CLIMATE AND SECURITY IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
Adriana Erthal Abdenur, Giovanna Kuele and Alice Amorim, eds. 2019
IGARAPÉ INSTITUTE | DECEMBER 2019
INDEX
INTRODUCTION Adriana Erthal Abdenur, Giovanna Kuele and Alice Amorim...... 2
HOW CLIMATE CHANGE RISKS MAGNIFY ECONOMIC AND SECURITY VULNERABILITIES CASE STUDY: VENEZUELA AND ITS NEIGHBORS Oliver Leighton Barrett...... 13
CLIMATE CHANGE, INEQUALITY AND SECURITY IN COLOMBIA: SOME REFLECTIONS ON THE SUBJECT Saul Rodriguez...... 27
CLIMATE CHANGE, SOCIAL CONFLICT AND THE COMPLEXIFICATION OF CRIME IN BOLIVIA: AN ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF FLOODS AND STORMS IN CHAPARE AS A COCA GROWING REGION Marilia Closs...... 41
TOWARDS AN INTEGRATED GOVERNANCE OF TRANSBOUNDARY AQUIFERS IN SOUTH AMERICA: BALANCING SECURITY, HUMAN RIGHTS AND TERRITORIALITY Beatriz Mendes Garcia Ferreira...... 53
CLIMATE AND SECURITY IN BRAZIL: THE ROLE OF THE PRESS IN THE DISCUSSION AND PROMOTION OF PUBLIC POLICIES Eloisa Beling Loose...... 65
CLIMATE CHANGE AND SECURITY IN THE AMAZON: VULNERABILITY AND RISKS FOR INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ON THE ACRE - UCAYALI BORDER Marco Cepik and Hannah Machado Cepik...... 77
CLIMATE EVIDENCE-BASED POLICING: THE INFLUENCE OF RAINFALL ON THE CRIMINAL DYNAMICS OF THE CITY OF MANAUS Moisés Israel Silva dos Santos, Antônio Gelson de Oliveira Nascimento, Márcio de Souza Correa and Charlis Barroso da Rocha ...... 91
CLIMATE SECURITY IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN: AGGRAVATING DOMESTIC PUBLIC SECURITY RISK IN THE FRAME OF LOW INTERSTATE CONFLICT Matias Franchini and Eduardo Viola...... 109
THE ‘BOOMERANG EFFECT’ AND THE UNINTENDED SIDE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ACTION: EVIDENCE FROM BRAZIL’S INTERVENTIONS IN AMAZON RIVER BASIN Luis Paulo B. da Silva, Larry Swatuk and Lars Wirkus...... 123
1 IGARAPÉ INSTITUTE | DECEMBER 2019
CLIMATE CHANGE AND SECURITY IN THE AMAZON: VULNERABILITY AND RISKS FOR INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ON THE ACRE-UCAYALI BORDER
Marco Cepik Hannah Machado Cepik
ABSTRACT
This article analyzes the mechanisms causally linking us to identify how public mitigation policies can climate change and human security. A common distinctly affect the resulting insecurity depending trajectory is found to be aggravation of pre-existing on the point in the chain of events at which they social vulnerabilities, occurrence of extreme weather are implemented. It was also possible to see how, events, institutional failures and / or predatory policy in the face of institutional failures and even in the enforcement, and increased insecurity of specific presence of powerful coalitions of interests against population groups. In the Amazonian context, two environmental protection and indigenous peoples, similar cases are compared, in which floods on the affected populations are able to formulate consistent Jordan River (Acre) and the Ucayali River (in the responses that result in improved human security Peruvian department of the same name) impacted through demands and proposals for transversal indigenous communities of the Pano language public policies. group. Case-specific dynamics have allowed
Keywords: climate change, Amazon, Huni Kuin, Shipibo-Conibo, security.
