T HE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF ISLAMIC CULTURE 6 T HE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF ISLAMIC CULTURE VOLUME SIX I SLAM IN THE WORLD TODAY PART I RETROSPECTIVE OF THE EVOLUTION OF ISLAM AND THE MUSLIM WORLD Editors: Abdulrahim Ali, Iba Der Thiam and Yusof A. Talib U NESCO Publishing Published in 2016 by the United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France © UNESCO 2016 ISBN 978-92-3-100132-1 This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (http://www.unesco.org/open-access/ terms-use-ccbysa-en). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. Note: dates separated by a slash (e.g. 212/827) are given fi rst according to the Muslim lunar calendar (AH), and then according to the Christian/common era calendar (CE/AD ). The preparation and publication of this volume have been funded by the World Islamic Call Society (WICS). Cover photo: Stucco (8th to 9th century) Ibn Tulun Mosque, Cairo (Egypt) Cover design: UNESCO Layout and printing: Dergham sarl, Beirut – Lebanon Printed in Beirut – Lebanon P REFACE The UNESCO Constitution states that ‘ignorance of each other’s ways and lives has been a common cause, throughout the history of mankind, of that suspicion and mistrust between the peoples through which their differences have all too often broken into war.’ Since its creation 70 years ago, UNESCO’s message has been that of highlighting the value of diversity, to build understanding and dialogue, while fighting discrimination and upholding human rights. UNESCO’s Histories project is a flagship to take forward this ambition. The different aspects of the Islamic culture makes a seminal contribution to exploring the richness of Islamic civilization, and its immense contribution to the history of humanity. In 1976, the General Conference of UNESCO launched this vital work, which has since been carried out with equal passion and determination. The scope of these volumes is broad. They document the theological foundations of Islam, the status of the individual and society in the Islamic world, the expansion of Islam and the way in which the rights of converted peoples were preserved, the fundamental contribution of Islam to education, science and technology, as well as the cultural achievements of Islamic civilization, through literature, philosophy, art and architecture. These volumes show how, over centuries, Islam has been a driving force in the rapprochement of cultures, and provided a framework within which diverse cultures could flourish and interact. At a time when violent extremists seek to distort the message of religion, it is critical that we share the depth of wisdom of Islam as a religion of peace, moderation and tolerance. In the Middle Ages, the influence of Islamic civilization was felt throughout the world. From the China Sea to the Atlantic coast of Africa, people who embraced Islam adopted a set of cultural and spiritual references while preserving their own identity. Muslim thinkers and scientists, drawing on the rich heritage of Greece, developed their own worldviews and influenced the emergence of the European Renaissance. Muslim philosophers, geographers, physicists, mathematicians, botanists and doctors made influential contributions to the adventure of science. Averroës taught at the University of Padua in Italy, and knowledge travelled with no heed across borders. Islamic culture developed a conception of the individual and the universe, a philosophy of life and art that has profoundly shaped our common history and our societies as they stand today. This creative diversity, anchored within universal spiritual and cultural references and values, offered fertile ground for the dynamic development of scientific knowledge, artistic refinement and intellectual exchange that marked all great Islamic civilizations. I wish to thank the eminent scholars from all over the world who have contributed to this Collection and guaranteed its high scientific standards. It is my hope that this Collection, which is now completed with the publication of volume VI, will encourage a more informed understanding of Islam, its culture, values and civilization, and promote further intercultural dialogue and the rapprochement of cultures. I am also determined that the in-depth knowledge presented in these volumes reach a wide audience, so that that young generations take pride and draw lessons from this heritage, in a spirit of mutual respect and understanding. Irina