkaloids. The pulp contained 1% tannin, and (100g−1) 10 mg Na, 2,673 mg K, 2,099 mg Mg, 250 mg Ca and 6 mg Fe (Aboriginal Communities of the Northern Territory 1993).

5 Seeds

The seeds of A. digitata are, like the pulp, very nutritious, with high values for protein, fats (oils), fibre, most minerals and fatty acids. They have a higher protein content than groundnuts as well as being richer in lysine; 100 gm of seeds being sufficient to supply an adult’s daily requirements for protein and thiamine. For example, millet dishes are low in lysine but baobab kernels, which are rich in lysine, can provide a valuable nutrient supplement if added to the gruel. However, the pH of the blended cereal and kernels increases with storage. The seeds are a good source of fibre, fats and oils (Table 42), amino-acids (Table 43), fatty acids (Table 44) and pectins.

Table 42 Comparative values of the nutritional composition of Adansonia digitata seeds Crude protein Fibre Ash Fat CHO Moisture 100 g g−1 dry weight References – 41.6 2.21 8.7 31.5 16.05 Busson (1965) 4.0 28.4 10.82 6.9 29.7 24.15 Addy and Eteshola (1984)7 8.1 32.7 – 5.0 34.1 30.05 Obizoba and Amaechi (1993)7 3.6 35.0 7.12 15.7 12.4 29.9 Salami and Okezie (1994)7 6.1 21.4 7.22 2.2 17.5 37.66 Odetokun (1996) 8.2 15.1 49.73 5.8 11.6 17.8 Lockett et al. (2000) 4.8 36.3 14.14 9.1 29.3 11.27 Murray et al. (2001) 1cellulose only; 2crude fibre only; 3fibre determined by acid detergent method; 4total dietary fibre; 5carbohydrate determined by difference; 6sum of starch determined by enzymatic analysis and of mono- and disaccharides by difference; 7dry weights do not add up to 100 g because each value is the average of multiple analyses 5 Seeds 389

Table 43 Comparative values of the amino-acid content of Adansonia digitata seeds 1 2 3 4 5 16 g g−1N 100 g g−1 mg g−1N 16 g g−1N 100 g g−1 Essential amino acids Lysine 6.6 17.36 233 5.5 5.0 Methionone – 5.94 78 – 1.0 Cysteine – – – – 1.5 Cystine + methionone 1.8 – – 3.5 – Cystine – 12.63 120 – – Threonine 4.1 1.64 – 4.0 3.8 Tryptophan 1.4 2.64 86 1.0 – Isoleucine 3.7 7.10 – 4.0 3.6 Leucine 7.6 7.48 – 7.0 7.0 Valine 6.0 0.76 n.d. 5.0 5.9 Phenylalanine – 5.18 284 6.0 4.0 Phenylalanine + tyrosine 4.1 – – – – Arginine – 8.62 588 – 8.0 Histidine – 1.43 124 – 2.2 Non-essential amino acids Glycine – – – – 8.6 Cysteic acid – – – – – Serine – – – – 6.1 Proline – 0.62 – – – Alanine – – – – 7.1 Aspartic acid – – – – 10.3 Glutamic acid – 2.10 – – 23.7 Tyrosine – 3.62 – – 1.5 1 Addy and Eteshola (1984); 2 Odetokan (1996); 3 Proll et al. (1998); 4 FAO (1973); 5 Osman (2004)

Table 44 The fatty acid content of Adansonia digitata seeds Eteshola and Glew et al. Osman Oraedu (1996) (1997) (2004) (% of total (g fatty acid 100 g−1 (% of total Fatty acids fatty acids) dry weighta) fatty acids) C14:0 mystiric 38.4 – 0.2 C16:0 palmitic 19.7 0.143 24.2 C16:1 palmitoleic – 0.002 – C16:2 hexade cadienic – – – C17:1 – – 0.3 C18:0 stearic 3.2 0.016 4.6 C18:1 oleic 22.4 0.214 35.8 C18:2 linoleic 16.2 0.138 30.7 C18:3 linolenic – 0.002 1.0 C20:0 arachidic – – 1.3 C20:1 gadoleic – – 0.9 C22:0 behenic – – 0.7 C24:0 lignoceric – – 0.2 aconverted from mg fatty acid g−1 dry weight 390 Appendix 3 Nutrition

Table 45 The mineral content (mg 100 g−1 dry weight of Adansonia digitata seeds) Arnold et al. Odetokun Glew et al. Lockett et al. Mineral (1985) (1996) (1997) (2000) Ca 273 0.53 395 264 Cu 2.78 5.36 × 10−3 – 1.19 Fe 6.55 1.89 × 10−4 1.83 435 K 1275 1.74 ± 0.41 – – Mg 640 0.20 ± 0.04 352 278 Mn – 2.84 × 10−3 1.06 1.01 Na 2.48 1.64 ± 0.41 1.94 – P 5.12 1.49 × 10−4 614 678 Zn 6.68 0.91 ± 0.01 2.57 4.29

Table 46 Tannin and phytic acid content and tryptic inhibitor activity in raw and treated seeds of Adansonia digitata. (From Addy and Eteshola 1984; Osman 2005.) Tannin content Phytic acid Trypsin units inhibited Seed treatment (% dry wt.) (100 mg g−1) (mg−1 sample) Raw seeds 0.30 ± 0.04 73.0 ± 0.9 15.9 ± 1.6 Seeds soaked for 24 h 0.21 ± 0.3 6.4 ± 0.6 Seeds boiled for 1 h 0.19 ± 0.03 4.7 ± 0.4

In view of the high content of extractable oils present, a protein-rich concentrate could be prepared from the seeds (Adam 1962; Addy and Eteshola 1984; Arnold et al., 1985; FAO 1988; Salami and Okezie 1994). However, it is not always clear in the literature whether the term ‘seed’ refers to the tightly adhering husk plus kernel or solely to the kernel. A. digitata seeds contain significant amounts of the essential fatty acids, linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid and nearly 20% of a crude protein whose amino acid composition compared favourably with that of the WHO/FAO (1973) reference protein (Glew et al. 1997). The seeds are a good source of most minerals, especially assimilable Ca and Fe (Table 45). The seeds of A. grandidieri are also, like the pulp, very nutritious with high values for proteins, fats (oils), fibre and most minerals (Thomas and Boiry 1913). The seeds are free of alkaloids and cyanogenetic glycosides. The results of an examination for the presence of toxic substances (condensed tannins, which diminish protein and dry matter digestibility, and trypsin inhibitors, which bind the digestive enzyme trypsin) in A. digitata seeds are shown in Table 46. The tannin content was lower than that of sorghum (1.7%) and the level of trypsin inhibitor units (TIU) was lower than that found in soya products (73–110 TIU mg−1). Proll et al. (1998) found 0.12% tannin and no trypsin inhibitors in either raw or heat-treated seeds. 6 Seed Oil 391

Addy et al. (1995) and Igboeli et al. (1997) investigated the effects of different processing techniques on the antinutrient contents of baobab seeds, including dehulling and treatments with cold and hot water, 0.1 NHCl, 0.1 N NaOH, and fermentation. They found that all processing techniques except dehulling and fermentation significantly reduced the tannic acid content, with the alkali treatment the most effective for reducing the tannin and trypsin inhibitors while improving protein digestibility. Dehulling, cold water and hot alkali treatments also significantly decreased the activity of amylase inhibitors while hot water and hot acid treatments increased the activity of the amylase inhibitors.

6 Seed Oil

Ralaimanarivo et al. (1982, 1983) examined the oil from six of the seven species of Adansonia present in Madagascar; the results are shown in Table 47 and are further discussed in Chapter 12 as they are also of taxonomic significance. The oil of A. digitata is viscous, clear and bright yellow in colour, with no marked taste or odour. (Anonymous 1913). Depending on the method of extraction 8 kg of A. digitata seed will yield 0.8–3 l of oil, 5 kg of A. madagascariensis seed 0.3–1.2 l, and 3 kg of A. za seed 0.15–0.6 l (Pernet 1957). A. grandidieri is the richest source; ether extraction of 500 g of seed yielding 215 g of oil (Thomas and Boiry 1913). A. digitata oil contains a high proportion of linoleic and oleic acids as well as palmitic, stearic and linolenic acids (Engelter and Wehmeyer 1970; Wehmeyer 1971; Magboul and Mustafa 1979; Addy and Eteshola 1984; FAO 1988; Ezeagu et al. 1998), although Cmelik (1963) noted a complete absence of linolenic acid from all

Table 47 Comparative physical and chemical properties of the seed oils present in the three sections of Adansonia. (From Ralaimanarivo et al. 1982, 1983.) Section Adansonia4 Brevitubae5 Longitubae6 Oil content (%)1 8.4–13.2 30.7–46.2 10.5–13.8 Iodine value (Wijs) 79–80 56–63 87–96 Acidic value 3.6–9.7 0.6–1.1 2.0–3.2 Hydroxyl value n.d. 0.6–0.6 0.7–1.4 Hbr-equiv. 55 C2 n.d. 11.7–18.5 3.8–8.8 Refractive index 1.4613–1.4621 1.4590–1.4604 1.4629–1.4635 Palmitic acid3 (% by wt.) 21.3–27.2 37.5–46.7 19.7–29.9 Stearic acid (% by wt.) 4.4–5.4 2.0–4.7 2.0–3.8 Oleic acid3 (% by wt.) 36.1–39.9 19.8–21.9 26.5–29.9 Linoleic acid3 (% by wt.) 18.7–21.7 12.1–15.0 23.2–32.8 Malvalic acid3 (% by wt.) 3.1–6.2 6.0–7.7 4.3–6.7 Sterculic acid3 (% by wt.) 1.0–1.9 3.9–7.6 1.5–3.0 1whole seed; 2expressed as % sterculic acid; 3by direct analysis of their methyl esters; 4A. digitata; 5A. grandidieri and A. suarezensis; 6A. madagascariensis, A. rubrostipa and A. za 392 Appendix 3 Nutrition

Table 48 The percentage of total sterols present in Adansonia digitata and A. gregorii seed oils A. digitata A. gregorii Gaydou et al. Sidibé et al. Ralaimanarivo Sterol (1979) (2002) (1983) Cholesterol 1.9 2 2.2 Campesterol 6.3 6 6.2 Stigmasterol 2.0 1–2 1.6 Β-sitosterol 81.0 75 74.8 Fucosterol – – 2.4 ∆-5-avenasterol 3.4 0.5 0.5 ∆-7-stigmasterol 4.8 0.6 0.6 ∆-7-avenasterol 0.8 12 11.7

Table 49 Cyclopropenoic fatty acids (malvalic and sterculic acids) present in Adansonia seed oils. (From Aizetmüller 1996.) Malvic acid Sterculic acid Total cyclopropenes A. digitata 3.1–6.2 1.0–1.9 4.1–8.1 A. grandidieri 6.0–7.7 6.7–7.6 12.7–15.3 A. suarezensis 6.4–7.7 3.9–4.3 10.3–12.0 A. rubrostipa 4.3–5.1 1.5–1.6 5.8–6.7 A. madagascariensis 5.1–5.9 2.1–2.2 7.2–8.1 A. za 4.9–31.0 2.1–3.0 7.0–34.0 A. gregorii 4.9 1.0 5.9 Baobab oil 6.3 6.5 12.8

fractions investigated except for a very slight absorption in the triene region with the lecithin. Funkhouser (1999) commented on the possible role of linoleic acid in the form of a glyceride in drying oils and oleic acid in the soap and cosmetic industry. However, the industrial use of seed oil suggested by Ezeagu et al. (1998) is, in view of the limited oil content, unlikely to be commercially viable. The iodine value (82.4) of the seed oil gives an indication of the high concentration of unsaturated fatty acids present and compares favourably with that of olive oil, 81.1 (Odetokun 1996). The sterol contents of A. digitata and A. gregorii seed oils are shown in Table 48. Baobab seed oils contain nutritionally undesirable cyclopropenoic fatty acids (CPEFAs) (Table 49), which can be destroyed by heating (Aizetmüller 1996). He also advised that the mixture of the oils of tigernut tubers (Cyperus esculentus) and baobab seeds recommended by Eteshola and Oraedu (1996) should be regarded with caution because the removal or destruction of the CPEFAs by refining was probably not carried out for the envisaged nutritious beverage. A micro-method for estimating oil content and fatty acid composition in seeds containing CPEFA is discussed by Gaydou et al. 1983. Appendix 4 Forest Mensuration

Considerable confusion has been caused in our understanding of baobab growth parameters and age projections by a failure to understand simple tree mensuration.

1 Mensuration

Forest mensuration had been defined as the determination of dimensions, form, weight, growth, volume, and age of trees, individually or collectively, and the dimensions of their products. This has now been extended to include non-timber forest parameters such as understorey vegetation, biomass and suitability for wildlife management (Husch et al. 2003).

1.1 Trunk Girth and Diameter

The girth (gbh) and diameter (dbh) of a tree must always be measured at breast height, 1.3 m above ground level except in a few special cases. When trees have two or more stems forking below breast height each stem is measured separately, but when a tree forks above breast height or slightly above, the trunk is measured below any enlargement caused by the fork. When there is a protuberance at breast height measurements should be made both above and below to give the mean. The gbh of a regularly shaped trunk is measured using a non-stretchable girthing tape. Dbh is gbh divided by π. A specially calibrated girthing tape is also available that gives both the gbh and dbh readings. For an approximate comparison 1 m gbh is equivalent to 32 cm dbh. Diameter measurements assume the trunk is an exact circle in cross section, which is rarely true; any slight irregularities in shape results in an overestimation of both gbh and dbh For most practical purposes slight elliptical distortions can be ignored. For a trunk that is markedly elliptical in cross-section the arithmetic mean of the maximum (d1) and minimum (d2) diameters can be used, although this is still 393 394 Appendix 4 Forest Mensuration

√ an overestimation of the ‘true’ diameter; the geometric mean, (d1.d2), gives a better result. Calipers are useful for measuring diameter classes up to 1.3 m, but they are heavy and tiring to use, and subject to inaccuracies with wear and tear. Calipers could provide satisfactory results for baobabs with bottle-shaped trunks, and for the younger age classes before the trunk develops buttresses. For calculating incremental growth, adjusted diameter measurements will produce more accurate results than those obtained by dividing the gbh by π. The Biltmore stick, which is held perpendicular to the tree axis, may be used as an aid for estimating dbh but is only accurate for trunks that are circular in cross section (Husch et al. 2003). In Africa foresters usually measure the gbh while the dbh is favoured in Europe, Australia and America (Simmons 1926; Bowman 1997). Most non-foresters find it easier to visualise the diameter of a trunk than its circumference. Incremental growth measurements must be made at precisely the same point on each occasion, necessitating permanent markings on the trunks (Simmons 1926; Hart 1991; Husch et al. 2003). Continuous incremental growth measurements can be also be obtained using a recording dendrograph. This consists of a snugly fitting corrugated brass band around the trunk; changes in diameter are recorded as the corrugations push or pull an encircling wire, and are registered by the pointer on a vertical scale (Parr et al. 1924). Similar precise measurements can be made with dendrometer bands, dial-guage micrometers and trans- ducers (Husch et al. 2003). Any buttressing of the trunk exaggerates the annual growth because growth is greater with wider annual rings on the buttress crest than in the furrow. Ring counts can be made on the planed radial strip of a sawn surface using a hand lens. For standing trees an increment borer is used to extract a core from which the rings can be counted. Unfortunately is not always possible with large trees as the maximum practical length of a borer is between 40 and 50 cm, although one borer available can extract cores of 4.5 m. It is, however, difficult to direct the borer to the centre of the tree, especially one with an elliptical trunk. Average radial growth may be determined from several cores taken at breast height, but if a single core is taken, it should be extracted halfway between the maximum and minimum diameters (Guy 1970; Husch et al. 2003).

1.2 Tree and Trunk Height

The total height of a tree is the vertical distance from the base of the tree to the uppermost point. Timber height is the distance from the base of the tree to the lowest point on the main stem where the diameter is 7 cm over-bark, i.e. the lowest point at which no main stem is distinguishable. Bole height is the distance between the ground and the crown point, i.e. the position of the first crown-forming branch. Crown length is the distance between the crown point and the tip of the tree. 1 Mensuration 395

Unless made by a forester or a surveyor, height measurements should always be treated with suspicion. Apart from direct measurements using height rods, the two basic methods for measuring the height of a tree are derived the geometric properties of similar triangles or the trigonometrical properties of angles using a hypsometer, clinometer or Abney level, the observation point being about 1–1.5 times the height of the tree. Some of these methods are briefly described below. It is difficult to measure accurately the height of trees with large flat crowns, e.g. many baobabs. There is a tendency to overestimate their height (Husch et al. 2003).

1.2.1 Some Methods of Measuring the Height of a Tree

1. Using calibrated height rods made in 1.5–2 m sections; only the top section is calibrated. Sections are added from ground level until the calibrated rod clears the canopy. The clearance is deducted to give the height. It is the most accurate method but is only suitable for heights up to 15–20 m because of the weight and flexibility of the rods. 2. The ‘Pofort’s Stick Method’ uses a vertical stick or rod of the same length as the distance between the outstretched fist and the eye; the observer walks towards the tree with the arm holding the extended until the top of the tree is in line with the top of the stick and the base of the tree is in line with the fist. The distance from the observer to the base of the tree is the same as the height. 3. The ‘Boy Scout’ method is to compare the length of shadow cast by a pole of known length with the shadow cast by the tree. 4. Various models of dendrometers available that depend that compare of similar triangles. 5. An optical hypsometer with a built-in rangefinder can be used to measure the angle of the canopy from eye level at fixed distances from the tree. The range-scale is hung on the tree and the reader is positioned at the point that will give a 45° plus observation angle. Since these instruments measure from eye level, the ‘above’ readings must be added to the ‘below eye level’ reading to give the total height. 6. The clinometer works in a similar manner to a hypsometer but there is no sighting tube. 7. The Abney’s level is a hand-held instrument with a spirit level by which angles up to 60° can be measured (Husch et al. 2003).

1.3 Crown Parameters

The foliage is the primary source of photosynthesis, and the use of crown dimensions, as a surrogate for foliage, has now become an integral part of many growth and yield studies and, in the case of the baobab, is useful for predicting 396 Appendix 4 Forest Mensuration

wildlife habitat value. Vertical aerial photographs may be used to measure crown diameter. Alternatively and less easily, while working in the field, projecting the perimeter of the crown vertically to the ground can measure the diameter (Husch et al. 2003). References

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1 Plant Index

Accepted names are in bold type, their synonyms in italics. Family concepts follow Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (1998) and Schatz (2001). Author abbreviations follow Brummitt and Powell (1992).

1.1 Angiosperms

LEGUMINOSAE is abbreviated to LEG.; MALVACEAE is abbreviated to MALV.

Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench. Adansonia L. MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, MALV.-MALVOIDEAE (okra), 248–250, 311, 316 69, 383 Sect. Adansonia, 143, 168, 169, 179, Abrus pectorius L. LEG.- 183, 199, 250ff, 298, 315, 329, PAPILIONOIDEAE, 224 333, 391 Acacia Mill. LEG.-MIMOSOIDEAE Sect. Brevituba, 143, 168, 169, 179, 199, A. albida Delile = Faidherbia albida, 78, 79, 250, 251, 255, 295, 296, 311, 94, 281, 289, 370 314, 316, 391 A. erioloba E.Meyer, 230 Sect. Longituba, 143, 168, 169, 179, 183, A. giraffae sensu auct. = A. erioloba, 230 199, 250, 253, 298, 315, 329, A. laeta Benth., 78 333, 391 A. leptocarpa Cunn. Ex Benth. (mangal), Sect. Pendentes nomen illegit = Sect. 303, 304 Adansonia, 250 A. mellifera (Vahl) Benth., 198, A. alba Jum. & H.Perrier = A. za, 76, 184, 288, 290 253, 260 A. nigrescens Oliv., 280, 290 A. bahobab L. = A. digitata, 254 A. pallens Warb. = A. nigrescens A. baobab Gaertn. = A. digitata, 254 A. senegal (L.) Willd., 78 A. bernieri Baill. ex Poiss. = A. A. seyal Del., 78, 282 madagascariensis, 24, 253, 259 A. shirleyi Maiden, 330 A. bozy Jum. & H.Perrier = A. za, 76, 253, A. tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne, 78, 278, 283 260, 356

453 454 Taxonomic Indexes

A. digitata L., xiv, xvi, xx, xxii, A. rupestris Saville-Kent = A. gregorii, xxvi–xxviii, xxix, 1–21, 31–41, 218, 253 49–63, 67ff, 81ff, 101ff, 141–172, A. scutula Steud. = A. digitata, 253 178–181, 187–202, 204–208, A. situla (Lour.) Spreng. = A. digitata, 253 212–214, 216–217, 218–223, A. somalensis Chiov. = A. digitata, 21, 224–226, 228–231, 233, 237–241, 253, 256 242–244, 249–251, 253–263, A. sphaerocarpa A.Chev. = A. digitata, 264–271, 272–291, 311ff, 316–321, 21, 253 331ff, 338–355, 357ff, 368ff, 376ff A. stanburyana Hochr. = A. gregorii, 30, var. congolensis A.Chev. = A. digitata, 253, 262 21, 253, 255 A. suarezensis H.Perrier, xxix, 25, 77, A. fony Baill. ex H.Perrier nom. superfl. = 88, 91, 115, 119, 141, 166, 168, A. rubrostipa, 253 173–174, 179, 183, 196, 199, var. fony, 253, 258, 259 209, 210, 232, 234, 243, 251ff, A. fony Baill. var. rubrostipa (Jum. & 271, 293ff, 322, 333, 356, H.Perrier) H. Perrier = A. 391, 392 rubrostipa, 253, 258, 259, 297 A. sulcata A.Chev. = A. digitata, 21, 253 A. fony sensu Miège nom. Baill. ex A. za Baill., xxv, 24, 68, 73, 76, 79, 86ff, H.Perrier = A. perrieri, 199 105, 114ff, 135, 153, 162, 166, A. gibbosa (A. Cunn.) Guymer ex 175ff, 184ff, 209ff, 219, 220, 224, D.A.Baum = A. gregorii, 253 231ff, 237, 241, 243, 252, 253, A. grandidieri Baill., xiv, xxiii–xxviii, 23, 258ff, 271, 293ff, 323, 334, 356, 24, 40, 63, 67ff, 103ff, 142, 152, 358, 391, 392 153, 154, 161, 166, 168, 169, var. boinensis H.Perrier = A. za, 253, 172–173, 179, 182–183, 187, 196, 260 199, 209ff, 224, 232–234, 241, var. bozy (Jum. & H.Perrier) H.Perrier 251ff, 271, 293ff, 314, 315, 322, = A. za, 253, 260 333ff, 356, 371, 390ff Adenium Roem. & Schult. A. gregorii F.Muell., xiii, xv, xvi, xix– APOCYNACEAE, 140 xxii, xxvii, 27, 30, 41–47, 64–66, A. obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & 67ff, 82ff, 137–138, 141ff, 177–178, Schult., 284 180, 183, 184–187, 190ff, 211–212, Aesculus hippocastanum L. 215–216, 218ff, 236, 241–242, 243, HIPPOCASTANACEAE 251, 253, 261–263, 271, 272, 300– (horse-chestnut), 8, 15 306, 313ff, 322, 323–330, 333ff, Aframonum melegueta K.Schum. 357, 371, 376, 377, 388, 392 ZINGIBERACEAE (melagueta A. intergrifolia Raf. = A. digitata, 253, 254 pepper), 95 A. madagascariensis Baill., xviii, 24, 64, Albizia Durazz. LEG.-MIMOSOIDEAE 67ff, 86ff, 105, 114ff, 137, 141, 152, A. anthelmintica Brongn., 288 158, 164ff, 179ff, 193, 196, 199, A. lebbek(L.)Benth., 221 209ff, 233, 235, 241, 243, 252ff, A. saman (Jacq.) F.Muell., 221 271, 293, 299, 312ff, 323, 333, 334, Alluaudia (Drake) Drake DIDIEREACEAE, 356, 391, 392 25, 322 A. perrieri Capuron, 26, 115, 166, 175– A. comosa Drake, 297 176, 179, 183, 196, 199, 215, 232ff, A. procera Drake, 297 252, 253, 255, 271, 293, 299, 299ff, Anacardium occidentale L. 312ff, 323, 333, 334, 356, 391, 392 ANACARDIACEAE (cashew), A. rubrostipa Jum. & H.Perrier, xvii, 284–285 xxiv, 22, 23, 41, 63–64, 68, 73, 76, Anagyris foetida L. LEG.- 79, 91, 105, 114, 115, 119, 123, PAPILIONOIDEAE, 9 135, 137, 141, 153, 160, 162, 166, Andropogon L. GRAMINEAE, 285 169, 174ff, 196ff, 209ff, 220, 224, Annona L. ANNONACEAE, 9 231ff, 243, 249ff, 271, 293ff, 314, A. muricata L. (soursop, guanábana), 9, 315, 323, 334ff, 356, 391, 392 10, 254 Taxonomic Indexes 455

