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Home , Edward Adrian Wilson, Pedanius Dioscorides, William Buckland

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Geology as medicine and medics as

CHRISTOPHER J. DUFFIN1,2 1Department of Palaeontology, The Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK 2146 Church Hill Road, Sutton, Surrey SM3 8NF, UK (email: cduffi[email protected])

Modern links between and medicine are Before this seminal contribution, the medical clearly demonstrated in the rise (or some would traditions of numerous earlier societies incorpor- say, re-emergence) of medical geology – the study ated geological materials into their respective phar- of the influence of geological factors (such as the maceutical arsenals. The Egyptians recorded the excess or deficiency of trace elements and min- medicinal use of malachite, gypsum and galena erals, radionuclides, mineral dusts and volcanic in a series of medical papyri; the Babylonians emissions, etc.) on the geographical distribution and Sumerians preserved recipes for drugs which of health problems in both man and animals (e.g. included geological simples on clay tablets; the Finkelman et al. 2001; Dissanayake 2005; Selinus Indian Ayurvedic and Chinese traditions also incor- & Alloway 2005). The purpose of the current vol- porated a variety of minerals and lithologies into ume, however, is to explore the historical links their earliest medical writings. between geology and medicine; indeed, this is the At approximately the same time as Dioscor- first major publication to embrace such a project. ides, ’s Naturalis Historiae, written Two major themes emerge from this study: the around 77 AD, gathered together much Roman therapeutic use of geological materials (geopharma- wisdom and folklore belief, including much infor- ceuticals), and the contributions made by medical mation about the contemporary medicinal applica- practitioners to geology. tions of a variety of geological materials. These It could be argued that both themes were well authors laid the foundations for the later works of established by classical times. The Greek physi- Arabic scholars, medieval encyclopaedists, lapid- cian (c. 40–90 AD), imperial aries and bestiaries, many of which were made surgeon to Nero and the legions of the Roman newly available in incunabular form with the inven- army, probably studied medicine at Tarsus (Osbal- tion of the printing press. Christopher Duffin deston & Wood 2000). His magnum opus was a examines the of the geological materia five-volume entitled The , medica from earliest times through to around 1750, probably written around 64 AD. Although effec- as expressed in primary printed sources, providing tively a medicinal herbal, volume 5 of his work con- a bibliography for those intending to access these tains a section on ‘Metallic Stones’. The 99 entries topics for the first time. in this part of his work embrace a wide range of The word ‘Lithotherapy’ was coined by the Ger- materials including such unlikely things as soot man physician and pharmacist, Hermann Georg gathered from torches and glassmakers, ash from Fu¨hner (1871–1944). Using published lapidaries burnt twigs, Mediterranean soft (‘Alcyo- as his source material, Fu¨hner completed his doc- nium’), sediment from old Italian wines and vari- toral dissertation (1902) at the University of Stras- ous oils, gums and herbal derivatives. In addition bourg on the history of the use of precious stones to a wide range of metallic products, he includes in medicine. The word has since been comman- unprocessed geological materials in the form of deered by New Age beliefs and given to mean the earths (e.g. Lemnian earth, Samian earth), ochres, use of the energy emitted by minerals for healing rocks (e.g. limestone, pumice, serpentinite), min- purposes. Relatively little serious research has erals (e.g. Chrysocolla, azurite, cinnabar, calcite, been completed on the topic of lithotherapy since pyrite, realgar, orpiment, gypsum, hematite, magne- Fu¨hner’s contribution, although the last decade tite, turquoise, asbestos, selenite, sapphire, siderite, has seen some stirrings of interest in this long neg- corundum) and (e.g. echinoid spines, jet, lected discipline. A number of papers in this pres- oysters). Unconcerned with the origins of these ent volume are dedicated to the opening up of this geological materials, he dealt solely with their general topic area. Eladio Lin˜a´n, Marı´a Lin˜a´n perceived therapeutic benefits. His work quickly and Joaquı´n Carrasco have scoured the early lit- became an authoritative and essential reference, erature (’s book On Stones from the consulted widely and revered relatively uncritically third century BC, four second century AD apocry- for the next 1400 years. phal Greek lapidaries, Pliny’s Naturalis Historiae,

From:Duffin, C. J., Moody,R.T.J.&Gardner-Thorpe, C. (eds) 2013. A and Medicine. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 375, 1–6. First published online August 23, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP375.29 # The Geological Society of London 2013. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 26, 2021

