Translation Series No. 1665

VeciiivEs

FISHERIES RESEARCH BOARD OF CANADA Translation Series No. 1665

The ringed seal of western seas of the Soviet Arctic (The morphological characteristic, biology and hunting production)

By K. K. •Chapskii

Original title: Nerpa zapadnykh morei Sovetskoi arktiki (Morfologicheskaya kharakteristika, biologiya, promysklennoe syr'e)

From: Trudy Arkticheskogo nauchno-issledovatel'skogo instituta glavnovo upravleniya severnogo morskogo puti pri snk SSSR (Proceedings of the Arctic Scientific Research Institute, Chief Administration of the Northern Sea Route), 145:_— 1-72, 1940 Translated by the Translation Bureau(NDK) Foreign Languages Division Department of the Secretary of State of Canada

Fisheries Research Board of Canada Arctic Biological Station Ste. Anne de Bellevue, P. Q.

1971

147 pages typescript pc Me

DEPARTMENT OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE „ SECRÉTARIAT D'ÉTAT TRANSLATION BUREAU BUREAU DES TRADUCTIONS FOREIGN LANGUAGES DIVISION DES LANGUES ar DIVISION CANADA ÉTRANGÈRES

TRANSLATED FROM — TRADUCTION DE INTO — EN Russian • English

AUTHOR — AUTEUR K.K. Chapsky

TITLE IN ENGLISH — TITRE ANGLAIS The Ringed Seal of the Western Seas of the Soviet Arctic

Title in foreign language (transliterate foreign characters) Nerpa zapadnvkh morei sovetskoi arktiki

R5URENCE IN FOREIGN ANGUAG, E (NAME OF BOOK OR PUBLICATION) IN FULL. TRANSLITERATE FOREIGN CHAttACTERS. • REFERENCE EN LANGUE ETRANGERE (NOM DU LIVRE OU PUBLICATION), AU COMPLET. TRANSCRIRE EN CARACTERES PHONETIQUES. TrudY àrkticheskogo nauchno-iàsledovatel'skogo instituta Glavnogo upimvleniya severhogo morskogo put! pri SNK SSSR

ip ERENCE IN ENGLISH — RÉFÉRENÇE EN ANGLAIS Proceedings of the Arctic -ScientificResearch Institute • Chief Administration of the'Northern Sea Route .

PUBLISH ER — ÉDITEUR PAGE NUMBERS IN ORIGINAL DATE OF PUBLICATION NUMÉROS DES PAGES DANS Izd. Glavsevmorputi DATE DE PUBLICATION L'ORIGINAL •

YEAR MSUENO. 73 VOLUME ANNÉE NUMÉRO PLACE OF PUBLICATION NUMBER OF TYPEDPAGES LIEU DE PUBLICATION NOMBRE DE PAG,ES • Leningrad. Moscow DACTYLOGRAPHIEES 1940 145 147

REQUESTING DEPARTMENT Fisheries & Forestry TRANSLATION BUREAU NO. 1935 MIN ISTÉRE-CLIENT NOTRE DOSSIER NO

BRANCH OR DIVISION Fisheries Research Board TRANSLATOR (INITIALS) N.D.K. DIRECTION OU DIVISION TRADUCTEUR (INITIALES) T.G. Smith • P.ERSON EQUESTING DATE CpMPLETEO 1 6 1911 DEMANDE PAR Fisheries Research Board ACHEVE LE rfEB Arctic.Biological Station . YOUR NUMBER St; Anne de Bellevue VOTRE DOSSIER N° 769-18 14 1%014 • r-: rVI•Ste' ' DATE OF REQUEST ' July 10 1970 eon 'et‘ DATE DE L A DEMANDE U'è\Ç" '. Orit'l VIC4 - tlik;C°-'j Se'\Ge e ..te, Ikr!toï," •t:,1 eiOn • FLD 69A •

303.200- 104e (REv. 2/88? ' )665- DEPARTMENT OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE SECRÉTARIAT D'ÉTAT TRANSLATION BUREAU BUREAU DES TRADUCTIONS FOREIGN LANGUAGES DIVISION DIVISION DES LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES

CANADA

CLIENT'S NO. DEPARTMENT DIVISION/BRANCH CITY N° DU CLIENT MINISTERE DIVISION/DIRECTION VILLE Fisheries & Forestry Fisheries Research Board Ottawa

BUREAU NO. LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR (INITIALS) DATE No DU BUREAU LANGUE TRADUCTEUR (INITIALES) 0., um 1935 Russian N.D.K. .r1 td* . . FEB 1 °

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ARCTIC INSTITUTE OF THE ' CHIEF ADMINISTRATION OF THE NORTHERN SEA ROUTE

-VOLUME 145 K.K. CHAPSKY

THE RINGED SEAL OF THE WESTERN SEAS OF THE SOVIET ARCTIC

The morphological characteristic, biology and commercial raw material -el Edited by ■•-•••' ., - ..• • ce \1\se . <:‘ . ....6ak‘- Prof. N.A. SMIRNOV ..e.„9 .,. •,,,:to'r*,‘,'ee.

,:- 0 ,o .,‘0 C'çe\ ,■0'' e» çe v‘ ke

LENINGRAD . 1940 • MOSCOW

.SOS-200-10 .-31 2.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction II. Morphological Nature 1. Size of Animal 2. Colour of the Hair Cover 3. Age Features 4. Review of Sub-Species Phoca hispida pygmaea Reproduction - 1. Pupping 2. Snow Dens of Ringed Seal 3. The Early Period in the Life of a Pup 4. The Mating Period and the Length of Pregnancy IV. Change in the Hair Cover • -1. Length of Retention of the Embryonic Hair Cover 2 , The Molting of Mature and Young Ringed Seal (Having Changed the Embryonic Hair Cover)

V. Diet P

• VI. Commercial Raw Material 1. Total Weight of Ringed Seal 2. Fat Yield and Condition. 3. Use of the Hide and Subcutaneous Fat 4. Other Produce (Meat Carcass - "Raushka") VII. Practical Conclusions VIII. Bibliography ,

INTRODUCTION

The ringed seal (Phoca hispida Schreb.) is the most widespread and, possibly, most characteristic animal of the Arctic seas in the Soviet Union. In economic importance it is preceded by the Greenland seal in the west and by the walrus in the east. Its reserves up to the present time remain almost untouched for ,a large part of the marine area of the Soviet Arctic. In the Barents and Kara seas the most intensive hunting is developed essentially along the western shore of Novaya Zemlya. In the other regions there is sporadic hunting only where there is coastal settlement. The large quantity of ringed seal and the great need for its products,which ib felt both in local areas and in the entire economy,opehs up wide possibilities for future development in the hunting of this animal. Information on the ringed seal as an object of hunting has hitherto remained on a very, low level, being based on data which have been published more than thirty years ago. The last ten years have been marked, as we know, by great progress in the many-sided study of the Soviet Arctic and its exploitation. As a result of the composite hunting and biological studies whichhnve been conducted during the last five years by numerous Soviet research workers significant though incomplete data has been accumulated on ringed seal as well. The present report sums up what is known at the present time about the biology and morphology of the northern ringed seal and about the quantitative and, in part, the qualitative indices of the obtained commercial raw material. Since the work is composite in nature, the,.author included all .of the new data which were accessible to him which had been . collected by the scientific personnel of different expeditions and winterings, particularly, by V. Antipin, M. Vladimirskaya, V. Vagin, G. Galkin, G. Gorbunov, A. Dubroyskii, N. Demme-Ryabtseya, K. Kovalev, A. Lepin, L. Leonbv, N. Mikhel, N. Provorov, G.Rutilevskii. A. Tyulin, A. Chechulin, I. YakimoVich et. al, and by hunters'and : other workers in the Arctic.

IL THE MORPHOLOGIC NATURE 1. Size of Animal

Since the size of the body is a changing value, it should not be recorded except in close connection with age, particularly in the periôd of intensive growth of the orgahism- After many - considerations the following age categories were adopted: 1) the offspring at birth; 2) half-year-olds; 3) year-olds; 4) older offspring not sexually mature; 5) mature Males and females. The establishment of these age groups was preceded by very laborious and long work on developing age criteria and on the rationale of the selected age categories. The incompleteness of the data, the broad limits of uncertainty concerning individual • features, the disappointing gaps in the collections - all of this complicated the work to a considerable degree and could not but - reflect on the final calculations which are cited in Table 1. Table 1.

,a.nutta: Te.Ta KonbqaToil nepnbt no ap,apacTuo-noaonum rpynnati • •.-

/1.amia Tea OT KOlina 3ooaomecxan3ooaollgemtan Anima 3oo1ornitcxan Aaiun 1 pbtaajo Konna k'nocTa Teaa:Teaa: OT icomta pbmapbuta Term, Bann« nmecTe 1 Hatimenonannn , xonua xnocra no no ropitaonTaan (Lcv) " xB°cn im C. 3a11IIHNIII agcramit .• crinnell.c)crime (Lc) Boap,acTno- (e cm) .(11(a cm)CM.) (Lp) noaotebi' rpyrnt min. med. max. min. med. max. min. med. ,max. •

IlpnrutoR twit poxueinnt . . . 55,0 80,0 Ilepaoromat B BoapacTé 0E0110 noayrona . . . , 70,0 79,5(20) 95,0 • 74,0 90,9(24) 103,0 83, 103,0(15) Font:elm/lbw . . • 73,0 91,6(93) 105,01, 81,0 97,9(10) 110,0 90,0 113,9(58) Henononoape- .abte cTapmero BoapacTa • •; 97,0' 105,3(47) 116,0 ,1 102,5 112,6(57) 119,0 129,1(40) 140,0. Bapocinge cam- 1 KII 97,0 1 ig,106) 139,0i 114,0 123,0(21i 148,0 134,0 145,6(15) 166,0 • f. Sapocnble cam- 1 Ilbt . 106,0 123,1(39) 140,0 113,0 128,0(57) 153,0 129,0 146,4(53) 173,0 I p id M e rt a it e: Flpit yKa3ai nu cpeieux nmppbt, aaiummemnge B cKo6tat Bo acex captanx 060311ainuor i:o.rumecTno n3mepennii.

Key to Table 1:

I. Body length of the ringed seal according to age and sex uoups. 1. Age and sex group a) Offspring at birth • h) Offsprings in the first year of life 9 approximately half-year-olds c) Year-olds • d) Older offspring not sexually mature - e) Maturè females f) Mature males 2. Body length, from the end of the snout to the tip of the tail along the horizontal (Lcv) (in cm) • 3. Zoological body length: from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail along the back (Lc) (in cm) 4. Zoological body length taken together with the posterior flippers (Lp) 5. Note: The figures in brackets which are next to the average values indicate the number of measurements. The method of measurement and the designation of individual measurements were borrowed from Professor N.A. Smirnov. The zoological length (Lc) is adopted as the base (from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail); it is determined by placing a tape.measuremarked in centimeters on the dorsal surface of the body. In addition, the total length (Lp) (the zoological length which is extended to the tip of the flippers) and a projection of the zoological length on a horizontal plain (Lcv) are used. All three methods of expressing the body length are represented in Table 1. In exàmining the Table, the following should be borne in mind. The dimensions of the offspring in the earliest period of life outside the maternal organism are indicated very approximately, on the basis of a comparison of the largest embryos with white-coats. However, comparative material is very inadequate since newly born animais and white-coats were rarely encountered by observers. For this reason, the available data (6 late embryos and 3 white-coats) indicate a wide range in the size of the newly born: the largest embryo was '65 cm long (Lc) and the smallest of the encountered white-coats was 46 cm longl . The non-perfected nature of the method of determining the age and the incompleteness of the data frequently made it impossible to

Possibly, this was a miscarried fetus - K.Ch. From the editor. Independent of the present consideration the fluctuations in the dimensions of newborn pinnipediae are generally làrge. unconditionally assign separate individuals to one of the adopted age groups. In particular, this applied to those individuals whose body dimensions and some adciitional features deviated significantly . the average value which was established for a definite group. from Thus; the maximum values which are shown in Table I (particularly the. maximum dimensions of half-year-olds and one-year-olds as well as of older offspring which are sexually immattire) should be treated as tentative values. In addition, some inaccuracy is not excluded in assigning 'males and females whose maturity was not completely certain to adjacent age groups. Here, however, it must be borne in mind that those individuals whose matur,ity was doubtful due to insufficient data were assigned to the group of older but sexually immature offspring or were not processed at all for this particular question. Taking into account all that has been stated about the body length of different age categories of the ringed seal, we can draw certain conclusions from Fig. 1. •l. The rate of growth of the ringed seal is given in the following manner. By the end of the period of uterine development the embryo'is approximately 47% of the average,size of a mature animal. It is impossible to indicate the exact figure due to an . insufficient number of measured newborn offspring as well as females with large embryos (taken from tfie womb)*which were soon to be born. Later on, during post-embryonic development of the offspring, during the first half year, the increase in length (Le) is approximately 23.5%. Thus, by the first autumn the half-year-old

ringed seal averages 70% of the average size of fully matured individuals. In the second (winter) half of its first year of life, judging by the data in the Table, the ringed seal increases slightly in length: only by 6.5%. Consequently, by the end of the year the ringed seal is approximately 76.5% of the length of the average sexually mature individuals. The wide range in length of sexually mature individuals which is 40 cm (or 31% of the average size of mature individuals), as well as the fact that larger individuals generally have an older skull (disappearing sutures, development of a crest and wearing down of the teeth), testifies to the unceasing growth of ringed seal even upon the attainment of sexual maturity. 2. If,we unite the three age stages of sexually immature 110 individuals (half-year-olds, year-olds and immature individuals of an older age) ihto one group, then the average arithmetic length of the body (Lc) is 99.1 cm. Usually, it is difficult •to decide, on the spot, to which age group a sexually immature individual should be assigned. In such cases, for purposes of a . simplified or preliminary age composition of a particular slaughter one may use two age categories, being guided by the averages indicated. If the dimensions of the body of individuals being examined fluctuate around 100 cm, not exceeding, let us say 115 an, we may say that these are young sexually immature animals.

Cm 150

180

120

110

100

:00 e. e 80 e

,70 , 1 ' . 60 . . / • . . .. •

. 1 • 2 ' 50 1 : i 3 • 1 4. • f 5. • I opapoem Ileeeeeekeeie feeailem lienemempenee 3peiibie a maw =palm &penile ,okezo lone

. 6, AIWA ea:1161 mena no /p . , 7 o • . 8. in,

Fig. 1. Growth curve of the ringed seal

Key to Fig. 1: 1. at birth 2. half-year-olds 3. year-olds 4. older sexually immature individuals 5. mature and old individuals of both sexes 6. body length according to Lp 7. body length according to Lc E. body length according to Lcv

3. According to the Table, the sexually mature of both sexes hardly differ in body dimensions - the average values coincide. • However, if the dimensions of males and females are expressed by 10.

the method of variational series (Table 2) and graphically, then it is noted that the males on the whole are somewhat larger than females since thé'peak of the length curve for females (Fig. 2) does not altogether coincide with the corresponding peak which characterizes the length of the males. It is necessary, however, to consider the possibility of some distortion in the results due to the fact that in the material which wàs used the males and females were very unevenly represented: there were almost two and a half times more females thàn males. 4. The maximum dimensions which are indicated in the literature for sexually mature individuals differ little from our data. In the reports of Hilzheimer (28) and Freund (26) the maximum length indicated for males is 180 cm and for females, 145 cm. According to N.A. Smirnov (17), the maximum length of the ringed seal is 180 and even 200 cm although he did not come upon specimens which were 130-140 cm long. Table 2.

. CpannnTeahnag . ;Mild ncoono3peamk•càti4 --:ü — Ïàïl. ,

2 Knaccm A:111111,1 no Lc (Et cm)

o ji Ir - n `•?.. R . arà 7 1• 7 C'à et. 1 •-e. ••■■1

Cumn . . . 212 W ! . 3 9 9 93 126,6

, i• Ca mum.. 9 14 I 16 1' 3 54 127,6

11 .

Key to Table 2: 1. Comparative length of sexually mature males and females 1. Sex i. Females Males 2. Length according to Lc (in cm) Let us consider the conversion factors for the - main measurements of the animal. In order to make the attainment of more or less comparable values which are measured by different methods possible or to find the necessary dimension by any of the other available length measurements - for example, to establish the dimensions of a whole animal by tbe length of its rawhide (hide removed with the fat) - we compiled two auxiliary Tables.

- . 19 .. 18 ) 17 15 A 15 f 13 • I t ' it 1 , /0 , • 9-. / A

• 7 II

!' Ii I \

■ 32 1-I 1 „ .1\çà - Number of the . . the 1 I ' I • . specimens, . of Homy 111-1116 -1121-1115-p31-11.75-11 111- 11,15-1151-1155-; • -rio -125 -100 -135 -NO 405 -130 -155 (.7100i • (renus akaemee pal 2 /PUN', mena. no Lc6,cm. hn(lly l ength according to Lc in• Cm ----Campo 3 Camku à1 e s alr?.s •

Fig. 2. Graph of the body length of sexually mature ringed seals. 12.

11, Key to Fig. 2: 1. No. of specimens 2. Body length according to Le in cm 3. Males 4. Females

The average relationship between the zoological body length (Lc) - horizontal body length (Lev) are established in Table 3.

Table 3

(Lc) I CpeRn AA paanuna me)n5y npomepom aooaoragecnoii .t.t5nnmi ee npoexiineil na ropnaonranbnoil nnocnoctu (Lcv) • IlepenoAnbiâ Koaelnimunent (n cm) Bo.apacrnbte nareropint min. 1. med. max.

krriFiIII4en.IPaaNelàèârAff,tibf . . 2,0 6,1 Bapocable o6oero nona (M) 2,0 8,4 17,0 'Mature of both sexes .

3ooaornmecKaa' junitia ecerna 6oabme ce npoexonn. +he' zoolop7ina1 TprIp-th : is al ,,a,rs.i7r^strr 4.-.».an its projection

Key to Table 3: 1. The average difference between the measurement of the zoological lengthl (Lc) and its projection on a horizontal place (Lcv) 1. Age category i. Sexually immature individuals of various ages (160) ii. Mature individuals of both sexes (54) 2. Conversion factor (in cm) The conversion factors for comparing the average lengths /10 or the body from the length of the rawhide (1) are shown in 41, Table 4.

7.; Table 4.

Pa3nitna mewAy paamepa_mn Te.'i i pa3metpamit xoposunbi 2 3Bo3pacnime Kareropum • Paamep Coornowellue eenitgint (cu) 1 adoaoluae . jaapocabie'

21,0 • 29,0 Pa3HOCTb mémeny soonorielecgog RAHHOR (Lc) med. 30,6(48) 34,8(21) H ‘xopoenute (1) . . max. 35,0 43,0 • • 13;0 21,0 i • Pa3HOCTb meniny ripoenuteii aoonorngecicofi med. , 22,3(30) , 26,3(14) It Millie X0p0BHHb1 . . (LCV) (1). max. 29,5 33,0 Pa3110CTb" mexcay anmitoil rena, namepemioR or min. 10,0 11,0 ypoeim raa3 no ocitosamtn xeocra (1„,) 11 • med. 15,8(44) 19,9(19) mutton xopoemibt (1) max. 23,0 27,0 ,

Key to Table 4 1. The difference between the dimensions or the body and those of the rawhide. 1. Relationship i. The difference between the zoological length (Lc) the length of the rawhide (1) The difference between the proj ection of the zoological length (Lcv) and the length of the rawhide (1) iii.The différence between the body length measured from • the level of the eyes ti) the ba se of the tail (1 0 ) and the length of the rawhide (1) 2. Size (cm) 3. Age category i. young mature A large amplitude in the deviations between maximum indices of the conversion correction factor Cable 4) odcurs, indisputably, due to technic al. reasons or , more simply, due to inaccuracies 14. which are permitted by different individuals when measuring. During measurement of a properly laid out animal on a more or less even surface there cannot be such an insignificant difference as two or two-and-a-half centimeters between the measurements of Lc and Lcv. Apparently, in these cases the persons who measured the animals worked on carcasses which had grown stiff in an unsuitable position.

Fig. 3. A young ringed seal which was 'captured in the . autumn in the strait {)f'the . Karskie Vorot&

During the commercial removal of the hide (it remains attached to the carcass) the skin is usually cut off from the snout part of the head and from the tail. In addition, the removed hide has a considerable tendency to contract. Both aspects 1_11. contribute to a greater convergence of measurement readings 10 and 1 as compared with other measurements of body length; however, even in this case the rawhide is generally 15 cm shorter, on the average.

• 15,

It should be noted that an effect is had on the dimensions of the raw hide not only by the absence of exact boundaries at which the hide is removed at the head and tail but also by the muscular tissue which remains on the fat. In addition, because of its elasticity, it can be somewhat stretched and shrunk. In concluding the examination of the dimensions of the ringed seal one other fact should be noted to which the author turned his attention during the regional examination of the body length of the animal. During the calculation of the average arithmetic length of ringed seals, obtained at different points in the Barents and Kara seas, figures were obtained which differed greatly from one another. Most striking was the fact that the average diménsions, as shown in Table 5, rose steadily in proportion to movement eastward. Table 5

I Cpannenne cpea,itux pa3 mepon .11epn, Ro6bir IA X B pa3anqubtx pafionax Bapennona ii KapcKoro Ntopen 2 Ranna Ten nepn OT Konna 110Ca fie Komm xnoc-ra UO cninmon noeepxnocTil (Lc) - 3 1 Mecro Ao6bitui ( 3 cm) Ilpintegaulte

min. med. max.

• 3anaanoe no6epcume Ilona 3eNtan 143Ntepenna npo- " B panone MaTotninna 11Iapa . . - 83,0 100,1(40 H3BeLICHIal A. H. ey6poncKum H M. BaammitpcKoil .13oc-rog1toe no6epelKbe Hoeoli 3em- flposdepenbi a 1 B pailone •MaToLiKuna Ulapa. 89,0 100,8(84) 131,0 A. .fleininbINI lii Cenepo-uocrotnian oKonelmocTi, ilpordepenbi HOBOrt 3eman (paiion o. remc- B. AUTHrinfibni • KepK) 81,0* 1 18,0(44) 153,0 / iV Pailon o. Beaoro n ycIhn 06cKOrt TIpomepenu • ry6bi 93,9 1 M,6(10) 152,0 A. T/0/111116114 li rantunibut V Parton o. Jim:cc:ma • 101,0 1 M,2(26) 145,0 Hpoidepetibt K. Konaaesum 16.

' Key to Table .5 . • • ' • • . •. . • I. A. comparison of the average lengths of ringed seals which. were obtained in different regions. of .the Barents and Kara Seas. 1. Location of the lake i. Western coast of Novaya Zemlya in the region of Matelein Eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya in the region of Matochkin Shar North-eastern tip of Novaya Zemlya (region of GeMskerk Island)' iv. Region of Belyi Island and the mcmth of the Ob Bay. v. Region of Dikson Island. The body length of ringed seal from the tip of the nose to the tip of the tail along the dorsal surface (Lc) (in cm) Comment i. Measurements taken by A.H. Dubrovskii and M. Vladimirskaya ii. Measurements by A. Lenin iii. Measurements by V. Antipin iv. Measurements by A. Tyulin and G. Galkin v. Measurements by K. Kovalev. From the Table it is seen that the ringed seal are smallest in western Novaya Zemlya. The ringed seal which inhabit the same latitude at the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya (i.e. in the Kara Sea) •are somewhat larger (by an average of 10 cm). Those which were taken at the north-eastern tip of Novaya Zemlya surpass, in turn, the ringed seals from the latitude of Matochkin Shar by approximately 9 cm. Finally, the ringed seal from the mouth of the Ob and of the region of Dikson Island give the largest indices. For a comparison of values of ringed seal of different populations the simple averages of all measured individuals which II, ifere . 9Ider than ten months were used. The fluctuations in the dimensions of the• newly born and then2 fact that the average values were taken from a small number of the animals (not considering age, sex, etc.) results in some relativeness' in the conclusions. However, not considering the method of total averages, which is allowed here, to be sufficiently accurate one may still assume that the differences in the calculated averages are hardly accidental. It seems to us that they may serve as a known preliminary orientation, if not in the matter of morphological differences in individual populations of ringed seal then in the calculation of ecological or commercial factors.