Anogeissus (DC.) Wallich Boswellia Roxb. ex Colebr. BURSERACEAE, COMBRETACEAE, 281, 284 282, 320 Brachychiton Schott & Endl. MALV.- A. leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr., 95, 98, STERCULIOIDEAE, 140 319 Brachystegia Benth. LEG.- APOCYANACEAE, 140 CAESALPINIOIDEAE, 279, 306 Arachis hypogaea L. LEG.- B. boemhii Taub., 287 PAPILIONOIDEAE (groundnut, B. spiciformis Benth., 278 peanut), 380 Bulbine Wolf ASPHODELACEAE, 325 ASTERACEAE Martinov = COMPOSITAE, 140 BURSERACEAE, 140 Astrebla F.Muell. GRAMINEAE (Mitchell grass), 305 Caesia R.Br. ANTHERICACEAE, 308, 325 Baikiaea plurijuga Harms LEG.- Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. LEG.- CAESALPINIOIDEAE, 280 PAPILIONOIDEAE (pigeon pea), Balanites Delile BALANITACEAE 221 B. aegyptiaca (L.) Del., 78, 98, 282 Calotropis R.Br. ASCLEPIADACEAE, 17 B. maughami Sprague, 207 C. procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton , 17 BATACEAE Mart. ex Meisn., 325 CAMPANULACEAE, 140 Bauhinia L. LEG.-CAESALPINIOIDEAE Camptostemon Mast. MALV.- B. cunninghamii (Benth.) Benth. BOMBACOIDEAE, 316 (bauhinia), 236 Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC. LEG.- B. rufescens Lam., 94 PAPILIONOIDEAE (jackbean), 221 Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. Capparis L. CAPPARACEAE, 28, 29, RHAMNACEAE, 433 42, 253 Boababus digitata (L.) Kuntze = Adansonia C. gibbosa A. Cunn. = Adansonia digitata MALV.- gregorii MALV.- BOMBACOIDEAE, 254 BOMBACOIDEAE, 18, 41, 253, B. gregorii (Mueller) Kuntze = Adansonia 261, 263 gregorii, 253 Capsicum annuum L. SOLANACEAE, B. madagascariensis (Baill.) Kuntze = Grossum Group (red peppers), 225 Adansonia madagascariensis, 253 Carica papaya L. CARICACEAE (pawpaw), BOMBACACEAE Kunth = MALV.- 385 BOMBACOIDEAE, 246 Carissa lanceolata R.Br. APOCYHNACEAE Bombacopsis Pittier = Pachira MALV.- (conkerberry), 224 BOMBACOIDEAE, 183 CASUARINACEAE R.Br., 325 Bombax L. MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, 140, Catostemma Benth. MALV.- 191, 312ff, 316, 369 BOMBACOIDEAE, 313 B. ceiba L., 140, 170, 314 Cavanillesia Ruiz & Pav. MALV.- B. costatum Pellegr. & Vuillet, 316, BOMBACOIDEAE, 140, 313 369, 370 Ceiba Mill. MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, 140 B. malabaricum DC. = B. ceiba, 314 C. pentandra (L.) Gaertn. (kapok, silk cotton Borassus aethiopum Mart. PALMAE, 99 tree), 75, 170, 282 B. flabellifer L., 99, 270 CHENOPODIACEAE Vent., 323 B. flabellifer sensu Baerts-Lehmann non Chiranthodendron Larrea. MALV.- L. = B. aethiopum BOMBACOIDEAE, 247 Borreria verticillata (L.) G.Mey. = Chloropora excelsa (Welw.) Benth. & Hook.f. = Spermacoce verticillata L. Milicia excelsa MORACEAE, 287 RUBIACEAE, 86 Chorisia Kunth MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, Boschia Korth=Durio, 247 169 Boscia Lam. Chrozophora senegalensis (Lam.) A.Juss. ex B. coriacea Pax, 197, 198 Spreng. EUPHORBIACEAE, 94 B. senegalensis (Pers.) Lam. ex Poir., 289 Chrysopogon Trin. GRAMINEAE, 283, 303 456 Taxonomic Indexes

Cicer arietinum L. LEG.- Cyphostemma (Planch.) Alston VITACEAE, PAPILIONOIDEAE (chick pea, 140, 141 gram), 221 Cinchona officinalis L. RUBIACEAE (quinine), 89 Daniellia olivieri (Rolfe) Hutch. & Dalziel Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. LEG.-CAESALPINIOIDEAE CUCURBITACEAE, 103 (copal gum), 118 Citrus L. RUTACEAE , 11, 17 Datura metel L. SOLANACEAE, 86 Citrus aurantifolia (Christ.) Swingle (lime), Delonix elata (L.) Gamble LEG.- 95 CAESPALINIOIDEAE, 62, 283 Cocculus leaeba Del. = C. pendulus Dendrophthoë acacioides (Benth.) Tiegh MENISPERMACEAE LORANTHACEAE, 224 C. pendulus (J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.) Dendrosicyos Balf.f. CUCURBITACEAE, Diels, 99 140 Cochlospermum Kunth Dichanthium Willemet GRAMINEAE, 303 COCHLOSPERMACEAE, 306 Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. C. angolense Welw, 230 LEG.-MIMOSOIDEAE, 79 Coelostegia Benth. MALV.- Didierea Baill. DIDIEREACEAE, 322 ?HELICTEROIDEAE), 247 D. madagascariensis Baill., 297 Cocos nucifera L. PALMAE, 270 DIDIEREACEAE Drake, 295, 322 Cola Schott. & Endl. MALV.- Digitaria exilis Stapf GRAMINEAE (acha, STERCULIOIDEAE (kola), 53 hungry rice), 72, 75, 96 Colophospermum mopane Kirk ex J.Léonard Dioscorea L. DIOSCOREACEAE LEG.-CAESALPINIOIDEAE, (yam), 358 (mopane), 222, 230, 279 Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. Combretum Loefl. COMBRETACEAE, EBENACEAE, 53 284, 289 Dracaena Vand. ex L. C. exalatum Engl., 198 CONVALLARIACEAE, 283 C. hartmannianum Schweinf., 282 Drypetes afzelii (Pax) Hutch. Commiphora Jacq. BURSERACEAE, 229, EUPHORBIACEAE, 337 280, 283, 284, 288 Durio Adans. MALV.-HELICTEROIDEAE, C. africana (A.Rich.) Engl., 78, 247 99, 198 C. boiviniana Engl., 198 Elaeis guineensis Jacq. PALMAE C. gileadensis (L.) C.Chr., 17 (African oil palm), 69, 120, 223, C. guillaumini H.Perrier, 214 284, 286, 319, 358 COMPOSITAE Giseke, 323 ELAEOCARPACEAE, 247 Corchorus L. MALV.-GREWIOIDEAE, Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (jute, manila hemp), 118 GRAMINEAE (finger Cordyla Lour. LEG.-PAPILIONOIDEAE, 280 millet), 69 Cucumis sativus L. CUCURBITACEAE Emelianthe panganensis (Engl.) Danser (cucumber), 8 subsp. panganensis CUCURBITACEAE, 140 LORANTHACEAE, 223 Cullenia Wight MALV.- Enneapogon Desv. ex P. Beauv. HELICTEROIDEAE, 247 GRAMINEAE (nineawn), 305 Cuminum cyminum L. UMBELLIFERAE Erianthemum dregei (Eckl. & Zeyh.) (cumin), 88 Tieghem LORANTHACEAE, 223 Cydonia C. oblonga Miller ROSACEAE Eriotheca Schott & Endl. MALV.- (quince), 9 BOMBACOIDEAE, 169 Cynara scolymus L. COMPOSITAE (globe Eucalyptus L’Hér. MYRTACEAE artichoke), 225 xxvi, 224, 304, 306, 323, 324 Cyperus esculentus L. CYPERACEAE E. brevifolia F.Muell. (snappy gum), (tigernut), 393 304, 305 Taxonomic Indexes 457

E. camaldulensis Dehnh. (river red gum), Grevillea R.Br. ex J.Knight PROTEACEAE, 303, 305 224, 304 E. confertiflora F.Muell.(braod-leaved Grewia L. MALV.-GREWIOIDEAE carbeen), 304 G. bicolor Juss., 198 E. dichromorphloa F.Muell.(bloodwood), G. villosa Willd., 198 305, 306 Guiera senegalensis Gmel. E. grandifolia Benth. 304 COMBRETACEAE, 78, 98 E. microtheca F.Muell. (coolibah), 303 E. miniata A.Cunn. ex Schauer (Darwin woollybutt), 306 Hallea inermis (Willd.) ANACARDIACEAE, E. papuana F.Muell.(ghost gum), 286 224, 305 Haplocoelum inoploeum Radlk. E. pruinosa Schauer (silver box), SAPINDACEAE, 309 305 Helianthus annuus L. COMPOSITAE, 120 E. tectifica F.Muell.(Darwin box), Helichrysum Miller COMPOSITAE, 325 303, 305 Helipterum DC. ex Lindl. = Helichrysum E. tetradonta F.Muell. (Darwin COMPOSITAE, 325 stringybark), 306 Heteropogon Pers. GRAMINEAE, 284 Euphorbia L. EUPHORBIACEAE, 283, Hibbertia Andrews DILLENIACEAE, 308 295, 297 Hibiscus L. MALV.-MALVOIDEAE, 221, E. conspicua N.E.Br., 230 226 H. tiliaceus L., 41 Holarrhenia pubescens (Buch,-Ham.) G.Don Faidherbia albida (Del.) A.Chev. LEG.- APOCYNACEAE, 140 MIMOSOIDEAE, 79, 281, 289, Howea Becc. PALMAE, 334 369 Hyparrhenia Andersson ex Fourn. Ficus L. MORACEAE, 91, 223, 286, 303 GRAMINEAE, 285 F. benghalensis L. (Indian banyan), 269 Hyphaene petersiana Mart. PALMAE, 230 F. carica L. (common fig), 8 H. thebaica (L.) Mart., 363 F. capensis Thunb. = F. sur, 95 H. ventricosa Kirk = H. petersiana, 230 F. sur Forssk., 95 F. sycomorus L. (mulberry fig or sycomore fig), 16, 270 Indigofera bracteolata DC. LEG.- Flacourtia Comm. ex L’Hérit. PAPILIONOIDEAE, 95 FLACOURTIACEAE, 24 Iphigenia Kunth COLCHICACEAE, 325 Fouquieria Kunth FOUQUIERIACEAE, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. 140 CONVOLVULACEAE (sweet Fremontodendron Coville MALV.- potato), 218 BOMBACOIDEAE, 247 Isoberlinia Craib & Stapfen Holland LEG.- CAESALPINIOIDEAE, 320

Gardenia erubescens Stapf & Hutch. RUBIACEAE, 53 Julbernardia Pellegr. LEG.- Givotia madagascariensis Baill. CAESALPINIOIDEAE, 279 EUPHORBIACEAE, 141 J. globiflora (Benth.) Troupin, 278 Glycene max (L.) Merr. LEG.- PAPILIONOIDEAE (soy or soyabean), 389 Kalanchoe rotundifolia (Haw.) Haw. Gnidia kraussiana Meisn. CRASSULACEAE, 105 THYMELAEACEAE, 90 Keraudrenia J.Gay MALV.- Gossypium L. MALV.-MALVOIDEAE BYTTNERIOIDEAE, 308 (cotton), 221 Khaya A.Juss. MELIACEAE, 90, 282, 320 GRAMINEAE Caruel, 323 K. senegalensis (Desr.) A.Juss., 89, 201 458 Taxonomic Indexes

Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. subfamily HELICTEROIDEAE (Schott & BIGNONIACEAE, 72 Endl.) Meisn., 246, 247 K. aethiopum (Fenzl) Dandy = subfamily MALVOIDEAE Burnett, 192, K. africana, 72 218, 246ff, 316 K. pinnata (Jacq.) DC. = K. africana tribe Matisieae K.Schum., 247 Kirkia Oliv. SIMAROUBACEAE, 280 subfamily STERCULIOIDEAE Burnett, Kostermansia Soegeng MALV.- 140, 218, 226, 247 ?HELICTEROIDEAE, 247 subfamily TILIOIDEAE Arn., 246, 316 MALVALES, 199, 245–247 /Bombacoideae clade, 247 Lantana camara L. VERBENACEAE, 286 /Brownlowioideae clade, 247 Laurus nobilis L. LAURACEAE (laurel), 9 /Byttnerina clade, 246, 247 Lawsonia inermis L. LYTHRACEAE /Byttneroideae clade, 246, 247 (henna), 284 /Dombeyoideae clade, 246, 247 LEGUMINOSAE, 140 /Grewioideae clade, 246, 247 Leonotis microphylla Skan COMPOSITAE, /Helicteroideae clade, 246, 247 105 /Malvadendrina clade, 246, 247 Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.) Decne. /Malvatheca clade, 246, 247 ASCLEPIADACEAE, 289 /Malvoideae clade, 247 Lodoicea maldivica (J.F.Gmel.) Pers. /Sterculioideae clade, 247 PALMAE (coco-de-mer), 328 /Tilioideae clade, 247 Loranthus mechowii sensu auct. non Engl. = Mangifera indica L. ANAC ARDIACEAE Tapinanthus malacophyllus (mango), 285 LORANTHACEAE, 223 Manihot glaziovii Müll.Arg. Lycopersicon esculentum Miller EUPHORBIACEAE (Ceará SOLANACEAE (tomato), 225 rubber), 124 Lysiphylum (Benth.) De Wit LEG- Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard CAESALPINIOIDEAE, 303 SAPOTACEAE, 207 L. cunninghamii (Benth.) De Wit = Bauhinia Matisia Bonpl. MALV.-MALVOIDEAE, cunninghamii, 236, 303 247 Melaleuca L. MYRTACEAE (paper-bark), 45, 112, 304 Macrotyloma geocarpum (Harms) Maréchal M. acacioides F.Muell., 303 & Baudet LEG.- M. argentea W.Fitz.(cadjeput), 303 PAPILIONOIDEAE (Kersting’s M. minutifolia F.Muell., 304 groundnut), 75 Mentha L. LABIATAE (mint), 88 Maerua angolensis DC. CAPPARACEAE, Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg 289 MORACEAE, 287 Malva L. MALV.-MALVOIDEAE, 192, 218, Mitracarpus scaber Zucc. = M. villosus 246, 247 RUBIACEAE MALVACEAE Juss., 26, 194, 221, 228, 245ff, M. villosus (Sw.) DC., 94 312, 316 Mitragyna inermis (Wild.) Kuntze subfamily BOMBACOIDEAE Burnett RUBIACEAE, 98 tribe Adansonieae Benth., 139, 169, MORACEAE, 140 183, 195, 199, 218, 226, 231, 246ff, Moringa drouhardii Jum. MORINGACEAE, 268, 308, 309, 312ff 141 tribe Ochromeae Horan., 247 Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. LEG.- subfamily BROWNLOWIOIDEAE Burret, PAPILIONOIDEAE (velvet bean), 246, 247 221 subfamily BYTTNERIOIDEAE Burnett, Musa × paradisiaca L. MUSACEAE 247 (plantain), 11 subfamily DOMBEYOIDEAE Beilschm., M. textilis Née, 118 246, 247 Myrothamnus flabellifolia Welw. subfamily GREWIOIDEAE Hochr., 246 MYROTHAMNACEAE, 92 Taxonomic Indexes 459

Nauclea orientalis (L.)L. RUBIACEAE Portulaca oleracea L. PORTULACACEAE (Leichhardt pine),303 (purslane), 30 Neesia Blume MALV.-?HELICTEROIDEAE, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb ROSACEAE 247 (almond), 357 Nothofagus Blume FAGACEAE, P. laurocerasus L. (cherry laurel), 15 323–325 Pseudobombax Dugand MALV.- BOMBACOIDEAE, 191 Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms Ochroma Sw. ?MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, MELIACEAE, 89 247 Pterocarpus lucens Guill. & Perr. subsp. Olea europea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex antunesii (Taub.) Rojo, LEG.- DC.) Ciferri OLEACEAE (wild PAPILIONOIDEAE, 78 olive), 72 Patinoa Cuatres ? MALV.- O. chrysophylla Lam. = O. europea subsp. BOMBACOIDEAE, 247 cuspidata, 72 Ophelus sitularius Lour. = Adansonia digitata MALV.- Quararibea Aubl. MALV.-MALVOIDEAE, BOMBACOIDEAE, 21, 233, 254 247 Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud. SANTALACEAE, 91 Rauvolfia dichotoma K.Schum. APOCYANACEAE, 265 Pachira Aubl. MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, Restio Rottb. RESTIONACEAE, 309 183, 194 RESTIONACEAE, 309 Pachycormus discolor (Benth.) Coville ex Rhodanthe Lindl. COMPOSITAE, 325 Standley ANACARDIACEAE Rhodognaphalon (Ulbr.) Roberty = Bombax (elephant tree), 140, 353 MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, 313, Pachypodium Lindl. APOCYNACEAE, 140, 314 141 Rhodognaphalopsis Robyns = Pachira Pandanus Parkinson PANDANACEAE MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, 194, (screw pine), 304 313, 314 Panicum kalaharense Mez GRAMINEAE, 105 Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Don LEG.- Samanea saman (Jacqi) Merr. = Albizia MIMOSOIDEAE, 69, 72, 370 saman LEG.-MIMOSOIDEAE, Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke = 221, 309 P. glaucum GRAMINEAE, 89 Schizachyrium Nees GRAMINEAE, 285 P. glaucum (L.) R.Br. (bulrush millet), 69, Scleronema Benth. MALV.- 89, 96, 221 BOMBACOIDEAE, 194, 313 Phaseolus L. LEG.-PAPILIONOIDEAE, Scorodophloeus fischeri (Taub.) J.Léonard) 221 LEG.-CAESALPINIOIDEAE, 207 Phoenix dactylifera L. PALMAE (date), 3 Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. Phragmotheca Cuartrec. MALV.- POLYGALACEAE, 89, 90, 95 MALVOIDEAE, 247 Solanum melongena L. SOLANACEAE Phyllanthus emblica L. EUPHORBIACEAE (aubergine, egg plant), 225 (emblic), 88 S. tuberosum L. (potato), 382 Piper longum L. PIPERACEAE (Indian long Sorghum Moench. GRAMINEAE, pepper), 88 303, 304 Plantago afra L. PLANTAGINACEAE S. bicolor (L.) Moench. (guinea corn, (psillium), 13 sorghum), 69, 73, 121, 221 Plectranthus pungens (R.Br.) C.E. Hubbard Spermacoce verticillata L. RUBIACEAE, 86 GRAMINEAE, 303 Spinacia oleracea L. CHENOPODIACEAE POLYGONACEAE, 109 (spinach), 382 460 Taxonomic Indexes

Spinifex L. GRAMINEAE, 303 TILIACEAE Juss. = MALV.-TILIOIDEAE, Sporobolus R.Br. GRAMINEAE, 303 245–247 Sterculia L. MALV.-STERCULIOIDEAE, 280 TILIALES = MALV.-TILIOIDEAE, 247 S. appendiculata K.Schum., 89, 287 Tillandsia usneoides L. BROMELIACEAE S. quinqueloba (Garcke) K.Schum., 230 (Spanish or Florida moss, old man’s S. rhynchocarpa K.Schum., 198 beard), 223 S. setigera Del., 95, 96, 230, 282, 368 Trema guineensis (Schumach. & Thonn.) S. stenocarpa H.Winkl., 89 Ficalho = T. orientalis STERCULIACEAE (DC.) Bartl. = MALV.- ULMACEAE, 265 STERCULIOIDEAE, 245–247 T. orientalis (L.) Blume, 265 Strophanthus DC. APOCYNACEAE, 95 Triodia R.Br. GRAMINEAE, 305 Strychnos spinoa Lam., LOGANIACEAE, T. intermedia Cheel, 303 286 T. wiseana C.A.Gardner, 303 Swietenia senegalensis Desr. = Khaya Triraphis R.Br. GRAMINEAE, 308 senegalensis MELIACEAE, 89 Tulipa L. LILIACEAE (tulip), 15 Syncarpa DC. COMPOSITAE, 325 Syringa vulgaris L. OLEACEAE (syringa), 15 Vicia faba L. LEG.-PAPILIONOIDEAE (broad bean), 8 Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. LEG.- Tamarindus indica L. LEG.- PAPILIONOIDEAE (Bambara CAESALPINIOIDEAE (tamarind), groundnut), 75 17, 64, 70, 87, 88, 282, 284, 357, Viscum L. VISCACEAE (mistletoe), 223, 224 365 VITACEAE, 140 Tapinanthus malacophyllus (Engl. & Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. f. K. Krause) Danser SAPOTACEAE (shea butter tree), LORANTHACEAE, 223 91, 95, 100, 370 Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wigg sensu lato COMPOSITAE (common dandelion), 337 Waltheria indica L. MALV.- Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. LEG.- STERCULIOIDEAE, 94 PAPILIONOIDEAE, 89 Wurmbea Thunb. COLCHICACEAE, 325 Terminalia L. COMBRETACEAE, 305, 306 T. catappa L. (Barbados almond), 357 T. ferdinandiana Exell, 387 Ximenia americana L. OLACACEAE, 221 T. prunioides Laws., 230, 288 T. spinosa Engl., 283 T. platyphylla F.Muell. (wild plum), 236 Zea mays L. GRAMINEAE (maize), 221 Theobroma cacao L. MALV.- Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. RHAMNACEAE, STERCULIODEAE (cocoa), 221 78