2 C. J. DUFFIN

Dioscorides’ Materia Medica, Isidore of Seville’s Arthur MacGregor gives an overview of the seventh century Etymologiarum and Alfonso X’s historical use of the medicinal clays known as Libro de las Piedras from the thirteenth century) terra sigillata – ‘sealed earths’. Tracing their his- for references to potential palaeontological mat- tory from their classical roots on the Greek Islands, erial. Putative remains hidden within these particularly Lemnos and its close neighbours, ancient texts include a wide range of , through alternative sources of supply in the wake vertebrates, and chemical fossils, many of of their huge popularity – Malta, Palestine, Arme- which were believed to possess magico-medicinal nia, Turkey, Central and the southern Bal- properties. The authors present English translations tic, Scandinavia, France, Britain and the Iberian of primary texts, many for the first time, discuss- peninsula – MacGregor concludes by considering ing the potential identities of the various ‘stones’, the range of therapies in which they were utilized and enumerating their contemporary applications historically in the light of modern scholarship. as prophylactics, talismans and pharmaceutical The history of pumice as a geopharmaceutical ingredients. in both the western medical tradition and Chinese In an interesting and novel approach, Joaquı´n is analysed by Christopher Carrasco and Marı´a Lin˜a´n, concentrating on prep- Duffin. Primarily employed as a medical abrasive, arations for oral problems, have compared modern it has a long history of use as a dentifrice, cicatriz- pharmaceutical mineral-containing drugs and den- ing agent (to encourage wounds to scar effecti- tal compounds with those recommended by Dio- vely), depilatory and means of cleaning ulcers. scorides, Abulcasis (the famous Arabic physician, Incorporated into the Chinese materia medica in surgeon and pharmacologist from around 1000 the mid-eighteenth century, it was used as an ingre- AD) and the Hortus Sanitatis, an incunabular her- dient in healing teas (decoctions) used in the treat- bal with an extensive section on ‘stones’ (lapidibus) ment of cancers, urinary problems, coughs and published in 1496. As might be expected, some anxiety. The pharmaceutical use of is the sub- mineralogical remedies commended by ancient ject of a survey by Renzo Console. In classical authors, such as antimony, orpiment, realgar, pyrite times, it was recommended by authors, including and lapis lazuli, have no place in the modern phar- Pliny, against warts, haemorrhoids, sores and ulcers, macopoeia. The authors do find a certain degree and by Dioscorides as an antidote to mercury poi- of consonance between some classical and medie- soning. In the medieval Arabic medical tradition val remedies and those of the present day, with gold filings were used by doctors, including Avi- alum, borax, calcium carbonate, zinc sulphate, cop- cenna, to combat bad breath, hair loss and melan- per sulphate, copper acetate and marble, for choly, and as a means of cauterizing wounds. Its example, being utilized in the same way as nacre, use expanded in medieval Europe to include treat- white vitriol, blue vitriol and verdigris were in the ments for syncope, lassitude and, in various prep- past. arations, to ‘strengthen the heart’. The highly A number of contributions consider the his- popular Aurum potabile (‘drinkable gold’) consisted torical evolution of various geopharmaceuticals of a fine suspension of gold in a suitable draught for the first time. Christopher Duffin focuses on which was combined with a wide range of addi- the gem electuary, a paste of comminuted gem- tional ingredients in a whole plethora of derivative stones including sapphires, emeralds, garnets, chal- medicines to treat a wide range of conditions, cedony and amber, mixed with herbal and some including paralysis. Gold was used later to coat zoological ingredients. The recipe came out of the medicinal pills in a bid to obscure any foul odour medieval Arabic pharmaceutical tradition and is that they might emit. Maria do Sameiro Barroso ascribed to Mesue¨ the Younger (died 1015 AD). considers the history of the procurement and medi- This and similar electuaries were either planned or cinal applications of a variety of bezoar stones used to treat King Edward I of England and King (mineral concretions from the guts of a wide Charles VI of France. Embraced by the medical variety of animals, especially ruminants). Although community after the recipe was published and first referred to in the medieval Arabic medical made more readily available in the late fifteenth tradition, it was during the seventeenth century century, the gem electuary was used in the treat- that trade in these remarkable and exotic objects ment of a bewildering array of conditions ranging reached its height, the stones being valued for from nightmares through gynaecological condi- their alexipharmic and antitoxic qualities, as well tions to the plague. The high cost of the wide as being used directly in the treatment of a wide range of exotic ingredients precluded prescription range of diseases, including fevers, haemorrhage to all but the nobility; during the late sixteenth and and melancholy. Fashioned into beautiful goblets, early seventeenth centuries the recipe evolved, chased in gold, bezoars graced the tables of the incorporating more readily available materials into nobility where any beverage poured the mix. into them would immediately be made safe to drink. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 26, 2021