2. Colour of the Hàir Coiér

A. Colour of the embryonic hair cover In recent reports almost all authors who have dealt with this question agree that the initial hair cover of the ringed seal is pure white. However, in some reports, references are encountered to a grey or greyish colour of the newly born animal. In this connection, it is necessary to give a brief account of the • atest information on the colour of the embryonic cover. The following data are known about the white fur of the uterine and newly born animal. G. Ushakov and S. Zhuravlev had an opportunity to observe a viable embryo covered with thick white wool, on Golomyan Island (Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago). One of the dog team drivers of the Matochkin Shar radio station took a premature seal of yellowish-white colour in Brandt Bay. A.I. Zubkov gave the author a skin of a small embryo, which was taken in the winter in Russkyi Gavan% with perfectly white hair. An embryo of the same colour was brought by G. Galkin and Yaimovich from Obskaya Guba. V. Sinernikov, hunting the aniMal south of Novaya Zemlya, repeatedly extracted embryos and also found the remains of newly born white coats killed by polar fox in dug-up snow burrows: in all cases the white coats were yellowish white in colour. Finally, the author, having examined the hides of the white coats in the depositories of the Zoological Institute of the• Academy of Sciences and Institute of Zoology of the MOSCOW State University' did not see one which was grey or any other colour besides white. Infopriation on the exclusively white colour of uterine pups relating to the Chukchi region was obtained from L. Leonov and I. Perfillevskii. As far as the colour of pups which have been born is- , concerned, •there is considerable concrete information on the white colour of their fur. L. Leonov observed young ringed seals in the archipelago of Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa with white hair which had not completely molted. A. Dubrovskii and M. Vladimirskaya inform us of the perfectly white white coats which are found off the western shores of Novaya Zemlya. N. Provorov encountered white pups in the White and Kara Seas. ' In the light of all of these data, references to another colour of ringed seal white coats take'on special interest. 19.

. Allen mentions the variation in the colour of white coats, citing Kumlien who noted • the presence of some gradation in the > tones of fur coloui- in white coats (14). Freund (26) writes that the "wool cover of the young is a whitish-grey". .In recent years, four cases have been noted of white coats and embryos being found in non-pure white fur. A. Lepin mentions three such cases. One of the white coats which were examined by him in the period from February 14 to 18 which was 61.5 cm •long had hair which was light grey,almost white, in colour and which reached a length of 3.8 cm. In the second embryo which was 54.4 cm long the wool was white with a grey tinge on the top and white on the bottom. The length of the hair in this case was 2.5 cm. •Taken on May 21 a molting "white coat" retained a slightly light grey wool in the.lumbar part of the body which • was 4 cm in length according to the records of A. Lepin. Finally, a foùrth case is cited by O. Denisov who found a dead beast in Blagopoluchiya Bay on February 17 with thick wool, approximately 2 cm long and yellowish grey with spots. The colour of less developed embryos which were taken not

* later than the middle of January differed by somewhat darker tones, particularly when wet. The author had an opportunity to observe this on preserved specimens. But other persons indicate this as well. Thus, according to the notes of M. Vladimirskaya, the embryo which was taken on December 25 was covered .with light grey wool which attained a length of 6 mm. Subsequently, two embryos which were taken on January 12 (the collections/- of G. Galkin and I. Yakimovich) were also covered with whitish hair with a steel hue. Thus, in

.1■• 20. the initial stages of development the embryonic hair cover is slightly grey and, subsequently, gradually becomes lighter, becoming, as a rule, quite white by the time the pup is born. It is possible that in certain cases the "bleaching" processes of the hide is longer than usual and extends beyond the embryonic period. B. The Emergence of Embryonic Hair Cover and Changes in the Flair Cover During the Process of Developdent (Growth) of the Embryo.

Judging from the notes of a number of observers and the collected material which is kept in the Arctic Institute, the hair cover of ringed seal embryos begins to appear, generally, . at the middle of December. During September, October and November, embryos without hair are still encountered. By the end of December, an embryo which is 40 cm long may have hair 6 mm long. In the middle of January the hair, generally, does not exceed 10 mm in length. Thus, the hides of January embryos do not have the value as fur due to the insufficient length of the hair cover and the insufficient softness, fluffiness and thickness. In addition, the skins are small. By the end of February, the hair grows to 2.5 cm. By that time one encounters embryos with longer hair cover, reaching 3 - 3.5 cm, which is typical of the newly born. In quality, the fur of a ringed seal white coat is only slightly inferior to that of the white coat of the Greenland seal. The hair cover of the ringed seal white coat is very fluffy, thick and high, and the hair is wavy. The length ,of the hair at the time the embryonic cover is replaced is 4 cm. 21.

In conclusion, it is necessary to point out that prior to the appearance of hair cover directly on the bare skin of the embryos an annulate and spo.4ed design, which subsequently assumes Lià a post-embryonic hair cover, is observed.

C. The Colour of the Post-Embryonic Hair Cover The colour of the hair cover of a ringed seal after the first molting is marked by extreme variation. Not only the tones but also the shades vary greatly. The tone of a colour constitutes an entire gradation, from intensively-dark (blackish-blue) to a light grey (whitish). In the majority of cases the animais are parti-coloured with a brightly .contrasted, most often, rinbd design. However, one- toned'animals are also encountered.

Fig. 4. Example of the variation in colour of ringed seals which have been caught in the Kara Strait. .Photo by author. According to the data on colour which thé author had at his disposal (220, for the most part, short descriptions which were made by different people), the animais with a ringed design on the skin constitute the vast majority, 84%. Of the remainder, 9% consist of individuals with a spotted design, but without rings, and 7% are dark individuals with practically no design on the hair cover. The colour of the upper (dorsal) side of the body in a typical case iS considerably darker than the abdominal (ventral) side. An intensive blackish-grey colour predominates which becomes con- centrated towards the middle of the back with bluish or slightly olive shades. Towards the sides, the colour gradually becomes paler being , transformed into a light grey colour on the bottom (ventral) surface of the body. In a wet state the skin is much darker; the basic tones of the dorsal surface becomes more concen- trated until they become black. However, individuals are frequently encountered with a light colour on the dorsal 'side which even in the wet state seems grey, bluish- or blackish-grey and olive-coloured. The dark background of the back is interrupted by more or less numerous greyish-white and whitish spots, most frequently aséuming the shape of closed elongated rings. The latter are frequently 1.15 arranged ln a chain in several rows along the body, with the edges touching and forming long winding separations. In a signifi- , cant number one may encounter separate individual rings which generally thin out and disappear as they proceed to the sides. The arrangement, size, shape and distinctness of the rings vary greatly. In a slaughter it is difficult to find two ringed seals in which the details of the design of the ringed network would be exactly the same. In the region of the scapulae the rings usually occur in large numbers and are found in close contact with one another forming a cellular pattern while in the lumbar part and along the sides they thin out. Their size is in inverse relationship to their 'numbers. The size of the rings varies even on one and the same skin. Large and small rings may be mixed in one and . the same sections. The thickness of the rings also varies: in one indiiridual the bows are thick and in another, they are thin. Sometimes, on different parts of one and the same skin there are thin and thick rings. The 'shape of the rings of the veinlets varies greatly from light coloured spots resembling smears or specks to complete oval rings. Often, several curved rings of irregular elongated shape are encountered. In particular, this applies to places where the rings intertwine into an overall grid pattern. Individuated ringed intervals are generally more uniform. Frequently, open, unfinished light coloured veinlets are encountered together with the rings. With few exceptions, the ringed design is marked . by considerable clearness. Only 8% of the total number of individuals examined, having the given type of colouration, were encountered with a poorly delineated, faint ringed pattern. The indistinctness occurs either as a result of an inadequate development of the annularity or due to the very dark colour of the rings which are poorly discernible against the dark background. The middle part of the back, from the occiput to the tail is usually lacking in annular 24. pattern and appears as a dark band to which some observers give the conventional name of "belts". In many cases this baria is sharply demarcated on one or both sides by a solid border which is formed by an uninterrupted annular chain. Sometimes, even several light coroured winding veinlets are formed, but more often there is only a definite tendency towards an elongated distribution of rings ("in a chain"). From time to time, the dorsal band is interrupted by an annular or speckled spottiness. At the same time a small number of scattered dark spots of a greyish-blue colour or sometimes of a greyish-brown or brown colour with à more or less distinct - annular design are on the skin'. The -colour of the hair . cover on the sides encountered is between the Colour of the dorsal and ventral surface. The basic background is a medium grey. Scattered on it are usually relatively sparse grey-brown or brown spots or smears (sometimes framed with light coloured rims) or a small number of mainly single rings, for the most part thick and small, which come here from the back. In these cases, when there are spots, they diminish in size from the head to the tail. The bottom (ventral) side of the body, usually coloured in light grey or whitish tones, is either entirely lacking spottiness or has sparse small spots and specks (brown and grey-brown or . resembling the colour of the back). Encountered together with the spots or smears are also single rings - round and thick, at tImes in large numbers and at times in small numbers. Frequently, they are lighter in colour than the main background and then are scarcely Aloticeable. Brown spots cover the annular pattern. In some ringed seals the ventral side is darker than Usual:. 25. The colour of the anterior flippers, for the mbst part, ià similar to the colour of the sides of the body with single brown smears being encountered frequently. The posterior flippers are one-toned, considerably darker than the anterior. Such is the usual colour of the hair cover of the ringed seal. Motley coloured ringed seal of another colour type are distinguished by the absence, or an unusually poor development, of rings, substituted bÿ a spotty pattern. Small spots predominate with the gaps taking on neither the shapes of rings or curved veinlets. The shape and size of the spots, like their colour, vary greatly. For the most part - these are angular, Small smears of different colour (bluish-black, greyish-black, greyish-olive and dark brown)• scattered pell-mell on the entre dorsal side spreading to the sides and, in part, crossing over to the abdomen. In the anteriorTart of the body close to the head the smears are smaller and thicker. The dark colour type is characterized by the complete absence of spots or by such a small degree of, clearness that they . are only slightly noticeable. An intensely dark colour predominates in such individuals. When they are wet against the background of the ice they seem to be black as coal. The bottom (ventral side) of the body is also dark in the majority of cases. There are many transitions among the descriptions of the three colour types. Having a large pack of skins, one may match them according to colour , features so that theycomprise . an uninterrupted series from very light coloured and grey to almost black; 26. from slightly.spotty to brightly variegated, and piebald, from a vague hint of a ring to distinct annularity. The changes in annularity with age are very indefinite. The available material must be considered inadequate for definitive conclusions on this question. But, it would not be wrong to say that the colour of a seal is subject to individual differences to an incomparably larger degree than age differences. M. Vladimirskaya reports on the change in colour with age as follows: "In young specimens the colour is brighter and the annularity is less noticed. The annularity is best expressed in specimens of average size. In very large old animais the colour is very dark even on the abdomen and the annularity is almost unnoticed. , The very young animais which have just cast off the embryonic wool are a light silver colour". We looked over the summary characteristics of colour which we possessed for two hundred animais which had been examined and we were convinced that the intensely dark colour is by no means peculiar only to mature and old individuals. In the reports which were used by the author only 19 seals were.recorded to be very dark in colour (and almost without rings), 12 being young - for the most part approximately year-olds, and 7 being adults (including the doubtfully mature). The references to the straw-yellow colour of the hair cover which are encountered in the literature should be regarded as being wrong. •The incorrect identification of colour is explained by the fact that the colour was described according to museum collections of skins which generally become yellow from inadequate fat extraction and prolonged storage. 27.

4b-àpecies diversity in colour in coastal and northern L17 Siberian ringed seals is to a certain degree questionable. N. Smirnov (17, 20) and S. Ognev (14) conclude that the Birul ringed seal is lighter in colour than the coastal. If the ringed seals of Belyi Island and the Novosibirsk Islands can be assigned to one race then the difference in colour between the Birul ringed seal and the coastal ringed-seal is unconvincing. Among ringed seal which were taken, for example, in the region of Belyi Island, rather strongly and brightly coloured indiViduals are usually encountered, similar to the ringed seals from the western coast of Novaya Zemlya.

• Fig. 5. Examples of contrast in colour, of ringed seals caught near Belyi Island. Photo L. Leonov. 28.

3. Age Features

A. The Role of Claw Formations in the Determination of the Age of Ringed Seal.

As we know, appearing on the claws of pinnipeds are transverse laminations which are evidently the irregular growth of keratin. Longitudinal sawing of the claw case shows the lamination of its structure whereby the impression is created ( that in the process of formation of a new layer of keratin there is a shift forward of all of the claw layers which preceded it and which occur on top. Each previous layer is shifted forward for some distance so that between its posterior edge and the posterior edge of the preceding one a rather distinct transverse • band or belt is formed. However, it should be taken into account • that such a distinct picture is detected primarily in individuals which have lived for many years and is frequently accompanied by a relief formation in the form of a cylinder at the boundaries of the belts. About ten years ago when a comparison was made between the claws of young individuals of the Greenland seal (particularly,

newly born) and the claws of older individuals, a considerable . in the structure of the keratin was revealed. This difference circumstance, together with the variation in the number of transverse bands on the claws of individuals (the number of bands being greater for larger individuals) gave rise to the possibility of determining the age by the number of these bands. • Approximately eight years have elapsed since the time of the first attempt to use claws for an age analysis of taken Greenland seal, undertaken by Professor N.A. Smirnov together with the author of this article, and in spite of this, up to the present time the method g determining age according to the structure of the claws cannot be considered to be conclu- sively developed. Taking this into account the author of the present work had to be critical of this method and before taking it as the basis for age division of the population of northern ringed seal had to subject it to verification by comparing the claw data with all of the other objective features of age which were at his disposal. The ringed seal claws which were examined for this purpose and which were collected during a general investigation of thé animal by M. Vladimirskaya and A. Lepin led the authors to the conclusion -Ù-iat, with respect to ringed seal, claw formations cannot be considered an entirely reliable feature of age. In combining the number of transverse bands or boundaries which are noted on the clawé with the size and weight of the animal, weight of the carcass, size of the sexual glands and the os priapi and with the cranial features of age - we met a whole series of incongruities, disagreement between claw features and all of the other data. •Thus, we could not establish the exact difference between age groups of a population according to the claws. Table 6 which is given below in which a number of age features are compared according to groups established on the basis . of the difference the number of claw bands shows quite vividly how carefully the determination of age accOrding to claws should be approached. 30.

On first impression, the claw features generally indicate , age changes. If we take, for example, the body length and trace its change according to claw'kroups, we see that it increases gradually with an increase in the number of bands. In other words, the number of claw bands is found to correspond to some extent with the growth of individuals. But, if we examine the extent to which all of - the remaining features change in the transition from one group to another, we Must admit that the difference in the number of bands per unit and even two-three (particularly in the first groups) cannot indicate a year old or a two- or three-year-old difference in age, respectively. In other words, in the first stages of its formation, every claw zone or band cannot serve as a measure of age in one year. In fact, the average length of individuals on whose claws we do not see a band at all is only under 2 cm smaller than the average size of the individuals of the second group which is characterized by the presence of two or three very indistinct bands on the claws. If individuals which fall into the first group according to the number of claw bands are one-year-olds (they cannot be younger than ten months old), then, in acknowledging the fact that L20 with every subsequent band the age of the individual increases by a whole year, it would be necessary to assign individuals which are included in the second group at least to two-year-olds. But this does not correspond with the insignificant difference both in the average body length and in the amplitude of the absolute fluctuations in length. Other features in this respect are notas 34' symptomatic awing to the very limited data. However, they also show that individuals of the first and second group cannot be distinguished in age by a whôle year. It should also be taken into consideration that the individuals of the first two groups (sexually immature) are characterized by a very vague picture of claw structure. The bands on the claws are diffused, differing only in cblour and do not have the distinct boundary lines which are common on •the claws of the older groups. In every individual case the number of bands is established with great difficulty and without certainty. -Among the examined sets of claws of younger animals there was not a single claw on which one, two or three bands could be seen distinctly.. A distinct picture of the structure only begins with claws which have four bands or more. In addition, the average length of the body of individuals which have four bands on the claws also differs very little (only by 3.0 cm) from the average length of ringed seals with five or six bands.

A more noticeable sudden step, roughly the one which exists in the transition to the group with four bands, is seen between the fourth and fifth groups. In addition, the first four groups, including individuals with up to six bands on the claws, consist almost exclusively of sexually immature individuals. Hence, in acknowledging that the number of bands on the claws of any individual corresponds to the number of years which have been lived, the onset of sexual maturity would have to be attributed to five-years or age , no sooner, which clearly, does not correspond with other evidence.

I. Pa36110K-a norrynxunn Ha rpyunbi no cTpyrurenomy upnalialty Korred nepeturnx KOHer1H0CIen nepnbr 3' . rpynnbl no trucay nO•abc -na xorTux

2 A 4encubie nortochr 6oxee HMI meuee orreramabre noeocbt npuanaxa a Paamepbt He. Beni npn6a11311- 1.103.tei au6o reabH0 4 no- '5-6 . ,ioapacta 7 no:we 8 noaoc 9 noeoc 10 noaoc II noaoc 13 noaoc 11,13e-Tion nocbi 110a0C. neticubie II0.10Cb1 C-Cv Fer11 1 '1V ddv VII yin r ix X rpynna rpynna rpynna rpynna rpynna rpyrina rpynna rpynna rpynna

124,0 • 810 . 83,0 96,5 102,5 119,0 1.1,auna !eta no Lc 3 cm Med. 97,2(13) 99,0(13) 108.8(5) 111,8(14) 121,8(5) 117, (1) 122,0 131,0 122,0 125,0 ' max. 112,2 114,0 118,5 119,5 128,0 min. - 23,3 23.3 31,1 33,7 46;3 ■ ■ Bec Tura o6m311 n Kr. • med. 26,0(2) 35,2(5) 33,7(3) 39,7(11) 56,0(4) 394 60,2 .•■■••• • • •• ' L max. 28,7 47,0 37,0' 45,2 63,5 :1.11 11,2 • 11,5 14,7 16,8 22,2 Bec -ryuixn n Kr . . med. 13,3(2) 15,4(5) 15,9(3) 20,7(8) 27,0(3) 21,0 . 28,7 ■■•••• max. 15,4 ., 92,0 18,0 24,5 32,1 iV min. 2,3 4,4 5,anna TeCTIIKyAfel IS CM med. . 1,9(1) 2,9(1) 3,7(1) 3,2(9) 4,:.7(2) 5,2 - 5,6 n'a x. ; . 4,7 4,7 e r V j m1n.1 1,7 4,5 Bec reCTUKyabi a r •. . medi; 1,8(1) 1,7(1) ' 5,5(1). 3,4(9)•' 6,8(2) 21,2: - - 23,5, ■•••■••• 1 mam: 8,8 5.5 5,9 )1.1una os prlap1 n cat . me 4. 4,5(1) 4,2(1) 5,6(1) 7,2(2) 7,2(2) 9,1 10,9 ■■■•■ maN. 9,1 8,5

Itt

• 33.

Key-to Table 6. . . 1. ' A breakdown of the population into groups according to the structural-feature of - the-claWs of the anterior liMbs of , • the ringed seal.' 1. Objective features of age i. Body length according to Lc in cm. Total body weight in kg. iii. Weight of carcass in kg. iv. Length of testicles in cm. v. Weight of testicles in g. vi. Length of os priapi in cm. 2. Size 3. .Groups according to the number of bands on the claws A. indistinct bands a. nôt seen at all or very indistinct b. approximately twb to three bands . aa. ,group I bb. group. II B. more or less distinct bands a. 4 bands b. 5 - 6 bands c. 7 bands d. 8 bands e. 9 bands f. 10 bands g. 11 bands h. 13 bands aa. group III

group Iv cc. group V *dd. group VI ee. group VII ff. group VIII

- gg.' group IX hh.- group X

34.

All of these circumstances indicate that with regard to ringed seals the claw features of age should, for the time being be used very carefully sincelt is very difficult to verify claw formations as an age index without a careful examination of a series of claws from indiViduals whoSe age is known. B. Size of the Os Priapi as an Age Feature.

• ,A1

8- 111. i- • • . - • • > -

- •• . • 3 -

r 0 „ S5 /4. em 1051 al ao al al al el CH

Fig. • Relationship between length of the os priapi and body length,(Lc).

The lehgth of the os priapi, as is. indicated by the data at our disposal, serves as a rather reliable indication of age although isolated cases of incomprehensible sharp deviations are noted. .As can be seen from Table 7 the length of the os priapi of year-old individuals varies by approximately 4.5 am. 35.

Table 7. -

Cpannenne pa3 mepos noacebdil .KOC C .niioi -r«e:ia • .no ab3pacTumm rpynnam

Perna Teaa no Lc 1, eznna Bo3pacman rpynna os priapt 1. .4 • • (8 cm) p • ( 8 cm)

93,0 4,3 94,0 4,2 1 MoaoAbie, B 8o3pacTe (yr. 10 mecsuen no 97,0 3,5 1 ro;ta 105,0 4,9 109,5 . 6,2 106,0 4,5 - 110,0 4,1 114,0 • 5,2 - 1 1 • Heno1o1o3pe1bie cTapinero no3pacTa 118,0 5,5 118,5 5,6

..{ 113,0 7,0 113,0? 11,0 117,0 9,3 118,0? 9,1. 119,0 8,5 119,5 7,8- U0.7101103pCIbIC BO3NIOZ(110 iie nno.-ine .ao- 121,0 9,3 en-Irvine noaonoii speaoczn) 124,5 7,3 126,0 7,8 126,0 9,1 128,0 5,9? • 131,0 • 10,9

Key to Table 7: • 1. Comparison of the length of the os prdapi with the body length according to age groups. 1. Age group i. Young seals from 10 months to 1 year of age Older sexually immature seals iii. Sexually mature seals (and possibly not having completely attained sexual maturity) 2. Body length according to Lc (in cm) 3. Length of the os priapi (in cm)., From the cited figures and Fig. 6 it is seen that among animais which are from 90 to 110 cm long there is generally no difference in the length of the os priapi. 36.

Thus, on the basis of the size of the PS priapi, individuals which have a body length of up to 110 cm may be assigned to the same generatIon - of approximate year-olds. The average length of the bone in males of this age is 4.5 cm. Individuals whose os priapi length fluctuates from 5 to 7 cm can be separated into another eoup; finally, males • with an os priapi longer than 7 cm may be put into a third group - of the absolutely sexually mature. The average length of the os priapi in sexually mature animals is 9.5 cm 1 (according to 11 specimens). When we now compare the length of the os priapi with the condylobasal length of the skull, the following series of figures is obtained for the youngest males:

Gondylobasal length of the skull 142.4 mm--length of the os priapi 4.2 cm - 9 " 152.3 n 9 9 9 9 3 . 5 9 9 9 9 9 9 n " " 158.2 " 4.3 9 it 9 9 9 tt It " 160.6 " 9 4.1

Thus, in young males, in whom the condylobasal length of the skull varies between 142 and 160.6 mm, the length of the os priapi varies very little. This is further corroboration of the correctness in uniting into one age group (approximate year-olds) individuals which are 90 to 110 cm long. The thickness of the os priapi is marked by rather L22 considerable variability, thus, the relationship between it and the length of the skull or the body length is not established.

1 In one case, which is not considered here, the os priapi of an adult individual which is mature according to length (123 cm) is apparently erroneously indicated as being 4.3 cm long. 37.

0.. Size and Weight. of the Testes . • The length àf the..testes in young individuals (90-110 cm), . varies from two to three centimeters (together with the epididymié). The minimal recorded length of the testes is 1.9 cm and .corresponds to an individual.with a-body length. of 106 cm, . For greater vividness the length .of the testès are presented in Fig. 7 Which reflects the relationship between the length of the seminal.gland and the body length. The correlation .- of the lengths being compared is very diffused. We see that, mainly, young males which are 90 to 110 cm long and which we identified as being close to year-olds, are united into one group ' according to the length of the testicles.. When we examine to - which • body length ;testicles of identical length, let.us say 2.3 cm,, correspond, we .obtain the following figures: 91.5, 97,0, 100.0, • . • 100.5, 101.0 and 109.5 am. Let us take another example: individuals long. with tèsticles from 1:7 to 2.1 cm,( They comprise individuals with . - the following body lengths: 97.5, 102.5,103.0, 106.0 and 107.0.am. • Finally, let us take yet another . example: .we shall take the individuals with testicles which are 2.6 cm. long. We see that six of suCh' • indiViduals fall.within the interval'between 100 and 110 cm (100.0, 102, 102.5, 108.0, 108.5 . and 110.0 cm). As a result, we conclude that the size of the testicles do'es not prevent .the combination of the vast : majority of young individuals of the winter take, with a body length between 90 and

. 110 cm, into a single age category of one-year-olds. The average length .(according to 35 specimens) of the sexual: gland of males of 38.

oe • ,"." ••• • • • • o • • - • ' 3 • e e' . • 2. o • -3pen. peek deCemeadme • a 5 'le..fil 1. P2 9 ' ?0 lb' ^ . ' melee • . 1=1 w a-liMuMmeneve

•••• 0 t0E-851 SO1 esi 1001 1051 1101 1151 1201 1251 noi 1351 lei 1451 1501 1551 5 • ewe Mena no lc _

Fig. 7. Comparison of lengths of the testicles with the body lengths (Lc) Kay to Fig.7: 1. Length of testes in cm 2. Mature individuals of the spring take 3. Mature individuals of the February . take 4. Sexually immature individuals 5. Body length. this age is 2.6 cm, without considering the two extreme anomalous deviations. In individuals whose body length exceeds 110 cm but does not exceed 125 cm the length of the testicles varies between 2.5 and 6.0 cm In the middle of February and between 2.5 and 7.3 cm in the period from April to May, all of which, as yet, does not make it possible to make more accurate conclusions. Indisputably, sexually mature males have testicles which are 4.5 cm and longer. The maximum length of the testicles, according to the data available to the author, does not exceed 7.2 cm. 39.