1.2 Fossil Angiosperms

Bombacoxylon Kräusel Camptostemon Mast. MALV.-BOMBACOIDEAE, 316 MALV.-MALVOIDEAE, 316 B. galetti Beauchamp & Lemoigne, 316 Dombeyoxylon Schenk B. owenii (Carruthers) Gottwald, 316 MALV.-STERCULIOIDEAE Bombacacidites Couper MALV.- D. owenii sensu Koeniguer non BOMBACOIDEAE, 312, 316 (Carruthers) Kraüsel = B. bombaxoides Couper, 316 Bombacoxlyn owenii, 316 Taxonomic Indexes 461

2 Gymnosperms

ARAUCARIACEAE, 223 Welwitschia bainsii (Welw.) Carrière = W. Callitris columellaris F.Muell. mirabilis WELWITSCHIACEAE, CUPRESSACEAE, 305 134 Podocarpus L’Hér. ex Pers. W. mirabilis Hook. f., 134, 288 PODOCARPACEAE, 323

3 Fungi

Antennulariella Woron ASCOMYCOTA Nectria rigidiuscula Berk. & Broome (sooty mould), 225 ASCOMYCOTA Aspergillus niger van Tiegh. Nematospora Peglion ASCOMYCOTA, ASCOMYCOTA, 85, 225 219 Aureobasidium Viala & Boyer = Kabatiella Neurospora crassa Shear & B.O.Dodge ASCOMYCOTA, 225 ASCOMYCOTA Botryodiplodia Sacc. ASCOMYCOTA, 225 Penicillium crustosum Thom = P. solitum var. B. rhodina (Cooke) Arx = Lasiodiplodia crustosum ASCOMYCOTA, 85 theobromae, 225 P. solitum Westling var. crustosum (Thom) Botryosphaeria rhodina (Berk. & Curtis) Bridge, D.Hawksw., Kozak, Arx, teleomorph of Lasiodiplodia Onions, R.R.M. Paterson & theobromae, 225 Sackin, 85 Calonectria rigidiuscula (Berk. & Broome) Phyllosticta Pers. ASCOMYCOTA (leaf Sacc. = Nectria rigidiuscula blight), 225 ASCOMYCOTA, 221 Polystictus luteo-olivaceus (Berk. & Broome) Candida albicans (C.P.Robin) Berkhout Cooke = Coriolopsis strumosa ASCOMYCOTA, 85 BASIDIOMYCOTA, 224 Coriolopsis strumosa (Fr.) Ryvarden Rhizopus Ehrenb. ZYGOMYCOTA, BASIDIOMYCOTA, 224 388 Cryptococcus neoformans (Sanfelice) Vuill. R. oligosporus Salto, 388 ASCOMYCOTA, 85 Roccella tinctoria DC. ASCOMYCOTA Daldinia concentrica (Bolton) Ces. & De Saccharomyces cerevisiae Meyen ex Hansen Not. ASCOMYCOTA, 224 ASCOMYCOTA, 85 Diplodia natalensis Pole-Evans telemorph of Trametes socrotrna Cooke Lasiodiplodia theobromae, 225 BASIDIOMYCOTA, 224 Epidermophyton floccosum (Harz) Langeron Trichophyton mentagrophytes (C.P.Robin) & Miloch ASCOMYCOTA, 85 R.Blanch. ASCOMYCOTA, 85 Fusarium Link ASCOMYCOTA, 225 T. rubrum (Castell.) Sabour., 85 Glomus Tul. & C.Tul. ZYGOMYCOTA, Volvaria Quél. = Volvariella 163, 333 BASIDIOMYCOTA, 224 Kabatiella Bubák ASCOMYCOTA, 225 V. esculenta Massee = Volvariella Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & esculenta, 224 Maubl. ASCOMYCOTA, 225 V. volvacea (Bull.) Fr. = Volvariella Lentinus Fr. BASIDIOMYCOTA, 224 volvaceae, 224 Leveillula taurica (Lév.) G.Arnaud Volvariella Speg. BASIDIOMYCOTA, ASCOMYCOTA (powdery 224 mildew), 225 V. esculenta (Massee) Singer, 224 Microsporum canis E.Bodin ex Guég. V. volvacea (Bull. ex Fr.) Singer & Wasser ASCOMYCOTA, 85, 323 (paddy straw mushroom), 224 462 Taxonomic Indexes

4 Animals

4.1 Mammals

Aepyceros melampus (Lichtenstein) Eulemur coronatus (Gray) (crowned lemur), (impala), 208 209 Ammotragus lervia (Pallas) (Barbary sheep), E. fulvus E.Geoffroy (brown lemur), 32 182, 210 Artibeus jamaicensis Leach (Jamaican fruit- GALAGONIDAE Gray (bushbabies), 171 eating bat), 172, 208 Galago crassicaudatus E.Geoffroy = Bos indicus L. = B. taurus Otolemur crassicaudatus (greater B. taurus L. (zebu cattle), 79, 105, 231 bushbaby), 171 Camelus dromedarius L. (camel), 32 G. senegalensis E.Geoffroy (West African Capra hircus L. (domesticated goat), 231 lesser bushbaby), 78, 98 Cardiodertma cor (Peters) (heart-nosed or Genetta C.Cuvier (genets), 208 African false vampire bat), 207 Giraffa camelopardalis (L.) (giraffe), 208 Cercopithecus albogularis Sykes (Sykes’s Glossophaga E.Geoffroy (bat), 177 monkey), 207 Hipposideros caffer (Sundevall) (leaf-nosed C. mitis Wolf subsp. labiatus I. Geoffroy bat), 207 (samango monkey), 180 Hyaena hyaena (L.) (striped hyaena), 208 CERVIDAE (deer), 208 Hypogeomys antimena A.Grandidier (giant Cheirogaleus medius E.Geoffroy (fat-tailed jumping rat), 211 dwarf lemur), xxiv, 172, 175, 209 HYSTRICIDAE G.Fischer (porcupine), 208 Chlorocebus aethiops L. (vervet or grivet Hystrix africaeaustralis Peters (Cape or monkey), 207 crested porcupine), 208 C. subaeus (L.) (green monkey), 207 H. cristata L. (North African crested Colobus angolensis palliates Peters porcupine), 208 (Tanzanian black colobus monkey), Lasiurus cinereus semotus H. Allen 207 (Hawaiian hoary bat), 172 Cryptoprocta ferox Bennett (fossa), 211 Lemur coronatus Guy = Eulemur coronatus, Cynopterus sphinx Vahl (greater short-nosed 209 bat), 171 Lepilemur ruficaudatis Grandidier Diceros bicornis L. (black rhino), 208 (red-tailed sportive lemur), 210 Eidolon dupreanum Schlegal (Malagascar Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach) (African straw-coloured fruit bat), 173, elephant), 179, 204 174, 210 Macroglossus F.Cuvier (blossom bat), 177 E. helvum Kerr (straw-coloured fruit bat), M. minimus Geoffroy, 172 169–170 subsp. pygmaeus Andersen, 177 subsp. helvum, 169 Macropus agilis Gould (agile wallaby), 185 subsp. sabaeum Andersen, 169 M. robustus Gould (common wallaroo or Eliurus myoxinus Milne-Edwards (western euro), 186 tuft-tailed rat), 211 M. rufus Desmarest (red kangaroo), 185 Epomorphus Bennet, 207 MEGACHIROPTERA Dobson (megabats), E. crypturus (Peters) (Peters’s epauletted 167, 169 fruit bat), 207 Mellivora capensis (Schreber) (honey badger, E. gambianus (Oligby) (Gambian ratel), 119, 208 epauletted fruit bat), 170, 207 Microcebus coquereli (A.Grandidier) = Mirza subsp. crypturus Peters , 170 coquereli subsp. gambiensis (Gambian M. murinus (J.F. Miller) (grey dwarf epauletted fruit bat), 207 lemur), 209 E. wahlbergi Sundevall (Wahlberg’s Micropteropus pusillis Peters (Peters’s dwarf epauletted fruit bat), 207 epauletted fruit bat), 170, 207 Taxonomic Indexes 463

Mirza coquereli Gray (Coquerel’s dwarf Pteropus Brisson (megabats), 167, 207 [mouse] lemur), 173, 209, 334 P. rufus Geoffroy (Malagasar flying fox or MURIDAE Illiger (rats and mice), 211 fruit bat, or fanihy), 174, 210 subfamily MURINAE Illiger (Old World P. seychellensis Milne-Edwards subsp. rats and mice), 211 comorensis Nicoll (Comoros lesser subfamily NESOMYINAE Major flying fox), 172, 176, 210 (Madagascan rats and mice), 211 P. voeltzkowi Matschie (Pemba fruit bat), Nanonycteris veldkampii Jentink (Veldkamp’s 207 dwarf epauletted bat), 170 Rattus norvegicus (Berkenhout) (brown rat) Orycteropus afer (Pallas) (ant-bear or R. rattus L. (black or house rat), 211 aardvark), 77 RODENTIA Bowdiche (rodents), 208 Otolemur crassicaudatus (E.Geofroy) Rousettus Gray (megabats), 167, 170 (greater bushbaby), 171, 208 R. egyptiacus Geoffroy (dog bat or Egyptian Pan troglodytes (Blumenbach) (common rousette bat), 170, 171, 207 chimpanzee), 179, 206 subsp. aegyptiacus (Egyptian Panthera pardus (L.) (leopard), 208 rousette), 170 Papio Endeben (baboons), 179, 182, 206 subsp. arabicus Anderson (Arabian Paraxerus Forsyth Major (bush squirrels), 208 rousette bat), 170 Petrogale Gray (rock wallabies), 186, 211 subsp. leachii Smith (Cape rousette bat), P. brachyotis Gould (short-eared rock 170 wallaby), 186 subsp. unicolor Gray (West African PHALANGERIDAE Thomas (possums), 129 rousette bat), 170 Phaner furcifer Blainville (fork-markeded R. leschenaulti Desmarest (Leschenault’s lemur), xxvii, 172, 173, 209 rousette bat), 171, 208 P. furcifer electromontis Groves & R. madagascariensis Grandidier Tattersall (amber mountain fork- (Malagascar rousette bat), 210 marked lemur), 174, 209 Tachyglossus aculeatus Shaw (echidna, spiny P. furcifer pallescens Groves & Tattersall anteater), 129 (pale fork-marked lemur), xxv, 175, Taurotragus oryx (Pallas) (kudu), 179, 208 177, 209 Thallomys Thomas (acacia rats), 208 Potamochoerus larvatus F.Cuvier (potamochere Tragelaphus angasi Gray (nyala), 208 or bush pig), 182, 208, 211, 292 T. strepsiceros (Pallas) (kudu), 208 Propithecus Endeben (leaf-eating lemur), VESPERTILIONIDAE (evening bats), 172 177, 209 Wyulda squamicaudata Alexander (scaly- P. verreauxi A.Grandidier (Verreaux’s tailed possum), 211 sifaka), 177, 210 Xerus Hemprich & Ehrenberg (African PTEROPODIDAE (fruit bats), 167, 169, 212, 324 ground squirrels), 208

4.2 Fossil mammals

Hadropithecus (lemur), 291 H. laloumena Faure & Guérin Hippopotamus amphibious standini Monnier (hippopotamus), 292 & Lamberton = H. laloumena, 292 H. lemerlei A. Grandidier, 292

4.3 Birds

Aegotheles cristatus Shaw (Australian owlet- A. fischeri Reichenow (Fischer’s nightjar), 66, 216 lovebird), 212 Agapornis canus (Gmelin) (grey-headed A. personata Reichenow (yellow-collard lovebird), 214 lovebird), 212 464 Taxonomic Indexes

ALCEDINIDAE (kingfishers), 212 Eurostopodus argus Harlet (spotted nightjar), Anaplectes rubriceps (Sundevall) (red- 66 headed weaver), 213 Eurystomus glaucurus (Müller) (broad-billed Aptenodytes patagonicus Miller (king roller), 215 penguin), 329 Falco cenchroides Vigors & Horsfield Apus Scopali (swifts), 212 (Nankeen kestrel), 216 Aquila audax Latham (wedge-tailed eagle), F. concolor Temminck (sooty falcon), 215 66 F. newtoni (Gurney) (Malagascar kestel), A. wahlbergi Sundevall (Wahlberg’s 214 eagle), 212 F. zoniventris Peters (banded kestrel), 214 Ardea naveliohollandiiae Latham Falculea palliata Geoffroy St.-Hilaire (sickle- (white-faced heron), 216 billed vanga), 214, 215 Asio madagascariensis (A.Smith) Gracula religiosa L. (myna), 214 (Madagascar long-eared owl), 214 Grallina cyanoleuca Latham (magpie lark), Bubalornis albirostris (Vieillot) 215 (buffalo-weaver), 213 Grus rubicunda Perry (brolga, Australian B. niger A.Smith (red-billed crane), 66 buffalo-weaver), 213 Haliaeetus vociferoides Desmurs Bubo lacteus (Temminck) (giant, milky or (Madagascar fish eagle), 214 Verreaux’s eagle owl), 212 Hamirostra melanosternon (Gould) Bucorvus leadbeateri (Vigors) (southern (black-breasted buzzard), 216 ground hornbill), 213 Hirundo senegalensis L. (mosque swallow), BUCEROTIDAE (hornbills), 212 213 Buteo brachypterus Hartlaub (Madagascar Indicator indicator (Sparrman) (greater buzzard), 214 honey-guide), 60, 213 Cacatua sanguinea Gould (little corella, Lamprotornus superbus Ruppell (superb ‘white’ cockatoo), 216 starling), 213 Calyptorhynchus banksii (Latham) Leptoptilos crumeniferus (Lesson) (Marabou (red-tailed black cockatoo), 64 stork), 212 CAPITONORIDAE (barbets), 212 Leptosomus discolor (Hermann) (cuckoo Certhionyx pectoralis Gould (banded roller), 215 honey-eaters), 178 Lichenostomus plumulosous Gould Circaetus cinereus Vieillot (brown (grey-fronted honey-eater), 178 harrier eagle, brown snake eagle), L. virescens Vieillot (singing 212 honey-eater), 178 C. pectoralis Smith (black-chested snake Lichmera indistincta Vigors & Horsfield eagle), 212 (brown honey-eater), 178 Coracopsis nigra L. (Greater Vasa parrot), Manorinia flavigula Gould (yellow-throated 214 miner), 178 C. vasa Shaw (Lesser Vasa parrot), 214 MEGAPOIDES (jungle fowl), 324 CORACIIDAE (rollers), 212, 215 MELIPHAGIDAE (honey-eaters), 178, 216 CORVIDAE (crows), 214 Merops L. (bee-eaters), 213 Corvus albus Müller (pied crow), 215 Milvus migrans (Boddaert) (forked-tail or C. orru Bonaparte (Australian crow), 215 black kite), 215, 216 Cosmopsarus unicolor Shelley (ashy Neafrapus boehmi (Schalow) (Boehm’s starling), 212 spinetail), 213 Cuculus canorus L. (cuckoo), 214 Nectarinia notata Müller (Malagascar green Dicrurus L. (drongo), 214 sunbird), 173, 175, 215 D. adsimilis Bechstein (forked-tailed N. souimanga Gmelin (Souimanga drongo), 213 sunbird), 173, 176, 215 D. forficatus (L.) (crested drongo), 215 NECTARINIIDAE (sunbirds), 214, 215 Dinemellia dinemelli (Ruppell) (white- Ninox Hodgson (owls), 65 headed buffalo weaver), 213 ORIOLIDAE (orioles), 214 Taxonomic Indexes 465

Otus rutilus (Pucheran) (Malagascar scops Sagittarius serpentarius Miller (secretary owl), 214 bird), 212 Pandion haliaetus (L.) (osprey or sea eagle), Schetba rufa (L.) (rufous vanga), 215 216 Scopus umbretta Gmelin (hammerkop), 212 P. leucocephalus Gould. = Pandion haliaetus, Serinus mozambicus (Müller) (yellow- 216 fronted canary), 213 Pelecanus onocratalus L. (great white or rosy Sturnus vulgaris L. (starling), 15, 214 pelican), 212 Taeniopygia guttata Vieillot (zebra finch), 216 Philemon citreogularis Gould (little Tauraco eythrolophus (Viellot) (red-crested friarbird), 178 touraco), 212 PLOCEIDAE (weavers), 215 Telacanthura ussheri stictilaema Ploceus nelicourvi (Scopoli) (Nelicourvi (Reichenow) (mottled or mottle- weaver), 215 throated spinetail), 213, 230 P. sakalava Hartlaub (Sakalava weaver), Terathopius ecaudatus (Daudin) (bateleur 215 hawk), 212 Poicephalus fuscicollis-suahelicus Tockus erythrorhynchus (Teminck) (red- (Reichenow) (greyheaded parrot), billed hornbill), 212 212 T. flavirostris (Ruppell) (yellow-billed P. meyeri (Cretzschmar) (brown or hornbill), 212 Meyer’s parrot), 213 Trichoglossus rubritorquis Vignors & P. rufiventris (Ruppell) (orange-bellied Horsfield (red-collared lorikeets), parrot), 212 178 Polyboroides radiatus (Scopoli) (harrier Treron australis (L.) (Malagascar green hawk), 214 pigeon), 215 Polihierax semitorquatus (A.Smith) (pygmy Tyto alba (Scopoli) (barn owl), 212, 214 falcon), 213 Upupa epops (L.) (hoopoe), 215 Pomatostomus temporalis Vigors & Vanga curvirostris (L.) (hook-billed vanga), Horsfield (grey-crowned babbler), 215 215 Zosterops lutea Gould (yellow white-eyes), PSITTACIDAE (parrots and lovebirds), 212 215

4.4 Fossil birds

Aepyornis (elephant birds), 188, 277, 292, 329 DROMORNITHIDAE (mihirungs), 185 A. maximus Geoffroy, 182, 329 Stephanoaetus mahery Goodman (crowned Archaeolemur (sloth lemur), 227, 291 eagle), 182

4.5 Fishes

Neoceratodus forsteri (Krefft) (Australian Scleropages leichardtii Gunther (spotted lungfish), 68 bonytongue), 68

4.6 Reptiles

Acrantophis madagascariensis (Duméril & Chamaeleo dilepis Leach (flap-necked Bibron) (Madagascan ground boa), chameleon), 217 217 Dendroaspis Schleged (mamba), 108, 216 Aspidites melanocephalus Krefft (black- Dispholidus typus (A.Smith) (boomslang), headed python), 65 216 466 Taxonomic Indexes

Gecko Laurenti (Gekkonidae), 217 Python Daudin (python), 216 Hemidactylus platycephalus (Peters) Sanzinia madagascariensis (Duméril & (Baobab gecko), 217 Bibron) (Madagascan tree boa), Micrelaps boettgeri Boulenger = M. vaillanti 217 M. vaillanti Mocquard (desert black- SCINCIDAE (skinks), 217 headed snake), 216 TESTUDINAE (land tortoise), 217 Naja haje Merrem (Egyptian cobra), 216 VARANIDAE (goanna, monitor lizard), 217 Pseudechis australis (Gray) (king brown or Varanus Merrem, 217 mulga snake), 65 V. niloticus (L.) (Nile monitor lizard), 217

4.7 Amphibians

Heleioporus psammophilus Lee & Main Litoria coerulea White (green tree frog), (sand frog), 66 217

4.8 Arthropods

Adansonia sensu Bonnet nomen nudum = DIPTERA (true flies), 222 Theridium, 218 Distantiella theobroma (Dist.) (cocoa A. rupestris sensu Bonnet non Saville- capsid), 221 Kent, nomen ambiguum, 218 Dysdercus fasciatus Signoret, 219, 220 Agrius convolvuli L. (hawk moth), xxvi, 178 D. flavidus Signoret, 220 Analeptes trifasciata Fabricius (longhorn D. nigrofasciatus Stål, 220 beetle), 221 D. superstitiosus Fabricius, 219 Anepisceptus horridus (Burm.) (long-horned Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) grasshopper), 219 (mealybug), 226 Apis mellifera L. (honey bee), 60, 173, 178 Earias Lep. (bollworms), 222 A. mellifera unicolor Latr. (African bee), E. biplaga Walker (spiny bollworm), 60, 222 172, 221 ARACHNIDA (spiders), 218 E. huegeliana Gaede (rough bollworm), ARANEIDAE (orb-weaving spiders), 218 221 Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (white fly), 226 E. perhuegeli Holloway, 221 Cerambyx L. (capricorn beetle), 221 EMBIOPTERA (web spinners), 219 Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) (mealybug), 226 (Mediterranean fruit fly), 222 Gonimbrasia berlina Westwood (emperor Ceresium minor Blackburn (beetle), moth, mopane moth, mopane 178, 222 worm), 222 Cherax quadricarinatus (Martens) (red claw HALICTIDAE (sweat bees), 222 crayfish), 68 Heliothis armigera Hubn. (cotton bollworm, CHILOPODA (centipedes), 219 corn ear-worm, gram caterpillar), Coelonia brevis Rothschild & Jordan (short- 172, 221 tongued hawk moth), xxv, 176, 222 HYMENOPTERA (ants, bees and wasps), Coelonia solanii (Boisduval) (long-tongued 172, 222 hawk moth), 174, 176, 222 Hypotrigona Cockerell (sweat bees), 222 COLEOPTERA (beetles), 220 ISOPTERA (termites), 219 Crematogaster striatula Emery (ant), 226 LEPIDOPTERA (butterflies and moths), CULICIDAE (mosquitoes), 222 221, 222 Cyclops Muller (water fleas), 91 Lophostethus dumolini Angas (arrow sphinx, Diparopsis castanea Hampson (Sudan prisoner sphinx ), 221 bollworm), 172, 221 Mantidae (praying mantis), 219 Taxonomic Indexes 467

Melipona Illger (sweat bees), 222 Pseudococcus longispinus (Targoni Tozzetti) Meranoplus magrettii André (ant), 222 (long-tailed mealy bug), 226 Mussidia nigrivenella Ragonot (ear borer), 221 P. njalensis Laing (cocoa mealybug), 226 Neodysdercus intermedius Dist. (cotton PSYCHIDAE (mason moth), 222 stainer), 219 Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) (mango Nephele comma Hopffer (hawk moth), xxiii, mealybug), 221, 226 173, 222 Sahlberella singularis Hagl (cocoa capsid), 221 Odontomachus Latreille (ants), 222 Salagena Walker (wood-boring moths), 221 Odontopus exsanguinis (Gerstäcker) SCARABAEIDAE (scarab beetles), 221 (cotton-stainers), 219 Schistocerca gregaria (Forssk.) (desert O. sexpunctatus Laporte, 219 locust), 370 ORTHOPTERA (grasshoppers, crickets and Sitophilus zeamais Motsch. (maize weavil), 122 allies), 219, 370 SPHINGIDAE (hawk moths), 168, 169, 222 Oxycarenus albipennis (Fallén) (cotton- Stigmodera rufolimbata (Carter) (jewel stainer), 219 beetle), 221 Panogena jasmini (Boisduval) (hawk moth), Tectocoris diophthalmus (Thunberg) (cotton 176, 222 harlequin bug), 221 Planococcoides njalensis Laing (mealybug), Tetraponera Smith (ant), 222 226 THERIDIIDAE (theridiid spiders), 263 PHASMIDA (stick insects), 219 Theridium (theridiid spider), 218 Phonoctonus lutescens Guerin-Meneville & Trigona Jurine (stingless or sweat bees), Percheron (assassin-bug), 220 173, 222 Plenococcus Schmutterer (mealybugs), 226 Xanthopan morgani (Walker) (sphinx moth), Podagrica Chevrolat (flea beetles), 220, 226 175, 222 P. puncticollis Weise, 220 Zonocerus variegarus L. (elegant PSEUDOCOCCOIDAE (mealybugs), 226 grasshopper), 219