INTRODUCTION 3

Ancient books and publications are not the only Massimo Aliverti explores the strange syn- sources of information available regarding the cretism between folklore and Christian beliefs in evolution of the geological materia medica. Ian his examination of healing practices in Italy. Pil- Rolfe investigates the 25 geological components grims to various hermitages, sanctuaries and shrines, with pharmaceutical applications depicted in the often located in mountainous areas, indulge in Paper Museum of Cassiano del Pozzo (1588–1657) lithoiatric rituals designed to optimize success in – a series of manuscript images of specimens, the their search for healing. These practices involve subjects of many of which belonged to members keeping in close contact with rock walls and floors of the Academy of Lynxes, acquired by King by walking barefoot, crawling on hands and knees George III in 1762 and currently forming part of or just touching the stone surroundings in their the Royal Collection. Images from the collection approaches to the sanctuaries, especially on certain are published here for the first time, and an over- feast days. Drinking water issuing from or flowing view is given of their contemporary medicinal over the rock surfaces, collecting certain stones from applications. The material includes bezoar stones water courses and even passing bodily through holes and other calculi, various ‘stones’ of zoological in special rocks are all seen as enhancing the pro- and botanical origin (toadstones, , calcareous spects of healing a wide range of ailments. algae, fungal sclerotia), ‘magnetic’ stones (magne- The links between geology and occupational tite, aetites or the Eagle Stone, Bologna Stone, health are explored in two papers. John Pearn Amber and various amulets), as well as ‘figured and Christopher Gardner-Thorpe explore the stones’ and gems. significance of the Sunday Stone – centripetal, Another resource which offers a window into banded calcareous mineral deposits forming within prescribing practices and the history of the geol- the waste water pipes of Durham and Northumber- ogical materia medica consists of fortuitous survi- land collieries and which preserve diurnal records vals of pharmaceutical cabinets, most dating from of mining activity; darker bands represent week- the early eighteenth century. Christopher Duffin day working when the waste water was laden with presents an introduction to the medical and phar- coal dust and mineral material, while the broad maceutical cabinets of Sir (1660– light bands encode Sunday downtime. Beverly 1753), John Francis Vigani (1650–1713), John Bergman examines the historical roots and the Addenbrooke (1680–1719) and William Heberden subsequent development of the concept of geology (1710–1801). Placing the collections into the con- as a health-determining factor, that is, medical text of changing ideas in pharmaceutical practice geology. Works considered range from the writings (from the ‘Galenical’ to the ‘Chymical’ approach), of (c. 400 BC), (born c. 80 a selection of geological simples is used to illus- BC), (129 to c. 200 AD) and trate the diversity of contemporary application of (c. 980–1037) to the eighteenth century and the sem- rocks, minerals and fossils in medical treatment. inal work of Edmund Alexander Parkes (1819– Healing properties have not only been ascribed 1876). to rocks, minerals and fossils; waters have also The contributions of trained medical personnel been administered therapeutically both internally to geology have received very little attention in and externally, and their extraction localities have the past. Historically, doctors certainly have a well- been developed into resorts since Roman times. established pedigree in terms of gaining renown John Mather traces the growth of the British in other fields of endeavour (Schlueter 1929). Apart spa industry, placing it firmly into contemporary from three papers which consider the contribu- historical context. The 14 heritage spas are then tions of British and American physicians to geol- briefly reviewed and an outline classification is ogy (Wills 1934; Browning 1931; Sakula 1990), proposed based upon their hydrogeological char- most assessments of the geological work of those acters. Nick Robins and Pauline Smedley consi- trained in medicine appear in dedicated indivi- der the history of the supposed healing properties dual biographies. Among the ‘greats’ of geological of groundwater from a variety of sources (spas, science are men who began by studying medicine. springs and seepages). Often conflated or overwrit- Notable examples include (1809– ten by religious beliefs and perspectives, many of 1882), who undertook two years of medical edu- the therapeutic effects claimed for various ground- cation at the University of Edinburgh, going on to water types are unproven, although easing of symp- become an eminent . Thomas Henry toms is eminently possible in some cases. The Huxley (1825–1895) studied at Charing Cross purging effects of MgSO4 (Epsom salts) in some Hospital and served as Assistant Surgeon on HMS waters is demonstrable. Otherwise, groundwaters Rattlesnake before making an enormous contri- provide a safe, clean, potable, mineral-laden source bution to vertebrate palaeontology and discussing of water for the routine maintenance of human the nature of slaty cleavage. Fulfilling a promise to health. his father, (1807–1873) gained a Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 26, 2021