Thus, we see that by the time sexual maturity sets in 113 the testicles increase considerably in length. Sexually mature males can be correctly identified on the one hand as young males up to a year old or, on the other hand as fully mature males by the weight of the testicles. In young, approximately one year old, males of the February take whose body length does not exceed 111 cm, the testicles (together with the spermatic cord) do not Weigh more than 6 g. But, generally, the weight of the testicles of such individuals varies between 0.8 and 2.5 g, with an average of 1.g g (from 26 pairs of glands). Only in five cases out of 33 did males of the specified body length have testicles which weighed . more than 2.5 g. The testicles of young males are subject to a certain entirely natural individual variability. In particular, for individuals with a body length of 102.5 cm the weight of the testicles varies between 1.0 and 2.4 g. For individuals which are 104 cm long, the testicles weigh, in one case, 0.8 g, in another, 1.7 g and, in a third, 2.4 g. On the other,hand, individuals with testicles of the same weight differ somewhat in body length. Apparently, the testicles of older individuals vary more in weight than those of young individuals. Among the mature males which were examined by A. Lepin in the middle of February, two groups were designated which were different according to the weight of the testicles. One of them included five individuals with testicles weighing between 7.1 and 9.0 g (an average of 8.3 g) for a body ' length of 119-125 cm (an average of 122.2 mn). 40.

In the other group of mature males, consisting of six individuals, the testicles weighed an average of 22.8 g varying between 14.0 and 30.2 g. On'the average, these males differed little from the preceding individuals in body length. Their average body length was 122.8 cm, varying between 114 to 131 am. In indisputably mature males which were studied by V. Antipin in the period from the end of April to the end of May the testicles averaged 35 cu. cm in volume varying between 22 and 52 cu. an. The average body length of these males was (according to 7 specimens) 126.3 cm, varying between 120 and 138 cm. •The difference in the testicles provides a basis for speaking of the seasonal variation in the size of the sexual organs. Apparently, besides the considerable enlargement of the testicles by the time of the onset of sexual maturity (by the time the testicles increase in weight by more than 1,250%, as compared to the testicles of young males of approximately one year old), the testicles change in weight in the sexually mature and during the yearly cycle. In this case, we have in mind the probability of a significant enlargement of the testicles by the time of mating. The weight of the testicles of sexually immature individuals older than a one year old varies between 2 and 7-8 g. There is insufficient data for a complete characterization of the testicles of a given age group. D. Brief Characterization of the Age Changes in the Ovaries and the Womb. The available data do not permit us to coordinate exactly the size of sexual glands and the womb with the body measurements of females since almost all of the small collections which was

• 41.

gathered,primarily by the author lacked recorded notes on the 1 animals investigated . Thus, the age changes'which are undergone by the sex organs L?.4 of female ringed seals' were possible to characterize only within the limits of general age categories: young females (clearly sexually immature), females in a transitory age and mature females. The size and weight of the ovaries as well as - the data relating to the size and weight of the womb are shown in Table E. Table •8.

I. Beauguna H Bec H0a0BbIX OpraHOH camoK - I a) Beaninina n sec animuxoa Amnia stigma 3 06-ben u xy6. cm Bec B r Ji 1 BospacTnaa 2 (8 mu) 4 rpynna min. I med. max. min. med. max. min. med. max. 1 Môn0)1.ble . 11,5 16,7(7) 19,5 mei ee 1 Ky6. Cu . 0,25 0,66(7) 0,8

• fi flepexoanoro BospacTa H noTen- nuanbHo spenue a) animmoi 6e3 atearoro Texa • . . . . 90, 1 22,0(2) 23,0. 1,9 1,0 (2) 6) RW11111111 Heea Thud Te- ioM 23,0 24,0(2) 25,0 1,5 1,8(2) •• i ii 3peable Ha umenbin nii • 19,0 22,0(4) 26,5 1,5 2,2(4) 3,0 1,2 2,4 (4) 3,3 nan6o.ibmini 5111 ,11111K . 22,0 26,0(4) 2,5 a2(4) 4,0 2,2 2,95(4) 3,5 flo.Tycymma H3 06011X . . 21,0 24,0(4) 26;0 99 2,9(4) 3,8 2.3 2,65(4) .3,a

6) Bec pasmepu MaTKH Hepn pasnoro smarm

BospacriaA 2 Bec MaTKH .(13 r) Zinnia poroB (s cm) 406xuar pora (a cu) 1 ri)ynna . min. I med. I max. min. I med. max. men. I med. max.

. 1 Mo.aoabae . . . 4,0 - 7,3 ((i) 10,0 2,2 3,6(6) . 5,5 1,1 1,7(6) 2,3 - ii flepexosm oro . 1303PaCTa H noTen- niiona,abno spe- . . :1 . .. able WM . 20,0(2) 24,0 6,5 6,8(2) ' 7,0 .2,3(1) 111 Bspocable . . 1 70,0 91,7(3) 110,0 7,3 8,4(3) 10,5 - 4,9 ; 5,1(2) 5,3 .

O 1 The majority of the forms, to the author's regret, were lost. 42.

Key to Table 8: I. Size and weight of the female sex organs. I a) Size and weight of the ovaries. 1. Age group i. Young females Females of transitional age and potentially mature a) ovaries without corpus luteum h) ovaries with corpus luteum iii. Mature females a) the smallest ovary h) the largest ovary c) the average. 2. Length of ovary (in mm) 3. Volume in cu. cm 4. Weight in g. I h) Weight and size of womb of the ringed seal of various ages 1. Age group i. Young females ii. Females of transitional age and potentially mature iii.Mature females. 2. Weight of womb (in g) 3. Length of horns (in cm) 4. TZeach of the horn (in cm). According to the data which were at the author's disposal it was impossible to draw conclusions . which were completely reliable. However, the following facts merit consideration. 1. The ovaries of mature females are significantly larger than the ovaries of young individuals. . 2. In mature females the weight difference varies between the small and large ovary which is explained by the difference in the development cf the corpus luteum. In some cases there is hardly any difference in the size and weight of paired ovaries despite the presence of the corpus luteum in one of them. For example, such were the ovaries of a pregnant female (an embryo length of 2.8 cm) which was taken in August by A. Tyulin. On the other hand, in another pregnant female which was taken on September 4 (an embryo 1.8 cm long) one ovary was 1.9 cm long and weighed 2.2 g whe-reas the other which corresponded to the pregnant horn of the uterus was considerably larger: 2.9 cm long and weighing 3.5 g. 3. The uterus of mature individuals exceeds many times the size and weight of the uterus of the young individuals. Among the former there was not a single hyperemic uterus. E. Age Variability in Craniological Features a. Aims and method gl› A small work has been written by N.A. Smirnov jointly with the author (22) on the question of the age variability oT the skull of the northern ringed seal. At that time the authors only had material on the ringed seal of the White Sea and the Barents Sea at their disposal and they regarded their.article as inconclusive. In the time which has elapsed new craniolpgical data has been accumulated (including also data from the Kara Sea) making it possible in the future to subject the systematic diagnoses supplied by N.A. Smirnov (17, 20)and the Coastal ringed seal and the ringed seal of Bind! to a new interpretation. Accordingly, there arises the necessity of re-examining the nature of age gl› variability. 44. To this end measurements of skulls were made according to the,scheme below. 1. Condylobasal length. 2. Length of the cerebralpart. a) from the extreme points of the occipital condyles to the anterior marin of the uncinate processes of the pterygoid bone (hamuli pterygoidei). b) from the same points to the posterior margin of the foramen opticum. Length of the facial part (and the difference between the condylobasal length and the corresponding length of the cerebral part). 4. Length of the muzzel part (from the extreme anterior point af the praemax•llaria to the posterior margin of the •alveolus ml of the maxilla). 5. Length of the series of pper molars. 6. Longitudinal diameter pm of the maxilla. 7. Longitudinal diameter of the upper canine tooth. 8. Length of the auditory vesicle (Bullae osseae). 9. The greatest length of the nasal bones. O. Length of the segment of the Nasalia from the posterior apex to the frontomaxillary suture. 11. The difference between the overall length of the Nasalia and the preceding measurement. 12. The wldth of the Nasalia at the anterior margin. 13. The width of the Nasalia at the frontomaxillary suture. 14. The greatest diameter of the foramen infraoritale. 15. The temporal (mastoid) width (between the extreme lateral points). 16. The greatest width in the zygomatic bones. 17. Width of the muzzle at the level of the upper canine teeth. 18. The smallest width at the hernial pterygoidei. 19. The smallest interorbital width. 20. Width of the occipital condyles. 21. Width between the auditory vesicles. 22. Height of the cerebral part of the skull (at the Bullae osseae). 23. Height of the facial part (from the posterior ma;gin of alveolus 1111 of the maxilla to 1) the apex of the Nasalia and 2) to the upper margin of the Nasalia at the frontomaxillary suture). L26 24. Height of the muzzle part (from .the anter-ior ends to the anterior margin of alveolus pme- of the maxilla). 25. The greatest length of the mandible 26. Height of the mandible behind ml. 27. Length of the zygomatic bone (Jugale) without processes (the smallest one). 28. The smallest height of the zygomatic bone (Jugale). Apart from the measurements, the side apices of the molars considered. 45.

b. Accepted age groups and their craniological nature In order to investigate the variability in the values listed, the following age grdàps have been adopted. 1

1. Summer animals in their first year of life of more OT less normal size for their age. • 2. Older animais which are sexually immature (mainly from half-year-olds to one-and-a-half-year-olds). 3. Doubtfully'mature animais of transitional age, whose maturity or immaturity could not be-established due to insufficient data. 4. Completely mature animais of both sexes. Females and males were not isolated in the groups listed, including the group of sexually mature animais due to, firstly, an insufficient number cif females and, secondly, the fact that the sex was not designated for •a considerable number of skulls. In addition, a group of dwarfed individuals from the offspring taken in the summer period is introduced in the Tables given below. The reason for this was to show the actual significance of this category which L. Zuckovsky• separated into a special sub-species, Phoca hispida pygmaea. Of the craniological material which was used by the author only two skulls belonged indisputably to young individuals (younger than the one-year-olds) which were characterized by signs of distinct decay (a more detailed description of these is given belowl

1 In view of the fact that in the vast majority of cases the examined skulls were not accompanied by any other data (body size, sexual organs and glands, claws, etc.) on the basis of which it would have been possible to make an estimate of their agé mere accurately - the author had to adopt age groups here which differed somewhat from those which

had been established earlier. • Summer animals in their first year are characterized by the presence of almost all of the cranial sutures with the exception of the occipital sutures. The 3,atter are drawn together very early. Of the skulls examined by the author only in one were all of the interoccipital sutures complete (No. 1, Table 9); unfortunately, the date of the take was not indicated on the label. Normally, all the occipital bones fuse by the beginning of June. Traces of the sutures sometimes remain.until the last ten days of that month. The tabulare are preserved somewhat longer. They are quite distinctly seen even at the end of June although not longer.

They are quite distinctly seen even at the end of June although not on all skulls. Apparently in exceptional cases, they are not entirely gr9wn together with the adjacent bones until the autumn. The lambdoid suture draws together comparatively early in the middle part. • By the end of June it is generally only discernible along the margins. All of the remaining sutures (the basal, coronal, temporal, interparietal, interfrontal and facial) remain open. The teeth are completely pushed out of the alveolus; only in whitecoats in the period of milk feeding are they completely hidden under the gum. In some cases the molars are set to densely that their edges L2e overlap one another. Older sexually immature animals generally no longer have a lambdoid suture: The tabulare completelydisappear (out of 35 skulls only one had traces of sutures. In the majority of the skulls examined the interparietal suture disappears in the sunken end. Frequently, it remains visible only to the middle, but in some cases 4.7. it is absent altogether. The interfrontal suture also begins to fill in at the posterior end; however, the growing together of the frontal bones in their posterior section is observed only in approximately one fifth of the. number of skUlls exaMined. The coronal suture is open .; the temporal sutures in a number Of Cases are drawn , but are generally seen along their entire - extent. together slightlY On .some skulls the basal suture:also'showea - tendenc3i to: close. The teeth sometimes.have traces of a slight, scarcely . . noticeable, wearing *down. The doubtfully mature group includes individuals with transitional skull features which are between those of the absolutely mature and the immature, individuals for whom there was no direct evidence of ,maturity or immaturity. 'According to the size of the skull and its massiveness such individuals could have been assigned to the mature but there were known contradictions in the piéture of the sutures. The skulls of this transitional stage are characterized by the following state of the sutures. The temporal sutures, in the majority of cases are completely drawn together. The interparietal suture is either completely absent or is visible up to the middle, disappearing completely in the second haif. The interfrontal suture begins to draw close in the posterior section, sometimes already having disappeared at the middle. In rare cases, it is filled along the entire extent. The coronal suture is generally open. The basal suture is also open; with a tendency to draw together in some skulls. 48.

The doubtfully. mature differ comparatively little from the previous age group in termà of the condition of the teeth. • The crests on the crahial box are hardly developed at all. Only a certain intensification of the relief in the occipital region is observed (Protuberantia occipitalis externa). Sexually mature individuals (according to the age groups which we have adopted)can be characterized craniologically in the following way. The normally largest skulls are relatively massive with thicker and stronger bones as compared with the preceding age groups. The cranium is without sutures. Only in exceptional cases is the basal as well as a large part of the interfrontal suture not drawn together (at the most anterior margin which is adjacent to apex of the nasal bones). As a very rare deviation from the norm the coronal suture is retained as a clear or broken line. The interparietal suture is noted to the middle only in one case (out of 38); in all of the other cases it is not seen at all. The basal suture is open in some skulls and drawn together on others. The bones of the facial part of the skull grow together to a lesser degree; however, the maxillae usually fuse on the palatal surface; the nasal bones in the majority of caàes also grow together in the posterior section. The apex of the nasal bones in a considerable number of the skulls fuse with the frontal bones between which it is wedged; however, the suture remains noticeable in the form of a dotted line. On skulls of the oldest individuals the intermaxillary and the upper maxillary bones fuse between themselves and with each other; the nasal bones grow together entirely and in individual cases the zygomatic bones grow together with the zygomatic processes of the temporal bones. In addition, the bones also fuse in the region of the orbits. Thus, the sutures which remain in the oldest individuals are the sutures 1)between the nasal and the upper maxillary bones, . - . . . ' • 45". 3) between the palatal bones and 4)the palatal --upper- maxillary • • sutures. • . • 'The teeth in the majority of cases bear clear traces of sharpness With wearing down occuringin the molars at:'..the expense

of the side apices; in the canine teeth mainly the surfaces of contact between the upper and lower canine teeth and, to a lesser ' extent, the crowns are worn down. The incisors are subject tà abrasion tô a much lesser -extent than other teeth. Generally, it is necessary to nôte that the teeth of ringed seal are retained incomparably longer and wear down to a léiser extent than those of bearded seal. We explain this by the difference in the composition of food and, particularly, by the fact that.the tinged seal, in contrast to the bearded seal, does not consume benthià moIllibks • the crushing of whose shells in the bearded seal, evidently, 'wears down the teeth. . The relief of the cranitim in the ringed seal is very slightly

developed. In the majority of cases, the cranial capsule of the mature individual is rounded and has a rather smooth surface. The tuberosity is moderate, expressed only on the occiput (Protuberantia occipitalis externa) and along the sides of the parietal bones where . a small paired crest is noted in young individuals for the attachment of the masticatory muscles. These small crests are on a slant,

converging at the interorbital area) and delimit.a shfooth arrow- shaped or triangular parietal area at the edges. The occipital crest which extends along the Linea nuchalis superior is also rather moderately developed. Such a comparatively slight development of the relief of the cranium is caused, evidéntly, apart from other causes, by the absence of the necessity of strong muscular exertion 111, when grasping food which is not masticated or torn into pieces (see p. 52 concerning the diet). I. • •

■■■•

Xapaurepficrilica meon na if ePene mo-Jio.fthrx, Ce. ro.neTHmx nep:n d • KOH%IJIO- it a nmHe iunon .Me CTO a33.'ibHaR no UOJIaeKiklift jlaTa rfpnmegauffe Junna aa bb cc RO6b1 11 II eamdAoffAfforo Tare (u mm) J10 1.111bIX111bIX

1 Be.rfoe mope 3oononfitieexHil myaeit Mo- Hmeerca cdocodeefw I ilhlelOTC5i nee klmeercH eKOECK01-0 romapezreenuo- firon Ha c;iy- ro ylinnepeirren M 2893 . 114,8. XOBOSI ny- „ ahipe 2 I J'crhe p. Ko- .Doo.fforimecunit 1112CTItTyTAKB- otiepgefto fie cae.a1,1 - ; ammià Aemum mayli M 7761 . 10(29)/V 1;33,0 110.3BOCTb10 3 o. Floean To Hie M 6733 24/V (6/1) 141,1 ofiepnew,1 not!» ficiff,te cnexue• Cudi'ph 110.1110CTI:d0 4 13exoe àfope M 4323 21/V1. 134,0 ITO,ITIS He caelLi • iliJIIbT . M 15490 136,0 3B1111I3'T B 311a- fie, menu ner . tHiTeabnoli • creneun 6 • ▪ M 15488 ...... 28, VI • 142,0 3aTstnyT BUI11.4 nocepe,mtne 7 ; • M 13489 1/V1 141,7 aarinlyr 1111,U11 61 nocepunne

8! M 884 . 24/V1(cneT.) 136,5 net coscem He Hum! 9 Kapefcoe mope . Apmmeeicitii 11HCTIITyT M 9 TO:111K0 net (paitom o.. Be - 1935 (38) - 14/VIII 139,2 C 60KOB .rtoro)

10 'Yerbeoast 4aCTI) Apmfmeclinii MICTIITyT IOJVIII 140,7 . • °deficit rydbi 11 BeIce m ope 300/1011ItitéKia1 HficuryT. Afia- • He Hem,' AeMlill Hayx 34 15487 . . 7/X . 138,0 • 1 9 BBABld To ;fie M15486 27/X •143,2 1-3 A, Cr (1) ■0

o • . 51.

Key to Table 9: A. The nature of sutures on the skull of young underyearling ringed seal a. Number, in order b. Place of catch • 1. White Sea 2. Mouth of the Kolyma R. 3. Novaya Sibir' Island 4. White Sea 5. n n 6. jj 7 n 8. 9. Kara Sea (White Island region) 10. Estuary part of Obskaya Guba 11. White Sea 12. White Sea. c. Collection 1. ,Zoological Museum of the Moscow State University No. 2893 2. Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences No. 7761 3. Same collection, No. 6735 4 9 No. 4323 5. No. 15490 6. " No. 15488 7. No. 1 54e9 8. 0 No. 884 9. The Arctic Institute, No. 9, 1935 (38) 10. The Arctic Institute 11. The Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences No. 15487

12. Same collection , No 15486 d. Date e. Condylobasal length (in mm) f. The presence of sutures aa. Lambdoid suture 1. present • 2. it 3 • It 4. ". • 5. drawn together to a considerable degree 6. drawn together in the middle .7. 'drawn together in the middle 8. not present 9 • only at the sides 10. only at the sides 11. only at -the sides . 12. only at the sides • . ,

.er 52.

bb. Tabulare • 1. individual 2. outlined incompletely 3. outlined almost completely • 4. almost invisible 5. not distinct 6. visible 7. visible 8.• completely indistinct 9. none •10. none 11. not distinct 12. visible cc. Interoccipital 1. all 2. traces 3. distinct traces 4. traces 5. none 6. It 7. 8. 9. ,10. n 11. tt 12. Remark. Sutures are present on the auditory vesicle.

c. Age variability in craniometric values It has been established in previous studies by the above- mentioned authors (22) that the indices of condylobasal length, length of the facial part, width of the muzzle at the level of the upper canine teeth, interorbital width, height of skull in the cerebral and facial parts are subject to age variability. Variability in these values with age was completely con- firmed by the present studies. In addition, another series of

• indices was noted which were subject to age variability. • Below,,We only touch upon the values which change'with age) values (we have in mind, of course, not absolute omitting all other values which with few exceptions increase in the process of growth of

53.

an dndividual to a greater or lesser degreebut only the indices : of these values expressed.in.percentages of any values being compared> . Belonging'tà 'the most'noticeably changing values Is the condylobasal length expressed. in percentages.of the temporal width. • (Table 1 0).. • . When comparing the indices which are presented here with in an article by N. Smirnov and K. Chapskii .(22)I 'a those given certain discrepancy in figures attracts attention. According to our contemporary-data the skull,of Young individuals from the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea is relatively shorter than'of individuals'from the White Sea (155.2% inetead of i60/ for the 'White Sea specimens). The same,may be said apropos of the skull of mature individuals; apcording to previous data the.indices for , the White Sea and Novaya Zemlya individuals are 169% and. 167.5%; according to the-new data the. index for ringed seal from the Kara and Barents Seas is 155.6%.- •

Table 10.-

Kone.nao 6 a aa.qhnag D.Juna.

',,,I4HAeKCEJ nponeirrax macTomaloil • unipimbi 1. Bo3pacrnam rpynna

min. med. TiliiX.

Kapanizonme 9g3emn.nsipbt (nepnorolutn) . . 152,3 157,2(2) 162,0 Ocennne nepsormen 147,4 155,2(4) 159,1 1 11 Heno.nono3pe.lbie crapmero Boapacra 148,0 158,1(35) 169,6 1V Comunre.umo-apeabie 159,5 162,2(12) 169,0 Bnoane Bapoc.ime o6oero no.ria 153,7 165M(37) 182,0 • ...... . . — . 166,6(21) • y y 163,6(6)

Key to Table 10: I. Condylobasal length

• 54.

1. Age group • i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlinga) Autumn underyearlings iii. Older sexually immature • iv. Doubtfully mature v. Completely mature of both sexes 2. Indices in percentages of the mastoidal width Table 11.

•lanna annenori itacrm (or nepnoro x pan praemaxfllaria o harnun • terygoide0

• Illutexcm B nponeniax eurtexcbr B nponenTax xortawm6aaaabnort i14111Hbl eractonanoil mnprinu 1 • Boapàcrnbie rpynnbi min. rned. max. min. med. 1 max.

_L. Kapenconue praeurunipbt . . . 46,6 96,9,2) 47,2, 71,1 73,6(2) 76,2 Ocemnre nepnoroami 46,0 47,2(2) 48,3 72,3 74 0(2) 75,7 Henozonoapex 40,0 47,6(30) 49,6 69,1 75,8(30) 83,2 1V Comnereabno-apeabre 45,2 98,0(12) 49,6 73,1 77,7(n) 80,2 V • rIo.nôno3ne.-(bte 45,8 48,936) _ 52,4 73,2 81,1(37) 87,0

Key to Table 11: I. Length of the facial part (from the first margin of the praemaxillaria to the hamuli pterygoidei) 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) ii. Autumn underyearlings iii.Sexually immature iv. Doubtfully mature v. Sexually mature 2. Indices in percentageÈ of the condylobasal length 3. Indices in percentages of the mastoidal width.

The gradual lengthening of the skull which occurs with age takes the form of a more intensive growth of the bones of the Ile facial part the indices of which, even being expressed . in percentages of the condylobasal length, increase noticeably from young to mature

55.

specimens (Table 11 and 12), but . expressed in percentages of the mastoid width they show a more apparent difference. The indices of length . WhichwrearAved at by the .second method (i.e. • from the foramen opticum) show great variance with age. The indices which were published earlier differ from those cited in the present work by higher data both for the young and the mature. The length of the cerebral part of the skull which is expressed in percentages of the condylobasarlength changes with age inversely (Table 13). But this length in percentages of the mastoid width varies somewhat differently. Initially, in the period of more intensive expansion of the skull in width the relative length of the cerebral part of the skull is somewhat decreased but by the time sexual maturity sets in a noticeable increase is visible. The latter is evidently explained by the fact that by that time the increase in width of the cranium is decelerated. Table)_2.

