ICTROPS Balikpapan, 26-27 Agustus 2018 "Towards Sustainable Tropical Marine: a Holistic Approach for Welfare Development of Indonesia"

Proceeding 2nd ICTROPS Balikpapan, 26-27 Agustus 2018 "Towards Sustainable Tropical Marine: A Holistic Approach for Welfare Development of Indonesia"

Ditulis oleh: Tim Penulis 2nd ICTROPS

Diterbitkan oleh: Mulawarman University Press

i Proceeding 2nd ICTROPS

Penulis : Tim Penulis 2nd ICTROPS

Director : Dr. Sc. Mustaid Yusuf, M.Sc Chairman : Dr. Dewi Embong Bulan, S.Kel., M.P Co-Chairman : Dr. Jusmaldi, S.Si., M.Si Secretary : Dr. Muhammad Syahrir R., S.Pi., M.Si Co-Secretary : Zhafira Kurnia Fitri, S.IP Treasurer : Dr. Nova Hariani, S.Si., M.Si

Comittee : Honorary Board Prof. Dr. H. Masjaya, M.Si (Rector, Mulawarman Unversity) Prof. Dr. Ir. Mustofa Agung Sardjono Dr. Bohari Yusuf, M.Si Prof. Dr. Enos Tangke Arung, S.Hut Dr. Zeni Haryanto, M.Pd Dr. Anton Rahmadi, M.Sc

Reviewer Prof. Dr. Enos Tangke Arung, S.Hut Dr. Rudy Agung Nugroho, S.Si., M.Si Dr. Ritbey Ruga, S.Si., M.P Dr. Sc. Mustaid Yusuf, M.Sc Dr. Dewi Embong Bulan, S.Kel., M.P Dr. Anton Rahmadi, M.Sc Editor dan tata letak : Fahrizal Adnan Desain sampul : Agung Yusuf, S.Sos ISBN : 978-602-6834-00-6 © 2019. Mulawarman University Press

Penerbit

HAK CIPTA DILINDUNGI UNDANG-UNDANG . Dilarang keras menerjemahkan, menyalin, atau memperbanyak sebagian atau seluruh isi buku ini tanpa izin tertulis dari pemegang hak cipta.

ii Prakata

Puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT atas limpahan rahmat dan karunianya sehingga Buku Proceeding 2nd ICTROPS tahun 2018 telah dapat diselesaikan. Buku ini sebagai produk keluaran dari kegiatan 2nd ICTROPS yang telah dilaksanakan pada 26-27 Agustus 2018.

Terimakasih disampaikan kepada Prof Dr. Masjaya M.Si. selaku rector universitas Mulawarman dan Dr. Sc. Mutaid Yusuf selaku Kepala PIU-IsDB Universitas Mulawarman atas dukungan dan arahan yang telah diberikan dalam penerbitan buku ini.

Kami menyadari masih terdapat kekurangan dalam buku ini untuk itu kritik dan saran terhadap penyempurnaan buku ini sangat diharapkan. Semoga buku ini dapat memberi maanfaat bagi seluruh civitas akademika di Indonesia pada umumnya dan Universitas Mulwarman pada khususnya.

Samarinda, Agustus 2018 Ketua Pelaksana

Dr. Dewi Embong Bulan, S.Kel., M.P

iv Kata Pengantar

Assalamu 'alaikum wr wb. (May peace be upon you)

First of all, let us thank Allah, the Almighty, for blessing and guiding us into the right path, and for granting all means and opportunities together here to attend this very meaningful occasion.

On behalf of the Mulawarman University, we are greatly honored and pleased to welcome you all to the Second International Conference on Tropical Studies and Its Application (ICTROPS) 2018 on " Towards Sustainable Tropical Marine : A Holistic Approach for Welfare Development of Indonesia ".