4.9 Echinoderms

Holothuria L. (sea cucumbers or slugs, trepangs), 27, 42

4.10 Molluscs

Adansonia Pallary, 263 Donovania Bucquoy Dautzenberg & Dollfus Chauvetia Monterosato (buccinid snail), subgen. Adansonia Pallary = 263 Chauvetia, 263

4.11 Nematodes

Dracunculus medinensis L. (guinea-worm M. incognita (Kofoid & White) Chitwood, 218 nematode), 91 Rotylenchulus reniformis Linf. & Oliv. Meloidogyne (root-knot nematode), 218 (reniform nematode), 218 468 Taxonomic Indexes

4.12 Protozoa

Entamoeba histolytica Schaudin Trypanosoma brucei brucei Plimmer & (amoebic dysentery protozoa), Bradford (sleeping sickness 85 protozoa), 82 Plasmodium falciparum Welch (malarial T. congolense Plimmer & Bradford (African sporozoa), 84 bovine trypanosomosis protozoa), 82

5 Bacteria

Bacillus Cohn, 388 Mycobacterium leprae (Hansen) Lehmann & B. subtilis (Erhrenberg) Cohn., 85 Neumann, 85 Escherichia coli (Migula) Castellani & M. phlei Lehmann & Neumann, 85 Chalmers, 85 Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Schroeter) Klebsiella pneumoniae (Schroeter) Trevisan, Migula, 85 85 Salmonella Lignieres, 85, 388 Lactobacillus acidophilus Johnson, Phelp, S. typhi (Schroeter) Warren & Scott = Cummins, London & Gasser, 389 Salmonella enterica subsp. L. casei (Orla-Jenson) Hansen & Lessel, 389 enterica, 85 L. fermentatum Beijerinck, 389 S. typhimurium (Loeffler) Castellani & L. plantarum (Orla-Jensen) Berger, Chalmers, 85 Harrison, Breed, Hammer S. enterica (ex Kauffman & Edwards) & Huntoon, 389 Le Miner & Popoff , 85 Lactococcus lactis (Lister) Schleifer, Kraus, Staphylococcus aureus Rosenbach, 85 Dvorak, Kilpper-Bälz, Collins & Streptococcus Rosenbach, 85, 388 Fischer, 389 S. faecalis Andrewes & Horder, 85 Subject Index

A awards, 135, 136 Abu’l Fazi, 269 Aymonin, Gérard-Guy, 26 Adanson, Michel, 13, 18–20, 31, 90, 113, Aymonin, Monique-Rose, 26 120, 154, 159, 200, 214 Azura, G., 6–7 Families des Plantes, 135 Cronica de Guiné, 6 Méthode de Décrire par Articles, 253 adhesive, 124 advertisements, 125 B agricultural crops, 218, 220, 369 Bahmani Kingdom, India, 270 Aiton, William T., 29 Baillon, Henri, 24, 133, 256–260 Al Bakri, 5 Histoire Naturelle de Madagascar, 24, 257 Book of Roads and Kingdoms, 5 Baines, J. Thomas, 29, 30, 35, 45, 94, Albaccario, Stefano 1, 13 130–134, 157, 262 Albuquerque, Alfonso d’, 22 Banks, Joseph, 27–29 Alluaud, Charles, 25 baobab anatomy almond substitute, 74 druces, 189 Alpino, Prospero, 1, 10–11, 364 fibre, 113, 114, 156, 187, 197, 249, 250 De plantis aegypti, 10–12 funicles, 15, 71, 83, 194, 250, 382–384 Alvise da Ca’ da Mosto. See Cadamosto parenchyma, 112, 115, 117, 139, 140, 143, Alwa Kingdom, Nubia, 49 187–191, 195 Ancient Egypt (Pharaonic Egypt), 1–3 stomata, 192, 193 Andersson, Carl J., 35 baobab fruit antinutrients, 387, 391, 392 A. digitata, xxiv, xxv, 11, 181, 193 antioxidants, 73, 82, 372, 376, 381–383 baobab growth integral antioxidant capacity, 376, 381, A. digitata, 134, 136, 146–148, 150, 151 382 incremental growth, 146, 151, 152, 154 cyclopropenoic fatty acids (CPEFA), 77, baobab physiology, 197–199 84, 393 baobab phytochemicals, 80, 117, 124, Anthony van Diemen’s Land, 27 190–202, 377 apples, 17, 331, 385 adansonia flavonoside, 83, 377 Arabs, 2, 13, 21, 41, 49, 61, 102, 104, 267, adansonin, 82, 95, 201 282, 363, 364 7-baueren-3-acetate, 83 art, 122, 125–129, 135, 248, 257 betulinic acid, 83, 200 artists, 125, 126, 129, 130, 133 dehydroxyflavane, 83 aubergine or egg plant, 225 friedelane, 83 Australia Exploring Expedtion, 29, 44, 94, kaempherol, 83 131, 261 lupane, 83 Australian Aborigines, 26, 68, 70, 73, 88, 101, pectin, 84, 201, 373, 385, 389 114, 120, 124 quercetin, 82, 83, 121, 200

469 470 Subject Index baobab phytochemicals (cont.) falcons, pygmy falcon, 213 quercetin-7-O-β-d-xylopyranoside, 82, guineafowl, 214 121, 200 hammerkop, 212 tannin, 79, 82, 83, 121, 190, 191, 201, hawks, bateleur hawk, 212 202, 378, 388, 389, 391, 392 honeyguide, black-throated honeyguide, triterpenoids, 83 213 baobab seed cake, 79 hornbills, 212, 213 baobab seed oil, 76, 77, 199, 201, 374, 392, 393 kingfishers, 212 extraction lovebirds, 212 cold pressing, 76 marabou stork, 212 distillation, 76, 124 owls, 212, 214 petroleum ether, 76, 82, 122 parrots, 212, 213 ultrasound, 81, 373 pelicans, great white or rosy, 212 seeds (A. digitata), 79, 86, 179, 181, rollers, 212, 214, 215 186, 199, 219, 238, 243, 375, 391 spinetailes, 213, 230 baobab seedlings starlings, 212, 213 A. digitata, 145 swallows, mosque, 213 A. grandidieri, 153 swifts, 212 A. za, 163 turaco, red-crested, 212 baobab wood weavers, 213 cutting, 55, 106, 218, 220 woodpecker, 61, 214 density, 163, 283 birds, Australia durability, 114 babblers, grey-crowned, 215 specific gravity, 73, 143 brolgas (crane), 66 Baron, Richard buzzards, black-brested, 216 Flora of Madagascar, 25, 26 cockotoo, black red-tailed, 64 Basedow, Herbert, 43, 71, 74, 106, 112, 124, corella, little, 216 128–130 crow, 215 bath salts and foams. See toiletry eagle, 66, 216 Battuta, Ibn, 5, 6, 103, 106, 123, 269 emu, 43, 47, 128 Bauhin, Caspar finches, zebra, 216 Pinax theatri botanici, 16 friarbird, 178 Bauhin, Jean, 15 heron, white-faced, 216 Bauhin, Jean and Cherler, Johann H. Historia honey-eater, 178 plantorum universalis, 15 kestrel, Nankeen, 216 Baum, David, 23–26, 30, 63, 73, 76, 79, 88, kite, fork-tailed or black, 215 114, 118, 122, 153, 164, 166–169, lorikeets, red-collared, 178 171 owlet-nightjar, 66, 216 beehives, 71, 107, 119 sandbird, 66 Belli, Onorio, 10, 11, 14–16 white-eye, yellow, 215 Bellon, Pierre, 13 birds, Madagascar Bennett, George, 74, 80, 94, 106, 131, 270 buzzards, Madagascar buzzard, 214 Bernier, Alphonse C. J., 24, 259 crow, pied, 215 Besler, Basil, 16 drongo, crested, 215 Hortus eystettensis, 16 eagles, Madagascar fish eagle, 214 Rariora Musei, 16 falcon, sooty, 215 bird lime, 120 guineafowl, 214 birds, Africa, 212–214 hawks, Madagasar harrier hawk, 214 barbets, 212, 214 hoopoe, 215 bee-eaters, 213 kestrels, 214 canaries, yellow fronted, 213 lovebird, grey-headed, 214 cuckoo, 214, 215 owls, 212, 214 drongo, forked tail, 213 parrots, 214 eagles, 212 pigeon, Madagascar green, 215 Subject Index 471

rollers, 215 cakes, 75, 224, 372 sunbirds, xxiv, 173 ff, 215, 268 Capuron, René P. R., 26, 259 vangas, 215 Essai d’Introduction, 26 weavers, 215 Cardano, Girolamo, 9, 10 birds, fossil De subtilitate libri, 9, 10 crowned eagle, 182 De verum varietate, 9 elephant bird, 182, 227, 292, 329 Opera omnia, 9 jungle fowl nests, 324 Carthage, 4 Bonfield, J.W.B., 35 Carthaginians, 4 books, 3, 5, 18, 135, 137 Hanno, 4, 5 botanic gardens ceramics, 135 Bogor [Buitenzorg] Botanic Garden, Java, cereals 168 bulrush millet, 53, 89, 96, 221 Cambridge Botanic Garden, UK, 18, 331 finger millet, 69 Chelsea Physic Garden, UK, 18, 19, 240, fonio, 75 331 guineacorn (sorghum), 69 Durban Botanic Garden, South Africa, 151 hungry rice, 72, 96 Fairchild Botanic Garden, Florida, 271 maize, 57, 69, 72, 77, 95, 122, 221, Imperial Botanic Garden, Vienna, 14 235, 378 Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, India, 272 millet, 51–53, 69–72, 75, 87, 89, 96, 98, Île Notre Dame, Paris, 16 99, 221, 389 Jardin botanique, Montpellier, France, 19 sorghum, 34, 69, 71, 75, 121, 221, 303, Jardin Royale, Paris, 16 304, 391 Jardin Tsimbazaza, Madagascar, 271 Chabrey, Dominique, 15 Missouri Botanical Garden, 26 Chapman, Henry, 35, 131 Oxford Botanic Gardens, UK, 18 Chapman, James, 35, 131, 151 Royal Botanic Garden, Peradeniya, Chapman Pincher, 39 Sri Lanka, 270 Chapotin, Saharah, 115, 143, 144, 153, 160, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, 27, 44, 162, 198, 335 131, 134, 155, 163, 237, 261 Charles, Prince of Wales, 132 Boulos, Loutfy, 17, 267 Cherler, Johann, 10, 15, 254 boundary markers, 265 cherry laurel, 15 Bradley, Richard, 18, 331 Chevalier, Auguste J. B., 20, 21, 54, 69, 74, Brazza, Pierre S. de, 32, 137, 285 77, 124, 179–181, 255, 262, 264, British, 3, 16, 19, 22, 24, 27–30, 32, 38, 39, 265, 282, 284–286, 289, 318–320, 82, 111, 113, 123, 133, 229, 261, 369, 380 262, 268 Chiovenda, Emilio, 21, 255, 283 Broussonet, Pierre, 19, 20 Flora Somala, 21, 255 Brown, Robert, 6, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 117, chloroplast genes, 246 153, 160, 186, 213, 246, 291 chorology, 278 Bry, de cinchona, 89, 90, 375 Collectiones peregrinationum, 23 citrus, 11, 17, 20, 95, 109 Indiae Orientalis, 23 climate Bry, Johann T. de, 23 Africa, 228, 275t, 276, 282, 284, 288, Bry, Johann I. de, 23 295, 320, 321, 333, 335, 369 Burkina, Faso, 50, 54, 69, 70, 72, 78, 91, 98, eco-climate, 273–275 100, 137, 195, 237, 265 Australia, 159, 323–325 Busbecq, Ogier G. de, 331 Madagascar, 159, 228, 274, 295, 297, Bushmen rock paintings, 126, 130–133 321, 325 eco-climate, 292–293 Cloudsley-Thompson Anne, 133, 134 C Clusius, Carolus (Charles de l’Ecluse), 11ff Cadamosto (Alvise da Ca’ da Mosto), 7 Exoticorum libri decem, 14 Caillié, René, 21 Rariorum plantarum historia, 14 472 Subject Index coagulant, 124 Diaz, Denis, 7 coco de mer, 328 Die Naturalischen Pflanzenfamilien, 246, 247 cocoa, 221, 226, 228, 300 Dillenius, Johann, 17 coins, 40, 137 Horti elthamensis plantarum, 17 Compagnie des Indes, 18 Hortus elthamensis, 17 condiments, 77 Diogo, Dias, 21 Confucius, 27 diseases. See medicinal use Ch’un-ch’iu, 410 disjunct distribution, 308, 318–320, 335, 365 Shi zi, 27 distribution conservation Africa, 137, 159, 171, 195, 222, 228, 272, Red Data Book, 230 277, 284, 320 conservation, Africa Australia, 26, 27, 29, 42, 65, 66, 71, 74, Baobab Tree Reserve, 230 82, 101, 106, 110, 119, 122 conservation, Australia, 236 India, 21, 40, 61, 70, 86, 90, 269 conservation, Madagascar, 231, 232 Madagascar, 139, 211, 259, 272, 273 conservation, Sri Lanka, 5, 62, 73, 78, 89, 90, West Indies, 23, 40, 90, 102, 169, 172, 152, 179, 231, 267, 269, 270, 338, 180, 207, 208, 223, 334, 357 353, 354, 366 DNA, 245, 257, 312, 315, 320, 335 containers, 123, 186, 237 Donn, James, 18 continental drift, 307–309 Drake del Castillo, Emmanuel, 24, Cook, James, 27, 85, 382 256–258, 260 coolamon, 65, 115 Drovetti, Bernardino M.M., 2, 3 Cordoso, Bento, 8 Du Puy, Blaise, 26, 68, 73, 77, 79, 183, Coridou, 25, 258 184, 203, 209–211, 219, 220, cortex cael cedar, 89, 201 231, 234–236 cortex cael cedra spurious, 90, 201 Du Puy, David, 26, 292, 293, 295 cosmetics. See toiletries dugout canoes, 22, 113, 114 cotton, 118, 159, 172, 218–221, 228, 277, 282 Dutch, 16, 19, 22, 27, 268, 271, 358 Crompton, Huw, 133 dye, 121 crustaceans red claw, 68 cucumber, 6, 8, 42, 167 E cultivation economics aftercare, 239, 242, 243 domestic economy, 370 bonsai, 243, 244 elite trees, 237, 242, 332, 388 grafting, 242, 332, 388 emblems, 122, 135 seed storage, 14, 72, 77, 156, 180 emblic myrobalm, 88 seed treatment, 391 Emperor Zhu Di, 27 vegetative propagation, 242 Admiral Hong Bao, 27 Cunha, Tristan da, 22 Admiral Zhou Man, 27 Cunningham, Allan, 27–29, 41, 42, 236, 261, Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 262, 303, 367 executions, 110, 366

D F Dapper, Olfert, 8, 16–17, 371 famous baobabs, Africa pastiche, 16 Baines’s Baobab. Botswana, 230 Darwin, Charles, 31, 43, 48, 105, 236, 265, Big Tree, Zambia, 33, 132 271, 272, 302, 304–306, 324, 328 Brisco Tree, South Afica, 36 Decary, Raymond, 25–26, 105, 260, 296, Buglar’s Tree, Sudan, 32, 37 297, 300 Chapman’s Tree, Botswana, 35 decoration, 122 Chidzere’s Tree, Zimbabwe, 58 Delile, Raffeneau, 2, 20 Chitako-changonya, Zimbabwe, 34 Florae aegyptiacae illustratio, 20 Dakfao baobab, Niger, 32 Subject Index 473

Dorslandboom, Namibia, 36, 334 famous baobabs, Madagascar Duiwelskloof Baobab, South Africa, 60 Arbré Sacré, 63 Gateway to Gazaland, Zimbabwe, 35 L’Avenue des Baobabs, xiv, 40, 102 Glencoe Baobab, South Africa, 36, 37 Jacqueline’s Baobab, 41, 64 Green’s Tree, Botswana, 35 Les Baobabs Amoureux, 41 Grootboom, Namibia, 36, 157, 158, 334 famous baobabs, West Indies, 357 Holboom, Namibia, 36 felling, 235, 283, 285, 291 Hunter’s Tree, Botswana, 35 fermenting agent Kasane Cell Baobab, Botswana, 230 juice, 72–74, 371 King Nashilongo’s Baobab, Namibia, 36 purée, 370 Kondanamwali, South Africa, 57 syrup, 370 Lambaye baobab, Senegal, 32 Fernandes, Valentin, 7 Look-out Tree, Zambia, 33 fibre, 113, 115–119, 123 Lugard’s Tree, Nigeria, 32 cloth, 55, 56, 136 Mahalapye Baobab, Botswana, 229, 230 cordage (rope), xviii, 6, 52, 115ff, 234 Mahmud’s Tree, Sudan, 37 sacking, 118 Mlambi, Zambia, 50 Firuz Shah, 269 Muuya waMutota (Mutota’s Baobab), Fishes, 68, 74 Zimbabwe, 34 Flacourt, Étienne de, 23–24 Mubuyu Toilet, Caprivi Strip, 39, Histoire de la Grande Île, 24 109, 110 Flinders, Mathew, 28 Mubuyudema (Black Baobab of floral calendars, 62–63 Tshitashawa), Zimbabwe, 39 fodder. See livestock feed Murchison’s Club, South Africa, 108 folklore Mooketsi or Seboya Baobab, South Africa, Arab, 49, 50, 54 108 Ashanti, 52, 360 Muri kunguluwa, South Africa, 36 Bantu, 50, 58 Muuyu waMutato, Zimbabwe, 34 Dogan, 52 Mwankgama Baobab, Botswana, 230 Gaua, 50, 51 Olifantslurpboom, South Africa, 36 Giriama, 56 Patuuyu tusere, Zimbabwe, 34 God, 50, 60 St Maryam dearit, Eritrea, 56 Great Spirit, 51 Sambu Baobab, Zimbabwe, 59 Gataka, 56 Selous’s Baobab, Tanzania, 229 Kapisya, 50 Sir Howard’s Baobab, Namibia, 36 Kauha, 50 Sororo’s Tree, Zimbabwe, 59 Kung Bushmen, 50 Tabengwa Baobab, Botswana, 230 lepers, 52 The Lovers, Zimbabwe, xiv, 35 Mountains of the Moon, 50 famous baobabs, Australia Odede, 50 Autograph Tree, 46 Oeng-Oeng, 50 Dinner Tree, 44 Paradise, 51 Forrest’s Tree, 42 Resa, 56 Government Tree, 46 San, 51, 58 Gee, Walter, 47 Thora, 51 Ghost gum, 224 upside-down tree, 50, 64 Gregory’s Tree, 44, 46, 66, 131, 236 food and drink Mermaid Tree Plate 1, xiii, 41, 261 bark, 67, 187 Patterson’s Tree, 48 cream of tartar, 72, 74 Prison Tree, Derby, 43, 44, 110, 112 drink, 68, 70–75 Prison Tree, Wyndham Plate 3, 144 tisane, 70 Stokes’ boab, 43 flowers, 70, 78 famous baobabs, India fruit pulp, 71, 384–389 Gorakh, 40 leaves Peruleni-pedda-manu (Nameless Tree), 40 lalo, 69 474 Subject Index food and drink (cont.) Permian, 303, 310 mucilage, 68, 70 Pleistocene, 26, 318ff, 324 porridge, 69, 70, 72, 75 Pleistogene [Quaternary], 317 roots, xvi, 68, 377 Pliocene, 323, 324 sauce, 69, 70 Quaternary, 317, 318, 324 seed oil, 76, 392–393 Santoniam, 312 seeds, 74–76, 237, 239, 389–392 Senonian, 312, 316 snack food, 72 Tertiary, 310, 313, 316, 321 tisane, 70 Triassic, 312 forest mensuration. See mensuration Valanganian, 309, 312 Forrest, Alexander, 42, 367 geological landmasses fossils Gondwana (Gondwanaland), 307ff, 325 crowned eagle, 182 Laurasia, 312 elephant bird, 182, 227, 292 Pangaea, 312 giant/sloth lemurs, 182, 291 Tethyan, 312, 313 giant tortoises, 292 geology, Africa, 271 hippopotami, 291 Atlas system, 277, 309 jungle fowl nests, 324 Great African Plateau, 310 marsupials, 185 Great Rift Valley, 310 reptiles, 185, 216 Mega-Chad, 318 French, 6, 9, 18, 19, 22, 24, 27, 51 Tibetan Plateau, 310 fuel, 121–122 geology, Asia charcoal, 121 Himalayan system, 310 fumigant, 122 Indian plate, 310 fungi, Africa, 224–226 Java Trench, 328 fungi, Madagascar, 224 Tibetan Plateau, 310 Funj Kingdom, 49 geology, Australia, 301 geology, Europe Alpine system, 309 G geology, Madagascar, 292 Gaertner, Joseph, 20, 254, 383 Gerber, Charles, 15 De fructus et seminibus plantarum, 254 Gesner, Conrad von, 11 Galen (Claudius Galenus), 12 Ghana Kingdom, 5, 359 De Simplicum, 12 globe artichoke, 225 Gardner, Charles A., 262 Gonneville, Jean B P de, 27 Garret, James, 14 Graeco-Roman mariners, 21 Gemminger, Johann K. von, 16 graffiti, 1, 31, 102, 128 generic description, 249–250 Grandidier, Alfred, 24, 257ff genetic fingerprinting, 335 Histoire Physique, Naturelle et geological time scale Politique de Madagascar, 24, 257 Albian, 309 Grandidier, Guillaume, 24, 257 Campanian, 312, 313 graves Cretaceous, 309ff, 316, 317, 321, 323 Foulds, Mathew, 112 Eocene, 309, 311, 313 Kilpatrick, George, 111 Hautervian, 309, 312 Livingstone, Mary, 111 Holocene, 320, 321, 324, 329 Pasco, Mary, 47 Jurassic, 308ff, 316 Pigott, 112 Maastrichtian, 312 Green, Charles, 35 Mesozoic, 310, 329 Green, Frederick, 35 Miocene, 310ff, 316, 317, 320, 323, 326 Gregory, Augustus C., 29, 44 Neogene, 316, 321 Grevé, 24, 258, 260 Oligocene, 311, 312, 316, 321, 323, 325 Grew, Nehemiah, 16 Palaeolithic, 3 Grey, George, 29 Paleocene, 309, 313 griots, 51, 52, 111 Subject Index 475

Guanabanus, 7–10, 14, 15 Hova (Merina) military government, 24 guinea-pigs, 83 Humbert, Jean-Henri, 25, 26 Guymer, Gordon, 262, 263 Flora de Madagascar, 258, 260 Groundnut Scheme, 52, 113, 162