I eanna :inuenoii qaCTII gepena (oT nepeRnero fc.pam meaitie.irocTnux Ro foramen opticum) • • 2, . 1 • Hitaexcw B nponeuTax 1 • 14nRexchi 8 nponenux gonemo6a3anbiloii eumbi macTon.anors kulp 1. BoapacTuaa rpynna :ma

min. med, max. min. med. max.

• KapanKonbie aKaegn.lnpw • . . s 53,1 54,2(2) 55,3 80,9 85,2(2) Ocemute nepsoroRmi 89,5 53,0 54,3(3) 55,5 804 83,5(3) 87,0 Fienoaono3peame 52,6 54,4(34) 56,2 78,0 1V CounuTeabno-ape.ffle 86.0(34) 89,5 .52,8 55,1(12) 57,4 85,4 88,5(12) V floaosoape.aue 92,7 52,1 55,8(37) 591 85,3 92,0(38) 103,2 Key to Table 12:. . 1. The length of the facial part of the skull , (from the anterior margin of the intermaxillary bones,to the foramen opticum) 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens Autumn underyearlings iii. Sexually immature iv. Doubtfully mature v. Sexually mature 2. Indices in percentages of the condylobasai length 3. Indices in percentages of the mastoid width,

The indices cited in Table 13 differ from those published earlier by a smaller value in the sexually mature (according to the previous data on the Novaya Zemlya population the average length of the cerebral part ds 87% of the mastOid width and according to our data - 84.5%. Table 13.

nacrli - liepena

113 nponenrax Kon,amao6a3aebnoli B OpOlteHTaX MaCTOKIWOji 2. ivuntbr MHplinbi 3. 1 • Boapacrime rpynnu OT 3aTb1:10111-11)1X OT 3aTblit041161X OT 3arb1a0,111b1X OT 3aTLI10qH1IX bibuitemzos ?tit:JIRO:limp no allegenxon etc) MbIlleaK08 a hamul1 b foramen a hamuli b foramen ,pterygoidel opt1cuin pterygo1del opticum

liapalmoubze axae?,man- pur nepooromion . . 53,2(2) 46,2(2) 83.2(2) 1 71,8(2) Ocemlne nepaoro,tout . 52,8(2) 45,7(3) 83,0(2) 70,3(3) OcTaabinge nenozoso- apeame 45,5(32) 82,4(32) 72,4(34) Commirenhno-ape.n hie 51,8(12) 45,3(12) 84,511) 72,7(11) Flo.nosoapeabie . . . 51,0(36) 44,4(37) 84,4(36) 73,6(36)

57.

Key to Table 13: I. Length of the cerebral part of the skull 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens of underyearlings ii. Autumn underyearlings Remaining sexually immature iv. Doubtfully mature V. Sexually mature. in percentages of the condylobasal length a) from the occipital condyles to the hamuli pterygoidei b) from the occipital condyles to the foramen opticum 3. In percentages of the mastoid width a) from the occipital condyles to the hamuli pterygoidei h) from the occipital condyles to the foramen opticum The length indices of the series of,molars of the maxilla (Table 14) as of the cranium vary inversely, i.e., they decrease with age. According to our data the change appears only in the average indices which are calculated in percentages of the condylobasal length. But the indices which are expressed in percentages of temporal (mastoid) width are not significant. Table 14.

eàmna pscrut---k-opeitHmx eepxliefi'lleJaerit 2 3 Cpemme Huegma n npoueirrax 1. Bo3pacruan rpymm Koitaimo6a3anbH0r1 ,V111}ii,/ a6conione (9 Cu) med. max. i. KapauKoeme atnemminpu Ocemme nepeororen 28,6(2) 1 21,8 22,6(2) - 23,4 . 31.8(4) 22,1 22,9(4) - , 23,8 Heummeospenue crapinero no3pacra . . 333(35) 20,1 21,8(35) 232 Counuren bno-3pe.m. 35,4(13) flo.eloeo3peaue (o6oero 19,9 21,302) I . 22,8 /Iona) 36,5(38) 19,0 1 21,0(37) f 24,0 58. ley. to.T.b1e 14:

1. Length of the series of m91ars of the maxdlla 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens ii. Autumn underyearlings iii. Older sexually immature iv. Doubtfully mature v. Sexually mature (of both sexes) 2. Absolute average values (in cm) 3. Indices in percentages of the condylobasal length

Although the interorbital width, as the above-mentioned /32 authors wrote, submits poorly to numerical expression due to its small absolute value nonetheless, on the basis of mass data, the average indices (Table 15) show sufficiently distinctly its gradual narrowing. Table 15

Hanueu h uzaI , eM

Cpeiume Hincenchi n npouewrax a6co- ma crowanofi nmpimbi lioapacTnan rpynna ' . .110TIMX neantmit min. • med. max. (a c

i KapAinconue 31:3emnalapu (repnoroann) . 6,3(2) • 6,0 7,8(2) 9,6 Ocenmie nepnoro,uzii 6,4r) 5,1 7,1(4) 9,4 Flerioxonoàpenile crapmero soapacra . . 5,8 36) • 3,9 5,7(35) 8,7 1V Comm' ren mio-apea we • 5,7 13) 4,3 5,5(13) 6,7 V Floaonoapeabte odoero noaa 5,3(38) 3,3 5,0(38) 6,2 59.

ley to Tp.ble 15: le I. The smallest interorbital width 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) Autumn underyearlings Older sexually immature iv. Doubtfully mature v. Sexually mature of both sexes

2 • The averages of absolute values (in cm) 3. Indices in percentages of mastoid width

The relationship between the temporal width and the greatest width in the zygomatic bones, despite the sharp individual fluctuations in the indices, still gradually changes in the direction of equality. In young individuals,the skull is relatively narrower in the zygomatic bones but with the passing of time the zygomatic • width approaches the temporal width. The comparison of the Zygomatic width with the condylobasal length does not disclose any changes with age. . Table 16.

I CooTuotuenue me;r<..ly cKyaosoii u aucoquoli mupuuoii

flu,geKcbt ocy.noBort umpuma B npo- 2 newrax btaCTOileirnii mupttum • o3pacTuan Tpynna

min. „ • med. 1112X.

.. I KapnuKousze 3K3emunitpu (nepuoratum) . . 9436 95,1 (2) 95,6 14. Herio.nono3peabte oT roJia u crainue . . . 89,7 . 94,6 (31) 98,6 11 i ComuitTeasuo-spemee 92,1 98,0 (12) 99,4 1V lionono3peable o6oero noua . 92,2 99,3 (36) 106,4 • Key to Table 16: I. The relationship between the zygomatic and temporal width 1. Age group i. Dwarfed'specimens (Underyearlings) ii. Sexually immature from ône year and older iii. Doubtfully mature iv. Sexually mature of both.sexes . 2.' Indices of the zygomatic width in percentages of the. mastoid width The width of the snout part of the skull at the upper s canine teeth expressed in percentages of the mastoid width increases with width. The indices cited in Table 17 are close to those which were published earlier. Table 17

111111911i-fa, pigaa na ypoane aepxiiirx KJITsiKOB Himeacbi a nponearax Bacornion warming Bo3pacrilan rpynna

min. ' med. ITIaX.

• Rapnuicoabie siaeignpig (nepsoro.aun) 22,6 22,8 (2) 23,0 HanonQuo3penbie 20,9 23,3 (35) 27,7 1 I. ComilaTeabno-3peabie 1V 19,8 22.9 (13) 26,1 Iloaoao3peeige o6oero nojia 22,2 25,5 (38) 28.5

Key to Table 17: 1. The width of the snout at the level of the upper canine teeth 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) Sexually immature iii. Doubtfully mature iv. Sexually mature of both sexes 2. Indices in percentages of the temporal width The relative height of the skull in the cerebral part (cranium) decreases with age. The age variations, however, are obvious both from the indices of the mastoid width and the condylobasal length ( Table 18). c. 61.

Table 18

BbICOTA gepennoii cop° 6 KR s oóJlacT11 Bullae osseae 2 m. c nponenTax 1411.aeg. Cif" B neoneniax • cr), 21'in xonmino6a3anbflOri fu jtaHH61 macT01.1.anori iunpunbi 1 BoapacTime rpynnw 2 n s. a 0 C40 (1) min. . med. max. min. med. or, max.

Ramocosbie 3k3eunncpu (nep- • coromm) 62,2(2) 47,9 49,3 (2) 50,7 76,9' 77,0(2). 77,2 Ocennue nepsoronicn . . • 64,7(4) 44,2 46,8 (4) 50,6 70,2. 71;8(3) 73,5 111 Henonosospenue eTapmero R03^ • pacta 66,6(35) 38,6. 43,2 (341 47)7 60,2 68,6(35) 75,3 • iV CounnTeabso-apeabte . . . 68,1(13) 37,6 40,7 (12) 42,7 60,7 65,8(13)- 69,1 VBapoeffle . . . . 69,8(38) 36,5 39,8 (36) 43,0 53,0 65,3(38) 71,5 "

"Key to Table 18:

I. Height of the ci.anium in the region of the Bullae osseae 1. Agé group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) Autumn underyearlings Older sexually immature • iv. Doubtfully mature v. Mature 2. Averages of absolute values (in cm) 3. Indices in percentages of the condylobasal length 4. Indices in percentages of the mastoid width

The height of the facial part of the skull varies in completely the opposite direction (Table 19). It increases intensely in the process of general growth of the individual. Being expressed by indices which are calculated from the mastoid width, it shows gradual increase during the transition through all the age stages. But the indices obtained from the condylobasal length do nôt vary with age since, obviously, the length of the • skull and the facial height increase uniformly with age. 62. Table 19

Blicora annenoil qacru

2 Hiumgcbi s . nponenrax xracrounnoil • ,• 'unipinna 1 • Boapacraan rpynna

*min. med. max.

Kap.nmonbte sxaetsmanpLe (nepnoro,nich) 11 . . 41,8 41,8 (2) . 41,9 Oceanne nepeoromm • • • ..... • • • 39,2 11• 41,8 (4) 57,7 1 Henonononpenbm crapmero soapacrn . . 37,8 42,3 (36) • Comnnrenano-apenue 46,3 41,3 43.1 (13) . 47,4 Bnonne pocJjMe o6oero nana .•. _ _ 40,6 44,9 (39) 52,7

Key to Table 19: I. Height of the facial part 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) Autumn underyearlings iii.Older sexually mature iv. Doubtfully mature v. Completely mature of both sexes 2; Indices in percentages of the mastoid width.

It should be noted that the indices which are cited in the present work do not agree with those published earlier (they are lower by approximately five units or oercent). 1

Below, Table 20 is given which corroberates conclusions stated earlier (22) that -the Nasalia, in general, follow in growth (length) the facial part of the skull. However, these changes are detected only by indices which have been derived from the mastoid 1.,;.ridth (if we speak not of absolute values but of relative values).

1 From the editor. As in all cases where measurements are technically difficult, individual procedures of measurement, among other factors, are significant here. 63. Table 20

L4 Ranna 11000RbIX x(icTeil (nanàoabinan) 2 3 _ Cpemme ns klimeRchz B uponewrax BospacTuan rpynna a6conlOTH blX (B CM) min. med. max.

1 KapanHoubie 9n3emn.r1Slpht (nepsoregm) . 24,0 —(2) me• 18,2 (2) 19,6 ji Ocemme nepnoroenn 28,3 (4) 19,7 20,5 (4) 20,9 ii Heno.nolloapenbie cupwero sospavra . 33,6 (34) 17,4 21,6 (33) 27,6 11r CobninTeonsno-spenbre 37,5 (13) • 18,3 • 22,2 (12) 27,0 ,V flononospeame 38,6 (35) • 22,4 (33) 26,5 .

Key to Table 20: 1. Length of nasal bones (the greatest) 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) Autumn underyearlings Older sexually immature iv. 'Doubtfully mature v. Sexually mature 2. Averages of absolute values (in cm)

3. Indices in percentages.

From a comparison of the length of separate parts of the Nasalia, it was ascertained that their posterior segment (from the apex to the frontomaxillary suture) is lengthened more than the anterior. The indices of the posterior segment wedged between the frontal bones, calculated from the total.length.of the nasal bones, despite individual variations, increase quite considerably on the

average with age (Table 21). • 64.

Table 21.

Anuna aaJ.tnero orpesica,..Nasalla (oT,nepwrinbt Ro no6 no- gellIOCTI1Or0 1.11B a)

2 thIABRChl B uponenrax o6meri 11,r1H111,1 HOCOdbiX Kocreit 1 Boapacrnaa rpynna min. med. 'max.

i. •Kapanicoable aNsemnnapiu (nepaoroRKu) . 32,1 • 32,2 (2) 32,2 1i • Ocernme nepaororunt 23,2 32,6 (4) 37,6 , ;ii • Flenononoapenbie crapmero Boapaéra . . 25,6 35,5 (34) '50,0 1V .. Comintreabno-apenble ...... • . . • . . 24,2 37,3 (13) 44,9 V .. ,.... flonondapenue o5oero nona 29,4 39,3 (35) 47,4 . . . .. .: . .....,.... •

Key to Table 21: • • I. The length ,of the posterior-segment of the Nasalia (from the , apex to the frontomaxillary suture) 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) Autumn underyearlings • ill. Older sexually mature iv. Doubtfully mature v. Sexuallymature of both sexes.. 2. Indices in percentages of the total length of the nasal bones.

The length of the zygomatic vesicles (Bullae ossea) also does not represent a constant value. But with age it increases relatively little in absolute dimensions and,,therefore e being expressed in percentages of the condylobasal length it gives steadily decreasing indices (Table 22). 65 • 8 Table 22. I ,D, afina cayxoublx ny3b1pell

3 HHUKCEJ D nponewrax DOH- Cpe,an?e Luiao6a3anbtiori neautunm D6C0/110THIAX 1 Bo3pacrian rpynna neanqua '(a cm) min. med. max. • . . Kapainconble . aii3emnaaphr (nepnorwen) . . 31,0 (2) • 24,2 24,6 (2) 25,1

Ocerinne nepaoro.um . . 34,4 (4) 23,9 24,5 (4) 25,1 111 Henonono3peab1e cTapmero eo3pacTa . . . 35,1 (36) 20,8 22,7 (35) 25,3 iv COMIIIITe.16HO-D3p0C.Ible • 36,4 (13) 20,6 . 21,6 (12) 23,2 Ilo.ioao3peabie 060e1'o noaa 36,9 (38) 19,5 . 21,2 (37) 23,1

Key to Table 22: I. Length of the zygomatic vesicles 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) ii. Autumn underyearlings iii. Older sexually, immature iv.' Doubtfully mature • v. Sexually mature of both sexes 2. Average of absolute values (in cm) 3. Indices in percentages of the condylobasal value.

The height of the zygomatic bone (Jugale), expressed in .L.2.5 percentages of its length, belongs to a number of values which , are subject to,considerable individual variations. But, in spite of this, the arithmetic averages of the indices presented in Table 23 undergo changes with age which gradually diminish in the transition from young to mature individuals. Thus, the length of the Jugale increases faster than the height. . 66. - Table 23 .

• Haumeubmag otAcora CKy.10B0ii KOCTII (Jugale) 2 khuteiccu B npouenTax arog . ace !wen' (6e3 ofpocTxon) Bo3pacrnag rpynua • min. j med. max.

• Kapaugonme agaemnagpm 23,1 25,4 .(2) 27,7 ' Ocernme nepuorogim 27,9 33,4 (4) 39,5 i Ocranbubie nenozono3peame 21,3 31,6 (32) 45,0 1 V Commrrenbno-apeabie MA 28,8 (11) 33,1 V 13noaue uspocase 18,5 28,5_ (38) 40, 6 •

Key to Table 23: I. The smallest height of the zygomatic' bone (Jugale) 1. Age group i. •Dwarfed specimens ii. Autumn underyearlings iii. The remaining sexually immature iv. Doubtfully mature v. Completely mature. 2. Indices in percentages of the length of the same bone O (without processes) The length of the mandible, expressed in percentages of the condylobasal length, also varies somewhat with age. As the indices show (Table 24), the length increases in the growing process not only in absolute values but also relatively, with the rate of growth outstripping somewhat the condylobasal length. Table 24

anna unw e e IOCTII (na st 6 o m a g)

,j4ititeKCIJ npoueurax mou.auno- 6a3anbuoil ,vinn Bo3paFruan rpynna min. med. max.:

Kapgurcoubie agaemnagpb, (nepuoroagn) 61,7 62,0 (2) • 62,2 1 i.. Jletune nepuororum 59,6 61,1 (4) 62,0 Herionosoapeaue crapmero noa‘pacra 59,7 61,9 (84) 65,2 1V COMHIITCJIb1l0-311eable • 60,0 b2,2 (11) 64,4 V ' 3peable o6oero noaa 61,4 63,3 (34) 67,6 j. 6 7 .

Key to Table 24':' 411 1. Length of the mandible (thej greatest) Age group . i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) ii. Summer underyearlings D'oubtfully mature - iv. Mature of both sexes.

2: Indices - in percentages of the condylobasal length.

Some increase in the longitudinal diameter of the teeth which is observed during the growth of an individual occurs in consequence of the moving out of the teeth from the alyeolus and the enlargement of their crowns. The diameter of the outer part of a tooth, or course, does not vary with age, but the indices of the third premolar of thé maxilla which is calculated from the length bf the entire series of molars give, a slightly variable 11, value (Table 25). • Table 25. • lipo.tioabitmfinnalieT,p TpeTbero Rewnoicopennoro- • Bepxneii gentocTB [ 2 Viniexcbt B npouénTax B.runiu . Cpentine H3 a6connrungx Bcero pima Bepxtnix nopetitibtx . 1 1, oapacTuan rpynna pasmepoB (B cm) min. tned. max.

4- Kap.nuxonme 3H3emnitnpu .(itepsoroAxii) . 4,9 (2) 16,8 17,1 (2) 17,4 , Oceitane itepitorcanat , 5,7 (3) 17,2 17,9 (3) ,19,1 11 OcTa,tbnue neno.tionuape.ruge 5,9 (36) 14,1 17,3 (36) 19,9 1.V CoNunrrenbno-apeabte 5,9 (13) 14,7 - 16,4 (11) 19,0 V - llonouoapenble_ 6,0 (38) 14,7 16,3 (37) ffle

Key to Table 25: I. The longitudinal diameter of the third pseudomolar of the maxilla 1. Age group i. Dwarfed specimens (underyearlings) ii. Autumn underyearlings Remaining sexually immature • iv. Doubtfully mature V. Sexually mature 68.

Z. 'Averages of absolute dimensions (in - cm)

3. Indices, in percentages of'léngth of the entire series of LI upper molars .

In summing up the variability in craniometric indices, we can say that the• following values vary with age: 1. Cohdylobasal length increases, in percentages of the mastoid width. 2. Length of the facial part increases, in percentages of the mastoid width. 3. Length of the cerebral part decreases, expressed in percentages of the condylobasal length, and varies somewhat in both directions in the percentage expression of the mastoid width. 4. Greatest length of the nasal bones increases, expressed in percentages of the condylobasal length 5. Length of the auditory vesicles decreases, in percentages of the condylobasal length. 6. Length of the series of upper molars also decreases, in percentages of the condylobasal length'. 7. Length of the mandible increases E. Height of the facial part increases, in indices of the mastoid width. • 9. Height of the cerebral part decreases, in either expression. 10. Height of the zygomatic bones also decreases, in , percentages of their length. • 11. Width of the zygomatic increases 12. Width of the snout at the upper canine teeth also increases.

13. Interorbital width decreases (the last three values are expressed in percentages, of the mastoid width).. 6

f4. \Review of sub-species Phoca hispida pygmaea. In conclusion, we shall touch on the classification importance of the dwarf race of the ringed seal - pygmies (Ph. h. pygmaea), which was introduced into the classification by L. Tsukovskii (37). , The new sub-species did not receive recognition from other specialist who were subsequently concerned with the c-lassification of seals. N.A. Smirnov (17) reduced this sub-species to the position of a "physiological morph". S. Ognev (14) points out that the craniological features of the sub-species described by L.Tsukovskii speaks for its youth, and suggests that simply starvelings of the ringed seal are described under Ph. h. Pygmaea. At the basis of the classification study which was undertaken by L. Tsukovskii there were three skulls of incomplete value which were obtained in the eastern part of Greenland in the northern regions of the. Barents Sea. It is clear that this number of skulls was completely inadequate for any kind of reliable conclusions relating to their classification position. Moreover, L. Tsukovskii did not have 1.27 other skulls of northern ringed seals for comparison. In his studies he used the literature sources without any criticism, mainly the work of Nordquist (32) on the classification of genus Phoca. The basic features adopted by L. Tsukovskii to substantiate the new sub-species and which united all three skulls are as follows: 1) The skull is short and wide, and wider in the region of the processus mdstoideus than in the zygomatic bones; 70. 2) the lateral notches of the anterior margin of the Nasalia are somewhat longer than those of the middle margin; 3) the mandible is relatpely longer than in other sub-species; 4) the'auditory vesicles - Bullae osseae - are also relatively longer than in other sub-species. Among the features are cited the number of side apices on the molars of the maxilla; but this feature, as are a number of other features, is not entirely distinct. In the survey of the age variability in craniometric values we particularly provided for, in all Tables, the category of individuals which seemed to us to •be the closest to "sub-species" Ph. h. pygmaea according to morphological features. In this category (or group) we could only include two of the smallest skulls which were isolated from the remaining skulls of the northern ringed seals by their dimensions. One of them was found in the collection of the Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences (No. 12,790, obtained by A.A. Byalynitskii-Birulya in June of 1899 on Spitsbergen); the other was in the collection of the Arctic Institute (obtained by the author on August 3, 1931 in the south-western part of the Kara Sea). , Both skulls belonged to young individuals which were born in the

years indicated. The latter circumstance did not introduce any complications since the skulls which were studiéd by L. Tsukovsky also belonged to young individuals. One could be persuaded of this from the nature of the sutures of the skull (the occipital and, . partially, the lambdoid were the only ones which were drawn together). Apart from the given evidence of skulls of young individuals in the possession of L. Tsukovskii there were also the absolute values olf a number of measurements made by him at the end of his work.

71.

In order that they not:be unsubstantiated, we . shàll compare a number of thebe measurements leiith the corresponding mean values Peculiar to the first age groups adopted in our studies (Table 26). The width of the skull in the region of the temporal bones exceeds the width of the zygomas. This feature is common to all young individuals. All of the 45 skulls of young ringed seals (including the doubtfully mature) which were studied- are narrower in the zygomatic bones than in the mastoid part. Thus, there is nothing which is specifically inherent only in the pygmy ringed seals of L. TsukovSkii in this feature. The length'of.the mandible which is.expressed in percentages of the condyrobasal length in pygmy ringed seals is 62.3 and 58.1% 1 (an average.of, 60.2%. This relative length is not the greatest- as.L. Tsukovskii suggests; on the contrary., Table 26 shows that • it is péculiar to the youngest individuals; the'length is usually • / 3.8 in mature individualà. .Thuà, the length'of the mandible . greater is one. which changes with age and is. unsuitable as a race feature. • Table_ 26 Cpaeniie paamepou ttepenou „Ph. 11. - pygmaea, co ' i enhI MIr Beauquilamn tiepenou M01100,b1X Hepn

•Lleperia Ph. 34epena.monoaux uepn, h. pygmaea - • (116COMOTHMe. nccae.rtoreauubte auropom BeJMAIIHE4 B MM) . 1. Haumeuouauue upomepou no Be/1119H1161 (cpeiume Itamepeuusm o a- Kapnugosue eTHHe cxoro Bum) sicaeurmuni nepeoroJum

i Hom1uro6aaanbuan Juutua ...... • 144,52-139,5 126,3 (2) 138,5 (4) 14flnufia Nasalia (Hau6onbivax) 32-31-31 24 (2) 27,3 (4) 111 . Bullae osseae 35-35-34 31,0 (2) 34,4 (4) 1V • sepxuero palm Kopettubm sytou . . . 32,5-30-33 28,6 (2) 31,8 r) V . .ionEueii IlealocTu 90-82-88,5 78,2 (2) 85,5 4) Vi ILInpnua ntacrbuituan . 93-92 p0,6 (2) 89,4 4) • „ cKynouaa ...... ; 85-83 76,5(2) ' — yiii • pbma y Beremuor Kai:glum . 20-18,5-20 18,4 (2) 21,2 (4) 1X )0 Nasalia y nepefulero Km 9,5-10-10,5 9,2 (2) 10,3 (3) X Me)Kraaammuan wupnua (uaunieubinam) . • 6-2-8 6,3 (2) 6,4 (4)

1 . For a comparison of indices adopted in the present work, the author calculated the given indices on the basis of a table of measurements compiled by.L. Tsukovskii in his work (37). 72.