4 C. J. DUFFIN doctorate in medicine but then dedicated his early meeting in Babington’s house, 17 Aldermanbury life to an immense contribution on fossil fish and Square, close to the Guildhall in the City of the geological work of glaciers. London. James Franck (died 1843), a physician Geology was an emerging discipline during the surgeon at Guy’s hospital and colleague of Babing- seventeenth century, when minerals, rocks and ton’s, was enticed along to the meetings. James fossils, together with a whole host of other natural Laird (died 1840) took up Babington’s position at objects, became part of the focus at the height of a Guy’s after arriving in London from Jamaica in collecting craze; cabinets of curiosity were de around 1801 and serving there as a pupil physi- rigeur in the houses and palaces of the cognos- cian. As the first Secretary of the Society, Laird centi (MacGregor 2007). Beyond their initial aim was also responsible for its motto. James Parkin- of being ‘in a small compass, a model of universal son (1755–1824) was amongst the 11 ‘Geophilists’ nature made private’ (Bacon 1594, in Greg 1914, who dined at the Freemason’s Tavern in Great p. 35), these collections also provided sources of Queen Street on the evening of 13 November new understanding of the natural world for those 1807, the post-prandial meeting at which saw the who undertook the challenging task of classifying institution of the Geological Society of London. and ordering their contents. One such student of As a successful London apothecary, Parkinson pub- nature was Ole Worm (1588–1655), who for lished on gout (1805) and later contributed a pio- much of his life was a teacher of medicine at the neering study of the ‘Shaking Palsy’, a disease University of Copenhagen (1624–1654), where he now commonly referred eponymously to as ‘Parkin- also attended King Christian IV as personal phys- son’s Disease’. Christopher Gardner-Thorpe ician. Ella Hoch uses Worm’s correspondence to explores the intertwining of medical and geological trace the evolution of his emerging understanding themes in the life of Parkinson and his extended of fossils and the processes of fossilization, con- family, and carefully places the man in his historical strained as it was by contemporary Christian context with regard to both disciplines. Cherry orthodoxy. Lewis uses the text of Parkinson’s celebrated One of Worm’s medical students, Neils Sten- Organic Remains of a Former World, published in sen (Nicholas Steno, 1638–1686) and his founda- epistolary style in three parts (Parkinson 1804, tional thinking in geology forms the subject of a 1808 & 1811), a letter to (28 paper by Jakob Bek-Thomsen. Focus is brought January 1821) and his proposed textbook, Outlines to bear on the philosophical development and the of Oryctology, an Introduction to the Study of influence of the Medicean Court of Ferdinand II Fossil Organic Remains (Parkinson 1821), to on Steno’s arguments in his consideration of the examine his religious beliefs in respect of his under- nature of glossopetrae (tonguestones) in the appen- standing of geology. She concludes that, although dix to his work (1667) on myology, involving the being careful not to offend contemporary views of description of the dissected cranial musculature a young earth according to the biblical account, of a Great White Shark and his De Solido intra his understanding of the palaeontological record solidum, often referred to as the Prodromus (1669). forced him to adopt a rather liberal interpretation Medical professionals have played an undis- of scripture, then in vogue by radical thinkers, to putedly important role in the development of the support his emerging views of successive creations. geological sciences. One only has to consider the His intellectual evolution eventually led him away founding fathers of the Geological Society of from a belief in the literal truth of the Mosaic London; at least four names loom large (see Her- accounts of the Creation and the Deluge, to an ries Davies 2007 and Lewis 2009a, b for further acceptance of the great age of the earth and the details). William Babington (1756–1833) was an fact of extinction, while simultaneously retaining Irishman from County Antrim. Following an his faith in a benevolent God. A fifth member of apprenticeship to a local general practitioner, he the founding fathers was William Allen (1770– moved to Guy’s Hospital in London, where he 1843), who could be considered relevant to the served as a wound dresser, physician and eventually present discussion since he was a pharmaceutical apothecary. Although receiving some tuition from chemist and owner of the Plough Court (Lombard Jacques-Louis, Comte de Bournon (1751–1825), Street). Allen was an astute businessman who spear- Babington was largely an autodidact so far as min- headed the pharmaceutical manufacturing firm, erals were concerned. He published a new system Allen and Hanbury’s Ltd, which at this time special- of mineralogy in 1799, following his study of ized in galenical preparations (from herbal ingredi- Lord Bute’s collection, which he had purchased in ents; Richmond et al. 2003, p. 78); Allen was also a 1792. He is honoured with the inosilicate mineral keen amateur mineralogist. Babingtonite: (Ca2(Fe,Mn)FeSi5O14(OH). The idea Interest in a wide range of disciplines seemed to of forming a geological society, in which he later be the norm for many eighteenth century physicians. served as President (1822–1824), was born at a Jeff Liston focuses on the life and work of William Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 26, 2021