77 78 COLLECTION OF ARTICLES ABOUT CLIMATE, SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT the concept,itisnecessary tolinkhumaninsecurity problem. However, toavoid excessiveexpansionof beings, anythingthatthreatens lifeis asecurity something” (Cepik2001).When itcomestoliving threats againsttheexistenceofsomeoneor protection inwhichonecancounteractdiscernible Security canbedefinedas“a relative conditionof levels. (IPCC2018). or decade,inrelation topre-industrial temperature 30-year period,considered from areference year surface temperature oftheplanet(GMST)overa is definedbytheestimatedincrease intheaverage (World BankGroup globalwarming 2019).Inturn, period oftimecausedbynaturalandhumanfactors / orvariabilityofclimateproperties overaprolonged as anobservabletransformationintheaverageand Portal glossaryofterms,thephenomenonisdefined In theWorld Bank’s ClimateChangeKnowledge controversial (Machetal.2019). securityis global warmingandinternational because theconnectionbetweenclimatechange, It isimportanttostartwithsomebasicdefinitions MECHANISMS INTERNATIONAL SECURITY: CLIMATE CHANGEAND constitute theempiricalreferent ofthework. actors, governmental local, nationalandinternational security, aswellthespeechesandsilencesof about thenexusbetweenclimatechangeand perceptions andstruggles ofindigenousgroups and omissionsofvariousactorsintheregion. The is compoundedbyclimatechangeandtheactions The insecurityofindigenouspeoplesintheAmazon INTRODUCTION recommendations basedon theresearch conducted. by aconclusioninwhichwesoughttoinclude the articlewasorganizedintothree sections,followed Ucayali, ontheBrazil-Peruborder? To answerthem, indigenous peopleinAcre and Shipibo-Conibointhe be identifiedinthecaseofHuniKuin(Kaxinawá) What publicpolicydemandsrelated toinsecuritycan and theinsecurityofspecificpopulationgroups? the mechanismsthatcausallylinkclimatechange This articleseekstoanswertwoquestions.Whatare potentials (Zhangetal.2007). There isnoconsensus outcomes aswelladaptation andmitigation were alsoconsidered relevant toexplainspecific social networkinstitutions,technology andtopology affected socialgroups. Interveningvariablessuchas increasing thelikelihoodofviolentconflictinvolving (relative deprivationandidentity)causecapableof action asadirect (resource scarcity) orindirect degradation oftheenvironment asaresult ofhuman Thomas F. Homer-Dixon (1991)characterizedthe across different modelsandtheories.For example, securityvarysignificantly change andinternational and global)ofthecausallinkbetweenclimate The intensityandscale(local,national,regional deprivation. (UnitedNations2014:84) death, psychologicaldamage,poordevelopmentor which results orishighlylikelytoresult ininjury, another personoragainstagroup orcommunity, power, threatened orperformed,againstoneself, violence istheintentionaluseofphysicalforce or adopted bytheUnitedNations, to theexistenceofviolence.According toadefinition IGARAPÉ INSTITUTE | DECEMBER 2019
I expert opinions on future scenarios with nonlinear between climate change, natural resources, social emerging properties. Still, in a study using a panel of stability and human security at different space-time 11 of the world’s most cited experts on climate and scales. The model’s premise is that security risks conflict (expert elicitation), Katherine J. Mach et al are causally linked to the unequal effects of climate (2019) identified climate change as a causal factor change for different social groups and ecosystems. cited by experts at 3-20% of intra-state conflicts Vulnerability would be, even when there are no direct in the last century. In addition, experts’ average armed conflicts over scarce resources, the most estimate is that the risk of violent conflict will increase important variable in contexts of uncertainty about by 13% in 2° C global warming scenarios and 26% future impacts. The degree of vulnerability would in scenarios approaching 4° C. therefore depend on 1) the degree of exposure to climate change; 2) sensitivity to climate change; 3) adaptation and mitigation capabilities. Reducing Recognizing that more research is needed, we vulnerabilities would therefore be the main focus provisionally adopt the model developed by Jürgen of public risk prevention policies and mitigation of Scheffran et al (2012), summarized in Figure 1, negative effects. for monitoring and evaluating the relationships
Figure 1 - Diagram of Relations between Climate Change and Security
Source: Scheffran et al. 2012: 870