Key to Table 26: I. .AqOmparison of the dimensions, of the skulls of “Ph. h. PygMaea" with the average dimensipns of the skulls of young ringed seals. . 1. Measurement . . • 1. Condylobasal length Length of Nasalia (greatest) iii. Length of Bullae osseae iv. Length of the upper series of morals v. Length of the mandible vi. Width of the mastoid bone vii. Width of the zygomatic bone viii.Width of the muzzle at the upper canine teeth ix. Width of the Nasalia at the anterior margin x. Interorbital width (smallest) 2. Skulls of Ph. h. pygmaea (absolute values according to the measurements of L. Tsukovskii in mm) Dwarfed specimens Summer underyearlings.

The same may be said in relation to the length of Bullae osseae which is expressed in percentages of the condylobasal length. The "sub-species" of L. Tsukovskii is characterized by the following indices: 24.2 and 25.1% (an average of 24.6%). A comparison of the corresponding indices of other species and sub- species of genus Phoca (taken from Nordquist) shows that they are greatest in Ph. h. pygmaea. This is explained by the same circumstance:* L. Tsukovskii compared the indices of the young pygmy ringed seal witil the indices of seals of uneven growth - Ladoga, Baltic, Baikal and Caspian seals. The relative length of Bullae osseae belongs to the features which change noticeably (decrease) with age (Table 22); the above- mentioned average index of the pygmy ringed seals coincides exactly with the indices of our dwarfed and summer linderyearling (for the 73 . first - 24.6% and for the second - 24.5%), the indices being greatest for these in comparison with other age stages. Thus, even this feature cannot be tegarded as typical for the "sub- species" of pygmy ringed seal, distinguishing the latter from other races and species. As far as the comparative length of the lateral and the middle notches of the anterior margin of the nasal bones are concerned this feature does not provide a distinction either. The lateràl notches are longer . than the middle notch not only in the pygmy ringed seal; this shape of the anterior section of the Nasalia is generally predominant in northern ringed seals although it 1 8 subject to considerable variations which, however, does not conform to any regular pattern. Thus, we see that not one of the features which are peculiar to pygmy ringed seals has sub-species classification significance. Under the name of Phoca hispida pygmaea L. Tsukovskii (37) described young ringed seals whose craniological features are similar to those of summer underyearlings which comprise one of, the age groups (or stages) adopted in our analysis of age variability. 119 On the basis of this, the race of pygmy ringed seals should be acknowledged as non-existant.. Dwarfed specimens of young ringed seals which are considered in our Table of age variability are more or less typical examples of starvelings or "kavadeis" (from the Pomorle* word "kavadei") used by N. Smirnov (18,19) and N. Knipovich (29) 'and, of course, do not constitute a special race.

Coastal region - Translator. . j.)

74.

III.- REPRODUCTION 1. Pupping•Time

The opinion has been established in the litereture that ringed seals do not pupatersame. tit'el and that their period of reproduction is very extended. Some authors such as S. Ognev (14) explain the variation in the times of giving birth by the various climatic conditions of particular regions dependent 'On the latitude of a locality. N. Smirnov (17) writes: "the reproduction period for ringed seal is generally stretched out not only in relation to local conditions but also in one and the same locality." However, very few direct observations which refer to the time that white coats appear in the seas which are considered in this rep9rt are cited in the literature. For all practical 0 4 purposes we can only point to the report of N. Smirnov (18,19) who saw two white coats which had not yet molted in the southern part of the Barents Sea: one, on April 22, 1901 in eastern Murman and the other, on June 4 of the same year near Kolguev Bay. It is necessary, however, to note that the very large dimension indicated by N. Smirnov for the first white coat (90 am according to Lc) raises some doubt concerning the accuracy of the species identification. As far as other very non-numerous data is concerned, which appear in print, they are obtained from local hunters of sea animais. On the basis of the words of hunters, G. Gorbunov (7) writes that ringed seals pup in Novaya ZeMlya in February. According to V. Gertner (6) pupping occurs in April in the region of Dikson Island. The following data are cited in the foreign literature for regions abroad. Coastal region - Translator. 75.

• In Spitsbergen, according to Kotttgoff (35) pupping occurs in the middle of June; in Greenland, according to Fabritsius (35) and Winge (35) - in February': March or even April and, according to Wollebek (36) - in May. The newest data obtained from the different regions of the Barents and Kara Seas by Soviet investigators make it possible to greatly illuminate the question of time of reproduction of the

northern ringed seal. • The factual data accumulated in the course of a number of •years on the size of the embryos taken at different times by many scientists and hunters are presented in Table 27. The embryological data only to the end of March is included in the Table. We know of a whole series of instances of embryos being found in April but, unfortunately, none of the reports of these findings are accompanied by the size of the embryos, therefore, the latter could not have been introduced into the Table. Using the system of coordinates and arranging the sizes of the embryos- alông the ordinate and the dates of their capture along the abscissa we can obtain the graphical depiction of the tempo of embryological development according to which we can determine approximately the time of pupping. Unfortunately, the limited data which we used to construct this graph are not presented uniformly. An important shortcoming is the circumstance that some reports on.the size of embryos in the uterus were not accompanied by exact indications of the manner in which and the points between which the embryos were measured. 76.

However limited the data were and however incomplete the attempt to express them graphically, Table 27 and Fig. 8 make it possible to draw some concluelons. Firstly, the large range of fluctuation in the size of the embryos obtained at the àame time or during the short interval of time is striking. These fluctuations in size of the embryos already indicate in themselves the considerable prolongment in the period of pupping. - The straight lines which are drawn on a graph through the extreme points (corresponding to the minimal and maximum size of the embryos), parallel to a certain average of nresilltant° embryogenesis, intersect the period which is equal to two and a half , months. The average length of the embryos which were taken in the second half of September according to four specimens, is 6.8 cm. The average length obtained in December is 31.5 cm (also according to four specimens). Thus, in three months the embryo of the ' ringed seal increases on the average by 24.7 cm which gives a monthly increase of approximately 8 cm. Taking into account such a rate of embryological development, one may assume that an embryo, 2 cm long, obtained on December 8 (Table 27), is no less than two months younger than an embryo, 42 cm long, obtained on December 25. Finally, rather numerous concrete observations which have been accumulated in the course of a number of years serve as control data for these calculations and curves. ▪ 77.

Table 27.

Pa amepbr 3m6pHotion cenepuoti nepuu ' o D. ' easnia Konnexrop HJIH • ■nt. 2 Mecro u06bent 3/46pH011a Cnoco6 namepetuta na6nlouareab (n cm)

•

1 4 ceuru6p1 ' 3anun Lleunna - A. ,146ponCul111, Or 3aThIJI011Ho-resten- , nor° byrpa ;to 3arn62, JUICTOB aaunnx 2 18 .„ o. Benbirc • A. Tiounn 2,8 To lice 3 Konen cen7 o. Anucona K. KoHeee_ 7 • . TA6pg • -1 • » » . • 8,2 5 ,15 cenru6pu NiaTOLIKWH Ulàp Tpeneruon OHO» 9 Meru mamepennil ne •ftanecren • 6 1 6 nou6pst MIAC. WeaaHHA Heymoun 10 To »ce , . 7 8 aena6pq IgaT0 11K110 idap , M. Buauminpcnau 21 89 , • 27 9 125 - 36 •» 10 I25. 42 • 11 112 snnapn ycybe 06cleoli ry6le r. raHICHH. 14. 36 Or narbtaogno-remen- HOr0 Bidcryna JO aa rn6a nacron 12 112 „ 41,5 • To lice 13 122 „ o-na llaxrycona • .11aubn• •tur Merou mmepennii • He nanecreu 14 31 , • To »ce 15 18 tpenpaau 58 16, 14-18 cpen- MaTOIIKHH Map A. Tlentin 54,5 Or K0111(21 Roca no KOH-- paaH (BOCTOHIlan . tlaCTb) xeocra no ccume (no Lc) 17 • „ 61,5 ' . To »ce 18 120-me Luicaa Ycrbe 06cKoii ry6b1 r. Fannnn, H. SIKH- npn6an- no Lc (cnahno .ue(Pop- • cigenpaau 140BIPI 311TeabH0 Mnponacc npic noncep- 50 nupoaannn) 19 22 clienpanu Cenepnan 3em:iu r. Ytuaxon 55,0 no Lc • 20 12 mapra o. Rukcona K. Konaaen 52,0 To »ce 21 31 „ .palion mtca Wena- H. Fleymonn 65,0 , . Meru a3mepefturt • HMI . •He Haeeeren

Key to Table 27: I. Dimensions of the embryos of the northern Anged seal A. No. in order B. Date 1. September 4 2. September 18 3 • . End of September 4. End of September 5. September 15 6. November 6 78

' .7. becember 8 8, December 9 , 9. December 25 10 , December 25_ 11. January 12 • -12. January 12 • .13. January 22 14. January 31 15. February 18 16. February 14 18 17. February 14 - 18

• 18. February , 20 - 29 19. February 22 . .20. March 12 21. March 31 C. Location of catch .1. Bay of Chekin 2. Belyi'Island 3. Dikson Island 4. Dikson Island 5. Matochkin Shar • 6. Cape ofZhelaniya 7. Matpchkin Shar S. Matochkin Shar 9. Matochkin Shar •10. Matochkin Shar 11. Mouth - of Obskaya Guba 12. Mouth . of Obskaya Guba 13. Pakhtusov Islands' • 14. Pakhtusov Islands 15. Pakhtusov Islands . 16. Matochkin ShaP (eastern part) 17. Matochkin Shar le. (eastern part)

- 18. Mouth.of Obskaya Guba 19. Severnaya Zemlya 20. Ddkson Island 21. Region of the Cape of Zhelaniya D. Collector or observer 1. A. Dubrovskii 2. A Tyulin 3. K. Kovalev 4. K. Kovalev 5. Trepetsov 6. I. Neumoin 7. M. Vladimirskaya 8. M. Vladimirskaya 9. M. Vladimirskaya D 10. M. Vladimirskaya • 11. G. Galkin. I. Yakimovich 12. G. Galkin 1. Yakimevich 13. Ladygin 14. Ladygin 15. Ladygin 16. A. Lepin 17. A. Lepin 18. G. GaIkin, I. Yakimovich 19. G. Ushakov 20. K. KovaleV 21. I. Neumoin E.. Length of the embryo (in cm) 5. approximately 9' ' 1. approximately.50 F. Method of measurement 1. From the occipital parietal tubercle to the bend in the posterior flippers 2. The same 3. The'same 4. Method of measurement not known 5. Same 6. Same 7. Same 8. Saine ' 9. Same 10. Same 11. From the occipital parietal protuberance to the bend in the flippers 12. Same 13. Method of measurement not known 14. Same 15. Same 16. From the tip of the nose to the tip of the tail along the spine (according to Lc) 17. Same 18 • According to Lc (strongly deformed during preservation) 19. According to Lc 20. Same 21. Method of measurement not known. The embryos which are found in the last stages of development, which are almost ready for existence outside of the mother's organism, were already encountered in February. Thus, A. Lepin found a large 11› embryo, which would soon have been born, in the womb of two females 8

whiCh were obtained in the-region of the Màtochkin Shar Observatdry in the period between February 14 and February 18. One of them with a length of 54.5 cm acc9rding to Lc and a weight of 2.5 kg • had - a fluffy fur cover 2.5 cm high. But the claws were'still sOft and the teeth.had not yet cut through. The other embryo was 61.5 cm long with a weight of,3.1 kg; the height of the hair cover on the back was 3.2 cm.

70 - 50 50 110 - 30 20 10 0. V I w VII VIII

Fig. E. .A graph of the embryogenesis of the ringed seal

On the basis of these finds A. Lepin (in litt.) concluded that ringed seals at the shores of the middle part of Novaya Zemlya pup at the end of February. The same opinion on the time of pupping is held by N. Demme (in litt.), who cites a note which was- made by G. Ushakov: "on February 22, 1932 three ringed seal females were taken. While dressing one of . them a live whitecoat was extracted which had teeth which had already been cut. Being wrapped in deer fur, it lived approximately three more hours. Its length from the tip of the muzzle to the beginning of the posterior flippers was 550 mm". Vurther, N. Demme informs us that in April, not far from the uncovered ringed seal air holes G. Ushakov found the remains of ringed seal pups' which had-been consumed by a i)ear. Here we already see a considerable gap in time among the reports cited on pupping times. Serving as proof of the possibility of early pupping may be the fur of an embryo which was obtained on February 29, 1936 on Dikson Island and measured by K.V. Kovalev. Its zoologicar length (according to Lc) was 63 an. Finally, there is still one reference which testifies to' the possibility of pupping at the end of February or in the first days of March. G. Galkin and I. Yakimov were sent a large fluffy embryo, one of three. which were obtained between the twentieth and twenty-ninth of February in 1937 in the.Obskayà Guba. This' embryo was brought in a preserved state (in formalin) to the ArCtic Institute; the author could not measure its length exactly due to the considerable deformation of the body. Its approximate length was.50 - 52 cm. Such are the factual data Which allow one to conjecture by means of embryos the pupping of ringed seal at the end of February . and . the beginning of March. AS far as new born pups are concerned, they were not Observed in.Febrtiary or.MàrcALby any of the scientific . workers, especially those who were occupied. with .scientific and • hunting investigations in recent years.. .1.11e have at our disposal only an isolated report of this kind, which was obtained from a colleague at tbe polar station at Blagopoluchiya Bay, O. Denisov, about a find on February 17, 193 7 on ice near the hole of a'clead 1 From the editor. Pupping occurred in February and March but it was more difficult to find pups at this'time, the moreso since no one dealt with this specifically. 82 .

newly . born ringed Seal 46 cm long with a piece . of umbilical cord 7 cm long. 'Owing to.the fact that -theiptip was found'dead and, also, because it was small and born-early, - it may be assumed thàt dt was a miScarriage. Data relating to March pupping is'very small. On 12, 1936, on Dikson Island, K.V. Kovalev investigated a March pregnant female inside of which an embryo was found,with a. strong • white wool. 'It'was 52 cm. long (accôrding to the Lc). and weighed 1.9 kg. However, it must not'be concluded from this that the :White-. coat wpuld have been born in March, We are indebted for another report to the hunter I. NeuMoin who took a female on March 31,"1937near the Cape of Zhelandya' . with a fetus 65 . am long; This observation already dates the pupping to the beginning of the next month. In April, .observation S decrease considerably more. According to the oral report of a dog team 11, driver, Nitsshe, a yellowish white ringed seal embryo was obtained at the beginning of April in Brandt Bay. A hunter of sea animals, Ladygin, recorded the observations in his journal that in the region of the islands of. Pakhtusov a ringed seal began to pup at the beginning of April. On April 6, 1937, he found females with pups which had just been born. Later, he wrote: "By April 10 not all the ringed seal had given birth, ringed seal are found with unborn fetuses". According to data of a hunter from the Smidovich stopover, N. Zemaraev, on April 18, 1934, he killed "the first ringed seal with a live,embryo" (data from V. Antipin). A.N. Dubrovskii recorded from the words of a hunter, G. Elizarov, (from the Lagernoe stopover) that at the end of April 83 .

• a ringed seal was killed from whose uterus a pùp was removed nwhich Was clothed in wool and which was .brought liome- alive". Side by side with the establishment of embryos in April there are numerous reports on encounters with pups. We shall not cite here all of these instances since there are many. Moreover, the vast majority of the pups which had been observed had; evidently, been born prior to the moment of the observations and, thus, do. not permit the establishment of the exact date of pupping. - .We shall.only point.out a few.examples. • According to the oral reportof N.V. Provorbv, on April 18; • 1936. near Sibirnyakov Island a Nemeté hunter found a dead ringed seal whitecoat with long, strong, somewhat flattened hair. The . young ringed, seal-was 59 cm long (accOrding to Lc). It lay on the ice near a polynia. It is pbssible . that this was alsb a still- /4) born pup or a Miscarriage similar to that described abovél . . N.V. Provorov also informed the author: that on April 22, . 1936 he observed - a whiteçoat ringed Seal on a separate block of ice, in the • eck of the White Sea. N.P. Demme (in litt.) mentions the observations of G. Ushakov who.has:fOund ringed seals near thé western coats ofSeyernaya Zemlya at the end of April, 1932. - The ringed seals lay on the ice with their pups Which, however, already .had grey wool. • The females which lay with the young,were also'observed.from- the end of April, 1937 by 0. Denisov in the Bay of Blagopoluchiya. V. Antipin, having dissected, on April 29, 1937, a female which was obtained on fast ice near Gemskerk Island found, judging by the description, a strongly hyperemic* uterus« which had not yet been

1 From - the editor. The possibility: of:death froni cold of this whitecoat which had not been born •on time is not excluded. * Conjectural. Translator, 84.. able to contract after the births to the normal size. Among the data available there is not one report on the occurrence of an embryo in the womb of ringed seals taken in May and later. On the other hand, we know of a whole series of observations of pups which rest alone or still rest with the mother. Therefore, we have the basis for concluding that the pupping of ringed seal generally ends in April. A. Kirpichnikov (9), it is true, reports that the hunter Gavryushkin found a "large embrSro" in a ringed seal which was obtained in May near Dikson Island; but this report is very indefinite. Thus, the newest factual data collected here indicate that the period of reproduction of a ringed seal is actually greatly stretched out in one and the same regions. It is impossible to establish any regular pattern in the fluctuations in the pupping period but one can say quite definitely that the temperature conditions of a locality do not have a noticeable effect. Referring to the graph of embryogenesis and tracing the direction of the curve which is constructed on the basis of average values, and also taking into account-the above stated observations of a number of persons, we may assume > that the bulk of ringed seal which inhabit the Kara Sea and the eastern part of the Barents Sea pup in the period from the end of March to the beginning of April. In this connection it is interesting to cite also the latest opinions of hunters. ' According to I. Bylk the ringed seal gives birth to pups at the beginning of April (data provided by A.N. Dubrovskii). "According to the words of the hunters", Writes . 14è Vjladimirskaya (in litt.), "the ringed seal pups froM the end ,of March_to.the behihning of April". :.• .

2. The Snow Dens of Ringed seal

In the literature, information has appeared, which has been almost stereotypically repeated up to the present time, about the fact that ringed seal sometimes give birth to pups in snow burrows which are made for this purpose near an ice hole.

Estonian hunters who hunt seals on the ice of the Bay of Finland make wide use of this feature of the animal. With the help of specially trained dogs, they search out ringed seal burrows and in them capture pups which they subsequently use with the aid of hooked gear i to lure and capture a mature animal. According to Winge (35), a certain Gièsecke found seal holes as early as 1811 near the coas.E of Greenland. Until most recently no concrete facts concerning the discovery of ringed seal burrows in the Barents or Kara Seas were cited. The cmly reference to them which we have found was by G. Gorbunov (7) who gives the following description of a burrow based on the words of Novaya Zemlya hunters: "Several ringed seals (up to ten) make an opening in the ice on the widersidewith their flippers and make a rather large burrow on the ice under the snow where they pup together. Each such burrow has one escape hole in the ice". It may be assumed,however, that the author was deceived concerning the relatively common nature of the burrow bÿ an erroneous report which has been refuted by all subsequent data. dliuring recent years ringed seal burr;ows have been discovered repeatedly by Soviet investigators of the Arctic. It is significant thg.t; in the excerptà of the accounts and diaries given below the snow burrows are given exactly the same name by various authors. In all cases, •whether at the west coast of • Novaya Zemlya or in the region of the mouth of the Obskaya Guba, the burrow is called a "chum"*, a name which has been'borrowed from the local inhabitants. This indicates.the extensive familiarity with ringed seal dens and, thus, their wide distribution. M. Vladimirskaya (in litt.) describes the construction of such "chums" in the following way. "An ice dome is formed above an ice hole so that the ringed seal has enough space under it to move quite freely. According to hunters the'ringed seal also pups in these 'chums'.... I had the opportunity of seeing . many such 'chums' in Gribovaya Guba... The 'chums' begin to appear about the end of December. Initially, they are clearly visible (a large ice hummock on level ice), but towards the end of the winter they become snow bound and they become more difficult to find. I do not know how the ringed seal builds this 'chum'. The 'chum' is built on thick, rather level ice which remains the entire winter. have not once seen a 'chum' on ice which breaks frequently and refreezes". A.N. Dubrovskii, who spent a winter in this same region a year earlier, not having personally encountered ringed seal burrows, heard of these burrows which were consistently called 'chum's' from the local trapping population many times. G. Rutilevskii (in litt.) discovered burrows near Chelyuskin

Pronounced choom. In Siberia and the north-eastern part of Russia this word is used to refer to a portable dwelling shaped like a conical tent and covered with skins, bark and thick felt. Translator. Cape. The first burrow which was found by him on December 29, 1932, located on coastal fast ice hundreds of meters from the shore, had the following dimensions: length - 143 cm, width - 84 cm, height- 62 am. The dimensions of the ice holes were 38 x 42 cm. The second burrow which was found among ice hummocks on January 7, 1933 was 185 cm long, 95 cm wide and 68 cm high. The oval. opening of the ice-hole was 39 x 44 cm. Several other burrows were found in addition to these. According to the description of G. Rutilevskii, the dens are distinguished by a strong smell of, blubber oil and the domes are a yellow colour with the colour penetrating through the entire thickness of the snow which covers the den from above. A.N. Tyulin also found ringed seal burrows while spending the winter at Cape Chelyuskin a year later at the Strait of Virkitskii. One of them, found on February 23, 1934, was described in the following way. "A 'chum' was discovered one and a half . kilometers from the station among ice hummocks and stamukha. The bottom of it consisted of young ice; it was approximately 155 cm thick, oval in shape, the length of the oval beihg approximately 2 m and its width li m. The 'chum' has an ice hole - K. Ch. - with a diameter of 35 - 36 cm which is located closer to the periphery of the oval. Along side of the hole there• are several thawed out ringed seal dens. The height of the 'chum' is 1.5 m and the wall on all sides is formed of snow drafts" (Fig. 9, 10). In the Bay of °Spartak", says Tyulin, a different type of 'chum' was discovered which was constructed amidst the ice in a hollow which was formed during ice hummock formation. Only one wall was.of snow. The 88. ceiling of the 'chum' was made of an inclined block of ice 0.5 m thick" (Fig. 11).

Fig , 9. Diagram of transverse Fig.10. Diagram of longitudinal section of a ringed seal ichumt• section of a ringed seal's 'chum' A - tchuMt; a -ringed sears den; A- tchuml; B- snow; C- ice hole • B - ice hole; C - ice; D - snow with water; D- ice-hummock; along the sides of the stamukhas E- ice. Tyulin adds that the ringed seal has several burrows since she abandons the den in which do gm disturb her frequently. Tyulin (23) observed a snow burrow of a ringed seal close to the White Sea in 1936. It was slightly to the side of an ice hole and was connected to the latter by means of a passage Which was hidden under the snow. The snow chamber itself which was 130 - bith'e 140 cm long had a Oupola-like dome which. was 50 - 60cm litgh center. ,On the.ice, there was a clearly visible melted 'place, which èerved as the animal's den, with - Claw marks. fe9e,4.

Vig. 11., Diagram of transverse section through a ringed seal's 'chum' which was constructed in a hollow which was formed during the formation of ice-hummocks • A - tchliml; a;-. ringed Seal's% -den; B- snow; C-.ice hole with water; D- ice; E- 1Ce hummoCks; F- ice block frozen into the ice hummoCk.'

V. Nikitin - a leader of sea animal hunters, who spent the winter on Shokarskii Island, also informed the author of the fact that in February of 1935 in Gidanskii Bay, •2.5 km fr.om the shore he found an ice hole with a ringed seal's 'chum'. This Ichume was a den in the snow, covered on top, and from which a hole led through the, ice into the water. The data which has been cited is sufficient not only to At6 give an idea of the nature of the snow burrow but also to conclude that they are very widely distributed. It is entirely clear that the dens are arranged long before breeding time, as early as December or, possibly, even earlier. On the basis of the diameter of the opening of the ice hole'the.burrows. which have been described above belongs to•mature individuals. But it is possible that the sexually immature ringed seals and males also construct burrows. In this case we must conclude that the burrows have a greater importance for the northern ringed seal than a den for offsprings. However, taking heed of the wide.distribution of burrows as well as the circumstance that under normal conditions very few investigators observed whitecoats on the daylight surface before May, we assume that in the Barents and Kara Seas the pups are generally born in the burrows.