INTRODUCTION 5

Hunter (1718–1783), a key Enlightenment figure ‘natural history’ ambit were unavailable as spe- who not only broke new ground in obstetrics, but cial subjects at Austrian universities. Following a also amassed an impressive collection of fossils, late 18th century reform of the university educa- especially vertebrates. Applying his skills as an tional system, natural history subjects were taught anatomist to topics that piqued his interest, in in the philosophy and medical faculties of the uni- 1767 Hunter weighed in to the discussion over the versities, with the medical faculty delivering the relationships of the ‘Ohio incognitum’ (mastodon natural history curriculum to a higher academic bones presented at the Royal Society by Peter Col- level. Daniela Angetter, Bernhard Hubmann linson (1694–1768)). His expanding curiosity with and Johannes Seidl trace the 18th and 19th cen- respect to geology and palaeontology is reflected tury reforms which took place in the Austrian in his correspondence, collections, publications higher educational system and their impact on stu- and the contents of his library, all of which are con- dents entering professions and research in the sulted by Liston in a bid to elucidate and contextua- Earth sciences. They recognize three ‘generations’ lize the thinking of this important figure. of ‘medical geologists’ or ‘geological physicians’ Leonard Wilson takes up the story of John Jer- as determined by changes in the educational sys- emiah Bigsby (1792–1881), an English physician tem and the opportunities or limitations which who endowed the Bigsby Medal of the Geological those changes afforded: (1) trained physicians who Society of London. Bigsby’s skills as a geologist expanded their expertise as autodidacts in geology were honed while stationed with the British Army in order to enhance their understanding of the rela- in Canada (1817–1825). He took the opportunity tions between life and the abiotic environment to collect fossils from the area of the Great Lakes, (e.g. Franz Ambros Reuss, 1761–1830); (2) trained and studied Canadian Shield minerals and the physicians who moved away from their initial geology of the lower stretches of the St Lawrence medical training by taking up independent employ- River Valley to the centre of the continent. ment opportunities in the Earth sciences (e.g. Carl Gillian Hull considers five polymaths from this Ferdinand Peters, 1825–1881); (3) scientists who era; men who contributed ably to their chosen pro- completed some form of both medical and geologi- fessions, but who also extended their interests to cal studies at university (e.g. Conrad Clar, 1844– other areas of science, including geology. Her five 1904, and Theodor Posewitz, 1851–1917). subjects are John Wall (1708–1776), Erasmus Geological fieldwork sometimes involves visit- Darwin (1731–1802), Edward Jenner (1749– ing the most inhospitable places. While the race to 1823), Caleb Hillier Parry (1755–1822) and John the during the Heroic Age of MacCulloch (1773–1835). Exploration has received much consideration, the John Whitaker Hulke (1830–1895) is a further scientific expeditions to the area were also con- example of a medical polymath. In addition to a cerned with investigating the geology. As Henry remarkable contribution as a surgeon, Hulke was Guly demonstrates, there was a distinct advantage also a botanist and gifted linguist. Simon Wills to being competent in more than one discipline if examines the geological work of this highly respec- you were to become an expedition member. The ted scholar, who was a recipient of the Geological author focuses on five people who combined medi- Society’s (1887) in recognition cal expertise with ability as a geologist: James of his contributions to vertebrate palaeontology – Harvey Pirie (1879–1965) joined the exped- he published more then 50 papers, mostly on dino- ition (1902–1904) as doctor, bacteriologist and saurs, and built up an extensive personal collection geologist; Reginald Koettlitz (1860–1916) served which passed to the in the Expedition (1901–1904) with London on his death. Edward Adrian Wilson (1872–1912) as his junior A respected physician with a thriving general – each had an interest in geology and Wilson practice in Southsea, , Sir Arthur Conan accompanied Scott as Chief Scientific Officer on Doyle (1859–1930), is rather more famous for his the ill-fated journey to the South Pole as part of literary contributions as the creator of Sherlock the later expedition (1910–1912); Holmes. Dave Martill and Tony Pointon examine Ernest Gourdon (1875–1955) joined two French Conan Doyle’s The Lost World (1912), a popular expeditions to the area during 1903–1905 and novel with many later literary, film and television 1908–1910; Leslie Whetter (1888 to c. 1956) derivatives, which introduced the somewhat pugna- accompanied the Australian Antarctic expedition cious fictional character, Professor Challenger. The (1911–1914) which discovered the first Antarctic authors consider how Conan Doyle’s use of ptero- meteorite. saurs in the story helped to establish an iconic Alessandro Porro, Carlo Cristini, Bruno view of them which has persisted to the present day. Falconi, Antonia Francesca Franchini and During the first half of the 19th century, Lorenzo Lorusso consider the debate that raged chemistry, geology and other subjects within the between the church and the medical community in Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 26, 2021