79 80 COLLECTION OF ARTICLES ABOUT CLIMATE, SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT Despite research carriedoutwithdifferent modelling, and anthropogenic events,bothglobalandlocal. hydrological Amazonbasins) cyclesofthewestern rainforest isthreatened bynatural(including specific ecological andenvironmental stabilityoftheAmazon climate changeandglobalwarming.Theclimatic, while beingavulnerableandsensitiveregion to an importantrole intheplanetarycarboncycle, neighbouring countries.Overall,theAmazonplays and theheadwatersofmajorriversare foundin American AmazonBasin,butimportantecosystems The Amazonrainforest coversmostoftheSouth coming decades. sensitive towhathappenstheAmazonin variables ondrought andrainfallinBrazilare strongly fifty years(World BankGroup 2019).Moreover, all in Brazilhasincreased byabout0.7°Cover the past Knowledge Portal,theaverageannualtemperature According totheWorld Bank’s ClimateChange HUMAN INSECURITY MISMANAGEMENT AND AMAZON: ENVIRONMENTAL therefore, mustalsobeanalysedfrom thepoint They are, ultimately, issuesoflifeanddeathand, cultural aspectsinvolvingnaturalresources. to distributiveandredistributive economicand That is,environmental conflictsare not restricted harm (oftenirreversible) becomemalicious. omissions oftherulersandpowerfulthatcause causes ofglobalwarmingadvances,actionsand and politicalconsensusonthespecifichuman intention toharmothers.However, asthescientific constitute “threats” intheliteralsenseofhostile fires, storms,andfloods, for example,donot threat. Extreme weatherevents,suchasdroughts, dialectical relationship between vulnerabilityand It isalsoworthaddingonelastargumentaboutthe populations (Trigueiro 2019). directly threaten thesecurityofmostvulnerable intheareagovernment ofenvironmental governance disastrous actionsandstatementsoftheBolsonaro collective security(Zhangetal.2017).Similarly, the Paris Agreement isindeed athreat toglobal decision toremove theUnitedStatesfrom the environment. Thatiswhythe Trump administration’s responsibilities differentiated inpreserving the of thecollectiverighttodevelopmentand recognitionand Santiago,2019),theinternational last Conferences ofUNFCCCsignatories(Bonn and Development(RiodeJaneiro, 1992)untilthe the UnitedNationsConference onEnvironment security.of viewinternational Afterall,since countries andmore than25,000kmofnavigable to havingmore than11,300kmofborders withseven the LegalAmazonisequatorial forest. Inaddition according tothe2010Census.Thelargestbiomein territory, andabout23millioninhabitantslivethere Roraima andTocantins) covers59%oftheBrazilian Amazonas, Maranhão,MatoGrosso, Pará,Rondônia, Amazon (formedbythestatesofAcre, Amapá, In Brazil,theadministrativeregion calledtheLegal ofrainfallanddeforestation.patterns in therainforest are related totheamountand Brandão (2019),currently themainchangesreported analyzed byAmbrizzietal.(2007).According to Amazon couldriseto4ºCaccording tothemodels it isestimatedthattheaveragetemperature inthe 2007: 25).Inthecontextofglobalclimatechange, and evenmuchoftheAmazonbiome”(Nobre etal. a possiblebreaking pointofecosystemequilibrium “science stillcannotpinpointhowcloseweare to IGARAPÉ INSTITUTE | DECEMBER 2019
rivers, the equatorial climate and the rain cycle (34% from the Pastoral Land Commission (CPT in of annual precipitation comes from evaporation) Portuguese), in the Brazilian Legal Amazon there positively affect other biomes such as the Pantanal, were 48 of 61 murders in field conflicts (79%), 50 the savannah and even the Atlantic Forest. of 74 assassination attempts (68%), 391 of 571 physical assaults, 192 out of 228 arrests and 171 out of 200 registered death threats (86%) in 2016. As the largest of Brazil’s six major biomes, with the Since the 2018 elections, Bolsonaro has adopted largest biodiversity on the planet, large hydroelectric increasingly destructive stances and policies against potential, mineral riches and cultural diversity (much environmental governance institutions, vulnerable of Brazil’s indigenous population), the Amazon populations and funding mechanisms including faces important challenges from the standpoint the Amazon Fund. In August 2019, when 74,000 of sustainable development and human security. outbreaks of Amazon fires were detected, the In recent decades there have been important Bolsonaro government reiterated a hostile course institutional advances. As a result, there was a of action and the crisis took on an international marked reduction in the deforested area of the Legal dimension (Phillips, 2019). Amazon (from 27,800 km2 in 2004 to a historic low of 4,600 km2 in 2012), according to data from the National Institute for Space Research (INPE in Environmental degradation affects the most Portuguese). Since then, and more intensely since vulnerable social groups the most. In the Amazon, the fall of president Dilma Rousseff in 2016, the pace traditional communities and indigenous peoples and deforested area has increased. If