3. The Initial Period in the Life of a Pup The length of lactation as well as the time the embryo hair cover is kept can only be explained by means of prolonged observations 90 of the same newly born individuals. At the present time, there are neither such observations nor direct data on the functioning of the mammalary glands. Th,ere is also very little confirmation on milk in the stomach of the offspring. Thus, we must conjecture the duration of milk feeding mainly by the encounters of pups with mature females. The overall duration of this period during which many observers have encountered a mature animal with its pups (i.ed the total length of the lactation period) is approximately two months: from the first days in April to the beginning of June. During this time we also encounter whitecoats of different ages which are milk fed and which have already molted and have become independent pups. • We 'shall cite several observations which are known to us Of offspring which have been encountered along side with mature individuals. A.N. Dubrovskii observed a whitecoat together with a mature ringed seal on ice in the region of the western mouth of Matochkin Shar for several days in row from May 30, 1933. O. Denisov notes that pups were observed together with a mature female in 1937 in the Bay of Blagopoluchie from April to the beginning of June. • on A hunter, Ladygin, observed a female with pups/the tenth of May, 1937. As we have stated above, the pupping period normally ends by the end of April. On the other hand, pups were encountered together with mature individuals at the end of May and even in early June. Hence, it may be concluded tentatively that milk . 91.

feeding lasts approximately one month on the average. The ability of a ringed seal pup to swim actively while still having embryonic wool has been noted by many observers and hunters of sea animais. It is significant that the pup did not stay inside the snow burrow until the observer arrived: evidently, the whitecoats managed to enter the water in good timel . In 1934 in Chukchi, I. Perfel'evskii witnessed the Là7 following episode. On May 10, in Tunitle, a live pup which wàs taken from a ringed seal which had been killed was thrown into the water. Snorting and moving its flippers up and down clumsily, the whitecoat, nevertheless, swam to the edge of the polyni and clambered onto the ide4. The - huntèrs threw it into the water several timeà and each time the unhappy whitécoat climbed up onto the'ice. The pup was slightly longer than half a meter and weighed approxi- matèly 3 kg and scarcely had à subcutaneous layer of fat. In the . . opinion of 1. Perfirevskii the pup was no more than 4 to 5 days old. It is hardly likely, hàwever, that 'pups in the first ,daYs of life can enter the water without experiencing disasterous con- .sequénces. NOrmally, whitecoats can only enjoy water after they • have accumulated a sufficiently thick•lay of subcutaneous fat which is almost absent in whitecoatà at birth. In cases when whitecoats were'found lying out in theopen on the ice they were already considerably enjoying their ability to swin. Thus, one • • was far from always successful in coming up to them. Young ringed seals whiCh had not molted and which had been encountered in.May were already swimming very well. : In summing up phenological observations for the month of May, M. Vladiinirskaya Wrote .(in lit) "Young . ringed,Sealè'which still have a white coat can already swim very'well. A white boat was killed on *May 27 in BezyMyanna •uba near fast 'ice (in water - K. Ch.)". 1 It is •nderstandable, in .oUrjOpinion, that à whitecoat - Would nôt be found in . every snow burrow. 92.

. We can also cite-the data of-A. Lepin': "On May 21, 1936, in Bezymyanna Guba a whiteçoat was taken whiCh had already been swiMming without the female parent". This was essentiallY a, "khokhlusha" * which had already been half molted.

4. The Mating Period and Length of Pregnancy

No reference is made in the literature to the mating time of the northern ringed•seal. Very little new data has been accumulated in the last ten years. As far as absolutely reliable direct observations are concerned, they are especially scanty. On May 29, at the western "mouth" of Matochkin Shar, A.N. Dubrovskii saw a pair of ringed seals in the water which were clinging - together and from this he concluded that this was oestrus. For,ringed seal of the Chukchi waters, L.I. Leonov dates mating to June: "oestrus was observed in June, in the water" (in litt.). Unfortunately, at the present time there are also insufficient indirect biological data. If we use the periods in which the smallest embryos were found (see Table 27 and Fig. 8), then the beginning of embryonic development may be assigned, in the earliest case, to the first third of July but more correctly only to the end of this month. But on the average, judging by the graph, the beginning of embryogenesis should be assigned to August. A whole series of considerations forces us to refute the possibility or, in any case, the custom of mating at times when the embryoà begin to develop. One of them is the discrepancy between the concrete

* An animal with a crest or tuft of hair, on the head. Translator. • 93,1 observations of oestrus referred to above and the time established for the beginning of obvious pregnancy. While observing ringed seals in considerable numbeA in the period from the end of July to October, inclusively, for two years in a row, the author could not notice anything which could have been accepted as phenomena which accompany the nuptial period. A further argument should be considered. 1n the winter and spring period, males with a definite strong smell are frequently encountered. V. Antipin compares this smell with the smell of the desman musk. Undoubtedly, the smell of the males is related to the sexual activity of the animal since in other periods of the year the smell is generally absent. S. Ognev (14) writes that only the old males have a bad smell. We examined under a microscope preparations of testes of several males which were taken by V. Antipin in the period from February 9 to May 9 and we were convinced that all were in the state of active spermatogenesis with mature sperms in the seminiferous tubules. At the same time, this circumstance speaks. against the view stated by S. Ognev and in support of our own opinion on the relationship of the sniell with sexual activity. Unfortunately, the histological material which was at the disposal of the author (technically processed for microscopic research and preliminary examination by 0.V. Kozulina under the supervision of Academician N.M. Kulagin).does not enable us to explain whether there is a cycle in the activity of the sexual glands of the males since the fixed partsof the testicle which we have at our disposal are only from individuals of winter and spring 91e slaughter. But, attracting attention is the fact that in .mature • . males which have.been taken at the end of May many seminiferous tubules, generally. considerably enlarged by -this time.(their diameter averages 200 - 2 )0,p) with large hollows inside, were . . devoid of sperM celle. At the same time other tubules of the same 1 testis contained a certain amount of sperm cells. Evidently the sperm had been expelle“rom the empty tubules. _ In the seminiferous tubules of mature males tàken in . Februai.y and March an intense formation of spermatozoid is observed; the average diameter of the tubules does not reach 200p, with.the tubules being almost completely filled (without lumen) with varioué spermatogenic elements. Empty spermatic tubules which are freed . of sperm cells are encoùntered *in males which . were. captured no earlier than. the end of-April. By the beginning of May the per Cent, of empty tubules increases. In view of insufficient :material, the author is - not'ablè to clarify. this Aquestion by Means of an eXamination of the ovaries of mature females. . • . In comparing all of the arguments which have been stated, we may assume that the mating period - of the ringed seal stretches out from the •end of April-tO the middle or, perhaps, even to the end of June. The duration of pregnancy, according to Freund (26) is 11 months. If we compare the average dates established above of the mating period with the average dates of the pupping period we obtain an interval which is approximately 10-and-a-half months. But, we have already seen above that the beginning of embryonic 95

çievelopment does not coincide with the average mating time; • between these an average of approximately two-months . elapses which can be defined as the latent'Period of pregnancY. •

. IV. CHANGE IN THE HAIR COVER 1. The Length of Retention of the Embryonic Hair Cover. Published data on the time of the onset of change in the embryonic hair cover in the newly born are marked by great confusion. In summing up all of the scant information which was known up to the beginning of the current century, N.A. Smirnov (19) wrote: "The newly born has a pup wool (i.e. rather long, fluffy and light- coloured) for a very short time, sometimes only several hours..." Smirnov repeats almost the same thing in his las work: Le "the time or its change (the pup wool - K. Ch.) must be more concretely established according to the literature,from several hours to several days" (17). According to contemporary data, ringed seal. pups which ' have molted, are first seen at the end of April (according to G. Ushakov, Severnaya Zemlya). On May 10, 1924, a Novaya Zemlya sea animal hunter, I. Zhuravlev, wrote the following in his »hunting diary: "I caught a small live ringed seal pup on the ice". Similar notes exist in the diary three more times: on May 26, 27 and 29. A. Nikolayuk wrote the following in his observation diary: "70 ringed seal on ice. Two animais were taken - a young white coat, one pup taken alive in the fatty sweat stage". Side by side with encounters of offspring which have molted e? whitecoats with more or less flowing hair were also found In the 96 end of May. Thus, the front part of the body of a whitecoat which. was taken on May 21, 1935 in Bezymyannaya - Guba (information of A,. Lepin) already.had - the net (grey) hair cover (the'length of the guard hair was 1.5 cm); but the posterior part of the back and the -bottom were still covered with -a•weak, light coloured embryonic • hair 3.5 to 4 'am-long. . A whitecoat which was examined in the saffie locality on

May 2, 1934 by M. Vladimirskaya . was . covered with a long white wavy wool which had fallen out slightly. The hair - cover of the whitecoat mentioned earlier, observed on May 30, 1933 by A.N. Dubrovskii, was in approximately the same state. The latest observation of a molting Pup l - dated June 19, is cited by M; Vladimirskaya (in litt.);'concerning the state of the hair cover of this pup, she -writés the following: "Absolutély : no white wool remained on the entire posterior part of the trunk. It only covered a small area behind the scapula, humerus and neçk. It yas falling out to Such an extent that it was sufficient to'pass ones hand over it in order to remove all of the wool on quite a . large section. , A short single-toned light coloured silvery wool • was already growing under dt". Thus, the rdnged seal pup does-not molt all at once, far from-it. A molting pup may be encountered for a period of tWo whole months - from the second half of April • to the second . half of June. Generally, the molting of a pup ends by the end of May or the first of June.' . In comparing the times.of mass pupping with the times mentioned here of final màlting of . the newly born, it may be' concluded that the first fur cover of ringed seal whitecoats is normally retained approximately a month.'

1 From the editor. However, some observations conducted on pupS in caDtivity contradict this conclusion. 97.

As far as the duration of the very process of molting is concerned there are as yet no exact data. In examining isolated • data which are . known to us we may assume-that less than a week passes from the moment that molting of the embryonic hair begins (weakness) to the final.loss of it. An examination of this question is complicated to a certain degree.by the following circumstances. In the embryos of the • catch which were examined by G. Galkin, I. YakiMovich February - LIO (the lower reaches of the Ob Guba) and K..Kovalev (Dikson Island), the hair cover did not appear tcybe strohg ; With regard to the . dead pup which was described above . and Which was discovered by O.' Denisov on February 17 in Blagopoluchie Bay, thick wool of approximately 2 cm in length. fell out. It is possible that . in . • the-period of embryonic development the hair cover ofTingeeseal . certain changes in terms of strength. undergoes . In any case, the recorded.facts are difficult'to connect with all of the other observations which confirm that the fur • cOver of both an -embryo. and . of a newly born animal is.normal in strength. As proof . .of the strength of the fur of late embryos and . the newly born.we shall cite several examples." The fur cover of. embryos Which were examined on March 12 by K. Kovalev was quite strong. V. Sinel'nikov, a hunter of sea animals obtained embryos many times off the cOast of Novaya Semlya', all of them having strong hair. The skins ofithese embryos were Used in sewinà fur articles. In addition, V. Sinellnikov foùnd the remains of white.L. coats with strong hair in burrows which had been dug . by terrestrial predators. 98

One may also cite the case mentioned above of the discovery on April 18 of a dead newly born pup with a 'perfectly strong . hair cover .. Also, there are rather.numerous reports by a number of persons who have worked in Chukotk.'.In particular, I, Perfiltevskii the notes the fine quality el fur of ringed seal embryos which were . examined by him in the period .from February 12 to April 6. Similar observations were made by L.I. Leonov. Thus, it is difficult to assume that newly born pups would normally have weak wool, i.e., that they would already begin to molt at the moment of birth or prior to that. The insignificant accumulation of a layer of subcutaneous fat.in newly born pups (up to 1 - 1.5 cm thick) is good evidence of the necessity of a fur cover (as a thermoisolator) in the first period of post embryonic de\ielopment. In concluding this survey, it should be noted that information of Lilljeborg, repeated by many subsequent authors, that the young molt within several hours after birth is an obvious error. One can agree more readily with Hilzhe•mer (28) who writes that the "soft white hair cover'lasts longer in ringed seal . pups than in Ph. vitulina - approximately 25 to 30 days". 1

2. The Molting Of Mature and Young Ringed Seal (Having Changed the Embryonic Hair Cover) The period during which mcilting ringed seal are encountered is very stretched out. Molting begins in May and ends in August.

• l e From the editor. The possibility is not excluded that this feature undergoes individual fluctuations. 99

Mass molting occurs during June and July. As rare exceptions, molting individuals are encountered at later times. It is extremely difficult to establish the duration of the change of hair cover in separate individuals, but in any case, the duration of individual molting is considerably shorter than that of the total molting period. The extended nature of the latter is due to the fact that not all animais molt at the same time (which is the result of the difference in time at which the pupping period is completed).'Some begin to molt earlier and others, later; in addition, the time of intensive molting obviously differs with different regions and perhaps it differs from year to year. Insofar as molting represents a phenomenon which must be considered when planning the hunt, let us examine in more detail the data which have been accumulated on this question in recent years, especially since the information on this in the literature is very scanty. One can determine the earliest time for the beginning of the molting period from the data of V. Antipin who encountered a weakened growth of hair in some ringed seals which had been captured at the end of April as well as at the beginning of May near Gemskerk Island. Several eard hairs remained in a clump of hair taken in the fingers with a slight pull. We do have other data relating to April., In May, molting animals were already encountered by a number of observers. In the journal of observations of the Matochkin Shar observatory there is, by the way, a short note by A. Nikolayuk which is dated May 9: "the ringed seal molts".

.-1: 100'

On May 19, 1933, A. Dubroyskii wrote the following in his diary:: "the wool of the rineed'seal began to fall out at the beginning of May, firstly on the head on the anterior part of the - trunk". For May 21 we find the followingentry: "the hair on the entire body of a killed ringed seal falls out cdnsiderably". On May'29 - "the hair of the ringed-seal . is falling out. More on its back". These data apply to the westerncoast of Novaya Zemlya in the.region of Matochkin Shar. • Data obtained in the same place a year'later by

M. Vladimirskaya contradicts the above. information. In her , . account (i n. litt.) on mdlting the following was stated: "molting in the ringed seal begins very late. Animais which had.been killed in Mayor the beginning of . June were not yet molting but those which had been killed in the middle of July had.duil,.uneven. hair which was falling out considerably". . In the region of Pakhtusov Island molting animals were taken from May 15. Entries such as "the hair is falling out", - "it is beginnihg to fall out on the head", "it isfalling out cdnsiderably", etc., are encountered in abundance from May 15. in the observation journal, .the entries of which were to.June 28 made by Ladygin the chairman of the board of the hunters , artel. From these completely authentic, though contradictory data, we can conclude that in May molting is obviously not Significant; in addition, it is possible that the time of molting changes somewhat from year to year. • V. Antipin (3) writes that in the.region of the north-- eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya the ringed seal'"at the end Of May 101 to the beginning of July •forMs molting dene., but the author does not indicate how long they last, the. length of the molting period. In June, the hair of almost all captured ringed seals molts. Molting is at its peak in this month being determined by the hair that has fallen out and which remains on the ice at the dens of the animal. Molting also continues into July - in some places it continues into August - by the end of which it ends in all individuals. In individual and, possibly, pathological cases molting specimens are encountered in October (one instance is attributed to mouth of the Ob Guba) and even in December (data provided by M. Vladimirskaya fer the region of the Lagernyistation in Novaya Zemlya). The following molting times can be cited for individual regions. The data for the western coast of Novaya Zemlya are incon- sistent. According to one •source molting begins in the beginning/-22 of May, according to others it only occurs in July. Probably, the molting period is stretched out as in other regions and is subject .to considerable fluctuations. On the east coast of Novaya Zemlya in the region of Gemskerk Island, as has been indicated, molting begins almost at the end of April; it is more accurate to consider the middle of May as the starting time of molting. In the region of the Pakhtusov Islands ringed seal molt from the second half of May to the end of June, but it may be a longer period since the notes were interrupted at the end of June. 102

In the pelagic regions of the south-western part of the Kara Sea the author repeatedly encountered ringed seal in August which had not completed molting. In the region of Belyi Ostrov and Shokal'skii Ostrov molting was observed by A. Leonov in the second half of June and by V. Nikitin,the chief of sea animal hunting in Shokallskii Ostrov,in June. Both found hair near a ringed seal burrow after the last ringed seals had descended into the water. In the region of Dikson Island molted ringed seal have been taken in June (data provided by K. Kovalev and K. Kirpichnikov). Along the coast of Western Taimyr molting is completed by the middle of August since the ringed seal which were taken from that time on by M. Rozanov had already had a strong hair cover. At Chelyuskin Cape, according to the data of G. Rutelevskii (in litt.), ringed seal molt intensely at the end of June, all of July and almost all of August. At the western coast of Severnaya Zemlya "the molting of the ringed seal" - writes N. Demme-Ryabtseva (in litt.), who summed up her own observations and the observations of G. Ushakov - "begins at the end of June"... "those which were taken in August had usually already finished molting." In the archipelago of Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa, according to the observations of L. Leonov in 1932, molting had finished by the 20th of July whereas at the end of July in the following year individuals were encountered who had only begun to molt. The molting period for ringed seal, as we can see, is considerably stretched out and the change of hair proceeds very. 103

slowly. ,It begins with an unnoticeable weakening of the old

• guard hair and, subsequently, the strength of the hair cover is increasingly lost and at thelpeak of molting the hair falls out very'heavily. At the same time new hair proceeds to grow. Apparently, molting anima], s do not avoid going into the water at all; however, their diet is disrupted since among the molting ringed seal which had been examined by various individuals practically none were encountered with any food residue in their stomachs. Evidently, herding of the animais is associated with molting, with the ringed seal sometimes gathering in herds of up to 150 or even 300 head. However, more often smaller herds are encountered which are broken up into small groups or even solitary individuals.

V. DIET

The ringed• seal feeds on invertebrate organisms and fish which reside primarily in the upper layers of the water mass, and only in shallow places and off the coast does it consume certain species of benthos. Both groups mentioned (invertebrates and fish), of which the former includes crustaceans almost exclusively, occupy more or less equal position in terms of density although, outwardly, the impression is that fish food predominates for ringed seal. If the entire food amount in the -stomachs of dissected .Z.23 ringed seal is taken to be 100, then the fish content (even though in a mixture with other food items) is 64%. However, this method of determining the proportion of fish foods is not sufficiently objective for purposes of revealing the actual quantitative relationship between individual groups of food items since the data is-not 104. presented uniformly either according to the time of year or region. The data which we possess show that the qualitative composition of ringed seal food is subject to great fluctuation in relation to place and season. We present the following data as examples. 1. According to the calculations of A. Lepin the stomachs of ringed seals taken in the middle of February near the eastern entrance of Matochkin Shar fish remains (evidently arctic cd - K. Ch.) were found in 53 cases (65%), and invertebrates (mainlY, Amphipada and Schizopoda - K. Ch.) in 33 cases. 2. Of the 18 stomachs containing food examined by V. Antipin in March and April in the region of Gemskerk Island, only 3 (17%) , - contained fibh.

3. Approximately the same - picture was revealed during the examination of the stomachs of ringed seal which were taken in AuguSt near Belyi Island: in the collection of L. Leonov, out of the 14 dissected ringed seal only two contained fish food.residues, comprising slightly more than 1 4%. Thus, we should conclude that.fish in the diet of ringed seal represents an element which is far from constant in terms of proportion, although it plays a very large role in the life of • this animal. • Among the consumed species of fish which.have been established on the basis of an •examination of analyses of samples of the contents of the stomach, which were collected by various . individuals, the foremost position is occupied by Arctic cod. - 105

All of the few remaining species were encountered in isolated cases (Table 28). Table- 28 ci B. 0 D . 0 0• 0 H a3 Bain C 1)hl 61,1 M = . Meer° o6nappRenirn 2 • >,e o.

CailKa (Boreogadus salda). BOCTWitiaR qaerb Bapetinona mopn H pa3.nutiHme paioIIbI KapcNoro mews • 2 tierbipexpornii 6bitioK. (illyo.rocepha- lus quadricornis). . . • • . , 1 B6nec11 o. Benoro 3. Lycodes sp 2 Marini:mu Map; y Bxoxa C croponi • Kapcgoro mopn 4 Gytnnocanthus ventralis • flelopcKoe mope

Key to Table 28: A. Number B. Name of ' fish • 1. Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida).... 2. Fourhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis).... 3. Lycodes sp.... 4. Gymnocanthus ventralis.... C. Number of cases D. Locality of the discovery 1. Eastern part of the Barents Sea and different regions of the Kara Sea 2. Near Belyi Island 3. Matochkin Shar, at the entrance from the Kara Sea side 4. Pechora Sea

Thus according to these data, Arctic cod accounts for 94% of the quantity of the established fish foods. But in terms of food consumed, the last three species are insignificant since they have been found in single specimen among other food items whereas the Arctic cod has been frequently found in huge quantities (up to 60 specimens in some stage of digestion could be counted in some stomachs at the same time). 106

, From a comparison of the collected materials of ringed seal diet, with written and oral communication obtained from different sources, we can exténd considerably the list of fish which are used as food by the ringed seal in the Barents and Kara Seas to include the following species: Atlantic salmon char, , omul, navaga and capelin. The author has no new data at his disposal on the consumption of Atlantic salmon by ringed seal. Atlantic salmon is only mentioned in the old literature (18, 19, 29). It should be assumed that this species is insignificant in the diet of ringed seal (consequently, the influence of ringed seal on the supply of this valuable fish is very small). • Char (Salvelinus alpinus) belongs to the fish consumed by ringed seal on the basis of a single concrete communication from Ladygin, a hunter of sea animais, (Pakhtusov Islands) who found char fingerlings in the stomach of a taken animal. There•is no data on the consumption of adult fish. G. Galkin and I. Yakimovich provide information on the feeding of ringed seal on omul (Coregonus autumnalis). They the ringed seal from a seine at Drovyanyi Cape at recovered the mouth of the Ob Guba. However omul have not been found in the stomachs of ringed seal which are free. The feeding on navaga (Eleginus navaga) can be conjectured indirectly by the fact that the Nenets of. Yamal, as has been

indicated by the above mentioned individuals, call navaga and Arctic cod "seal fish". Ringed seal were noted feeding on navaga in Cheshskaya Guba. 107

The discovery of Capelin (Mallotus villosus) in the stomach ef ringed seal is mentioned in one case. We do not have precise data on other species of fish which are consumed by ringed seal ' in the seas under consideration. The data collected here, of course, is insufficient for a thorough evaluation of the degree to which the ringed seal is dangerous as a consumer of valuable fish. But if we touch on this question then the loss which is . caused by ringed seal to fisheries and fish supply can be roughly considered to be insignificant. The basis of the fish food consumed by ringed seal is Arctic cod; no other spècies can be compared with it in this respect. Its importance decreases only in salty and fresh water -(at the mou,ths of rivers and in the bays which are adjacent to them) where fish of the salmon (including whitefish) species can take on greater importance in the diet of the ringed seal. But ,. consequently, ringed sedl is muCh less numerous in.these region's. A number of circumstances, it seems to us, determine the enormous meaning which Arctic cod has for ringed seal: the wide distribution of this fish in the Arctic seas, the high degree of concentration in the spawning period, habitation of the surface layers of the water mass and, finally, the relatively slow • movement of this fish. The consumption of Arctic cod has been registered in the following regions of the Barents and Kara Seas: Cheshkaya Guba, Pechora Sea, along the entire coast of Novaya Zemlya, the archipelago of Zemlya Frantsa-iosifa, along the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya, the Belyi Island region, .the pelagic regions of the 10$

south western part of the Kara Sea, the Dikson Island region, along the coast and cliff of western Taimyr including the mouth of the Taimyr R., the Chelyuskin Cape region and the western coast of the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago. In a number of regions there is a sharply marked increase in the numerical strength of ringed seal by the time of the mass appearance of Arctic cod. Thus, for example, M. Vladimirskaya directed her attention to this periodically reoccurring relationship 55 in 1933 - 1934. In her preliminary account we find the followin information relating to this question. In Bezymyannaya Guba after the appearance of Arctic cod (November 21, 1933), the number of ringed seal increased sharply. On November'27 two hunters captured 15 ringed seal on fast ice in a single day, the hunt being terminated only because of darkness. At Matochkina Shar until the end of November no more than five ringed seal were seen per day and no more than 3 were killed on fast ice per day. Starting with November 30 the number of ringed seal increased sharply; twelve ringed seal were taken on that day on the fast ice. The presence of Arctic cod was established by the subsequent dissection of the stomachs. During December the • average daily kill of ringed seal was maintaineà at a level of approximately 8. At the same time, a strong storm was noted to have removed the Arctic cod from Pomorskaya Guba. In January, the daily average take of ringed seals was. maintained at approximately the same level. In the days when there were no Arctic cod a decrease was observed in the numerical 1109

strength of ringed seal. One of the hunters had an opportunity . • . . . to see a ringed seal which had Côme up to the surface with a live . Arctic cod between itS teeth.' At the'beginning,of February in Bezymyannaya Quba up to

700 Arctic cod had been caught in a day. On February 8, .in a neighbotiring guba, 23 ringed seal were taken. In comparing the presence ,of -Arctic cod with'the number of

ringed seal observed by the day, M. Vladimirskaya compiled a Table which We.present here'in abbreviated forni - (Table•29). Table 29.