Bokova Director-General of UNESCO C ONTENTS List of maps and figures 13 Introduction Abdelwahab A. Bouhdiba 19 I – From the fall of Granada to the abolition of the caliphate (1492–1924) C HAPTER 1.1 The expulsion of the Muslims from Andalusia and its consequences Idris El-Hareir 27 C HAPTER 1.2 The impact of the great discoveries on the Islamic world Iba Der Thiam 37 C HAPTER 1.3 Islamic revival in the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires Yusof A. Talib 45 CHAPTER 1.4 The Golden Age of Islam in the Sahel: the example of Songhay humanism Djibril Tamsir Niane 53 C ONTENTS C HAPTER 1.5 Islam in the Greater Maghreb Idris El-Hareir 63 CHAPTER 1.6 (a) Colonial penetration and counter resistance movements in the Muslim countries of Asia from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century Yusof A. Talib 85 C HAPTER 1.6 (b) Colonial penetration and resistance movements in Africa’s Muslim countries Iba Der Thiam 91 C HAPTER 1.6 (c) Colonial penetration and resistance movements in the Arab countries (the Arab East) Idris El-Hareir 97 CHAPTER 1.7 A forgotten page in the saga of the Suez Canal: from the Statue of Liberty to the Statue of Lesseps: the story of a dual diversion Ahmed Yousuf 121 CHAPTER 1.8 Colonial imperialism: the partition of Africa at the 1885 Berlin Conference and its consequences for African Muslims Thierno Bah 133 CHAPTER 1.9 The impact of the First World War on the Muslim world Iba Der Thiam 139 CHAPTER 1.10 Towards the creation of the State of Israel Khairia Kasmieh 151 CHAPTER 1.11 The Russian Revolution of October 1917 and its consequences for the Muslim world Iba Der Thiam 161 C ONTENTS CHAPTER 1.12 Peace treaties and their consequences for the Muslim world Omar Ibrahim El-˓Affas 171 II – Pan-Islamism and its role in the revival and affirmation of the Muslim world (from 1924 to 1963) CHAPTER 2.1 The abolition of the caliphate: causes and consequences Basheer M. Nafi 183 CHAPTER 2.2 Resurgence of the struggle against foreign occupation in the Muslim world Iba Der Thiam 193 CHAPTER 2.3 The consequences of the Second World War on the Muslim world Iba Der Thiam 213 CHAPTER 2.4 Creation of the State of Israel in 1948 and its impact on the Muslim world Khairia Kasmieh 227 CHAPTER 2.5 The emergence of Arab nationalism Ali Muhammad Shembesh 239 CHAPTER 2.6 Nationalism and independence in South Asia Fredj Maatoug 257 CHAPTER 2.7 The Bandung Conference Ali Muhammad Shembesh 277 CHAPTER 2.8 Pan-Islamism and the struggle for independence in Africa Iba Der Thiam 285 C ONTENTS CHAPTER 2.9 The creation of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference Mustafa Cissé 295 CHAPTER 2.10 Creation of the Organisation of African Unity Ali Muhammad Shembesh 303 III – The years of confrontation within the Muslim world (1964 – 2003) CHAPTER 3.1 Palestine and the Arab-Israeli conflict 1964 – 2006 Khairia Kasmieh 317 CHAPTER 3.2 The Kashmir question Tahir Amin 349 CHAPTER 3.3 The Iranian Revolution and the fall of the Pahlavi dynasty Fredj Maatoug 369 CHAPTER 3.4 The war in Afghanistan and its consequences Omar Ibrahim El-˓Affas 391 CHAPTER 3.5 The collapse of the Soviet Union Fredj Maatoug 403 CHAPTER 3.6 The war in Chechnya Fredj Maatoug 419 CHAPTER 3.7 The Gulf War: from the Iraq-Iran War (1980–8) to the 1991 Kuwait War Fredj Maatoug 433 C ONTENTS CHAPTER 3.8 The events of 11 September 2001 and their consequences for Islam and the Muslim world Fredj Maatoug 457 CHAPTER 3.9 Issue of terrorism and resistance Fredj Maatoug 471 CHAPTER 3.10 The 2003 Iraq War Fredj Maatoug 487 General bibliography 501 Members of the International Scientific Committee and the Secretariat 519 Biographical notes on the authors 521 General index 529 L IST OF MAPS AND FIGURES I–2.1 Sankore Mosque, one of several historic madrasas in Timbuktu, Mali 41 I–2.2 Mud brick mosque in Timbuktu, Mali, Africa 43 I–3.1 Children file across the courtyard of Dargah Mosque, built by the Moghul emperor Akbar in his short-lived capital of Fatehpur Sikri 46 I–3.2 Illuminated Ottoman Qur˒ān from the seventeenth century 48 I–3.3 Fatehpur Sikri, the city built by the Moghul emperor Akbar between 1571 and 1573 50 I–3.4 A dark-green jade pot, 14 cm high, that once furnished the Safavid palace at Tabriz, and probably passed into Ottoman hands in the sixteenth century. Before that, the dragon-headed handle suggests that it may have belonged to a Timurid ruler 51 I–4.1 The great mosque of Djenné, Mali, with a view of the weekly market in its grounds 55