preliminary are among the most vulnerable groups (Rocha INPE figures are confirmed, between August 2018 et al. 2012). In general, the security of the region and July 2019 about 6,200 km2 were cleared in the and its inhabitants would therefore depend on an Legal Amazon. increasingly integrated and democratic role of the Brazilian state, neighbouring countries and affected populations, especially indigenous peoples (Abdenur Along with deforestation, other forms of natural et al. 2019). However, the Bolsonaro government’s resource degradation have increased over the past foreign policy is also moving toward dismantling three years through burning, illegal mining, land regional cooperation structures in South America. grabbing and biopiracy of fauna and flora. Such criminal acts, perpetrated by different groups and companies, pose direct threats to the security of the most vulnerable populations, such as slave- like workers, women, indigenous people, and quilombolas. For example, according to data
81 82 COLLECTION OF ARTICLES ABOUT CLIMATE, SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT started inJanuaryofthatyear andcausedthe Madureira, FeijóandTarauacá. Heavyrainsthat affected inthemunicipalitiesofAssisBrasil,Seine decreed. IntheAcre River, about20villageswere places inthestateofAcre, astateofcalamitywas recent years.In2015,inthefaceoffloodsvarious be seeninthefloodsthathaveoccurred inAcre in the increased riskofinsecurityfortheHuniKuincan Ever more vulnerableandstrugglingfortheirrights, Kuin livinginAcre in2014. Iglesias 1994;1999).There were about10,818Huni across borders isdoneacross rivers(Aquinoand movement hasnotceased,andfree movement are strikingdifferences. Fordecades,themigratory countries isreproduced through marriages,butthere The relationship betweendifferent groups inthetwo moved totheheadwatersofPurusRiverinPeru. on a“seringal”theEnviraRiver, forexample, in Portuguese)(Aquino1993).Groups thatfocused violent conflictswithrubbertappers(“seringalistas” separated inthetwentiethcenturyasaresult of are dividedbetweenBrazilandPeru,havingbeen indigenous groups intheregion, theHuniKuin variations inthelastyears.Asoneoflargest rivers where there were significanthydrological million hectares, or14.56%ofAcre’s area) are near state’s 26approved indigenouslands(LIs)(2.39 Socioambiental (ISAinPortuguese),manyofthe In thecaseofAcre, according totheInstituto department ofUcayali. Peru, corresponding tothestateofAcre andthe peoples intheborder region betweenBraziland in aregion orgroup. Thisisthecaseofindigenous an aggravationofprevious problems experienced not necessarilyacataclysm,itusuallyoperatesas In theAmazonregion, therefore, ifclimatechangeis UCAYALI INSECURITY INACREAND CLIMATE ANDINDIGENOUS Department reported thatanon-workingtelemetric (Nascimento 2017).Atthetime,Acre Fire the Jordan RivermadeHuniKuinfamilieshomeless over a24-hourperiod.In2017,suddenfloodon 2006), theriver’s ebbwasaffected byheavyrainfall state withthehighestrainfallin(Duarte river rose 17.66meters.Although Februaryisthe meters), surpassingtherecord of1997,whenthe peoples. Itwasthelargestflood recorded (17.92 Huni Kuin,Yawanawá, JaminawaandManchineri river torise24centimetres inonedayaffected the the forest. change asanissuethataggravates riskstolifeand claims therecognition thattheimpactsofclimate Kuntanawa, JaminawaandMadijaincludedintheir Koe (Katukina),Shanenawa,Puyanawa,Manxineru, Huni Kuin,Shawadawa,Yawanawa, Nukini,Noke inMay2019,representativesVista ofAshaninka, andsocietyreleasedletter togovernments inBoa Conscious oftherisktheyare taking,intheopen people becomesinsecurity. kind ofmechanism,thevulnerabilityindigenous what there wouldnotbemuchtodo.Through this sudden, assomethingtobeexpectedandabout emergency relief, interpreted theevent,although in apalliativemeasure inaplacehard toreach for cars andboatsavailableforfamiliestoevacuate was noflood”(sic).Thecitycouncil,whichmade leaks fast.Itdoesn’t staylong.Itseemsthat there the riverbeinglocatedatheadwaters,itfillsand “thisishowitis,by in aninterviewwithjournalists: was madebythemayorofcityJordan (AC), the 2017floods,onlyofficial pronouncement unattended untiltherivercouldflow. Inthefaceof ruler. Thefloodingoftheriverleftuninhabitedpeople have madethereading oftheriver, whichhasno station oftheNationalWater Agency (ANA)should IGARAPÉ INSTITUTE | DECEMBER 2019