I H Ilha San Lourenço, 21 H.M.C. Mermaid, 27, 41 International Code of Botanical Habashi, 269, 270 Nomenclature, 21, 248, 263 Hebenstreit, Dr., 19 International Code of Zoological Henry the Navigator, 6, 7, 31 Nomenclature, 263 herbs and spices insecticide, 122 cumin, 88 invertebrates, Africa mint, 88, 135 ants, 172, 175, 178, 222, 226 Herodotus, Histories, 2 assassin-bug, 220 HMS Beagle, 29, 31, 43 bees Hochreutiner, Bénédict P. G., 30, 250, honey bees, 15, 54, 59, 60, 119, 168, 258, 260, 262 172, 222 Hõjer, Johannes C., 254 sweat bees, 173, 174, 222 hollow trunks beetles, 159, 220, 221, 226 burial, 8 bollworms, 172, 221 bus shelter, 106 butterflies, 221 chapel, 36, 39, 56, 108 cocoa capsid, 221 churches, 111 cotton-stainers, 219 dairy, 108 ear borers, 221 flush toilet, 39, 109 flea beetles, 220 garage, 106, 107 flies, 175 kindergarten, 108, 111 blue bottles, 172, 222 post office, 36, 38, 108, 109 fruit flies, 122 prisons, lock-ups, 32, 43, 44, 109, 110, grasshoppers, long-horned, 219 112, 144 locusts, 370 pub, 108 maize weavil, 122 school, 59, 71, 84, 125, 379t mealy bug, 221, 226 shelter, 5, 36, 40, 59, 106–109, 111, 112, mosquitoes, 54, 104, 122, 222 133, 171 moths, 172 shop, 70, 73, 107, 120, 129, 135, 388 emporer or mopane moth, 222 shrine, 42, 53, 55, 62, 111, 268 hawk moths, 168, 221 smithy, 107, 108 nematodes, 218 stone mason, 107 praying mantis, 219 store, 109 stick insects, 219 water storage, 32, 38, 103–105, 140, 143, termites, 30, 122, 179, 219, 220 146, 161, 198 ticks, 60wasps, 172, 222 weaver, 5, 106, 213, 215 water flea, 91 Holub, Emil, 135, 147 web spiders, 219 Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I, 13, 15 white flies, 226 Holy Roman Emperor Maxmillian II, 14, 15 invertebrates, Australia Hooker, William, 29, 30, 130, 131, 157, 262 ants, 222 hoops, 123 bees horsechestnut, 8, 15 honey bees, 168, 175, 222 Horticultural Society of London. sweat bees, 222 See Royal Horticultural beetles, 178, 221 Society butterflies, 221, 224 Houtman, Cornelis de, 22 centipedes, 219 Hova Kingdom, 231 crickets, 219 476 Subject Index invertebrates, Australia (cont.) L damsel flies, 224 La Grande Île, 23, 24 dragonflies, 224 Lamarck, Jean B. A. P. M. de., 20 elegant grasshoppers, 219 land bridges, 308 flies landmarks, 1, 33, 35, 102, 220 bluebottles, 222 laurel, 9, 15 mosquitoes, 122 Le Noir du Boule, 17 moths legumes bag moth, 222 Bambara groundnut, 75 hawk moths, xxvi, 168, 178, 325 beans, 221 rough bollworm, 221 chick pea, 221 spiders, 218, 219, 263 ground bean, 75 termites, 45, 47, 73, 219 groundnuts, 51, 52, 70, 72, 75, 77, 113, wasps, 172, 222 162, 380, 389 invertebrates, Madagascar jack bean, 221 bees pigeon pea, 221 honeybees, 168, 172ff, 208 velvet bean, 221 sweat bees, 173, 176 Leo Africanus, 6 butterflies, 177 lilac, 15 flies, 175 Linnaean classification/binomial system, 8, hawk moths, xxiii, xxv, 168, 169, 17, 19, 20 173ff, 221, 222, 227, 314, Linnaeus, Carl, 19, 20, 248, 254 315, 325 Amoenitates Academicae, 254 termites, 73, 114, 219 Demonstrationes plantarum, 254 Island of the Moon, 21 Genera plantarum, 246 Demonstrationes plantarum, 254 Species plantarum, 20, 248, 249, 254 J Systema naturae, 248 Jackson, G., 55, 134, 143, 264 Systema vegetabilium, 254 Jansz, Willem B. P. de, 27 Lippi, Agostino, 17, 19 Duyfken, 27 livestock, 38, 102, 122, 159, 228, 359 Jobson, Richard, 417 camels, 32, 37, 78, 99, 364ff journals, 22, 133, 137, 138 cattle, 4, 79, 80, 98ff, 105, 122, 141, 162, Jumelle, Henri L., 25, 256, 258, 179, 231, 232, 291 260, 297 donkeys, 79, 99 Jusieu, Bernard de, 18, 19, 246, 254 goats, 55, 56, 76, 79, 80, 100, Genera plantarum, 246 231, 264 horses, 79, 98ff, 108 mules, 108 K pigs, 79 key to species, 250–252 poultry (chickens, ducks), 79, 83, 99 Kimberley Exploration Expedition, sheep, 32, 46–47, 79, 80, 98, 100, 185 262 livestock feed (fodder), 78–80, 105, 109 King Bädi, 17 browse, 78–80, 208 King Carlo-Felice, 2 leaves, 68–70, 77–80 King George III, 27 seed cake, 79 King Louis XIV, 17 Livingstone, David, 33, 94, 106, King, Phillip P., 41, 261 111, 112, 131, 132, 151, Kirk, John, 133 154–155 kiwi fruit, 383 Zambezi expedition, 131, 133 Kuntze, Carl E.O. Revisio generum Lobo, Jerónimo, 14 plantarum, 20, 254 Lochner, Michael F., 16 Kondo, Norio, 105, 134, 137, 161, 187, Lockhart, David, 28 189, 190, 217, 224 Loudon, John, 18 Subject Index 477

Loureiro, João de, 20, 21, 254 mammals, Madagascar Flora Cochinchinensis, 21, 254 fossa, 211 Lowe, Pat, 41–44, 64, 66, 68, 70, 71, 74, 76, fruit bats, 173, 174, 210–211 80, 103, 106, 110, 112, 119, 122, lemurs, xxiiiff, 174ff, 209, 210, 334 128, 129, 131, 133, 177, 178, 183, pigs, bush potamocheres, 211 185, 207, 212, 216, 219 rats, 211 Lugard, Frederick D., 32 mammals, West Indies Jamaican fruit-eating bat, 208 market, 6, 10, 55, 68, 73, 77, 108, 110, 119, M 225, 370–372, 380, 383 MacFarquhar, 13, 81 marketing, Africa. See also Trade, 370–371, 374 Malayan proas, 27 marketing, Australia,371 Mali (old kingdom), 5, 52, 68–70, 78, 87, 90–93, marketing, Canada, 372 95–100, 103, 106, 117, 136, 152 marketing, Europe, 372–375 mammals, Africa health food shops, 388 aardvark, 77 marketing, Madagascar, 371 apes, 8, 206 Masters, M.T., Flora of Tropical Africa, 247 chimpanzee, 206 Mathioli, Pier, 13 baboons, 1, 75, 179, 180, 182, 184, 206, 291 Mayer, Erich, 36, 130, 200, 389 bushbabies, 166–168, 171, 208 McCabe, Joseph, 30 eland, 179, 208 medals, 125, 135–136 elephant, 35, 36, 50, 56, 137, 191, medicinal plants, 17, 97, 375 204–206, 283 medicinal uses, humans fruit bats, xxii, 169, 170, 173, 207ff, 431 abrasions, 12 genets, 208 aches and pains, 93 giraffe, 125, 126, 208 afterbirth retention, 95 hippopotamus, 35, 292 AIDS, 83, 382 horses, 78, 79, 98–100, 108 allergies, milk, 96 hyena, striped, 208 amenorrhoea, 89 impala, 208 asthma, 96 kudu, 208 astringent, 10, 12, 83, 87, 88, 97 leopards, 36, 208 bilious dyspepsia, 88 lions, 59, 60, 66 blood pressure, 86 mice, 84, 85, 129 chashi, 89 monkeys, 180, 206–207, 333 child birth. See pregnancy nyala, 208 colo-rectal haemorrhage, 13 pigs, bush, 182, 208, 211, 292 coughs, 96 porcupines, Cape or crested, 208 dankanoma, 88 ratel or honey badger, 119, 208, 214 dental caries, 87 rats, acacia, 208 diabetes, 88 spiny anteaters (echidas), 129 diarrhoea, 11, 83, 84, 87, 88, squirrels, ground, 208 90, 385 zebra, 27 dysentery, 11, 13, 81, 83, 87, 88 mammals, Australia enteritis, 92 bats, 172, 177, 212 epilepsy, 94 marsupials eye complaints agile wallaby, 185 conjunctivitis, 92 common wallaby or euro, 186 ophthalmia, 92 kangaroo, 27, 128, 185, 211 fevers possums, 129, 211 intermittent fever, 90 red kangaroo, 185 malaria, 83, 84, 89, 90 rock wallaby, 186 filaria, 91 mammals, India galactosaemia, 96 deer, 208 gangrene, 12 478 Subject Index medicinal uses, humans (cont.) boils and ulcers, 100 guinea-worm, 91 brucellosis, 98 haematoma, 86 constipation, 98 haemoptysis, 86 diarrhoea, 98 hiccups, 96 dizziness or staggers, 100 HIV, 82, 83, 91, 382 East Coast fever (theleriasis), 99 impotency, 89 fattening, 78, 99 indigestion, 88 injuries, 99 insect bites, 13 insect bites, 100 kidney and bladder diseases, 89 lymphatic swellings, 99 kwashiorkor, 94 newcastle disease, 99 menorrhalgia, 89 respiratory problems, 96, 100 mental disorders, 92 retained afterbirth, 100 nausea, 88 swelling of joints (hygroma), 98 numbness, 86 tonic, 82, 86, 87, 93, 94, 98, 99 obesity, 68 trypanosomiasis, 82, 98, 99 oedema, 84, 86 meeting places, 16, 102, 106, 266 oxidative stress, 382 melon, 6, 8, 9 pellagra (fox evil), 94, 378 mensuration, 393–396 poisoning, 95, 201 crown, 147, 396 post-coital seminal expulsion, 95 diameter (dbh), 6, 18, 19, 31, 33, 34, pregnancy, 95–96 108, 141, 147, 149, 152, 154, rachitis (rickets), 94 156, 394, 395 respiratory problems, 96 girth (gbh), 394, 395 rheumatism, 93 height, 394–396 scurvy, 30, 94 Merian the Elder, Mattaus, 23 sickle-cell anaemia, 86 Messageries Maritimes, 24 sinusitis, 92 milk adulteration, 380 skin diseases milk substitute, 72, 73, 96 acne, 97 Miller, Charles, 18 allergic dermatitis, 97 Miller, Philip, 15, 19, 40, 371 eczema, 97 The gardeners dictionary, 19 furunculosis, 97 Monod, Théodore, 7, 31, 265 psoriasis, 97 monsoon, 63, 264, 267, 274, 276, urticaria, 97 287, 292, 304, 321, 322, 324, smallpox, 55, 91 326, 327 sore gums (gingivitis), 92 Mueller, Ferdinand J. H., 29, 30, 46, 94, sore throat, 92 261–262, 367 sores Muhammad el-Kanemi, 266 indolent sores, 94 museums sterility, 89 Africana Museum, Johannesberg, 132 stomach ache, 87, 88 Australian Museum, Sydney, 43, 128, 129 toothache, 87 British Museum, London, 16, 28–30, tuberculosis, 90 261, 262 tumours, 93 Laboratoire de Phanérogamie, Paris, 26 ulcers, 12, 94, 97 Muse Egizio, Turin, 2, 3 urinary diseases, 88 Musée Égyptién du Louvre, 3 vitamin deficiency, 381 Muséum Nationale d’histoire Naturelle, vomiting, 88 Paris, 17, 24, 25 wounds, 12, 57, 92, 97 Natural History Museum, London, 16, medicinal uses, veterinary 28, 29 appetite, 98, 99, 204 Western Australian Museum, Perth, 129 babesiosis (piroplasmosis), 98 musical instruments bloat, 98 rattles, 130 Subject Index 479

N anti-histaminic, 83 Nachtigal, G., 70, 72, 103, 104, 266, 290 anti-inflammatory, 81, 83, 84, 120, National Academy of Sciences, Washington 201, 373 DC, 135 anti-melanoma, 83 necklaces, 61, 122 anti-oxidant, 73, 82, 373, 377, 382–384 non-wood forest products (NWFP), 370 anti-periodic, 82, 83, 91 North Australian Exploring Expedition, 29, anti-plasmodal, 84 44, 94, 131, 261 anti-pyretic, 82–84, 91 Nubia, 2, 3 anti-scorbutic, 30, 94 nutrition, 67, 333, 376–392 aphrodisiac, 89 nutritional analyses, 328ff, 385, 386 astringent, 10, 12, 83, 87, 88, 97, 100 bacterial activity, 85 calmative, 83 O cardiotonic, 82, 95 ocean currents, 274, 276, 284, 320, 327, 335 cicatrisant, 86 okra, 69, 226, 383 demulcent, 88 onions, 69 diaphoretic, 82, 83, 93 oranges, 387 diuretic, 82, 85, 86, 89 Ottoman Empire. See Turkish Empire emmenagogue, 83, 89 emollient, 79, 83, 91, 93, 97, 120 expectorant, 96 P febrifuge, 9, 83, 84, 89–91 pachycauly, 139–141 fungal activity, 85 Pakenham, Thomas, 41, 44, 60, 108, 135, 288 hypotensive, 83 palaeoenvironments laxative, 88 Africa palliative, 83 Kordofan, 161 refrigerant, 81, 93 Mega-Chad, 318–320 tonic, 82, 86, 87, 93, 94, 98, 99 Nile valley, 2, 3, 254, 317 Phoenicians Sahel, 273, 319 ships, 2, 4, 21, 22, 27, 41, 47 Australia, 323–325 photographers, 125 Madagascar, 321–322 phytochoria, 181, 272, 273, 307 palaeomagnetism, 308, 309 phytochoria, Africa, 272–273, 278–291, Paludan, Bernard, 16 307 paper, 113ff, 230 Guineo-Congolian regional centre of banknotes, 40, 137 endemism, 273, 264, 278 Parker, E., 50, 108, 135 Guineo-Congolia/Sudanian regional pawpaw, 385 transition zone, 273, 285 peppers, 88, 225 Guineo-Congolia/Zambesia regional Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 21 transition zone, 273 periplus, 4, 21, 267 Kalahari-highveld regional transition zone, Perrier de la Bâthie, Joseph M. H. A., 25, 68, 273, 287, 288 76, 105, 114, 118, 152, 165, 181, Sahel regional transition zone, 273, 184, 201, 256ff, 271, 297, 299 288–291 Pfund, Johannes, 104 Sudanian regional centre of endemism, pharmaceutical properties 273, 281, 282 analgesic, 84 Somalia-Masai regional centre of anthelmintic, 91 endemism, 273, 282–284, 317 anti-acid, 88 Tongoland-Pondoland regional mosaic, anti-asthmatic, 83 273, 278, 288 anti-biotic, 82 Zambezian regional centre of endemism, anti-carcinogenic, 82 273, 278–281 anti-diaphoretic, 83, 93 Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic, anti-haemorrhagic, 82 273, 278, 286, 287 480 Subject Index phytochoria, Australia, 302–306 religions, customs and rituals, Africa Central Kimberly, 302 Amadhlozi, 60 Daly Basin, 302 ancestral spirit, 34, 49, 53, 56, 59, 60, 64 Dampierland, 302, 303 black magic, 56 Darwin Coasta, 302, 304 burial, 8, 47, 51, 52, 58, 111 Great Coastal Desert, 302, 305 Bushmen (Botswana), 50, 51, 60, 72, 101, Northern Kimberley, 129, 302–304 105, 106, 118, 126, 127, 132, 133, 362 Ord Victoria Plains, 302, 305 Catholic, 42, 51, 60, 72, 111 Sturt Plateau, 302, 305, 306 Chewa, 57, 89, 90, 92, 94 Tanami, 302, 305 Chidzere, 34, 58, 59 Victoria Bonaparte, 302, 304, 305 children, 51, 54, 55, 57, 59, 61, 62, phytochoria, Madagascar, 294–300 66, 69, 83 Central domain, 294 Chingombe (Iron god), 58 Domain of the high mountains, 294 Dandawa, 34, 58, 59 East Malagasy region, 294, 295, 322 Easter, 51 Eastern domain, 294 Hadza, 53, 56, 72, 75, 105, 107, 119, Sambirano domain, 294, 295, 322, 323 123, 124, 349, 362, 370, 371 Southern domain, 294, 295, 322, 323 Hahole, 56 West Malagasy region, 294, 295, 322 Idi-Ose, 55 Western domain, 294, 295, 323 Inammen Toureg, 53 phytogeny, 247, 314, 315 Iya-Olomo, 55 phytogeography, 270, 307–330 Kar, 55 Pillars of Hercules. See Straits of Gibraltar Katsvete, 59 plantain, 11, 13 Keita, 52 plate tectonics, 308, 309, 321 Kondanamwali, 57 sea floor spreading, 308, 309 Konzere, 56 platters, 113 Lent, 51, 125 Poisson, Henri, 26, 253t, 259, 260, 356 Marriage, 72 poles, 113, 248, 309 Moro, 53 pollen, 124, 167–178, 193, 194, 207, Moslem, 21, 49, 51, 53, 269 221, 222, 248, 291, 308, 309, Mubaiwa, 58 312, 313 Murenga, 58 Polybius, 4 Nkayi, 59 Portuguese, 6–8, 14, 15, 20–22, 46, 57, 105, Nuer, 55, 98, 282, 348 265, 268, 270, 271, 338 Otamari, 52, 53 postage stamps, xix, 125, 136–137 Ramadan, 84, 384 potato, 218, 382 Serer, 51ff, 111 Prayner, Frederick, 14, 15 snake worship, 57 propagation. See cultivation Sororo, 59 psillium, 13 Tenda, 52, 75, 123, 341 Ptolemy, 3–4 Tonga, 58, 346, 361 Geographike, 3, 4 Toureg, 53 Tsikaio, 56 Vambara, 59 Q Wabondei, 57 quince, 9 Wakamba, 56 witch doctors, 56 witches, 55, 57, 314 R Wolof, 18, 32, 51, 72, 77, 87, 89, rabbits, 83 94, 96, 111, 359, 369 Rafinesque-Schmaltz, C.S., 254 Yoruba, 55, 266, 359, 360 Sylva telluriana, 254 religions, customs and rituals, Australia Ray, John, 10, 16, 254, 331 Dreaming (Dream Time), 64, 65 Historia plantarum, 11, 15, 16, 139 Great Python, 65 Subject Index 481

Gregory’s Tree, 44, 46, 66, 131, 236 sea dispersal, 180, 308, 311, 317, King Brown Snakes, 65 326, 333 Rainbow Serpent, 65 Selous, Frederick C., 35, 38, 229 Tumbi, 65 shade, 5, 7, 42, 44, 46, 48, 56, 57, 102, 103, Walujapi, 65 128, 132, 179, 181, 186, 216 Wandjina [Wónjuna], 65, 129 Sheik ‘Omar, 266 Wodjin, 65 Sherard, James, 17–19, 331 Wónjuna. See Wandjina, 65 Sherard, William, 17, 19, 331 Wulujapi, 65 Sidibé, Modibo, 69, 164, 165, 221, 237, 239, religions, customs and rituals, India 240, 242, 243, 256, 265, 335, 355, Gorakhnath, 40, 61 381, 388, 393 Lord Krishna, 61 slave trade, 19, 52, 207 Prince Arjun, 61 Smith, Christen, 28 wishing tree, 61, 62, 269, 353, 366 snuff, 121, 123 religions, customs and rituals, Madagascar soils Ampanihy-Ouest, 64 Africa, 277–278 Arbré Sacré, 63 Australia, 3–5 Jacqueline, 41, 63, 64 Madagascar, 292 Mikea, 21, 63, 64, 114, 123, 235, 293 speciation Sakalava, 24, 63, 75 allopatric, 315 Soamanitsa, 63 sympatric, 315, 334 reptiles, Africa, 57, 58, 108, 216–217 Speke, John H., 73, 117, 123, 141 reptiles, Australia, 12, 60, 65, 66, 127, 217 spinach, 70, 382 reptiles, Madagascar, 217, 292 spirits and superstitions Robin the Younger, Jean, 16 evil spirits, 54, 57 Robin, Jean, 15, 16 fetish tree, 54 Rodriguez, F., 400 kpalevorgu, 54, 55 Romans, 4, 6, 267 sheik El Yenndali, 54 roofing, 40, 45, 114, 116 wishing tree, 61, 62, 269, 353, 366 Royal Horticultural Society, 21 xwety-Omak, 54 Horticultural Society of London, 21 Sprengel, Kurt P. J., 254 Royal Society, 16, 331 Systema vegetabilum, 254 Gresham Colledge, 16 Stachir, 4, 5 rubber, 124 river, 4, 5 Ruston, Thomas, 29 Stanbury, Thomas H., 30 Rym, Charles, 14, 15 Steudel, 20 Rysadine mountains, 4, 5 Stokes, John L., 29, 43 strawberries, 383 street trees, 102, 103 S Süleymân I the Magnificent, 14, 15, 331 Salt, Henry, 3 sweet potato, 218 Saville-Kent, William, 30, 68, 70, 165, 216, sweets, 8, 72, 73, 371 218, 253t, 262, 263 systematics, 26, 245 Scaliger, Jules-Cèsar, 7ff, 14ff, 254 De subtilae, 8–10 Exotericarum exertcitatiorum, 9 T Schatz, George E., 26, 243, 311, 326 tanning, 121 Generic tree flora, 26 Tasman, Abel J., 27 Schumann, Karl M., 246 taxonomy, 17, 20, 199, 245–263, 308 Die Naturalischen Pflanzanfamilien, terra lemnia, terra sigillata, sealed earths, 246, 247 12, 13, 81, 331 Schweinfurth, Georg, 2, 267, 282, Thevet, André, 7, 8, 15, 31 289, 318 Thonning, Peter, 52 sea cucumber. See trepang Thram, Christian, 19 482 Subject Index toiletries Fulani, 68, 69, 73, 88, 229, 265, 341, 359 bath salts and foams, 81, 120 Hadza, 53, 56, 72, 75, 105, 107, 119, 123, cosmetics, 97, 120, 202, 372, 373 124, 349t, 362, 370, 371 Tom Tough, 30, 44, 45, 94 Hausa, 69, 71, 75, 88, 112, 266, 339t, tomato, 225 348t–350t, 359 Torres, Louis V. de, 27 Hottentot, 127, 362 toxins Kagalo, 265 hydrocyanic acid (HCN), 383, 384, 388 Kaura, 73 oxalates, 383, 388 Khoisian, 127, 362 phytatates, 378, 381 Malinké, 54, 340, 359, 370 tannins, 76, 83, 95, 190, 200, 377, 383, Mandingo, 5, 13, 359 384, 388, 391 Mooketsi (Sebogo), 108 trade, 3, 7, 10, 19, 22, 52, 105, 116, 118, 124, Nankanis, 75 130, 207, 267, 268, 281, 292, 321, Ndebele, 60, 127, 361 360, 370–372, 374 San, 36, 51, 58, 123, 126, 127, 137, trays, 113, 243 362, 363 trees and shrubs (Africa) Serere, 51–53, 111, 341t, 342 African locust tree, 370 Shambaa, 72, 345 balzem-boom, 17 Somali, 269, 351 cail cédra, 90 Sotho, 127, 347, 361 figs Sudanese, 55, 351 parasitic, 223 Swahili, 57, 345t, 361 sycomoruskalet, 16, 270 Tenda, 52, 75, 123, 341 gubinge, 387 Toucouleur, 87, 92 kapok, 75, 170, 286, 370 Tswana, 127, 347t, 361 karaté, 100 Tuareg, 31, 32, 111, 127, 349, mistletoe, 223 363–365 wood rose, 223 Imannen, 31, 32 mopane, 222, 230, 278ff, 288, 360 Venda, 60, 91, 347 oshar, 17 Wolof, 51, 89, 94, 96, 111, 342, red kapok, 370 359, 369 sausage tree, 72 Zenega, 349t shea butter tree, 95 tribes (Australian) silk cotton, 282 Aborigines, 26, 29, 42, 44, 47, 64–66, Sodom’s apple, 17, 331 68, 70, 73, 88, 91, 97, 101, 103, tamarind (-boom), 17, 70, 282, 357, 370 106, 110, 114, 119, 120, 122, trees and shrubs (Australia) 124, 127–130, 272, 324, 371 ghost gum, 224 tribes (Madagascar) mistletoe, 224 Antandroy, 210, 366 trees and shrubs (India) Mahafaly, 210, 356 banyan, 269 Mikea (Vazimba), 21, 63, 64, 114, 123 tamarind, 61, 73, 353, 365 Sakalava, 24, 63, 75, 215, 224, 366 trees and shrubs (West Indies) Vezo, 118 tamarind, 223, 338, 357 tropics, 140t, 167, 168, 222, 272, 318, trepang or sea cucumber, 42 321, 325 tribes (African) tsunami, 328 Anaj, 49, 50 Tuckey, J.K., 28, 29, 123, 265, 285 Asante, 111, 344 tulingo, 69 Bambara, 68, 75, 265, 339 tulip, 15 Bantu, 50, 58, 72, 105, 269, 338, 358, Turkish [Ottoman] Empire, 10, 331 360–363 Berber, 5, 53, 349t Bushmen (Kalahari), 50, 51, 101, 105, 362 U Dogon, 117, 123, 265, 266, 339, 358 Ungnad, David, 14, 15 Subject Index 483