• 1. Iço.rillgecraeliiian CH5131. 3,fext.y Caiiioii B nepiroii • • ,Litara 1 B • Hamitme pi,161,1 lc • aRepa (Repris) It ripw,iscea . _

1933 r. / 17 HoH6pH cairixii Her .ao6brra 1 Hepria e{, 19 „ asepst He BHA» 3 -- 21 „ noyrrinaach caiiKa „ » , mHoro eafixii sRepn MHOCO (y6nro 7.Hepn) 26 „ Ha Hpiinae oRoao 30 Hei n - 27 otienb weir() asepszi (ao6brro 15 HITyR) 29 „. .11061,1TO 10 nepri y 30 carmi HHOCO 3Bepil man° 1 _Ae1a6pri y6HTO 7 Hepri cailHH Her aa Asa nusi zo6sro 3 Hepnbi 8 CariKH MHOCO 11,06biTO 6 Repn /.2 25 Absoahno mHoro carimi }MT HpHriasi (HeJlEp3R 11061.1TI, anepH)

,e3 _ 26 11 ?' y6Hro 12 urryk: • 27 u 28 Her cailicu Her asepst

1'934 r. • _ 2 211BapH buloro cariKH MHOCO Heprt He r cailmi • maao anepR • — 8 „ ogenb mane anepsi 1 1 10 • ? ao6brro 16 Repri • _11 mnoro MCpTBOrt CAKH aeepa fi er 13 „ caiili fiCT • _ 23 1 no6btro 5 Hepri caHKu ,aoRoablio NIHOTO npunasi fier • — WIER Her Beeps; ner • 31 cailun ',tan° ■ «,g 14 Peapaasi caiiHH miler° • 9. 4 _17 . 110

K y to Table 29:

1. The quantitative relationship between •Arctic cod and ringed seal. A. Date

1. 17 November 9. 1 December . 15. 2 January

B. Presence of Arctic cod C. Presence of ringed seal 8c the take

1. none - 1 taken . 2. " none seen 3. appeared none seen 4. many many (7 killed) 5. ? approx. 30 on fast ice 6. ? very many animals (15 taken) 7. ? 10 taken 8. reny few animals 9. ? 7 killed 10. none 3 taken in two days 11. many 6 taken 12. quite numerous no fast ice (impossible to take 13. "? the animal) 14. none 12 killed • 15. many none 16. none many 17. none few 18. ? very few 19. many dead 16 taken 20. none none 21. none none 22. quite numerous 5 taken 23. none - no fast ice 24. few none 25. nany none 26. many none none The Table illustrates quite clearly the-relationship L26 between Arctic cod and ringed seal. In the majority of cases the number of ringed seal and the size of the take are directly

, related to the approach of Arctic cod. There are also several . instances of discrepancy. These are explained, possibly, by the fact that the ringed seal does not pursue Arctic cod constantly 111. and persistently. Hence, the first discrepancy in time (November 21). The increase in the numerical strength of ringed seal which occurs following the appearance of Arctic cod, from November 23 to November 29, was suddenly disrupted: by November 30, despite the abundance of food, the number of seals was greatly reduced. This could occur because the local ringed seal which was attracted by the Arctic cod was killed in the daily take or was frightened ,off by the shooting. On the other hand, the seal could pursue the fish farther while migrating or straying in a given region. Possibly the .se are the reasons for the disappearance of ringed seal even in the middle of February despite the presence of Arctic cod. G. Klyuge (10) notes a close relationship between the presence of Arctic cod and the appearance of marine mammals (including ringed seal) in the region of Cape Zhelaniye. The length of time during which the ringed seal feed intensely on Arctic cod is determined by the length of time the fish stays in a particular region. At the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, Arctic cod maintains a high number from November to March and at that time it plays an important role in the diet of ringed seal. Isolated cases of the consuMption of Arctic cod are also noted in other months. In the region of Matochkin Shar - in April and May; at the Cape of Zhelaniye - even in June; in Russkaya Gavanf - as early as September. But, as a rule, in the summer and spring months Arctic cod departs towards the ice and therefore drops out of the diet of ringed seal on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya. On the eastern side of Novaya Zemlya ringed seal, apparently, consume r>

112

Arctic cod somewhat more frequently in the summer time since there are indications of this fish in the stomachs of ringed seals taken

in May, August and October in the region of the Pakhtusov Islands and in August in the Bay of Chekina. In the pelagic regions of the Kara Sea in the area of drifting ice Arctic cod can also be frequently encountered in the stomach of ringed seal in the summer. The author noted this in 1930 and 1931. During August and frequently even in July Arctic cod usually adheres, in small numbers, to the edge of individual ice masses where the author at times succeeded in picking up an Arctic cod in his .hand and throwing it onto the ice. It was frequently found by K. Kovalev that the stomachs of ringed seals which were caught in Màrch and April near Dikson Island contained Arctic cod. Of the other animals which are included in the diet of ringed seal crustaceans occupy an exceptional position. In the examined samples of foodl which were obtained from ' the Arctic Institute only crustaceans were represented from among the invertebrates if we do not consider the one case in which gophyr bristles and two other bits of many-bristled worms were found (polychaeta). According to the literature, ringed sea/ consume mollusks also although in the collections of material which have come to the institute this group of animais has been completely absent. We . have not encountered any references to the feeding of ringed seal on mollusks either in the journals or accounts of scientists. Only in the journal of Ladygin, a hunter of sea animals, who wintered on • 1 Classification key compiled by E. Kuchina,and G. Shaposhnikova. lly. L.27 the Pakhtusov Islands, do we find mention of musséls and mollusks. Thus, according to the notes, mollusks and crayfish2 were found in

the stomach of a mature male which was taken . on October 11 e 1936. Mollusks were found in the stomach of three young individuals which . were taken on October 25, they were also found in a male which . was Caught two days later. .. Mussels were found during'the dissection of 5 ringed seals which 'were . caught onNovember 6 and * crustaceans and mollusks appeared in the stomachs of seven ringed seals. Musselà. are mentioned several more times'subsequently (November 15, February 17 and May 13). . . • .Of course, one cannot guarantee the accuracy of the key. It is difficult, in particular,.to establish now what waà meant by the name "mussels". • . In any.case, even if the information proVided by the above- mentioned hunter of sea animals on mollusks correspond to reality, the given category of the animals.occupies an extremely limited place in.the diet of ringed seal. Therefore, it may be considered that for all practical.purposeà the diet of ringed seal comprises . only fish and crustaceans. The latter are represented almost exclusively by plankton or Iittoral species The frequèncy of occurrence (the numberof stomachs in which Certain species are found) and, thus, the dietary importance of representatives of individual groups of crustaceans is as follows: Amphipoda 15% - • Schizopoda 40% Decapoda • - 14% Cumacea 1%.

2 From the director. It must be borne in mind that for coastal inhabitants starfish are known as crabs, therefore, this information requires further clarification. 114.

Fifty-three samples of stomach contents contained crustaceans

(not taking into account the notes which . are not accompanied by food specimens). The percentage of the frequency of occurrence of individual groups of crustaceans far from adequately characterizes the proportion in the total composition of food since the quantity of food items in each individual case is not taken into consideration.

For more accurate proportions among the individual groups of cbnsumed food we have compiled the Table below on the quantitative composition of foods. Table 30 • I KonnqecTuennoe coornowenne• meway oTne.1 11131 NI 11 nrpynnamn KOPMOBIAX 0611eIZTOB

Bi Kommecruennoe ub.ipeKenne otne.ib- .1 C 0,5lliee }won- "mix rpynn n npo6ax co.a.epwnmoro )«enygxon ItecTuo 1:01d ■ fpyrtniA paKoo6pa3IIbix A c-raTannii of- , e i - mnoro . . › 11 KOJIIIrleCTRO 3K30M11:041)1,1 ! Amphipoda . 1 15 11 9 35 Schisopoa'a . 92 ' 6 3 . 31. Decapoda . I 1 3 11 . Cumacea I 1 I —

pe i a ET o p a. 1-lano 11140113 n un:ty, 9T0 y nomopou noa iimenem paizou 313LCCT- 111,1 mopcKne 3Ee311,1, raK trio .Dannoe yRq.m.y_ne nywRaercg

. .

Key to Table 30: I. Quantitative relationship among individual groups of food items of ringed seal A. Groups of crustaceans B. Numerical expression for individual groups in the samples of stomach contents a. many b. few c. single specimens • C. Total established for individual groups. 115;

L28 The Table shows that the ringed seal consumes primarily the first two groups of. crustaceans - Amphipoda and Schizopoda and a very small number of Decapoda. Cumacea is an entirely incidental element. In addition to the groups of crustaceans which have been mentioned,representatives of Isopoda are important although they do not occur in the samples which are given. The repeated conr sumption by ringed seal of isopodous crayfish, particularly the large isopod Mesidothea entomon, was noted by a leader of sea animal hunters, V. Nikitin, for the Shokalskii Island region (Obskaya Guba estuary). The qualitative composition of individual groups and the quantitative relationship between species are

• expressed b-3, the data which are given below. First among the amphipod which are consumed by the ringed seal is the plankton family Hyperiidae which is represented exclusively by one genus Euthemisto, which is not defined more precisely (in the samples which are given and which yield to identification, it occupies approximately 73% of the considered quantity). Next, the family of littoral amphipods - Gammaridae with representatives: Gammarus sp. and Gammaracanthus loricatus (the family comprises approximately 10% of the considered quantity). Approximately - the same situation (approximately 10%) holds for Lisianassidae (chiefly Anonyx nugas). Finally, last in order are the families Oedicerotidae and Caprelidae . which are of equal importance. The last two families are represented by single specimens among the other food items and for all practical purposes play no role at all in the diet of ringed seal. 116.

As far as the first three are concerned, especially • Euthemisto, their importance as food items is very great. Very often the stomachs of ringed‘teals are completely packed with an enormous mass of these amphipods, which are sometimes represented exclusively by a single species (for example, Euthemisto libelluta).. In addition, being widely distributed and inhabiting the Arctic waters in great numbers, they serve as a food item in different regions • of the Barents and Kara Seas. According to the factual data (in stomach contents, genus Euthemisto, for example, is consumed by ringed seal in large quantities off the coast of Novaya Zemlya, in the archipelago of Zemlya Frantsa Iosifa, in the pelagic regions of the Kara Sea, offthe coast of Western Taïmyr, etc. In conclusion, it should be again noted that from among the amphipods the most . important in terms of food in the diet of ringed seal is the planktonic genus Euthemisto, next are the littoral gammarids and representatives of family Lisianassidae, particularly Anonyx nugas, which are encountered at different depths. From among the families of Schisipoda, which plays no less a role in terms of food in the diet of rinked seal than Amphipoda, two species were found during the examination of the stomach contents: Mysis oculata and Rhoda inermis. Of the 32 samples which yielded, it appears, to identification, 29 contained Mysis oculata and only three contained Rhoda inermis. Thus, this comprises approximately 90% and 10% in terms of frequency of findings. The quantitative relationship is still more incommensurable. Mysis oculata is usually established in massive quantities whereas Rhoda inermis is established in a small number of specimens. This is seen more clearly from Table 31 which is èiven below.

117.

In 11 out of 29 cases, only one Mysis oculata was found in the stomach content, all of these samples being taken from ringed seal which had been taken in'the region of belyi Island. . In the remaining 18 samples Mysidae are represented as a mixture with amphipods and fish (Arctic cod) and in other cases - with Rhoda inermis. Twelve such samples were from ringed seal which were taken in the eastern "estuary" of Matochkin Shar, 4 - from the Belyi Island region, 1 - from Chekina Bay and 1 - from the northern parts of the Kara Sea. Thus, all samples belong to the Kara Sea. Table 31.

KC Îgq ICTBe1I ItOe COOTHO itt e e e .Ac y oTJxeJ1 I,Ht,MIf Bu iaI Schisopoda •

Kommecuto Toro H zpyroro 061,ewra. o6aappReimoro a weaynice . Ha3Ba tt lie nnea A ne6anhtuoe eaunqublea muoro KomittecTao I 31f3eN111,19 phi

oculata • 24 Rhoda inermis •

Key to Table 31: I. The quantitative relationship between individual species of Schizopoda. A. Name of species B. Quantity found in the stomach a. many b. few c. single specimens.

In two cases Rhoda inermis was found in ringed seal which were taken in the pelagic •regions of the Kara Sea, with one sample • containing only this species in the amount of 25 specimens (collections made by the author from the southern part of the Kara Sea). A third

of the findings . is accounted for by Chekina Bay. 118.

Decapoda are represented in our materials by one species - Eualis gaimardi, which is found in small amounts in ringed seal which were taken in the Pechora Sea off the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya (Matochkin Shar region) and in the archipelago of Zemlyn Frantsa Iosifa. From among Cumacea which is entirely an incidental element only Dyastylis glabra was found in single specimens (stomach . content sample from the Pechora Sea).

VI. COMMERCIAL RAW MATERIAL 1. Total Weight of Ringed Seal. The total weight according to age and sex groupings is given in Table 32. The weight of a newly born animal is only a rough estimate since the author had no exact data at his disposal. The maximum weight of yearlings and older immature ringed seals and, in part, the weight of mature animais of both sexes are also to a considerable degree rough estimates (in view of the possible errors which are permitted when assigning individual animais to a particular age category). Table 32.

nec reza No.fibnar -oii nepn.bi no noapacrno-noaoubt rpynnam

Bec Term (Pt) A Hanmenonanne Bo3pacino- B rIpitmegainte noaonoii roynniza min. med. I max.

1 . liptutmoi (Pans) non ponaentut . . 5,0 Opuettruponogito JIenute (anrycrouctate) nepsoroinut . 16,7 (3) 18,0 Banentettbt B nepito;1 OT 9/V111 no 20/V111. . . 3. rObB3.11:4C 22,2 28,9 (35) 36,7 no ,11(015b1TbIM B cepe.autte clIenpaag • Hetto:ioaoapeime crapittero no3pacTa 32,8 38,8 (31) 47,0 YtEreubt nce • 1-le11oauso3peabie noo6tue, ucuntottan •• npun.w.-t (Honopo)Kiettubix) . . . 15,0 28,1 47,0 Cpe.aunn 113 cpeenttx se- 111191111 6. 133poc.-tue °Goer° tiona ...... 39,4 55,7 (37) 82,0 Cpeaugg u3 a6como1IlP .: nean ■um 7„ 14 nux: napocabie cammt 45,0 53,2 (7) 71,7 r.3poca1te camubt 39,4 56,3 (27) 82,0

119

Key to Table 32: I. lotal body weight of ringed seal according to age and sex groups. A. Age and sex group • 1. Offspring (Pullus) at birth 2. bummnr (August) underyearlings 3. Yearlings 4. Older sexually immature 5. Sexually immature in general excluding.newly born 6. Adults of both sexes

• 7. • Of these: mature females mature males - B. ,l'otal body weight (Pt) in kg

C. Comment • • •

1. ftough estimate . 2. Weighed in the period from 9/VIII to 20/VIII 3. According to those taken in the.middle of. February 4. Calculated weight - '5 4 _Average of average sizes 6. Average of absolute sizes.

The data used in compiling the Table were chiefly those which were nrovided by A. Lepin (pertaining to the middle of Feb- ruary) and only to a small extent those which were obtained at different times by various persons (K. Kovalev, G. Galkin, I. Yakimovich and the author). 119a

Table 33 .„ Koae6aiiiia o6 w,ero Beca apeamx cam a, 013 B or -apemelim ro.aa .06twili sec reaa B. cDammaila B Kr . BpeMn roaa li mecro Baciewasawnero min. med. max.

Becua (anperib—naliaao mou) o..3,11K- cona K. Kosancia 47,1 563 (10) 64,5 05CNOii ■ 11MOBlitl 46,0 59,0 (G) 82,0 ry6bi ...... - F. Fammil ii 14. 91 lima (cepeanna cl)eapaaa), aorromwoe . ycrbe Marotimaila 11Iapa A. Jleriam 39,4 57,5 (11) 63,0

Key to Table 33:

I. Fluctuations in total weight mature males in relationship to season. A. .Season and location

1. Sprinf; (April - beginning of June) •Dikson Island 2. Summer - autumn period, Obskaya Guba estuary 3. Winter (mid February), eastern estuary of Matochkin Shar B. Name of Weigher 1. K. Kovalev 2. G. Galkin and I. Yakimovich 3. A. Lepin Total body wr.ip:ht in kg.

120 ,

In the even Table itis seen that the weight of the animal, as it should be, decreases from winter to spring and increases towards autumn. However, a non-uniform age composition of the weighted part of the population can be reflected here. The increase in the weight of the ringed seal is correlated with the increase in body length, i.e., with the growth of the individual. Nevertheless, the limits in the fluctuations of the i61 total weight of one and the same variation class in isolated • cases reach a considerable magnitude. Thus, for individuals 100 cm long, weighed at the same time, the total body weight varies from 22.5 to 38.5 kg, i.e., a range of 16 kilograms. Such cases, as can • be seen from Fig. 12, are encountered for animals of different . sizes as well. The correlation for mature individuals whose body length ranges from 120 to 130 cm is particularly noticeably disrupted.

kz 70

65• • 0 • 60 •

55 (P. a • 0 eb e ' 0 0.41 50 • • 1151 o

u. AO, . • di Y I ; • . . e V V, • V V V etV V x - .flefootede (newt; doten eta urdery.earlings y wy . .v - rOdataniee 'yearling • • • .-Nenonatepelible ellapilleel ace older; imm- 25+ • 0- Jpenbie com.4•2 v v . mattu-e• ferrelas. 20 41- - CCIM*1 mature males • . , . • 1 . wt °,..ti na.1.1..it. Ck4.-ii.--f°11. pil---8i-651e5 -,9e0 9/-4'5 Z-100 obi- te5-110 111-elfte-rdo 21-ef !Meant-135 i3Siel-N5 leiee ZI-Cilei-.» -length Pic. P. Koppeannun mewny :Lannott Tena (Lc) n oenuns necom uonhvaToii repine. . . Fig. 12. Correlation between body length (Lc) and the total weight of ringed seal. • • • The greatest weight increase occurs during the first four months of life during which the initial weight quadruples (from 4 to 16 kg). For the next 6 months the increase is approximately 12 kg. Thus,.during.the first year of life the body weight increases no less than 25 kg., i.e., the weight of the newly born is increased. more than 6-fold. During the next period up until'the time.that the animal acquires the average size of adults the weight increase is again as much, doubling the weight of a year old individual. Animals weighing more than 65 kg were,rarely encountered; -according to the available data the maximum weight for males Was, 85 kg and for'females 71.7 kg. . The difference in average weight between males and females was small. 2. Fat Yield and Condition. . Up to'20 kg of fat is obtained from the skin of an . immature animal or approximately up to 18.0 kg of pure fat - nshelyag".. In the majority of cases, mature individuals yield up to 20 to 30 kg of fat on the skin or approximately 17 - 27 kg of pure fat. According to- data available to us the greatest . of fat obtained on the skin of ringed seal which has been amount killed in the, spring does not exceed 40.0 kg (pregnant, .129 cm long, caught in March near Dikson Island) 1 . Table 34. Bec *upouofi u.poRyHuou (caaa Ha 111Hype) 8 aatsucHmocru o T . paamepou 313c:!pfl (Rallume A. AR cep.eRuu bl tlieupaAsi) •

B Bec caaa Ha utHype (ri Kr) A. . Zinnia rena (Lc) u CM min. med. I max.

81— 90 — 11,2 (1) — 91-100 10,3 . ' 13.8 (11) .17,5 101-110 13,3 16,4 (29) . 20,9 • 111-120 , 17,7 21,6 (12) 25,1 121-130 • 25,5 27.0 (3) 2.8,4 131-140 * 31,5 (1) 1Data provided by K. Kovalev. Key to Table 34: I. Weight of fat yield (fat on the skin) in relation to the size of the animal (data for mid February). 1. Body length (Lc) in cm B. Weight of fat on the skin (in kg)

The average commercial weight of pure fat in the winter period is approximately 18.0 kg (the average amount of fat yield from ringed seal of various ages which were weighed in Februarey by A. Lepin) The difference in the-weight of pure fat between matilre males and females was not noted. Table 35 /62

Bec cupoii mmypid (mown) 6e3 wuponoro caon (B kr)

13 Bec cupoli iinqpbz B xr Bo3parTnan (pa31epnag) mareropnn 3nepn med. max.

Mononme nepnbi annnolo or 101 ao 110 cif no Lc 1,9 2,3 (4) 2 , 7 2. B3p0ca4e nepni,, o6oero noaa . . 2,9 3,0 (2) 3,2

Key to Table 35: 1. Weight of the rawhide without the fat layer (in kg) A. Age (size) category of the animal 1. Young ringed seal from 101 to 110 cm long according to Lc 2. Mature ringed seal of both sexes B. Weight of the rawhide in kg. 123. Table 36.

. _ Bec xoportifulal (caao co uncypoii) B 3 a- Exclimocru or eepaamepos(cepeAnna tbeepazA) B . Bec caza Ha uncype A. Paamephi xopo- (xoporomm) BHH B CM min. med. max.

61-70 10,3 11,8 (4) 13,4 71— 80 13,2 15,6 (23) 19,5 81— 90 22,8 (8) 28,4 91-100 25;1 (I)

Key to Table 36: 1. Weight of fat from the skin in relation toits size (mid Febtuary)

A • Size of fat on skin in cm. B. Weight of fat on the skin in cm (sic!) Testifying to seasonal fluctuations in condition is, firstly, the different degree of floatability (fluctuation in density). During the summer-autumn period, from May to the end of August or the beginning of September, the ringed seal being dead generally sinks; but in the winter from Sèptember-October to April it possesses buoyancy. The seasonal change in the condition of ringed seal of various age-sex groups is partially shown by Table 37 which, unfortunately, lacks data relating to the summer-autumn period. From the first quarter to the second quarter of the year the thickness of the fat layer in animais of different age groups is reduced on the average by 1 cm.

. 124' Table 37

Hameneune T 0 /I 11111 H K 0 )t< 11 - )4( nposoro caost (St sr.u)

3 iSlusapb-cpespa.rib---.mapr C A. Bo3pacrlian cTaim DUX. med. min. max: med. min:

• 1 ro.nosa.Tibae 7,0 4,6 (52) 3,0 5,0 3,2 (16) 2.5 2 Henonosoapeobie cTapmero soapacra 8,0 5,4 (28) 4,0 5,4 4,4 (10) 3,2 iloaosospeabze camnbi . . 8,5 5,9 (21) 4,25 6,0 3,4 (17) 0,05 z loaosoapeabie CaMKII . . 5,6 • 9,9 (4) 4,0 4,0 4,0 (3) 40

Key to Table 37: I. Changes in the thickness of the layer of fat on the skin (in cm) A. Age 1. Yearlings. 2. Older immature seals 3.. Mature males 4. Mature females

B. Janilary-February-Earch •

C. •April-May-june. • In view of limited data, the condition.which is determine d . by the method of the coefficient of fatness (i.e. by the percentage of the cutaneous fat layer in the total weight of the animal) does not present a sufficiently clear picture of the seasonal •change in the quantity of fat yield. Table 38.