The same indigenous protagonism in the face of even construction. Food insecurity reproduced both increased vulnerability and insecurity is found in inside and outside Panaillo. As local institutions and the case of Shipibo-Conibo living in the Ucayali social participation were already relatively weak, department of the Peruvian Amazon. The name even external mobilization was insufficient to prevent Shipibo-Conibo results from alliances of various increased food insecurity. During the interviews, populations in the face of demographic losses, as a Sherman et al. also identified a low perception in result of the shock with the European presence. “Since Peruvian institutions about the importance of climate then, Shipibo-Conibo lands have been dotted with change. About 25% of respondents denied that other ethnic groups (Piro, Campa, Ashaninka, Cocama) Ucayali droughts and floods had any connection with and mixed villages (Caseríos), with which relations are global climate change. One respondent said that for sometimes courteous, often tense” (Colpron 2005). On him, climate change was just a word, but extreme the streams of the Ucayali River live more than 11,000 floods and droughts had worsened over time. Shipibo-Conibo in over 140 communities. As in the case of the indigenous people of Acre, Due to flooding that occurred on the Ucayali it was up to Peruvian indigenous leaders to link River in 2010-2011, Shipibo-Conibo communities climate change and increasing insecurity in vulnerable experienced an unexpected increase in food communities. During COP 24 in Katowice, Poland, insecurity. Drawing on structured fieldwork and women leaders of indigenous associations and using participatory research methods across organizations took a firm stand in favour of mitigation multiple seasons, the research by Sherman et al. and adaptation actions. At the event, the leaders (2016) documented how flooding initially created emphasized the participation and empowerment of opportunities for increased fishery and agricultural women in the theme, as well as the allocation of joint production in the locality of Panaillo. However, activities for the entire indigenous population. In Peru, indigenous families lacked the resources to it is common for indigenous women to be responsible exploit the opportunities presented by extreme for family food sustenance, to be knowledgeable conditions and increasingly turned to migration as a of medicinal plants, and to carry ancestral wisdom mechanism to address vulnerability. International aid through shamanism (Colpron 2005). organizations have set up in the region in response to the floods, introducing programs and providing According to leaders, many of the problems of training sessions for local institutions. However, adaptation within indigenous communities have weakened local institutions have continued to been solved by women seeking to ensure family disregard the growing magnitude and frequency of food sustenance (Servindi 2018). In addition to climate extremes, well documented in the region in the problems posed by climate change, Peruvian recent decades. indigenous leaders also denounced environmental degradation and negative social impacts caused That is, even when climate events create by large timber, oil, natural gas and other mineral opportunities, depending on previously existing resources projects. According to the report The vulnerability and institutional and community Human Rights Situation of Indigenous Peoples on responses, the result may be increased insecurity. the Acre-Peru Border, The Shipibo-Conibo case highlights the importance of considering both slow and fast impulses in assessing the vulnerability of the food system to an projects for oil and natural gas exploration extreme hydrological event. For example, according by the Brazilian and Peruvian governments to Sherman et al. (2016), many of Panaillo’s residents are being defined and implemented without were forced to migrate to urban centers. Shipibo- any free, prior and informed consultation Conibo women continued their production and sale with the local communities and their of handicrafts, but the profits did not cover the full organizations (Servindi 2018). cost of living in the city. In turn, migrant men began to work as labourers in plantations, logging and
83 84 COLLECTION OF ARTICLES ABOUT CLIMATE, SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT interior corresponds to2%ofitsextension.Thus, territory, andthehistoricalrateofdeforestation inits ILs comprise25%oftheBrazilianLegalAmazon environmental degradationintheAmazon.The transition, aswelltoreduce deforestation and and mitigatetheunknowneffects oftheclimate and indigenousagroforestry agents,mustknow Indigenous Lands(ILs),through theirleadership the role ofindigenouslands’, stated: protection trainingprogram ‘Environmental services: Foundation (FUNAIinPortuguese),itsterritory For example,already in2015,theNationalIndian regional andglobalresponses. region alsodependoninstitutional, political,national, climate transitionandtheenormityofAmazon of development,thesystemiccharacteristics