V Veslinger, Johann, 11, 12 Vaal River Expedition, 30 Observationes de Plantis Aegypti, 12 Vasco da Gama, 7, 8, 21, 27, 37 Vienna Codex Dioscorides, 15 Vegetable salt, 77 viral activity, 85 Verdorn, 255 viruses, 85, 218, 221, 226 vernacular names vitamins abavi, abavo, 14 vitamin A (β-carotin), 373, 380, al-faqqus, 6 381, 386 anadzahé, 24 vitamin B1 (thiamine), 77, 380, 385, arbre aux calebasses, 18, 338 386, 389 arbre de Cap Vert, 8 vitamin B2 (riboflavin), 380, 386 bahobab (ba hobab), 8, 351, 364 vitamin B3 (niacin, nicotinic acid), 378, baobab, 8, 337, 338, 355–357, 361, 363–367 385, 386 boab, 357, 367 vitamin B6 (pyridoxin), 386 cabaceyra, 7 vitamin C (ascorbic acid), 94, calabacera, 8, 15 242, 380 calabash tree, 18, 19, 338 vitamin D, 416 calabassier, 7 calebassier, 6, 338 cream of tartar tree, 338 W goui, 18, 342 watch tower, 107 gouty-stem tree, 367 Wegener, Alfred, 308, 309 maraka, 8 WHO nutrition standards, 381 mulambeira, 21 Wickham, J.C., 29 sita, 4, 340 Wilhelm, Karl III, 19 tadmut, 5 Willing, Tim, 42, 68, 121, 129, 169, tomaraka, 8 172, 186, 271 Gazetteer

n.l. = not located

A Aldabra, Indian Ocean (c. 9°22’S 46°28’E), Africa, 1–21, 28, 54, 61, 68ff, 86ff, 101ff, 117, 180, 328, 450 122, 125–127, 138ff, 159, 166, Algeria, 207, 316, 363 169ff, 180, 207, 208, 211ff, 221, Adrar des Iforas (c. 20°N 02°E), 288 222, 228–231, 251, 269, 272ff, Ahaggar massif (c. 24°N 06°E), 207 308ff, 330, 334, 366, 370–371, 380, Tuat, oasis (n.l.), 363 388, 394 America, Central, 313 Africa, central, 159, 182, 313 America, North, 140, 313 Africa, East, 20, 21, 38, 56, 73, 75, 92, 94, America, South, 15, 140, 254, 308, 309, 106, 118, 120ff, 170, 171, 195, 312, 313, 325 196, 198, 204, 208, 212, 213, Americas, 21, 27, 139 217, 226, 254, 267, 283, 284, Angola, 36, 75, 108, 113, 118, 134, 137, 320, 335, 360, 366 141, 155, 170, 171, 207, 208, Africa, eastern, 207, 223, 320, 360ff 223, 230, 278, 280, 284ff, 320, Africa, French [colonial] Africa, 74, 268 335, 338, 360 Africa, French west Africa, Afrique Benguela (12°34’S 13°24’E), 276, 284, Occidentale Francaise, 21, 136 285, 320, 327, 335 Africa, North, 17, 208, 316, 363, 364, Cabinda (5°34’S 12°12’E), 284 406, 440 Cunene river (c. 1715’S 1145’E), 229 Africa, northern, 215, 335, 362, 363 Golungo Alto Forest Reserve (9°10’S Africa, north-east, 363 14°45’E), 230t Africa, north-west, 363 Luanda [Loanda] (8°50’S 13°15’E), 108, Africa, Saharan, 364 116, 223 Africa, southern, 72, 106, 118, 130, 133, 140, Moçâmedes (15°10’S 12°10’E), 285, 288 152, 165, 169, 170, 204, 212, 217, Mupa National Integral Reserve (16°07’S 222ff, 277, 310, 312, 317, 320, 335, 15°45’E), 230t 349, 358, 361, 369, 370 Quiçaina National Park (8°17’S 13°50’E), Africa, south-west, 362 230t, 285 Africa, West, 4, 6, 7, 11, 15, 19, 21, 28, 36, Quissama National Park (9°59’S 14°29’E), 69, 70, 73ff, 87, 92, 93, 106, 120ff, 143 160, 165, 170, 195, 196, 207, 212, Santo António (6°12’S 12°23’E), 284, 285 220, 221, 226, 242, 265, 281, 282, Serra da Chela, mountains (14°16’S 318, 320, 359, 365, 368, 377, 387 13°25’E), 285 Africa, western, 319 Antarctica, 308–313, 316, 324, 325, 421

484 Gazetteer 485

Arabia, 140, 169–171, 207, 267, 269, 270, Kalahari Desert (c. 23°S 23°E), 36 272, 273, 282, 283 Kasane (17°50’S 25°05’E), 109, Argentina, 172 160, 230 Asia, 17, 20, 171, 215, 221, 222, 291, Kavimba (18°08’S 24°38’E), 109 308 –310, 312, 313, 314, 325, Khubu Island (c. 20°40’S 26°30’E), 288 363, 364 Koobie. See Gewihaba Asia Minor, 17 Kudiakam Pan (20°10’S 24°45’E), 132 Asia, Southeast, 20, 308, 313 Kunyara [Kounyara] (20°02’S 25°32’E), Atlantic Ocean, 266, 278, 284, 288, 289, 132, 133 318, 319, 358 Lake Ngami [Gnami] (c. 21°30’S 23°30’E, Rio Grande Rise (c. 20°S 20°W), 309 35, 131, 132, 148 Sierra Leone Ridge (c. 15°N 22°W), 309 Leshulatebis (n.l.), 131 Walvis Ridge (c. 30°S 0°), 309 Linyanti River. See Chobe River Australia, 26–30, 41–48, 64–66, 71, 80, 82, Mahalapye (23°05’S 26°51’E), 91, 94, 97, 101, 102, 106, 109ff, 229, 230 119, 127, 130, 139, 140, 159, 166, Makgadikgadi Pans [Makarikari Pan] 177, 180, 185, 219, 221, 222, 236, (c. 20°45’S 25°30’E), 147, 249, 251, 271, 272, 300ff, 323–330, 214, 288 357, 367, 370, 371, 394 Marma Kahuwé [Mamoukuwe, Austria, Vienna (48°13’N 16°22’E), 2, 14, Mamu-ka-koorie] (c. 20°53’S 15, 20 23°30’E), 132, 133 Mosu (21°11’S 26°00’E), 230 Mpandamatanga [Panda-ma-Tenga] B (18°32’S 25°40’E), 35 Bangladesh Nokane Spring [Bergfontein] (25°56’S Dacca [Dhaka] (23°42’N 90°22’E), 270 23°45’E), 147 Bay of Bengal (c. 20°N 90°E), 326 Ntwetwe Pan (20°35’S 25°30’E), Belgium 35, 151 Antwerpen [Antwerp] (51°13’N 04°25’E), Nxai Pan (19°45’S 24°50’E), 15 132, 287 Mechelen [Malines] (15°02N 04°29’E), 15 Okavanga Delta (c. 19°30’S 23°00’E), 288 Belgium Congo, 136 Orapa (21°17’S 25°20’E), 288, 398 Benin, Bight/Gulf of, 274, 320 Panda-ma-Tenga. See Mpandamatanga Benin, 5ff, 86ff, 93ff, 180, 181, 196, 281, 285, Quaebie. See Gewihaba Hills 339, 343–344, 348, 359, 360, 369 Shashe River (c. 21°30’S 28°00’E), 127 Bassila (09°01’N 01°06’E), 281 Sibuyu Pan (18°19’S 25°59’E), 35 Boukoumbé (10°13’N 01°09’E), 370 Sua Pan (20°03’S 26°12’E), 288 Bolivia, 172 Tsagobia [Tsagobiana] (20°03’S 25°48’E), Borneo, 316, 366 35 Botswana, 35, 50, 60, 72, 102, 105, 106, Brazil, 271, 334 209, 127, 132, 133, 137, 157, Recife (8°06’S 34°53’W), 271 159, 171, 229, 266, 287, 346–347, Burkina Faso, 50, 54, 137, 195, 232, 265, 361, 362 281, 289, 339–344, 348–349, Bergfontein. See Nokane Spring 352, 369 Big Tree (20°29’S 49°30’E), 33, 36, 50, Dori (14°03’N 2°00’W), 98 65, 132, 213, 225 Lyele [L’Ela] (n.l.), 54 Chobe [Linyanti] River (c. 18°00’S Burundi, 135 24°15’E), 135 Gautscha Pan (19°48’S 20°34’E), 287 Gewihaba Hills [Koobie, Quaebie] C (20°38’S 23°05’E), 132, 133 Cameroon, 121, 282, 316, 344–345, 349, 350, Ghanzi (21°34’S 21°42’E), 287 358, 360 Gootsa Pan (25°11’S 20°29’E), 151, 160 Bafoussam (5°31’N 10°25’E), 125 Gweta (20°11’S 25°14’E), 35, 230 Canada, 372 486 Gazetteer

Cape Verde Archipelago [Islands], 229, Congo, river. See Zaire, river 281, 320 Crete, 10 Fogo (14°55’N 24°25’W), 265 Khaniá [Canea] (35°31’N 24°01’E), 14 Praia (14°53’N 23°30’W), 229 Cyprus, 8 St Jago. See São Tiago Dahomey Gap (c. 7°30’N 2°00’E), 274, Santiago (15°08’N 23°32’W), 229 285, 286, 320 Santo Antão (c. 17°00’N 26°55’W), 265 São Tiago [St Jago] (15°05’N 23°40’W), 31, 229, 265 D Carribean. See West Indies Danish Guinea, part of Ghana, 52 Central African Republic, 264, 282, 320, Dutch East Indies, 27 358, 368 Sibut [Fort Sibut] (5°46’N 19°06’E), 146, 264 E Chad, 282, 320, 348, 351, 359, 362, 363 East Indies, 22, 308 Bongor Sieké (10°14’N 15°25’E), 282 Egypt, 1–3, 10, 13, 16, 17, 87, 254, 331, 351, Ennidi Plateau (c. 17°N 23°E), 288 363, 364 Lake Chad (c. 13°N 15°E), 156, 281, 282, Alexandria (31°13’N 29°55’E), 4 289, 363, 364 Aswan (24°05’N 32°56’E), 2, 3, 267 Lake Mega-Chad, 318, 319, 320, 335 Cairo (30°03’N 31°15’E), 2, 10–12, 14, Logone, Department (c. 15°05’N 17, 18, 20, 267, 364 14°50’E), 282 Dahkla Oasis (25°30’N 29°00’E), 363 Logone, river (c. 12°06’N 15°02’E), 282 El Saff (29°34’N 31°17’E), 272 Ouadai [Wadai] district (c. 13°N 21°E), Nile, River (c. 30°03’N 31°15’E), 319, 320 362 Plant Island (c. 24°05’N 32°56’E), 267 Sieké (10°16’N 15°25’E), 282 Roda Island, Cairo (c. 30°00’N 31°13’E), China, 5, 27 17, 267 Canton (23°08’N 113°20’E), 267 Wadi Kubbaniya (c. 26°09’N 33°32’E), 3 Fujian (c. 26°N 128°E), 270 Equatorial Guinea Guandong (mult.), 270 Annobón (1°26’S 5°37’E), 265 Tibetan Plateau (c. 33°N 83°E), 310 Bioko [Fernando Póo] (c. 3°30’N 8°30’E), Yunnan (c. 25°N 102°E), 270 265 Comoro Islands [Comores], 172, 176 Eritrea, 21, 39, 111, 138, 347, 348, 351, 352, Mayotte (c. 12°50’S 45°10’E), 199, 364, 383 267, 299, Keren (15°46’N 38°30’E), 39, 111 Grande Comore (c. 11°35’S 43°20’E) Ethiopia, 16, 17, 21, 105, 117, 170, 193, 223, Mtsamdou (11°36’S 43°24’E), 110 278, 282, 283, 316, 352, 362, 365 Ngazidja (11°35’S 43°20’E), 267 Abbai [Abavi, Blue Nile] river (c. 10°10’N Congo, Democratic Republic of, 208, 284, 361 38°29’E), 14 Bas-Congo (c. 6°S 13°E), 284 Massawa (15°37’N 39°28’E), 1 Batéké desert. See Zinga Tacazze, river (c. 14°20’N 35°50’E), 282 Boma (4°16’S 13°33’E), 284 Tigre (c. 13°S 40°E), 283, 352 Côte-Matèbe (2°47’S 12°34’E), 284 Europe, xxix, 1, 4, 8, 10, 13, 14, 17, 30, 73, Gbado-Lite (4°17’N 10°0’E), 264 76, 81, 82, 89, 116, 125, 135, 215, Kasai River (c. 3°02’S 16°57’E), 285 240, 243, 309, 310, 313, 314, 332, Matadi (5°48’S 13°27’E), 284 371ff, 387, 394 Zaire River (c. 6°S 13°E), 284 Zinga [Batéké desert] (4°51’S 14°48’E), 285 F Congo-Brazzaville, Republic of Fernando Póo. See Bioko, Equatorial Guinea Brazzaville (4°14’S 15°14’E), 32, 137, France, 24, 82, 87, 117, 316 255, 284, 285 Agen (44°12’N 0°38’E), 8, 69, 72, 77, 82, Loango (4°38’S 11°50’E), 284, 361 86, 125, 172, 176, 179 Mayumbe (2°30’N 27°37’E), 284 Angoulême (45°40’N 0°10’E), 8 Gazetteer 487

Honfleur (49°25’N 0°14’E), 27 Gulf of Guinea (c. 3°N 6°E), 265, 274, 320 La Borne d’en Bas (47°17’N 2°35’E), 135 Guyana, 271 Marseille [Massalia] (43°18’N 5°22’E), 2, 4, 15, 25, 77, 372, 380 Montpellier (43°46’N 3°53’E), 19, 20 H Paris (48°52’N 2°20’E), 2, 3, 8, 12, 16, 17, Hawaii, 140, 172, 270, 334 19, 20, 24, 26–29 Honolulu (21°19’N 157°W), 231 Himalayas, 310 Holland. See Netherlands, The G Horn of Africa, 269, 282, 363 Gabon, 5, 101, 266 Libreville (0°30S 9°25’E), 266, 276 Gambia, The, 51, 52, 69, 72, 73, 88, I 136, 137, 265, 340–342, India, 7, 21, 27, 40, 61ff, 68ff, 108, 110, 117, 359, 380 118, 122ff, 140, 152, 169, 171, 194, Gambia River [Gambra] (c. 13°28’N 208, 214, 221, 267, 270, 307ff, 325, 16°34’W), 4, 5, 7, 8, 37, 265 334, 338, 351ff, 365–366 Tendaba (13°26’N 15°49’W), 7 Ajmer (26°29’N 74°40’E), 62 Guyana, 271 Allahabad (25°57’N 81°50’E), 40, 157 Germany, 38, 316 Ambazair (n.l.), 40, 157 Dresden (51°03’N 13°45’E), 2 Barabanki (26°56’N 81°11’E), 61 Eichstätt (48°53’N 11°22’E), 16 Bengal (c. 24°N 90°E), 117, 269, Frankfurt am Main (50°06’N 8°41’E), 14 326, 352 Karlsuhe (49°00’N 8°24’E), 19 Bijãpur (16°52’N 74°47’E), 269 München [Munich] (48°08’N 11°35’E), 2 Bombay. See Mumbai Nürnberg [Nuremberg] (49°27’N Calcutta. See Kolkata 11°05’E), 16 Calicut (11°15’N 75°45’E), 7, 268 Schleswig-Holstein (c. 54°30’N 10°00’E), 29 Chaul (18°35’N 72°57’E), 269 Ghana, 4, 52ff, 69, 75, 87, 88, 90, 95, 111, Chezalal (c. 16°27’N 77°19’E), 40 121, 162, 170, 226, 274, 285, 286, Deccan (c. 18°N 77°E), 269, 365 342–344, 359 Delhi (28°40’N 77°14’E), 268 Achimota (5°35’N 0°15’W), 170, 266 Dhar. See Mându Akwapim [Aquapim] (c. 6°00’N 0°13’W), 52 Ganges[Ganges], river (c. 25°14’N Black Volta (c. 8°41’N 1°33’W), 360 86°59’E), 108, 269 Bolga District (n.l.), 53 Girnar foothills (21°30’N 70°33’E), 62 Dompo (n.l.), 54 Golconda (17°24’N 78°23’E), 40, 108 Mali (12°08’N 12°19’W), 5, 52, 68–70, 78, Gujarat, State of (c. 23°N 71°E), 62, 87, 90–93, 95–100, 103, 106, 117 70, 269 Malshegu (9°26’N 0°48’W), 54, 55 Howrah (22325’N 88°20’E), 272 Saakpuli (n.l.), 93, 102, 110 Hyderabad (17°22’N 78°26’E), 108 Tamal (9°26’N 9°49’W), 54 Indore (22°22’N 75°54’E), 270 Volta River (c. 10°N 1°W), 286 Janjira (18°16’N 72°59’E), 269, 270 Great Australian Bight (c. 33°S 130°E), 311 Jhalawar District (c. 24°27’N 76°12’E), 62 Greece Jhusi (25°26’N 81°54’E), 40, 61, 366 Athens (38°00’N 23°44’E), 139 Junagadh (21°31’N 70°28’E), 62 Guinea, 16, 18, 125, 264, 271, 286, 340, 348, Khurasan (n.l.), 269, 366 359, 360 Kintur (c. 26°56’N 81°31’E), 61 Fouta Djalon Plateau (c. 11°N 12°W), 4 Kolkata [Calcutta] (25°35’N 88°21’E), Timbo (10°36’N 11°51’W), 255 269, 270, 272 Guinea Bissau, 137, 340, 341 Kuntur (17°21’N 78°38’E), 61 Bisiguiche [Bisiquienne] (n.l.), 7 Kutch, region (23°N 70°E), 62 Prábis (11°48’N 15°14’W), 286 Lucknow (26°50’N 80°54’E), 181, 270, 271 Tambacumba (11°17’N 15°23’W), 71 Madhya Pradesh, State of (c. 22°N 80°E), Gulf of Aden (c. 13°N 46°E), 14, 310, 317 270 488 Gazetteer

India (cont.) K Malabar coast (c. 13°N 75°E), 7, 21, 267, Kalahari (c.21°S 23°E), 36, 50, 51, 101, 105, 270 273, 275, 277, 278, 280, 287, 288, Malwa (26°02’N 80°43’E), 269, 270, 353 312, 362, 363 Mându [Dhar] (22°22’N 75°23’E), 270 Kenya, 21, 38, 39, 56, 62, 71, 72, 90, 93, Mându, fort (22°22’N 75°24’E), 270 99, 105, 112, 116ff, 135ff, 145, Mangliyawas (26°17’N 74°30’E), 62 152, 171, 199, 208, 222, 223, Mumbai [Bombay] (18°15’N 72°51’E), 229, 240, 249, 264, 277, 283, 269, 270 287, 310, 320, 333, 345, 348, Nagour (n.l.), 270 351, 360, 361, 381 Nâlcha (22°25’N 75°24’E), 270 Gatakani (0°50’S 36°47’E), 56 Panvel (18°59’N 73°10’E), 62, 108 Gedi Forest Nursery (3°19’S 40°01’E), Prayag (25°28’N 81°52’E), 61, 157, 366 147 Rameswaram (9°18’N 79°19’E), 62 Giriama (3°48’S 39°35’E), 56 Sondhwar (n.l.), 62 Jumba la Mtwana (3°57’S 46°00’E), Sundarbans (tidal forest) (c. 22°N 264 88°30’E), 269 Kamba (c. 1°15’S 38°15’E), 56, 361 Surat (21°10’N 72°54’E), 269 Kiritiri (0°41’S 37°39’E), 56 Tamil Nadu, State of (11°N 78°E), 62 Lamu (2°17’S 40°54’E), 264 Tilpat, near Gurgaon (n.l.), 62, 366 Malindi (3°13’S 40°07’E), 7, 147 Uttar Pradesh, State of (c. 23°30’N Mombasa (4°04’S 39°40’E), 7, 37, 73, 80°40’E), 152 120, 171, 287 Indian Ocean, 3, 21, 22, 131, 180, 264, 267, Mount Kenya (0°09’S 37°19’E), 39 268, 270, 278, 291, 310, 316, 318, Moyale (3°31’N 39°04’E), 55 325ff, 366, 374 Mtwapa (3°56’S 39°45’E), 264 Bay of Bengal (c. 15°S 90°E), 326 Mwea (0°45’S 37°29’E), 56 Indonesia Nairoba (1°17’S 36°49’E), 403 Krakatau (6°11’S 105°26’E), 336 Ngandure (0°42’S 37°38’E), 56 Israel, 23, 309, 317 Northern Province (c. 2°N 37°E), 105 Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), 309, Salaita Hill (3°23’S 37°47’E), 38 372, 374 Shimoni (4°39’S 39°23’E), 286 Fano (43°50’N 13°01’E), 39 Taveta (3°24’S 37°40’E), 38 Padova [Padua] (45°25’N 11°53’E), 10, Tharaka (c. 0°25’S 38°03’E), 12, 14, 20 56, 345t Palermo (38°08’N 13°23’E), 19 Tsavo National Park (c. 3°00’S 38°45’E) Pesaro (43°54’N 12°54’E), 39 204f, 205, 229, 277 Rome (41°53’N 12°30’E), 3, 70 Tsavo East National Park (c. 2°45’S Sardinia (c. 40° 9°E), 316 39°00’E), 204, 205 Torino [Turin] (45°04’N 7°40’E), 2, 3 Tsavo Royal National Park (c. 3°00’S Vatican, Citta del (41°54’N 12°27’E), 2, 6 38°45’E), 433 Venice (45°26’N 12°20’E), 10, 12, 14 Vanga (4°40’S 39°13’E), 214, Verona (45°26’N 11°00’E), 8, 373 215, 264 Ivory Coast Kerguelen Islands, Southern Indian Ocean Bingerville (5°20’N 3°53’W), 146t, 266 (c. 49°30’S 69°30’E), 329 Bouaké (7°42’N 5°00’W), 164, 165