KoscpcpunnenT „ackip ITOCTII * (sec sowno-)nposoro noxposa enpo- nenrax 0 T o6inero seca aseps)

KOB4)4)1tUlleliT killpHOCT)1 • B nponenTax B• CC3011 A. BospacTnan rpynna sammenb- ,..," 11,•41 I nan6on- a Lune be".••• " I ctuni:

1. l'o.nosaabie Cepesnna 4espa2s (1 KaapTan) 95,1 50,9 (32) 59,0 • Cepe.nuna anpean (II 'mama) 47,3 50,9(3) 55,3 2• F1eno.noso3pcome claimer° BO3paCTa 1 usapTan 45,6 51,3 (19) 57,8 42,8 51,9 (6) 57,2 3 . floaosospeabie I xsapTan 41,0 51,4 (12), 61,2 II xsaprart 38,8 99,9 (7) 53,5 Key to Table 38: 1. Fatness coefficient (weight of the cutaneous fat layer in per gent of the total .weight of the animal •

A. Age group 1. Yearlings Older immature animals 3. Mature animals É. Season 1. Mid February (first quarter) • 2. Mid April' (second quarter) 3. •First quarter Second quarter . • • 4. First quarter. Second quarter. • C. Fatnese coefficient' in.per.cent a. smallest b. average c. greatest Ile • A reduCtion in the coefficient from February to April is observed only in mature individtials; but there is no difference in immature animais. The fatness coefficient also varies insignificantly With.age. In the winter-spring period the cutaneous fat of animais of different age averages half of the total weight of the body. The smallest fatness-coefficientidas noted in a mature male-- 38.8% and the largest, in a mature female 61.2%. . There also •exists a morphometric method of determining condition (propOsed by Prof. N.A. Smirnov), namely, the relationship between.the horizontal extent of an animal (length according to Lc) and the axillary girth. Data for determining the.age variability in the fullness coefficient (as we may call the per cent expression of axillary girth) are somewhat confused. • 1.26. Table 39.

Hameuenita ico3 tfocteauxeirra flOJ!flOTL C Bospacro)i B • Koscpcimtufekir A •• Boapicraryte rppirad C flpsimeganite y. med. I max.

• floayroxoaaahie 73,0 90,1 (21) 104,0 , Cymmaptioe onpeaeJenne. 2. roaszmanze 71,1 87,7 (90) 110,0 6e3 nopaiien- 3 • Henonoeo3peable maim ero a03- noli pa3aumg Ko34tpx- pacTa 74,9 86,6 (38) 99,0 Lweirra. 4. 3penue (mew) • 72,9 84,5 (32) 96,8.

Key to Table 39: I. Variation in fulness coefficient with age A. Age.group 1. 'Half-year-olds. 2. Yearlings • 3. Older immature 'animais 4. Mature (male) anima is B. • CoeÉficient • C. Remark Total determination without consideration of regional differences in the coefficient. Table 39, it Would appear, shows quite an obvious age • decrease of the average indices. But, if we compare the average • coefficients of the different age groups of one population (February slaughter in the eastern estuary of Matochkin Shar), we shall obtain the following data: Yearlings 85.6130)% /6k • . Older immature animals. • 86.6 (38) Mature males 86.6-(13) i.e. the difference between mature animals and animals which are approximately a year old is only 1%. The coefficient iS generally subject to . very considerable individual variability1 . 1 is very possible that the broad limits Of fluctuation in the . coefficient is the result of inèxact measurements as well as the of animais which have become stiff in an unnatural position measurement (for example, with a stretched out head and contracted 'neck). 12

As far as the • easonal changes in the fullness of an animal are concerned they are reflected rather more clearly in the Tables below. In the half-year-olds (Table 40), the coefficient increases from the end of August to October. In one-year-olds

(Table 41), it increases from Decembet to February and then decreases somewhat to April. In older immature animais (Table 42), the coefficient also increases from autumn to winter. .

Table 40.

II 3 . menen e K 0 3 4) fl) unenTa ROII HOTW;yr rionyro- A0BaAWX

flepnojt roaa B_K034KIJHIIHeiir flOJIHOTIÀ It 1.10 min. med. I max. Konen anrycra nagano ceiirepn 73,0 81,8 (8) 1 86,3 Ogas6pi, 81,0 1-..5,4 (12) 95,4

Key to Table 40:

1. Change in the fullness coefficient of half-year-olds

A. Tiffie of year

1. End of August - beginning of September 2. October. •

Table 41.

Ce3011111iC 1131deHellliA K034)4IHIIiteirra flOAHOTbi••y roAoaan &IX (no p331IligHbINt pallonam) B D 3anamme no6epextbe ,Bocrolmoe no6epewhe lionok 3em.nt B pario- HOB0ü 3eitax na Toil Paon o. Isemcaepn A Mecan fie MaTogimia mapa )1Se nutpore min. I med. 1 ' max. min. med.. 1 max. min. med. - Max . • 1 nnaacn, [87,3 89,2 (5) 91,0 • • 2 Cepe,liina . . 71,1 90,5 (9) 100,0 77,8 85,6 (30); 96,9 3 , AripeAb . . 79,6 86,2 (13) 97,6 ■•■ — • I _ 93,5 (6) 110, 1

128.

Éey to Table 41: 1. Seasonal changes in the fullness . coefficient for yearlings (according to different regions) A. Month 1. December-January 2. Mid-February 3. April B. Western coast of Novaya Zemlya in the region of Matochkin Shar C. Eastern coast of. Novaya-Zemlya in the same latitude . • D. Heemskerk'Island region.. • Table 42

CeaoHe hie it 3 M eueRKK K 0 3 cp4)fituteltra no.riii tbt y tcenoectic)apent.tx crapmero roaa (opfieurgpoeoLitto)

B KO3CNIIIIUHeHT noartotbt Ceaon Ilptimegantie min. med. 1 max.

1 Cettia5pb—Hatimo ex- ilamirde enst Heim aarranuoro no6e- ittSpx 77,7 82,4 (5) 85,8 pelca,s1 Hosoli 3emall. :1,eica6pb—mcsapb . 84,8 90,0 (7) 97,5 3 ceapaett. (cepe.aitea) 75,4 86,8 (21) 99,0 BocTornioe no6epeALe Hosoii 3ei- B palione Martmama Illapa. 4 Anpe:tb 74,9 84,9 (5) 93,0 PallOH 0. .alfiCCOHa.

Key to Table 42: I. Seasonal changes in the fullness coefficient of older ' immature animals (approximate) A. Season 1. September - beginning of October 2. December - January 3. February (middle) 4. April. B. Fullness coefficient C. Remarks 1. Data for ringed seal of the western-coast of Novaya Zemlya 3. Eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya in the region of Matochkin Shar 4. Dikson Island.region. - e(Y. É2$ In mature individuals fullness systematically decreases' .from February to June (Table 43). . . . . . Thus, all Tables are in complete agreement with regard to changes in the averagè fullness coefficients which entirely correspond with the changes in quantity of the fat yield of the animal and its buoyancy. Table 43. .

Ce3ottttoe ttsmettettne epeettero Ko 3 44Hi rLueuTa rionnoTbi apenbix camuott

kIntettentts K09(134) tuttettra nonttont no mecnitam 11/011b 43eapa1Ib btapt attpenb Mail I • 80,4 (4) 85,6 (13) I 81,2 (3) 85,5 (5) 83,8 (7) I

'Key to Table 43: I. Seasonal changes in the average fullness coefficient of mature males A. Changes in the fullness coefficient according to month 3. Use of the Hide and Subcutaneous Fat. As leather and fur products, the skins of the northern ringed seal represent considerable value not only for the local hunting population but also for the nation-wide state industry and trade. Of course, the output of kQlkhoz industries conducted in the Barents and Kara Seas have not yet been properly developed. At the present time, the State purchasing organizations obtain roughly an average of 7,000 dried, undreàsed hides of ringed seal from local industries, the hides being used for manufactured fur articles (including short coats) and leather production. 130.

• A large quantity of hides remainein the locality. With the present -state of production statistics it-is difficult . tO give even an approximate figure which shows the volume of hides used by the local inhabitants and, in particular, by the inhabitants involved in the industry. M...Vladimiskaya(in litt.) considers that each hunter in Novaya Zemlya uses an average of 10 hides a year for his own needs. In the local economy the.hides are used . mainly . for'footwear ("pimy"), which is particularly necessary in the summer and in marine conditions. High quality ringed seal ' foOtwear almost comPletely keeps the water out. According to . the information provided by G. Galkin the Yamal Nenets prefer . to use the posterior half of ringed seal hide for this purpose since, in their einion, the head or anterior part of the hide is moi'e. porous and permits water to penetrate more easily. Other articles are made from the ringed seal hide in-addition to footwear, such as gloves and, less often, hats, trousers, jackets and outer garments ("malitsy"). The hide is also used for trimming malitsy which are made of deer. skin, knapsacks, straps (when the supply of hare and fox hides is insufficient), runners for skis. and other'items. The hiee together with the fat is used - in considerable amount for bait. In the southern part of Novaya Zemly the hunters often leave the whole dead ringed seal on the ice, without even approaching it, in order that polar fox maY bé more reliably lured. The greater part of fat is given to the putchasing organizations, hitherto almost exclusively in the raw and untreated form; the pure. fat ("shelyag") is corked up - in barrels. • • . 131.

This method of storing fat reflects strongly on its quality and limits its industrial use. The Yamal Nenets even use ringed seal fat in their diet and as G. Galkin indicates they rate it very high nutritionally. Well prepared ringed seal fat, melted down from fresh "shelyag" is completely suitable for certain culinary purposes, particularly, for frying fish. The gustatory.qualities of ringed seal fat is closely dependent on the diet of ringed seal: in regions and seasons in which fish food predominates the quality of the fat of ringed seal as a food is considerably lowered. On the other hand when the main or exclusive source of food of ringed seal is plankton organisms (or, on the whole, invertebrates), the fat does not acquire—the unpleasant taste of blubber oil. You will recall that V. Altbanov and his companions ate fried ringed seal fat ("shkvarki") with considerable appetite and satisfaction.

4. Other Produce (Meat Carcass - "Raushka")

The carcass or, according to the coastal dwellers, the "raushka" comprises approximately 50% of the total weight of the ringed seal. In the period of greatest condition, i.e., in the winter (mid-February), the average weight of th p meat carcass changes with age in the following way (Table 44). 13 2" Table 44..

Bet - MFICII0i1 Tywicn

Peamepu Tena CpeAnnif sec Bo3pacrna31 rpyrina MiCHOR TyIKKH B CM no Lc B Kr

1e3yCJI0BHO iterionoao3pe- 1 ble 81— 90 11,0 (1) 91-100 13,0 (15) • 101-110 16,6 (34) Tlepexop,tioro Bospacra . 111-120 19,8 (20) 121-130 25,9 (13) 1e3yCX013110• nonotio3pe- able • 1.31-140 34,3 (3) 141-150 38,3 (1)

Key to Table 44:

1. Weight of meat carcass A. Age group 1. Absolutely immature 2. Transitional 3. Absolutely mature B. Size of body in cm according to Lc C. Average weight of meat carcass in kg. The carcass of immature animals usually weighs up to 20-25 kg and that of mature animais usually exceeds 25 kg. • The overall average commercial weight of a meat carcass can be taken to be 19.0 kg.

Approximately 35% of the carcass consists of viscera; the meat and bones comprise 65% or approximately 12.5 kg. Of this approximately 60% is accounted for by the raw skeleton. Thus, the weight of the composite parts of the carcass in percentages is as follows (without taking into account the loss of blood): Weight of pure fat ("shelyagn) 46.0% Weight of the rawhide 5.5% Weight of the carcass (eraushkan) Total weight of the animal 100.0%. The carcass is utilized in different ways. The small north, particularly the Nenets, Chukchi nationalities of the 167 and Eskimos, use the carcass as a food product as well as food for dogs and bait for polar fox trapping. As food, the meat of the ringed seal, of course, is inferior • to that of cattle; nevertheless, it is completely edible; usually it is devoid of unpleasant aftertaste and, in the opinion of many, it is even tasty. A whole series of data may be cited apropos the high quality of ringed seal meat. Amundsen (2) was very positive about this meat. He wrote: "I like seal meat better than bear meat; although it is darker in colour, it is therefore more tender and juicy... The steak from a young seal is very tasty". In speaking of the importance of seal meat as an anti- scorbutic remedy,while describing the voyage of the "Mod", Sverdrup (15) writes the following paragraph: "In the majority of cases man can easily avoid becoming sick with scurvy if he can have the opportunity of eating fresh seal meat; the majority of Russians loathe it although, in my opinion, it is not inferior to the better sorts of meat if it is well prepared". In another place the same author writes that frozen raw seal meat is very tasty. One may also quote F. Nansen, DeLong and E. Toll and numerous other people. Many members of expeditions which have been organized in our time also give a positive evaluation of the meat of ringed seal. I shall mention as an example the evaluation given by the scientist A. Dubrovskii: "The dorsum of a ringed seal marinated in vinegar and fried in butter with onions is completely edible". However, 134 the gustatory values of- this meat, as of the fat, evidently changes somewhat depending on the diet of the animal. Where - fish predominates over other kinds of food the meat of ringed seal nay acquire the tastebf.blubber oil.* It is possible that Such a taste occurs . • onlY in certain seasons . when fish predominates in the diet of the animal. Thus, V..Allbanov. (1) points to the perceptible difference in the taste of meat between ringed seals which are caught in the Kara Sea and-those caught, in the northern part of Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa. • "In .coldur, cdoked or fried- seal meat resembles wild meat. It is dark in colour and tender. It is quite pleasant to the taste, at least I am . speaking about three seals which I ate nOrth of Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa. I do not think that it'seemed.pleasant to me because of . hunger or - becaùse my sense of taste had become . dull. No, • I would not say this. When we killed seal or.even uhares"* in the Kara Sea, despite the fact that we consumed onlY the fins (nkatary") whiCh were Soaked in vinegar beforehand and in oiI,. there were pieces of beat which positively- tasted fried and smelled of blubber oil. • . I do not think that,my sense'of taste had been lost . or damaged when l'ate seal meat, even when it:was fried on seal . fat; and I did not note any unpleasant aftertaste. Does this not depend on .the locality where the seal lived'and the food on whïch it fed? We did not at any time find fish remains in the stomachs of seals which we had killed north of Zemlya- Frantsa-Iosifa, and we killed a fair number of them..."

* Could this be a reference to bearded seals? - Translator. 135

Ip the spring, when ringed seal begin to mate, the males L6f3 acquire a rather sharp odour,as a result of which their use as food is limited. According to a report by G. Galkin the Nenets do not consume odoriferous males in the spring. We have already mentioned that male ringed seals have a very strong odour in specific seasons. It is interesting that reference was also made to the odour of ringed seal by DeLong (dated May 12, 1880): "We caught a searbut it turned out to be inedible because of its strong turpentine odour. The odour had been detected when the seal was still lying on the ice". The meat of ringed seal is not stored as a food product by the hunting settlement; it is consumed immediately or within a few days. As a 'fodder product it is stored in the most primitive way - it is cut up into several parts .or .i sometimes kept as a whole carcass. In Novaya Zemlya the carcasses of ringed seal which were slaughtered in the autumn-winter or spring period are frozen; they are frequently placed on the roof of a hunter's home. Ih some places at the present time, for example, on Belyi Island the , carcasses are dried in a hanging position. The author is not aware of the meat of ringed seal being pickled anywhere. Attempts at pickling were made with the meat of Greenland seal. According to A. Vebel' (5) "in gustatory quality the meat of pickled seal is considerably below that of fresh seal meat". However, later .on the author points out that . "seal halves which have been salted and smoked by means of a cold method are rather tasty and are gladly used as food by people". Of course, we cannot speak of preserving the meat of ringed seal in tins since ringed seal cannot- serve as an item of a large industry 136

which prOduces large quantities of meat products on single occasions only; nevertheless, as a rule, it is not wasted. If the meat of ringed seal is not accepted as a food by everyone in the Arctic, the edibility and the fine taste of such inner organs as the liver is not questioned by anyone who has tried them, as far as we know. Even V. Allbanov (1) noted that "The liver of the seals is even a delicacy. We ate it with pleasure on board ship even though we had all kinds of provisions". The author of this paper has also eaten the fried liver of ringed seal more than once and could not distinguish its flavour , from that of beef liver. The brain of ringed seal is also entirely tasty. V. Allbanov praises the brain and fins of seals: "the brain of seal is very tasty when it is well-done in sizzling fat. The fins ("katary") and extumities of seal are very similar to calves' feet when they are baked. VII. Practical Conclusions.

In the present work, which sums up our knowledge about the ringed seal of the western seas of the Soviet Arctic as a commercial item, the purely technical questions of the industry could not be dealt with. Nevertheless, in touching upon the practical measures the need of which arises from the conducted survey we should consider the very basis of the technology of the industry. The take of ringed seal, as well as a number of other animais of the Arctic, up to the present time, has not been completely regulated by any kind of rules and norms. And up to the present time animais and by whomever it is convenient. may be hunted wherever, whenever 137

ringed- As, a result of this, an enormous quantity - mainly of the seal - is destroyed quite... rword cut at bottom of loage.68 of original, Translator_7. Ten years ago one could resign oneself tC the unsuperv'ised . /69 state of ringed seal hunting due to its low level of development and the small population which lived on the coast of the northern seas. However, at the present time in connection with the flow of new Arctic settlement which has been revived by navigability and the increased take of ringed seal (though even in Novaya Zemlya), questions on regulating the industry took on very great importance. The reserves of the northern ringed seal although, generally, still far from.a full commercial load,nevertheless, should be protected a government property against irrational useless extravagance. Thus, parallel with further development of the industry there arises the necessity of introducing a number of regulations. The ringed seal industry, in terms of providing it with a source of raw material, has every possibility almost everywhere for further development. Essentially, in no other regions of the Barents and Kara Seas, with.the exception of the western coast cf Novaya Zemlya, is the take of ringed seal on more or less the same large scale. Thus, firstly, the take of ringed seal may be increased and intensified in those places where it occurs more or less regularly. • In this respect, apparently, the possibilities are limited somewhat only in the west coast zone of Novaya Zemlya. The regions with greater prospects for the organization or development of the ringed seal industry are as follows: 138

1. The south-eastern margin of the Barents Sea (Cheskaya Guba,

Nenets shore and Pechora Sea).. 2. The Kara coast of Novaya Zemlya.- • 3. South-western coastal regions of the Kara Sea (the Kara- Guba region and the adjacent regions of the coast of Pai-hoya Guba and Baidaratskaya Cuba, the western Yamal shoal and the marine and coastal regions of northern Yamal, Belyi Island and ShokaltskUl Island). 4. Yenisei Bay, including all of its eastern coast up to.the région of Dikson Island. 5. The coast and sea cliffs of western Taimyr and the western regions of the Severnaya. Zemlya archipelago. Due to its usual dispersion in places it inhabits, the ringed seal belongs to those animals which are hunted by the local coastal population. Thus, an increase in the size of take can be obtained, apart from improvements in hunting methods, by increasing the number of hunting stations. It should also be noted that the newly opened hunting stations should of necessity be composite in nature, i.e., the take of sea animais, in particular of ringed seal, should be combined with the other species of the industry (fur-bearing animais, fish and wild species). Only under these conditions can a hunting - station be profitable. It appears completely reasonable to organize small hunting . teams affiliated to polar stations which can become the bases for subsequent expansion of the industrial network. As to the technical reconstruction of the hunting industry, .the following. measures ought to be recommended: 139

1. Every conceivable development in the future of the net haul of ringed seal not only by using gill nets in the autumn but also by using more active mehods of the net industry (traps., labyrinths, etc.) which are used at other times of the year. In this connection the local initiative of the hunting population should be stimulated in every possible'way in stream- lining and perfecting the methods of the net industr and other types of industries and also in the discovery of new automatic methods of hunting, particularly in ice conditions. • 2. Perfecting the hunting of the animal by means of guns during winter and spring hunting on ice. The main concern of a hunter , who is concealing himself amidst the ice from a sharp-sighted and sharp-eared animal is to approach the animal unnoticeably for an accurate shot. This is best obtained by using protective blinds which hide the hunter from the ringed seal. Both white blinds, which resemble the colour of snow and camouflage the hunter, and black blinds, which are in the shape of the animal's profile for purposes of deceiving the animal in order that it will take the blind for a meffiber of its own species, should be tested. 3. Finally, wide use should be made of harpoon guns as well as shotguns; hitherto, harpoon guns have not been introduced into our hunting. The harpoon gun has a great advantage over the ordinary shotgun in that it permits one to take the animal at a short distance at a time when an animal which is killed on water sinks immediately. In spite of the short distance of the shot, the harpoon gun can be used successfully in the hunting of ringed seal since, being 140

in the water (where it feels it is safe), the seal is not very afraid and usually allows the harpoon to approach it and, frequently, even approaches it.

4. I Not examining all aspects of organization and techniques of the industry, insofar as this is not part of the aim of the only to the fact that for an present study, we shall point - efficient increase in the yield of the industries it is necessary to provide them with motor boats which are capable of going tens of miles from the base into the drifting ice.

. Measures which deal with the regulation of the industry should provide for the rational use of the reserves. In this connection, the following should be recommended first:

1. An unconditional ban on taking ringed seal on water in

the summer by means of shotgun when it sinks when it is killed.

Killing the animal on water may be permitted only when a harpoon ' gun is used. This measure which does not respond very sensitively to the direct interests of the hunting population will save a large number of ringed seals which are being killed senselessly at the present time.

• 2. Together with this, it is necessary to turn our attention to the soundness of introducing some restrictive measures during the animal's reproductive period. From our point of view it is not necessary to establish a general ban on the take for all age groups during pupping and milk feeding of the pups since such a measure would result in a sharp decline in the industry. But this is not the • only argument against a complete ban. In the total number of the viimals taken during thé spring, pregnant or pupping females comprise à very small per cent. It i possible that •the hidden mode of life, of pregnant females, whose pupping occurs in burrows, contributes . . . to this. Due to the fact that the newborn animals with strong hair. . rone line has been cut . off at . the bottom of page 70 of theoriginal. Translator 7 the fur - yield is very small. In /71 addition, molted whitecoats are frequently taken which have no particular value. Thus it would- appear to be sound to recommend a per capita - ban on the take of ringed seal whitecoats. Ringed seal- 1 - ought to be,a supplier of fat, fur-hide and meat produce, and all of these are àiven in the greatest amount by mature and, on the whole, large animals. In connection with the ban on the take of.offspring, • it is necessary to bah categoriCally the breaking of snow burroWs -.- from March to May. . The question of restricting the industry may arise in connection with the irrationality in the take of ringed seal'during its molting period. The Skin of a molting animal cannot be used as a fur. product' which thereby reduces its value; in addition, the fat yield of the animal is very low in the'molting period. • Of the other measures for regulating and organizing the industrY the most important are the statistics on the ringed seal industry . as well as on the take of other species. • Necessary in .-this connection are: 1) exact establishment and registration of all points at 2 which an animal has been taken for each year; 1 We have in mind the skins with a post-embryonic hair cover. 142

2) an annual count of the take; ' 3) concentration of all statistical data in a .central location. Other measUres'are: 1) introduction of control on the take; • • • 2) establishment of standards for hides and,fur of ringed seal; . 3) publication of laws concerning the take of marine animais as well as a technical manual on the hunting industr9- in the Arctic; 4) a statistical and economic investigation of the 'coastal industries; 5) continuation of scientific research studieà for. resolVing the questions of : • • a) the state of the reserves and migration of the animal and, in connection with this, the conclusion of research on racial individualization; 11, b) the magnitude of natural mortality; c) the'rate of restoration or reserves; d) the rate of growth, onset of maturity.and other biological qUestions; • • e) the - preservation and methods of initial local treatment . of the raw material. - 142a

ed d

ringed seal skull a - of a dwarfPd individual which was taken on August 3rd in the Kara Spa; b - a half-year-old individual (born in autumn); c - year-old individuals; d - doubtfully mature; e absolutely mature. 143

VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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DEPARTMENT OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE SECRÉTARI AT D'ÉTAT 146 • TRANSLATION BUREAU BUREAU DES TRADUCTIONS

■ "'", FOREIGN LANGUAGES DIVISION DIVISION DES LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES .

CANADA

CLIENTS NO. DEPARTMENT DIV1SION/BRANCH CITY N 0 DUCLMNT MMISTERE DIVISION/DIRECTION VILLE , . F.R.B. Office of the Editor Ottawa

BUREAU NO. LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR (INITIALS) DATE N° DU BUREAU LANGUE TRADUCTEUR(INITIALES).

1935 Norwegian & Swedish E.0.-J. 22-7-70.

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