their securityandexperienceamore sustainabletype vulnerable groups themselvesseekingtoimprove Beyond thelocallevelandstrengthening of instrument forthinkingand discussing PES indigenous peoples.Therefore, itisthemain environmental servicesprovided by That is,PNGATI aims tomaintainthe respecting theirsocioculturalautonomy. generations ofindigenouspeoples, reproduction ofthepresent andfuture full conditionsofphysicalandcultural the improvement ofthequalitylifeand the integrityofindigenousheritage, and territories.Thepolicyalsoensures natural resources ofindigenouslands conservation andsustainableuseof to promote theprotection, restoration, by Decree 7,747ofJune5,2012,aims (PNGATI [inPortuguese]),established Territorial ManagementinIndigenousLands The NationalPolicyforEnvironmental and and fish reproduction. (FUNAI2015:98) or rain,aswellchangesintree fruiting life. Storiesaboutlongerperiodsofdrought daily livesandontheirtraditionalwaysof prove theimpactsofclimate changeontheir verified and reported different factsthat In recent times,indigenous peopleshave policies of the Brazilian federal government forthe policies oftheBrazilianfederalgovernment In thissense,the“disastrous scenario”ofthecurrent increased insecurity. fail oraggravatestressors, theycontributeto policies forprevention and mitigation.Asinstitutions etc.). Andindigenousleadersdemandpublic (forced displacement,food insecurity, violence, degradation andincreased riskstotheirsecurity link betweensocialvulnerability, environmental demonstrate, indigenouspeoplesperceive the As theHuni-KuinandShipibo-Conibocases for thedevelopmentofprojects andactions. Huni KuinArtistsMovement (MAHKU,inPortuguese), Teachers Organization(OPIAC, inPortuguese)orthe (AMAAIAC, inPortuguese),the Acre Indigenous Indigenous Agroforestry MovementAssociation interacted withcivilsocietyentitiessuchastheAcre Acre IndianCommission(CPIAcre, inPortuguese) Bodies suchastheBMIandinstitutions Regulation (IMC),created byDecree 1,471/2011. for ClimateChangeandEnvironmental Services previously created structures suchastheInstitute Acre threatens todismantleordivertthepurposeof Even atthestatelevel,current of government of theendlegalreserves. andtheopendefence criminal characterofburning Lands are institutedinBrazil,thedenialof country, theattemptchangesinwayIndigenous by theministeronall334ConservationUnitsin National Water Agency(ANA),thesuspicioncast of Environment’s bodiesin2019,theuntyingof oversight andpunishmentcapacityoftheMinistry Suffice ittomentionthedeliberateweakeningof acts infavourofpredatory interests (Trigueiro 2019). change, theBolsonaro systematically government flirting withthecrudestdenialismaboutclimate most vulnerablesocialgroups. Inadditionto openly environment constitutesathreat tothesecurityof protagonism andautonomy. (FUNAI,2015) and future projects are designedwith environmental andterritorial management rights are for guaranteed,newalternatives skill byindigenouspeoples,sothattheir These instrumentsneedtobeusedwith strategies inBrazilianindigenouslands. IGARAPÉ INSTITUTE | DECEMBER 2019
To exemplify the connection between local and banks of the Juruá River received support from international, it is worth highlighting an initiative of that project. In Peru, the Pronaturaleza Foundation S.O.S. Amazon together with the Acre Pro-Indian and the Universidad Nacional de Ucayali supported Commission, supported by Amazon Cooperation communities in the Abujão River Valley (SOS Treaty Organization (ACTO, or OTCA, in Portuguese) Amazonia 2012). and the Acre government between 2004 and 2012. Under that partnership, the project Strengthening Such an initiative would hardly be supported by the Acre-Ucayali Border Integration was able to current framework of institutional dismantling and actively incorporate indigenous and agro-extractive threats to forest peoples. Suffice it to recall the failure community leaders (OTCA 2011). It also recognized of the ACTO, the difficulties in implementing the Paris the chain of causal links linking threats to human Agreement and the crisis triggered by the burning of security from organized crime (loggers and drug the Amazon region in 2019. Hence the importance traffickers), environmental degradation and lack of of the leading role of indigenous people, social sustainable development. In Acre, eight Indigenous movements and citizenship. Lands and residents of four communities on the
CONCLUSION