L J Liberia Japan Cape Palmas (4°25’N 7°50’W), 264 Kyoto (35°02’N 135°45’E), 270 Libya, 37, 316, 363 Tokyo (35°40’N 139°45’E), 134 Ghat’ (24°59’N 10°11’E), 32 Java, 70, 89, 102, 177, 267, 272, 312, 328, 366 Limnos [Lemnos], Isle of (39°55’S 25°15’E), Bogor [Buitenzorg] (6°34’S 106°45’E), 168 12, 331 Pasuruan (7°38’S 112°44’E), 168 Lord Howe Island (5°20’S 159°30’E), 315, 334 Gazetteer 489

M Ankaranana, Réserve Spéciale d’ (12°55’S Madagascar, 21–26, 40–42, 63–64, 68, 71, 79, 49°8’E), 25t, 233, 299 80, 83, 86, 89, 91ff, 99, 101ff, 108, Ankilizato (20°25’S 45°02’E), 300 112, 114, 123, 137ff, 158, 159, 164, Antsahampano (12°19’S 49°11’S), 297 166, 174, 180ff, 197, 203, 208ff, Antisirana (12°16’S 45°17’E), 258 215ff, 249ff, 257–261, 267ff, Antsiranana [Diégo-Suarez] (22°29’S 291–300, 308ff, 320ff, 334, 47°27’E), 25, 184, 294 355–356, 366–367, 370, 371, 391 Babaomby [Windsor Castle] (12°13’S Ambondromifehy (12°53’S 49°13’E), 49°10’E), 297 259, 299 Baie d’Antsiranana (c. 12°16’S 49°17’E), Ambongo (23°28’S 47°17’E), 258, 299, 299 323 Baie de Baly (16°01’S 45°20’E), 258 Ambovombé (12°53’S 49°13’E), 259, 299 Baie de Morambe (c. 14°55’S 47°18’E), Ambre, Parc National du Montagne d’ 158 (12°30’S 49°110’E), 232 Baie de Narinda (c. 14°45’S 47°30’E), 209 Ambre, Réserve Spéciale de la Forêt du Baie de Saint-Augustin (c. 23°33’S (12°30’S 49°110’E), 24 43°43’E), 3f, 22, 23, 259 Ampanihy-Ouest (18°28’S 45°00’E), 64 Baie de Sainte-Luce (c. 24°45’S 47°13’E), Ampanihy-Ouest (18°25’S 45°15’E), 64 23 Ampasambazimba (18°39’S 46°01’E), 322 Beantely (12°16’S 49°10’E), 173, 297 Ampotaka (25°03’S 44°46’E), 300 Bejofo. See Bezofo Anaboringy (c. 16°06’S 45°20’E), 102 Belo sur Taribihiha (19°42’S 44°33’E), 63 Anakao (23°40’S 43°39’E), 217 Bemanonga (20°17’S 44°21’E), 41 Analabe, Site d’intérèt biologique d’ Bemaraha Massif (c. 20°00’S 45°14’E), (19°28’S 44°50’E), 233 292 Analava (14°13’S 47°48’E), 300 Berenty, Réserve du (25°00’S 46°17’E), Analmera Special Reserve (c. 12°45’S 233t 49°29’E), 232 Bereboka (16°46’S 45°39’E), 295 Analamerana, hill (12°44’S 49°36’E), 296 Betioky (23°42’S 44°22’E), 232, 300 Andaevadoke. See Andavadoaka Bezofo [Bejofo] (14°14’S 48°20’E), 260 Andavadoaka [Andaevadoke, Andavadoke] Boina Plateau (c. 16°00’S 46°00’E), 292 (22°04’S 43°15’E), 300 Cap d’Ambre (11°57’S 49°17’E), 293 Andohahela (12°50’S 46°32’E), 299, 300 Cap Andefitra. See Point Andefitra Andohalela, Réserve naturelle intégrale de Cap Diégo. See Antisiranana (12°50’S 46°32’E), 233t Cap Saint André (16°11’S 44°27’E), 291 Andranofanjava, river (c. 12°22’S Cap Sainte Marie (25°56’S 45°08’E), 293 48°29’S), 37f, 298 Cape Andefitra. See Pointe Andefitra Andranomalaza, river (c. 18°08’S Diégo-Suarez. See Antisiranana 47°51’E), 260, 295, 300 Djangoa, river (c. 13°47’S 48°19’E), 300 Andranomalaza, river (c. 14°13’S Fort Dauphin. See Tôlañaro 48°05’E), 260, 295, 300 Hatokaliotsy, Site d’intérèt biologique d’ Andranomandavo (n.l.), 260 (24°30’S 43°58’E), 233t Andranomena, river (c. 19°35’S 44°58’E), Itampolo (24°41’S 46°57’E), 292, 297 295, 297 Itampolo (25°15’S 44°28’E), 292, 297 Andranomena, Réserve Spéciale d’ Ivovona (12°19’S 49°25’E), 271 (20°14’S 44°40’E), 25f, 233 Kamakama (16°55’S 46°48’E), 260 Androy, 260 Kirindy, Forêt du (20°02’S 44°40’E), Ankara, Plateau de l’ (17°15’S 46°20’E), 233t 26, 259, 292, 297, 299 Kirindi, river (c. 20°52’S 43°56’E), 184 Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve (16°15’S Lac Alaotra (17°30’S 48°30’E), 271 46°55’E), 300 Lac Anony, Site d’intérèt biologique du Ankarana Massif (c. 12°55’S 49°07’E), 174 (29°09’S 46°30’E), 233t Ankarana Plateau (c. 12°49’S 48°37’E), Lac Befotaka (19°02’S 44°24’E), 233t 26, 259, 292, 297, 299 Lac Bemambu (18°50’S 44°20’E), 233t 490 Gazetteer

Madagascar (cont.) Ramena, stream (c. 13°44’S 48°37’E), Lac Ihotry (21°56’S 43°41’E), 232, 296, 299 296 Rivière des Makis (12°18’S 49°15’E), 298 Lac Kinkony, Site d’intérèt biologique du Romena (12°19’S 49°20’E), 296, 299 (16°08’S 45°50’E), 233t Sakaraha (22°55’S 44°32’E), 235, 300 Lac Masama (18°51’S 44°29’E), 233t Sakondry, valley (c. 23°31’S 44°19’E), Lac Tsimanampetsotsa (24°08’S 43°46’E), 260 297 Sambirano, river (c. 13°43’S 48°18’E), Mahafaly Plateau (c. 18°28’S 46°59’E), 293, 295, 300 141, 210, 260, 292 Soalala (16°06’N 45°20’E), 102, 259, 271, Mahafaly Réserve Spéciale de (23°40’S 297, 299 44°32’E), 39 Soamanitsa (25°26’S 44°59’E), 63 Mahajanga [Majunga] (15°43’S 46°19’E), Toamasine Province. See District de 24, 241, 267, 322 Tamatave Mahory, forest (12°51’S 49°16’E), 234, Tôlañaro [Fort Dauphin] (25°01’S 296, 299 57°00’E), 23, 177, 210 Majunga. See Mahajanga Toliaro [Tuléar] (23°21’S 43°40’E), 22 Mandrare, river (c. 25°10’S 46°27’E), 299 Tsaratanana (14°00’S 49°00’E), 295 Mangoky, river (c. 21°29’S 43°46’E), 159, Tsihombé (25°19’S 45°29’E), 295, 297, 232, 296 300 Manongarivo, Réserve Spéciale (14°00’S Tsimembo, Site d’intérèt biologique du 48°20’E), 300 (18°56’S 44°27’E), 223t Marofandilia (20°07’S 44°34’E), 175, 295 Tsimbombé (25°18’S 45°29’E), 295, 297, Maromandia (mult.), 299 299 Marosalaza (19°50’S 45°15), 334 Tsimananpetsotsa, Réserve naturelle Marovoay (16°06’S 46°38’E), 241 intégrale de (c. 24°05’S 43°48’E), Massif de Tsaratanana (c. 14°00’S 233t 49°00’E), 295 Tsimilofo (24°59’S 45°10’E), 297 Menabe. See Morondava Tsingy de Bemaraha (c. 18°45’S 44°50’E), Menarandra, river (c. 20°51’S 44°40’E), 174, 210 300 Tsingy de Namoroka [Ambongo] Menarandra, river (c. 23°59’S 45°20’E), (c. 16°30’S 45°20’E), 258, 259, 297 300 Tsiribihina river (c. 19°42’S 44°31’E), 210 Mikea (22°30’S 43°23’E), 21, 63, 64, 114, Tsivory (24°03’S 46°05’E), 137 123, 193, 235 Tsivory (25°17’S 45°39’E), 137 Monrovia (n.l.), 184 Tuléar. See Toliaro Montagne d’Ambre, Parc National du Vohemar (13°21’S 50°01’E), 293 (12°30’S 49°10’E), 232 Vohibasia (mult.), 427 Montagne des Français (12°22’S 49°29’E), Vorehe (22°15’S 43°38’E), 63, 152 296, 297 Windsor Castle. See Babaomby Morombe (21°47’S 43°21’E), 232, 293, Zombitse, Site d’intérèt biologique de 295, 296, 300 (22°47’S 44°40’E), 233t Morondava [Menabe] (20°19’S 44°17’E), Maghreb, coastal region of NW Africa, 163 24, 40, 41, 63, 76, 77, 102, 114, Malacca, Strait of (c. 0° 125°E), 267 125, 135 Malawi, 38, 57, 73, 87ff, 109, 112, 239, 346, Namoroka, Réserve naturelle intégrale de 370, 386 (16°23’S 45°18’E), 233t Chisumulu Island (12°01’S 34°37’E), Nosy Faly Peninsula (13°19’S 48°28’E), 108 295 Karonga (9°56’S 33°56’E), 38, 112 Nosy Faly Peninsula (25°30’S 45°00’E), Lake Malawi [Lake Nyasa] (c. 12°30’S 295 34°30’E), 108, 112 Pointe [Cap] Andefitra (21°39’S 43°25’E), Mwanza (15°40’S 34°06’E), 371 22f Shire River (c. 14°25’S 35°14’E), 279 Gazetteer 491

Malaysia Sencar, Ilhia (12°29’S 38°06’E), 180 Penang, island (c. 5°26’N 100°16’E), Shiramba. See Chiramba 267, 270 Shupanga (18°02’S 35°36’E), 111, 133 Mali, 5, 52, 68ff , 78, 87, 90ff, 103, 106, 117, Sofala (20°10’S 34°44’E), 7 136, 152, 240, 243, 256, 265, 281, Tete (16°10’S 33°35’E), 34, 131 332, 339–344, 348–349, 358, 359, Zambezi River (c. 17°26’S 15°01’E), 58, 363, 369, 386, 387 59, 131, 278 Bandiargara escarpment (14°25’N Mozambique Channel (c. 20°S 40°E), 291, 3°19’W), xviii, 52, 358 310, 326 Kayes (14°26’N 11°28’W), 281 Niono (14°15’N 6°00’W), 289 Seno (12°16’N 6°56’W), 343t N Tombouctou (16°49’N 2°59’W), 21, Namibia, 61, 70ff, 78, 86, 94, 105, 118, 123, 265, 363 134, 171, 214, 229–230, 285, 346, Mauritania, 5, 98, 137, 176, 289, 341–342, 349 349, 351, 359, 363ff Baynes Mountains (17°12’S 12°40’E), St Louis (16°01’N 16°30’W), 19, 26, 288 248 Bushmanland (c. 19°35’S 20°30’E), Tidjikija (18°29’N 11°31’W), 289 277, 288 Walata [Wálátan] (17°18’N 7°02’W), 5 Cunene River (c. 17°15’S 11°45’E), Mauritius [Maurice] (20°10’S 57°30’E), 28, 229, 320 29, 267, 268 Epupa Falls (17°00’S 13°'15’E), 228 Mediterranean Sea, 13, 170, 171 Kaokoland (c. 19°S 13°E), 288 Mexico, 172 Ofumana (18°15’S 13°15’E), 288 Middle East, 170 Ombalantu (17°30’S 14°58’E), 36, 108, Morocco, 13, 207, 363, 364 111, 288 Agadir (30°30’N 9°40’W), 4 Outapi (n.l.), 36, 108 Tanger [Tangier] (35°48’N 5°45’W), Sikereti (19°03’S 20°43’E), 36 5, 21 Tjekwe (n.l.), 36 Mozambique, 8, 20, 21, 36, 106, 113, 114, Tsandi (17°45’S 15°53’E), 36 278, 287, 291, 329, 338, 345–346, Tsumkwe (19°37’N 20°30’E), 36, 157, 277 358, 363, 367 Walvis Bay (22°59’S 14°31’E), 131, 133 Cabora Bassa [Kubrabaza] (15°34’S Waterberg (20°28’S 17°13’E), 281 32°50’E), 131 Windhoek (22°34’S 17°06’E), 412, Chidimba (16°19’S 35°05’E/16°16’S 428, 433 35°48’E), 34 Netherlands, The [Holland] Chiramba [Shiramba] (16°59’S 34°34’E), Amsterdam (52°21’N 4°54’E), 22 33 Enkhuizen (52°43’N 5°17’E), 16 Devuli( n.l.), 93, 106 Leiden (52°10’N 4°30’E), 14, 15 Kubrabaza. See Cabora Bassa New Caledonia (c. 22°16’S 166°25’E), 270, 311 Lué River (n.l.), 131 New Guinea. See Papua New Guinea Lúro, Rio (c. 16°15’S 27°06’E), 287 New South Wales, 324 Massinga (23°20’S 35°25’E), 287 Lake Mungo (33°45’S 143°08’E), 26 Moçambique, island (15°00’S 40°44’E), Sydney (33°55’S 151°10’E), 128, 271, 272 7, 287 New Zealand, 29, 311, 316 Nampula (15°09’S 39°14’E), 287 Niger, 69, 255, 289, 339, 342, 349, 351–352, Quilálea (12°30’S 40°35’E), 180 363, 381 Qurimbas Archipelago (c. 10°48’S Bonkoukou (14°00’N 3°15’E), 127 40°29’E), 180 Dakfao (c. 14°00’N 3°15’E), 31, 32, 53, 127 Rovuma River (c. 10°28’S 40°26’E), Maradi (13°29’N 7°10’E), 54 287 Massif de l’Aïr (c. 18°N 8°E), 295 Save [Sabi], river (c. 21°1′4’S 32°25’E), ‘W’ National Park (c. 12°N 2°30’E), 229 287 Niger River (c. 13°32’N 2°05’E), 229, 359 492 Gazetteer

Nigeria, 55, 68ff, 82, 84, 86, 88, 91, 92, Pearce Point (14°22’S 129°20’E), 196, 95, 98ff, 117, 121, 134, 136, 262 223, 226, 228, 264, 274, 281, South Goulburn Island (11°37’S 339, 341ff, 348–351, 359ff, 365, 133°34’E), 27 385ff Principal Camp (c. 15°38’S 130°28’E), Abeokuta (07°10’N 03°26’E), 55 131 Datson-dombi (n.l.), 143 Timber Creek (15°38’S 130°28’E), 44–47, Dogon Daji (12°24’N 4°48’E), 102 66, 131, 236 Ede (mult.), 143, 144 Victoria plateau (n.l.), 304 Funtua (11°34’N 7°17’E), 265 Victoria River (c. 15°00’S 129°35’E), 29, Gusau, (12°12’N 6°40’E), 264 44–46, 65, 66, 236, 262, 304, 305, Ibadan (7°23’N 3°56’E), 55, 225 357 Idi-Osé (7°9’N 3°55’E), 55 Victoria River District, 46 Idi-Osé (7°30’N 3°55’E), 55 Victoria River Inn (n.l.), 305 Iwo (7°48’N 4°11’E), 55 Jos Plateau (c. 10°N 9°E), 55 Kaduna State (c. 10°20’N 3°45’E), 122 O Kuka (12°56’N 13°34’E), 69, 75, 266, Oman, 170, 269 348, 350 Dhalqut (16°42’N 53°15’E), 284 Kukawa (12°56’N 13°34’E), 266, 268 Dhofar (c. 18°N 54’E), 88, 101, 284, 317, Lagos (6°27’N 3°38’E), 125 352 Lake Chad (c. 13°N 14°E), 156, 281, 282, Taqah (17°02’N 54°26’E), 284 318, 363, 364 Wadi Ghazir (c. 17°02’N 54°35’E), 284 Lokoja (7°49’N 6°44’E), 32, 109 Wadi Hinna (c. 17°03’N 54°37’E), 284 Ngala (12°20’N 14°11’E), 156 Osé. See Ide Osé Zaria (11°01’N 7°44’E), 69, 113, 143 P Northern Territory, Australia, 65, 66, 88 Pacific Ocean, 270, 328 Albert River (c. 17°35’S 139°45’E), 45 Pakistan, 170, 270, 316 Arnhem Land (c. 12°S 130°E), 177, 185, Bal dhand [Baldha] (34°06’N 72°16’E), 367 270 Barrabarra Creek (15°53’S 130°12’E), 47 Sundarbans (tidal forest (c. 22°N 89°E), Bradshaw Station (15°31’S 130°16’E), 46 269 Bullita (16°06’S 130°29’E), 46, 305, Papua New Guinea, 27, 224, 311, 316, 324 306 People’s Republic of the Congo Cobourg Peninsula (c. 11°00’S 132°30’E), (Congo-Brazzaville), 32, 94, 304 136, 177 Darwin (12°23’S 130°44’E), 31, 43, 48, Brazzaville [N’Tamo] (4°14’S 15°15’E), 105, 236, 265, 271, 272, 302–306, 32 324 Loango (4°38’S 11°50’E), 284, 361 East Baines River (c. 15°36’S 130°02’E), Mayumbe, plateau (c. 4°30’S 12°30’E), 47, 157 284 Fitzmaurice River (c. 14°50’S 129°44’E), N’Tamo. See Brazzaville 46, 262 Philippines, 267, 270, 316 Gregory National Park (15°53’S Lagori (n.l.), 125 130°18’E), 236, 305 Portugal, 6 Gulf of Carpentaria (c. 13°00’S Principe, island, Gulf of Guinea (1°37’N 138°00’E), 45 7°27E), 265, 274, 320 Keep River National Park (15°49’S 129°92’E), 153 Koolendong Waterhole (14°47’S Q 130°10’E), 47, 128 Queensland, Australia, 27, 185, 224 Melville Island (11°22’S 130°30’E), 324 Atherton Tablelands (c. 17°15’S Newry (16°01’S 129°14’E), xx 145°30’E), 324 Gazetteer 493

Birdsville Basin (c. 26°S 139°E), 323 Kedougou (12°35’N 12°09’W), 37 Brisbane (27°30’S 153°00’E), 45, 137, 271 Kidira (14°35’N 12°12’W), 281 Cape York Peninsula (c. 14°30’S Lambaye (14°48’N 16°32’W), 32 143°00’E), 177 Mamelle (n.l.), 281 Duifken Point (12°35’S 141°39’E), 27 M’Bao (14°44’N 17°19’W), 146 Moreton Bay (c. 27°02’S 153°25’E), 29 Mont Assirik (12°53’N 12°45’W), 206 Nghaye (n.l.), 53 Nioro (13°45’N 15°48’W), 440 R Senegal River (c. 16°10’N 14°00’W), Red Sea, 1–3, 267, 281, 288, 289, 310, 317, 8, 289 363 Thiés (14°48’N 16°57’W), 37, 276 Réunion, Indian Ocean (c. 21°20’S 55°29’E), Toubacounda (13°25’N 13°39’W), 146 24, 271, 374 Toumbacouta [Tombuktu] (12°42’N 15°49’W), 146 Seychelles, 328 S Cerf (4°38’S 55°30’E), 267 Sahara, 1, 5, 10, 14, 17, 21, 31, 54, 133, Mahé (4°37’S 55°27’E), 182, 267 169–171 St Anne (4°36’S 55°30’E), 267 Sahel, 49, 53, 101, 105, 111, 159, 180, 267, Socotra (9°22’S 46°28’E), 140t 276–277, 281, 289, 317, 319, 324, Somalia, 21, 88, 89, 97, 136, 171, 208, 283, 335, 337, 359, 364, 365 310, 316, 345, 351 San Marino (43°56’N 12°26’E), 137 Jubba River (c. 0°15’S 42°35’E), 283 São Tomé [San Thome], island (0°54’N Karin (10°50’N 45°57’E), 55 6°35’E), 7, 255 Saylac [Zeila] (11°21’N 43°30’E), 14 Saudi Arabia South Africa, 30, 35, 50, 60, 66, 78, 91, 94, Mecca (21°26’N 39°49’E), 5 96, 102, 113ff, 122, 125, 136, 137, Senegal, 5, 8, 13, 18, 19, 32, 50ff, 67, 69, 72, 151, 158, 159, 166, 180, 196, 208, 75ff, 82, 86ff, 111ff, 123, 125, 135, 213, 225, 239, 242, 327, 338, 346, 137, 145, 154, 159, 160, 170, 195ff, 347, 361, 362, 371 208, 240, 243, 254, 265, 266, 274, Barberton ((25°48’S 31°03’E), 108 285, 286, 289, 339, 340ff, 351, 352, Berkenrode (22°23’S 30°04’E), 230 359, 368, 373, 386 Bochum (23°17’S 29°07’E), 280 Bargny (14°42’N 17°14’W), 37 Cape of Good Hope (c. 33°56’S 18°29’E), Basse Casamance (c. 12°40’N 16°45’W), 7, 27, 29, 327, 362 286 Cape Town (33°56’S 18°29’E), 29, Bassari region (n.l.), 54 131, 243, Cap Vert [Cape Verde] (14°47’N 17°412’E), Cecilmour Farm (c. 32°S 29°E)), 151t 7, 19, 31, 229, 265, 281, 320 Cluniespoort (24°23’S 29°50’E), 280 Dakar (c. 14°38’N 17°27’W), 146t Dongola (22°15’S 29°40’E), 163, 362 Dioubel (14°29’N 16°12’W), 32 Dorothy Farm (22°30’S 29°57’E), 158 Fissel (14°33’N 16°37’W), 145f Drakensberg Mountains (c. 30°30’S Gorée [Sor], island (14°40’N 17°27’W), 19 28°30’E), 280 Grand Gallarques (c. 43°43’N 4°10’E), 106 Duiwelskloof (sssS 31°00’E), 60, 108 Haute Casamance (c. 12°30’N 14°45’W), Genoa Farm (23°07’S 28°08’E), 266 286 Glencoe Farm (24°20’S 30°3’E), 36, 160 Île de Palma (c. 14°47’N 17°412’E), 7 Gravelotte (23°57’S 30°37’E), 108 Îles de St. Louis (16°02’N 16°37’W), 146t Hoedspruit (c. 24°21’S 30°58’E), 36, 160 Îles de la Madeleine (14°39’N 17°28’W), Johannesberg (26°10’S 28°02’E), 132, 133 6, 7, 31, 154 Kirstenbosch (33°59’S 18°26’E), 243, Îlot aux Sarpan [Îlot aux Serpents] 266 (14°39’N 17°28’W), 31 Kruger Natonal Park (23°50’S 31°00’E), Kalounayes Forest (12°49’N 16°06’W), 36, 156, 219, 229, 230, 243, 280 286 KwaZulu Natal (Natal) (c. 29°S 30°E), Kaolack (14°09’N 16°08’W), 37 151, 171, 360, 361 494 Gazetteer