The framework of Mulawarman University as a “Center of Excellence for Tropical Studies” as a part of the 4 in 1 initiative. This initiative is projected to excel in Teaching and Learning, Research and Innovation, and Staff Development as soft programs and Campus Infrastructure as hard program. With the assistance of this IsDB program, the 4 in 1 initiative has two umbrella programs of research consortium and curricula development. The outcomes of this initiative are competent graduates, publication, quality of teaching-learning, excellent services, student quality, academic atmosphere, IPR, prototypes, research collaboration, and employability. In short, the 4 in 1 consortium will have a positive impact on developing nation competitiveness by providing competent graduates, collaboration in research, academic reputation, and excellent services and management.

We would also like to extend our gratitude especially to Prof (Emeritus) Tetsuo Yanagi of EMECS, Assoc. Prof. Suchana Apple Chavanich of Chulalongkorn University and Prof. Mitsuyasu Yabe of Khusyu University who have accepted our invitation to become the invited speakers of today's Conference. Ladies and gentlemen, finally allow me on behalf of the big family of Mulawarman University to wish you a fruitful and pleasant international conference.

Wassalamu'alaikum wr. wb.

Samarinda, 2018 Rector,

Prof. Dr. H. Masjaya, M.Si

iii

Assalamu 'alaikum wr wb. (May peace be upon you)

The important role of this IsDB project is as an enabler for Mulawarman University to achieve as a Service Excellence on Center for Tropical Studies (SE-CTS) by developing five key sectors namely Campus Infrastructure (CI), Teaching and Learning (T&L), Research, on Campus Service (CS), and Public Services (PS). The project will indirectly benefit GDP of the nation as a result of higher quality of education. It is expected that the project will increase the quality of graduates, both in academic skills as the core competence and soft skills as an essential added value. It is projected that the project becomes an important trajectory for qualified human resources that are heavily in need to face the embracing ASEAN Economic Community and possibly Trans Pacific Partnerships. Samarinda as the host city for Mulawarman University and East Kalimantan province will also economically benefited through the coming of more young researchers.

The International Conference on Tropical Studies and Its Application annual conference on 18-19 September 2018, is organized by Mulawarman University in collaboration with Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) and Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of The Republic of Indonesia. This is a bilingual conference (Indonesian and English), which means that the full paper was written in English and the presentation can be delivered in English or Bahasa Indonesia. All accepted and Selected papers after extension and modification will be published in F1000Research

On behalf of Project Implementation unit (PIU) Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) of Mulawarman University, We would also like to extend our gratitude especially to Prof (Emeritus) Tetsuo Yanagi of EMECS, Assoc. Prof. Suchana Apple Chavanich of Chulalongkorn University and Prof. Mitsuyasu Yabe of Khusyu University, and also all speakers, participant and committee.

Wassalamu'alaikum wr. wb.

Samarinda, 2018 Executive Director of PIU-IsDB,

Dr. Sc. Mustaid Yusuf, M.Si

vii

Daftar Isi

Halaman Judul…………………………………………………………………………………… i Kata Pengantar…………………………………………………………………………………… iii Daftar Isi………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv Sambutan 1. Rektor Universitas Mulawarman ….…………………………………………………….. vi 2. Kepala PIU-IsDB Universitas Mulawarman ……………………………………………. vii

Pemakalah

Utilization Of aquatic Plants To Improve Water Quality of Fish Cages In Post Coal Mining Void: Laboratory Study………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Henny Pagoraya, Ghitarinab*, Andi Nikhlania

Analysis of the Bottom Sediment Oxygen Demand in the Downstream River of Karang Mumus, Samarinda………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5 Apriyanti , Mursidi, Irma Suryana*

The Economic Role of Coral Reef Ecosystem to Fishermen Income……………………………... 8 Erwan Sulistiantoa,b, Achmad Fachrudina, Tridoyo Kusumastantoa, Eva Anggraenia

The Development of the Indonesian Marine Sector During the Era of Joko Widodo: an Analytical Study of National Ocean Policy…………………………………………………………… 16 Fajar Apriania, Rahmah Daniahb