Climate change projections indicate an increase in events that tends to result in insecurity. Bolsonaro the frequency and intensity of environmental hazards government statements and actions amplified the such as droughts and floods (Sherman et al. 2016). chances of increasing risks being taken as fatalities However, it is not yet possible to accurately predict or isolated cases. In the case of Shipibo-Conibo, the intensity and consequences of such risks (Nobre research-reported food insecurity indicates a more et al. 2007). Thus, the importance of understanding advanced stage in the causal chain. Flooding, the vulnerability of indigenous and traditional combined with weak local institutions, has enhanced communities in the Amazon rainforest in the face of the transformation of vulnerabilities into insecurity. extreme weather events grows (Bursztyn et al. 2012). In common, both cases indicate how institutional Based on an explicit model of the mechanisms neglect and failure to deliver consistent public causally linking environmental degradation, social policies over time can aggravate the links between vulnerability and insecurity, two cases of flooding social vulnerability and insecurity. On the other hand, affecting Huni Kuin communities in Acre and Shipibo- it is extremely important that the proposals made by Conibo communities in Ucayali were analysed. the indigenous leaders themselves in Acre and Peru Although it is the same type of weather event (flood) are incorporated and prioritized as a way to reduce the lessons and implications of both events are vulnerability and increase resilience. For example, distinct and complementary. in the Acre Indigenous Leadership Letter there is a demand for the restoration of indigenous health policies dismantled by the Bolsonaro government The Huni Kuin case demonstrates an event in 2019. In practice, indigenous health public considered isolated by the municipal and state policies are configured to mitigate environmental government. The individual consequences of people degradation because many of the problems of affected by the floods of the Jordan River are large indigenous health are aggravated by climatic and for personal life, but it is not even considered as environmental events on indigenous lands. The a problem by local and federal authorities. It thus letter also mentions “disregard for the evidence represents the early phase of a chain of nonlinear
85 86 COLLECTION OF ARTICLES ABOUT CLIMATE, SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT respecting theterritoriesandmodesoflife. sustainable developmentandforest conservation, peoples oftheregion, basedontheprinciples of the fullparticipationofindigenousandtraditional all border developmentactionsbecarriedoutwith Group onCross-Border Protection advocatedthat territories (CPIAcre 2019).Similarly, theWorking the situationofindigenouspeoplesandthreats to to highlightingsocialandenvironmental issues, For overtenyears,themeetingshavecontributed integration advocatedintheBrazilianConstitution. security”, contributetomakeeffective theregional as “threatening Braziliansovereignty andnational institutions suchasFUNAI,muchtothecontrary of theregion, residents ofextractivereserves and promote cooperationbetween indigenousleaders of theBorder’ betweenBrazil andPeru,which Events suchasthe‘MeetingofIndigenousPeoples protection oftheAmazonForest anditsbiodiversity. a wayofcontributingtothedefencerightsand direct financinglinesforindigenous associationsas letter, considerationshouldbegiventoopening view ofthepoliticalconjuncture describedinthe cooperationisalsorequestedInternational that,in Territorial andEnvironmental Management(PNGATI). for indigenouslandsfollowtheNationalPolicy among others,thatprograms, policiesandactions lives. From isrequired, thestategovernment and impactsofclimatechange”onAmazonian supported, tobuildconsistentandsustainable by climatechangethemselvesare able,when was alsoclearthatthesocialgroups mostaffected and testimoniesprepared byindigenousleaders,it groups, intoinsecurity. tendtoturn Indocuments failures andpredatory behaviourofdominantsocial combined withextreme weatherevents,institutional mechanisms through whichpriorsocialvulnerability, Ucayali Shipibo-Conibo,itwaspossibletoverifythe recent experienceoftheHuni KuinofAcre andthe indigenous peoplesoftheAmazon,particularlyin create orsharpenviolentconflict. Inthecaseof and biodiversityreduction are stressors thatcan such as(droughts, floods,heatwaves,storms), regions, recurrence ofextreme weatherevents degradation ofbiomes,expandingdesertsintropical optimistic scenario,risingsealevelsandacidification, (highest) fortheplanetasawhole.Eveninmost to 1.7°C(lowest),orbetween2.6and4.8 Climate Change(IPCC)scenariosrangefrom 0.3 Panelon As iswellknown,theIntergovernmental the indigenouspeopleofAmazon. improvement ofhumansecuritystandtogetherfor effects. Thefightagainstglobalwarmingandthe responses tomitigaterisksandnegative IGARAPÉ INSTITUTE | DECEMBER 2019
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