6 C. J. DUFFIN

Italy over whether or not stones could be generated Lewis, C. L. E. 2009a. Doctoring geology: the medical within the stomach, stimulated by the case in 1746 origins of the Geological Society. In: Lewis,C.L.E. of a young woman who vomited stones and other & Knell, S. (eds) The Making of the Geological foreign bodies. In a slightly different combination Society of London. Geological Society, London, (Lorusso, Falconi, Franchini and Porro) these Special Publications, 317, 49–92. Lewis, C. L. E. 2009b. Our favourite science: the British authors also give a brief biographical sketch of Prime Minister and the apothecary surgeon, searching Paolo Gorini (1813–1881), whom they consider to for a Theory of the Earth. In: Ko¨lbl-Ebert, M. (ed.) be a founding father of experimental geology, and Geology and Religion: Historical Views of an Intense who applied the results of his experimental model- Relationship between Harmony and Hostility. The ling of volcanic eruptions to the practical problems Geological Society, London, Special Publications, of cremation, and, in a related move, applied his 310, 111–126. work on tissue petrifaction to the preservation of MacGregor, A. 2007. Curiosity and Enlightenment. corpses and anatomical specimens. Collectors and Collections from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century We hope that this initial excursion into the links . Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. between the histories of both medicine and geology Osbaldeston,T.A.&Wood, R. P. 2000. Dioscorides will prove to be of interest to medical professionals, . Being an Herbal With Many historians and geologists alike, and will indicate Other Medicinal Materials Written in Greek in the something of the potential of this area of investi- First Century of the Common Era. Ibidis Press, gation for future interdisciplinary studies. Johannesburg. Parkinson, J. 1804, 1808 and 1811. Organic Remains of a The Editors and the History of Geology Group would like Former World. An Examination of the Mineralized to thank the Geological Society of London and the Curry Remains of the Vegetables and Animals of the Antedilu- Fund of the Geologists’ Association for their support vian World; Generally Termed Extraneous Fossils. during the realization of this project. London. Parkinson, J. 1821. Outlines of Oryctology. An Intr- oduction to the Study of Fossil Organic Remains. W. Phillips, London. References Richmond, L., Stevenson,J.&Turton, A. 2003. The Pharmaceutical Industry: A Guide to Historical Browning, W. 1931. The relation of Physicians to early Records. Ashgate, Bath. American geology. Annals of Medical History, 3, Sakula, A. 1990. Gentlemen of the hammer: British 547–567. medical geologists in the 19th century. Journal of the Dissanayake, C. 2005. Of stones and health: medical Royal Society of Medicine, 83, 788–794. geology in Sri Lanka. Science, 309, 883–885. Schlueter, R. E. 1929. Doctors who served outside the Finkelman, R. B., Skinner, H. C. W., Plumlee,G.S.& limits of medical science. Bulletin of the Medical Bunnell, J. E. 2001. Medical geology. Geotimes, 46, Library Association, 18, 46–53. 20–23. Selinus,O.&Alloway, B. J. (eds) 2005. Essentials of Greg, W. 1914. Gesta Grayorum 1688. Oxford University Medical Geology: Impacts of The Natural Environ- Press, Oxford. ment on Public Health. Academic Press, London. Herries Davies, G. L. 2007. Whatever is Under the Earth. Wills, R. G. 1934. The contribution of British medical The Geological Society of London 1807–2007. The men to the foundation of Geology. Proceedings of Geological Society, London. the Liverpool Geological Society, 16, 200–219.