South Africa (cont.) Southern Rhodesia. See Zimbabwe Letaba Rest Camp (23°51’S 31°51’E), 36 Spain, 6, 16, 372 Leydsdorp (23°51’S 31°35’E), 108 Ribadesella Caves (43°28’N 5°04’W), 126 Limpopo (Transvaal) Province (c. 25°S Sri Lanka, 5, 62, 73, 78, 89, 90, 179, 231, 29°E), 36, 60, 107, 108, 114, 126, 267, 269, 270, 338, 353, 354, 366 127, 141, 149, 163 Arippu (8°48’N 79°55’E), 270 Limpopo River (c. 25°12’S 33°32’E), 229, Batticaloa (7°43’N 82°42’E), 270 280, 286 Delft (9°32’N 79°40’E), 270 Mabala Tutwa (n.l.), 125, 126 Jaffna (9°38’N 80°02’E), 270 Makgaberg Plateau (c. 23°15’S 28°54’E), Mannar District (8°52’N 80°05’E), 152, 270 126 Mannar Island (8°58’N 79°54’E), 231 Messina (22°2i’S 30°03’E), 36, 102, Peradeniya (7°16’N 80°37’E), 270 144, 149, 150f, 155, 156, 158, Straits of Gibraltar (c. 36°00’N 5°30’W), 2, 4 163, 229 Sudan, 1, 2, 14, 32, 37–38, 49, 70, 81, 87, 93, Messina Nature Reserve (12°22’S 98, 102, 103, 136, 145, 152, 155, 30°02’E), 230 170, 171, 181, 199, 220ff, 265, 266, Mhlangura (32°00’S 29°04’E), 151 282, 285, 289, 290, 320, 347ff, 359, Modena Farm (22°14’S 29°10’E), 127 363ff, 368, 386 Mooketsi (23°36’S 30°06’E), 108 Abri (11°40’N 27°20’E), 399 Mopane (22°36’S 29°51’E), 108, 222, Abu Haraz (14°29’N 33°31’E), 1 230, 278–280, 287, 288, 320 Abu Zabad (12°21’N 29°15’E), 290 Mpumalanga (25°34’S 31°10’E), 160 Al Wasa [Blue Nile, Fung] Province Nelspruit (25°28’S 30°58’E), 160 (c. 12°30’N 34°E), 160 Nwaswitsontswe River (c. 25°08’S Al-Wusta, Ingessana Hills (c. 11°27’N 32°32’E), 280 33°59’E), 282 Olifants River (c. 25°51’S 29°30’E), 280 Bahr el Arab (c. 9°20’N 23°38’E), Pietersberg (23°54’S 29°23’E), 108, 282, 320 280, 281 Bahr el Ghazal (c. 12°N 29°E), 282 Platland (23°36’S 30°12’E), 108 Belheday. See Jabel Hataza Pretoria (25°45’S 28°12’E), 266, 361 Barbis (c. 13°30’N 24°20’E), 319 Prinzenhage, farm (22°25’S 30°93’E), Bessama. See Abu Busa 230 Blue Nile (c. 13°31’N 33°38’E), 1, 14, Rustenberg (25°40’S 27°25’E), 281 106, 155, 277, 282, 320 Singelele, farm (22°21’S 30°04’E), 230 Blue Nile Province. See Al Wasa Province Skelmwater (22°28’N 29°56’E), Darfur Province (c. 13°N 25°E), 362 150t, 151f Delami (11°52’N 30°28’E), 347t Skukuza (24°59’S 31°36’E), 157 Derib el Arbaïn (c. 19°10’N 26°30’E), 2 Soutpan [Zoutpan] (28°43’S 26°04.E), Dilling (12063’N29039’E), 290, 347, 362 280 En Nahud (12°42’N 28°26’E), 37 Soutpansberg [Zoutpansberg] (c. 23°01’S Equatorial Province (c. 5°N 31°E), 282 29°77’E), 280 Foga (13°40’N 28°02’E), 104 Stockford, farm (22°24’S 30°04’E), 230 Fourth Cataract (18°47’N 32°03’E), 2 Toynton, farm (22°23’S 30°01’E), 230 Fung Province. See Al Wasa Province Tshipise (22°36’S 30°10’E), 36 Heiban (11°13’N30°31’E), 339 Tzaneen (23°50’S 30°09’E), 108 Ingessana Hills (11°27’N 33°59’E), 282 Vaal River (c. 29°04’S 23°27’E), 30 Jebel ed Dair (12°30’N 30°45’E), 291 Vogelenzang, farm (mult.), 230 Jebel el Hilla (13°27’N 27°06’E), 38 Waterberge (24°37’S 28°42’E), 281 Jebel el Liri (10°17’N 30°34’E), Zoutpan, salt pan. See Soutpan 339t, 362 Zoutpansberg. See Soutpansberg Jebel Gurgeil (13°50’N 24°19’E), 319 South Australia Jebel Haraza (15°03’N 30°27’E), 365 Adelaide (34°56’S 138°36’E), 271, 272 Jebel Heiban (11°15’N 30°31’E), 339t Nullabor Plateau (c. 30°35’S 130°00’E), Jebel Marra (c. 13°00’N 24°15’E), 2, 282, 311 288, 319, 362 Gazetteer 495

Jebel Tira Mandi (10°54’N 30°30’E), Tanzania, 21, 38, 52, 56, 70, 73, 75, 339t 79, 87ff, 100, 105, 107, 109, Kabanyabaram, Nuba Mountains (n.l.), 111, 113, 116, 117, 119, 124, 348t 127, 135ff, 152, 162, 193, 208, Kadugli (11°01’N 29°43’E), 348t 212, 223, 225, 239, 278, 282, Kalkadda (10°43’N 30°35’E), 339t 283, 310, 345ff, 362, 369, 370 Kashgil (12°47’N 30°009’E), 37 Arusha (3°22’S 36°42’E), 76, 348t Kassala (15°28’N 36°24’E), 1 Bagamoyo (5°11’S 38°51’E), 148t Khartoum (15°36’N 32°32’E), 1, 84, 276 Behobeho (c. 7°38’S 37°50’E), 38 Khor Gana (c. 11°24’N 34°40’E), 339t Dar es Salaam (6°48’S 39°15’E), Kordofan Province (c. 13°S 30°E), 103, 57, 371 161, 162, 165, 267, 290, Gendagenda South Forest Reserve (5°27’S 318, 333 38°38’E), 207 Korongo (10°29’N 29°57’E), 348t Guruuswa (c. 3°15’S 37°30’E), 34 Kurmuk (10°36’N 34°16’E), 106, 107f Himo River (c. 3°15’S 37°30E), 38 Lagori, Nuba Mountains (n.l.), 347t Irangi hills (c. 4°45’S 36°00’E), 278 Malakal (9°21’N 31°39’E), 147t Kalambo Falls (8°35’S 31°13’E), 217 Mandu (n.l.), 282 Kilimanjaro (3°04’S 37°22’E), 38, 50 Meroe (16°56’N 33°33’E), 3 Kondoa District (c. 5°00’S 35°50’E), Northern Kordofan Province (c. 14°30’N 72, 278 29°30’E), 318 Lake Eyasi (c. 3°40’S 35°05’E), 72, 370 Nuba Mountains (c. 12°00’N 30°45’E), Lake Manyara National Park (c. 3°30’S 53, 104, 180, 213, 216, 219, 220, 35°45’E), 205 222, 291, 358 Lake Tanganyika (c. 6°S 29°30’E), 284 Qoz Dango (c. 10°33’N 24°00’E), 319 Lake Victoria (c. 1° S, 3°E), 362 Qoz Salsilgo (c. 11°00’N 23°00’E), 319 Mahenge Game Reserve (8°41’S Red Sea Hills (c.2 35° E), 288, 363 36°43’E), 229 River Nile (c. 16°41’N 32°22’E), 254 Manyara escarpment (c. 3°35’S 35°50’E), Sa’ata (12°46’N 29°34’E), 37 283 Second Cataract (21°49’N 31°12’E), 2 Maswa (2°41’S 33°58’E), 57 Sennar (13°33’N 33°36’E), 17 Mkomazi Game Reserve [Ruvu Game Sheikan (12°45’N 30°13’E), 37 Reserve] (4°10’S 38°10’E), Soba (15°27’N 32°40’E), 49, 114 217, 229 Talodi (10°38’N 30°33’E), 339t North Pare Mountains (c. 3°30’S Tegali (c. 11°00’N 31°00’E), 220, 339t 37°33’E), 38 Teis Umm Bona (13°11’N 27°24’E), Pemba, island (5°08’S 39°48’E), 415 290 Ruaha National Park (7°35’S 34°30’E), Teisa (11°07’N 29°26’E), 290 206, 229, 283 Tisomi, Nuba Mountains (n.l.), 362 Ruvu Game Reserve. See Mkomazi Game Umm Brembeita (12°12’N 30°39’E), Reserve 347t Selous Game Reserve (8°30’S 37°00’E), Umm Kuda (12°59’N 27°15’E), 290 229, 279 Wad Medani (14°24’N 33°32’E) Serengeti National Park (2°20’S 34°50’E), Wara Gwet (9°49’N 27°39’E), 433 229 White Nile (c. 30°11’N 32°38’E), 277, Tanga, island (5°04’S 39°06’E), 56 282, 319, 320 Uluguru Mountains (c. 7°10’S 37°40’E), Zernakh, valley (c. 13°00’N 27°20’E), 290 437 Sumatra, 326, 328, 366 Usambara Mountains (c. 4°50’S 38°30’E), Lake Toba (2°35’N 98°50’E), 336 72 Swaziland, 280 Zanzibar (6°10’S 39°20’E), 20, 33, 56, 73, 113, 137, 267, 275t, 278, 286 Tasman Sea (c. 40°S 160°E), 311 T Tasmania Taiwan, 270 Hobart (42°54’S 147°17’E), 272 496 Gazetteer

Timor, Indonesia W Kupang [Koepang] (10°13’S 123°38’E), West Indies [Caribbean], 23, 40, 90, 140, 169, 45 172, 180, 207, 208, 223, 334, 338, Timor Sea (c. 12°S 127°E), 328, 329 357 Togo, 89, 96, 98, 229, 274, 286, 341t–344t, Antigua (c. 17°99’N 61°49’W), 271 360 Bahamas (c. 25°03’N 77°29’W), 271, 338 Akwapin-Togo range [Togo Mountains] Barbados (c. 13°06’N 59°37’W), 207, (7°25’N0°40’E), 360 271, 357 Haho, lower Mono (c. 6°17’N1ö51’E), 360 Cuba (c. 23°07’N 82°25’W), 271 Mono river (c. 10° 009’N), 360 Dominica (c. 18°30’N 69°57’W), 271, 338 Nuatja (6°59’N1°17’E), 360 Grenada (c. 12°04’N 61°44.W), 271 Torres Straight (c. 10°S 142°E), 27, 367 Guadeloupe (c. 16°20’N 61°21’W), Tunisia, 316 82, 90 Turkey, 37, 66, 305 Haiti (c. 61°33’N 72°20’E), 271 Bergama [Pergamum] (39°08’N 27°10’E), Jamaica (c. 18°N 77°W), 73, 81, 124, 172, 12 223, 271, 338 Istanbul [Constantinople] (41°02’N Kingston (17°58’N 76°48’W), 71 28°57’E), 5, 15, 254 Leeward Islands St. Kitts (17°17’N 62°43’W), 207, 271 Lesser Antilles U Martinique (c. 14°36’N 61°05’W), 271 Uganda, 32, 283, 285, 360 Netherlands Antilles UK, 19, 29, 79, 81, 113, 331, 371, 383 Curacao (12°00’N 68°40’W), 271 Cambridge (52°12’N 0.07’E), 18, 20, 28, St. Eustatius (17°00’N 63°04’W), 216, 261, 331 271, 338 Chelsea (51°29’N 0°10’W), 18, 19, 240, Nevis (17°08’N 62°37’W), 207, 271 331 Puerto Rico (18°29’N 66°08’W), 271 Cheltenham (51°54’N 2°04’W), 241 Tobago (11°15’N 60°40’W), 271 Eltham (15°27’N 0.04’E), 17, 18 Trinidad (10°38’N 61°31’W), 271 Hull (53°45’N 2°00’W), 113, 117 Virgin Islands (UK), 271 Kew (51°29’N 0°18’W), 26–29, 39, 44, Virgin Islands (USA) 68, 131, 134, 155, 163, 164, 237 Grove Place (n.l.), 40, 102 King’s Lynn (52°45’N 0°24’E), 130 St. Croix (17°45’N 64°45’W), 73, 223, Liverpool (53°25’N 2°55’W), 113, 117 271, 338 Oxford (51°56’N 1°15’W), 17, 18, St John (18°21’N 64°48’W), 17, 271 26, 282 St Thomas (18°22’N 64°57’W), 271 Wakehurst Place (51°04’N 5°00’W), 239 Western Australia, 27, 30, 236, 272, 325, USA 328, 334 Anaheim, CA (33°50’N 117°56’W), 135 Adolphus Island (15°22’S 128°15’E), 216 Colorado Springs, CO (38°50’N Augusta (34°19’S 115°09’E), 329 104°50’E), 135 Beefwood Creek (27°18’S 139°16’E), Florida City, FL (25°N 80°30’W), 190, 236 191, 223, 271 Bonaparte, island (14°51’S 124°46’E), Homestead, FL (25°29’N 80°29’W), 190 301, 302, 304 Madison, WI (43°04’N 89°22’W), 26 Broome (17°58’S 122°15’E), 30, 103, Miami, FL (25°45’N 80°15’W), 180 153, 165, 176, 186, 262, 271, Pittsburgh, PA (40°26’N 80°00’W), 136 272, 303, 328 St Louis, MO (38°40’N 90°15’W), Buccaneer Archipelago (c. 16°07’S 19, 26, 248 123°20’E), 177 Bungle Bungle Outcamp (n.l.), 236, 305 Bungle Bungle Range (c. 17°25’S V 128°19’E), 236 Victoria, Australia Cambridge Gulf (c. 15°00’S 128°15’E), Melbourne (37°45’S 144°58’E), 29 28, 216, 261 Gazetteer 497

Camden Harbour (15°29’S 124°36’E), Nullabor Plateau (c. 31°S 128°E), 311 46, 47 Ord River (c. 15°12’S 128°12’E), 48, 236, Cape Lévêque (16°25’S 122°55’E), 301, 305 186, 328 Oscar Range (c. 17°30’S 125°00’E), Careening Bay (15°07’S 125°00’E), 41, 42 303 Careening Cove (16°05’S 123°25’E), Osmond Creek (17°09’S 128°50’E), 236 27, 261 Osmond Plateau ((17°10’S 128°45’E), Carnarvon Basin ((c. 26°S 115°E), 323 304 Cervantes Island (30°33’S 115°02’E), 329 Pearce Point (14°22’S 129°20’E), 186, Collier Bay (16°04’S 124°27’E), 29 262 Dampier Peninsula (c. 17°30’S 122°30’E), Pentecost (c. 15°56’S 127°48’E), 4 172, 271 Perth (31°58’S 115°59’E), 129, 138, Derby (17°19’S 123°38’E), 43, 44, 106, 272, 329 110, 112, 125, 224, 236, 303, 326 Phillips Range (16°52’S 125°58’E), 65 Emmanuel Yard (17°22’S 123°59’E), Point Torment (17°00’S 123°34’E), 29 43, 128 Purnululu [Bungle Bungle] (National Park Fitzroy Crossing (18°13’S 125°33’E), (17°21’S 128°37’E), 236 110, 357t Scott River (c. 34°16’S 115°14’E), 329 Forrest River (c. 15°18’S 128°04’E), 43 Sheep Island (15°29’S 124°39’E), 47 Galvans Gorge (16°48’S 125°50’E), 65 South Grailbourne Island (16°05’S Gee Gully (18°22’S 123°45’E), 303 123°25’E), 27, 261 Glenroy (17°23’S 126°01’E), 303 Tableland (17°15’S 126°48’E), 303, 324 Great Sandy Desert (c. 20°00’S Turkey Creek (17°04’S 128°15’E), 122°30’E), 45, 302f, 306 66, 305 Hann River (c. 17°26’S 126°17’E), Vansittart Bay (14°03’S 126°17’E), 261 44, 129 Wahlroonga (25°29’S 114°20’E), 272 Hanover Bay (15°15’S 124°41’E), 29 Winnama Gorge (17°12’S 128°15’E), 236, Hall’s Creek (18°17’S 127°38’E), 46, 106 305 Hart (16°25’S 125°03’E), 109, 395 Wyndham (15°29’S 128°05’E), 44, 110, Hillgrove (15°29’S 128°05’E), 44, 110f 128, 144, 272 Karunjie Station (15°29’S 128°05’S), Western Sahara 44, 128 Cap Boujdour [Cap Bojador] (26°06’N Kimberley region (c. 17°20’S 124°21’E), 14°33’W), 5 66, 74, 127, 129, 186, 303, 367 Rio de Oro (c. 23-24°N 12°E)), 316 King Leopard Range (c. 17°00’S 125°00’E), 303 King Sound (16°49’S 123°28’E), 29, 43, Y 129, 272, 303 Yemen, 332, 364 Kununurra (15°42’S 128°50’S), 46, 66, Aden (12°50’N 45°03’E), 14, 310, 317 124, 236, 357t, 372 Bani Dawãn (n.l.), 284 Kuri Bay (15°28’S 124°31’E), 47 Jabal Raymah (14°08’N 44°15’E), 28, Logue River (c. 13°38’S 123°25’E), 103, 265, 278, 284 216, 236 Samsara (13°15’N 44°00’E), 284 Lombadina (16°04’S 122°54’E), 165, 169, Taiz Province (c. 13°35’N 54°22’E), 284 172, 271 Looma (18°02’S 124°08’E), 66 Meda Station (17°22’S 123°59’E), Z 43, 128 Zaire. See Democratic Republic of the Congo Mount Annan (c. 31°58’S 115°49’E), 272 Zaire River (c. 16°04’S 12°24’E), 284 Mount Barnett (16°47’S 125°51’E), 44, 129 Zambezi River (11°23’S 24°20’E-18°50’S Mount Clarkson (17°34’S 123°19’E), 42 36°20’E), 58, 59, 131, 278, 310 Mowanjum (17°23’S 123°41’E), 106 Zambia, 33, 34, 50, 118, 120, 127, 152, 279, Napier Range (c. 17°00’S 124°50’E), 303 346, 347, 360, 361 North West Cape (21°47’S 114°10’E), 329 Chikwenya Island (15°39’S 29°33’E), 58 498 Gazetteer

Zambia (cont.) Iskukuza (24°59’S 31°36’E), 157 Chitambo (12°55’S 30°40’E), 33 Katima Mulilo (17°30’S 24°16’E), 39, Kafue National Park (14°30’S 26°10’E), 109, 110f 57 Kwe Kwe District (c. 18°45’S 29°30’E), Kafue River (c. 15°55’S 28°55’E) 109 Kalai Island (17°54’S 31°31’E), 33 Lake Kariba (16°31’S 28°50’E), 34, 156, Kapsiya [Pa Mlambi], 50 228 Kasanka National Park (12°35’S 30°12’E), Lundi River (c. 20°15’S 30°13’E), 33 109 Kayila (10°18’S 33°28’E), 400 Mana Pools (15°45’S 29°22’E), 34, 58, Kayila Lodge (10°18’S 33°28’E), 400 148, 279 Lake Kariba (c. 17°S 28°E), 34, 156, 228 Mana Pools National Park (15°50’S Livingstone Island. See Namakabwa Island 29°23’E), 148, 279 Livingstone Memorial (12°18’S 30°18’E), Marymount Mission (16°40’S 32°26’E), 33 179 Luangwa Valley (c. 11°55’S 32°10’E), 50, Masapa (16°15’S 31°39’E), 105 58, 205, 279 Masvingo [Fort Victoria, Zambezi ruins] Magoyi River (c. 16°00’S 27°35’E), 57 (20°10’S 30°49’E), 33 Mchinga Plateau (13°11’S 30°55’E), 50 Melsetter. See Chimanimani Mwamba (12°42’S 31°51’E), 50, 345t Mount Darwin (16°45’S 31°39’E), 105 Namakabwa [Livingstone] Island (17°55’S Msuna (18°01’S 26°50’E), 33 25°51’E), 33 Mutare [Umtali] (19°00’S 32°40’E), 107 Pa Mlambi. See Kapisya Mutoko (17°24’S 32°13’E), 55, 105, 107, Victoria Falls (17°56’S 25°52’E), 8, 33, 111 35, 36, 131, 133, 224, 225 Ngesi National Park (18°41’S 30°25’E), Zambezi Escarpment (c. 16°00’S 229 29°00’E), 34 Nkayi (19°00’S 28°54’E), 59 Zimbabwe, 33, 35, 39, 75, 77, 92, 95, 105, Nyanga Communal Lands (c. 18°13’S 109, 111, 115, 137, 164, 225, 229, 32°45’E), 279 266, 280, 346, 361, 371, 386 Nyanga North (c. 17°27’S 32°50’E), 107 Birchenough Bridge (19°58’S 32°20’E), Nyanga North Communal Lands 106 (c. 17°27’S 32°50’E), 107 Cheshire Farm (18°01’S 42°00’E), 279 Patuuyu tusere [Tuuyu tusere], 34 Chimanimani [Melsetter] (18°48’S Sapi River (c. 16°22’S 29°55’E), 58 32°50’E), 107 Save [Sabi] River (c. 20°22’S 30°13’S), Chinhoyi [Sinoia] (17°21’S 44°13’E), 151t 287 Chipinga (20°12’S 32°48’E), 107 Simba School (17°24’S 31°23’E), 59 Chisadenga Pool, xiv (21°03’S 31°40’E) Sinoia. See Chinhoy Chitako-changonya (18°37’S 31°38’E), 34 Skukuza (24°59’S 31°36’E), 157 Chivi (c. 20°10’S 30°49’E), 33 Triangle (21°05’S 31°28’E), 107, 396 Devure (Devuli) River (c. 20°09’S Tshitashawa (n.l.), 39, 60, 225 32°07’E), 106 Tsholotsho Communal Lands (n.l.), 60 Drie-Span Berg (20°07’S 32°29’E), 35 Turwi [Turgwe] River (20°27’S 32°17’E), Fort Victoria. See Masvingo 33 Highlands (17°48’S 31°05’E), 210, 211 Tuuyu tusere. See Patuuyu tusere Hippo Valley Estate (21°10’S 31°33’E), 109 Umtali. See Mutare Hwange [Wankie] (18°20’S 26°25’E), Victoria Falls. See Zambia 148t, 151 Wankie. See Hwange Inyanga (18°13’S 32°46’E), 229 Zambezi (ruins). See Masvingo