Aluminium Air Battery Using Rhodomyrtus Tomentosa Leaves Extract In Salt Water As Electrolyte…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 23 Mardiah*, Ari Susandy Sanjaya

Take It Slow: The Response of Indonesia Slow Food Actors into Food Security………………… 27 Uni W Sagena*, Lady Paramita, Muhammad Nizar H

Sources Optimation of Bawis as Endemic Seagrass Comodity in Waters of Bontang City……… 33 Nurul Ovia Oktawati*, Qoriah Saleha, Oon Darmansyah

Addressing Non-Tradisional Threats in Maritime Border of Indonesia-Malaysia……………….. 40 Uni W Sagena*, Andi Purnawarman, Bagoes Rahmad E

Utilization Of aquatic Plants To Improve Water Quality of Fish Cages In Post Coal Mining Void: Laboratory Study

Henny Pagoraya, Ghitarinab*, Andi Nikhlania

a. Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fishery and Marine Science, Mulawarman University b. Laboratory of Water Quality, Faculty of Fishery and Marine Science, Mulawarman University *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Some post coal mining ponds in East Kalimantan have been used for fish farming with cage systems. Yet, some problems emerge during cultivation period, such as deterioration of water quality, the emergence of gaseous compounds from the bottom to the surface water, and mortality of the cultivated fish. Deterioration of water quality was detected as the cause of the death. Meanwhile, one of methods to improve water quality in the pond is by the utilization of aquatic plants. The purpose of this study was to improve water quality of the post-coal mining pond using aquatic plants (i.e. Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta). The test was conducted in the lab-scale. The plants were applied in the tanks and filled with water from post coal mining void. The water from each tank was examined every week for 1 (one) month. The results showed that Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta could effectively increase the dissolved oxygen level of 9.6 % and simultaneously reduce Nitrite, Ammonia and H2S up to 82%, 95.26% and100%, respectively. It can be concluded that Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta are potential bioremeditors to be applied in aquaculture system in post coal mining void

Keywords: phytoremediator, aquatic plants, water quality, post coal mining void

problem of mass death of fish cultivated in post-coal Introduction mine ponds and to solve the problem. One of the method that can be used toimprove water quality is The number of fish farming in cages in post-coal by phytoremediation in which potentially to be used mining pond has been increasing lately in East also on post-mining pond to prevent mass fish deaths. Kalimantan. Most of the supply of carp and tilapia in An experiment conducted by Wickramasinghe and the market comes from the cultivation in thepost-coal Jayawardane (2018) showed that Eichhornia mining. However, there is an interesting phenomenon crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, and Salvinia molesta in in the cultivation area, namely sudden mass death of addition to reducing levels of BOD, COD, nitrate, the cultivated fish that happened about 2-3 times in a phosphate, and total coliform in textile wastewater, year. Previous study conducted by Pagoray, et al., also absorbed metals Cd, Ni and Zn effectively so (2013) showed that the water quality in the post-coal that it is considered a hyperaccumulators, where the mining has been degraded. Water temperature, pH, metal is stored in their root system. Therefore, further dissolved oxygen, CO2, ammonia, H2S, and phenol, study on phytoremediatin for coal mining void should in the pond extremely fluctuated presumably the most be done to overcome the water quality problems. likely to cause mass fish mortality. Rock layer will be oxidized in the mining process to release sulfate Materials and Methods ions and hydrogen ions which can reduce the acidity of water and soil which can increase the solubility of The experiment carried out in the laboratory for 1 micro elements, so that the environment is no longer (one) month. The water plants were collected from a compatible with combining it (Havlin, et al., 1999). pond around the laboratory. The water for media was Thus further research is needed to address the collected from the post-coal mining pond that is

utilized for fish cultivationin Loa Ipuh Kutai 12 Kartanegara. The same pond where the previous 9,6 9,4 10 studied conducted by Pagoray et al., (2013) 8,24 8

6 The materials used were:water for media,aquatic 4,1 4 plants (Eichhornia crassipes(water hyacinth), Pistia unit (mg/L) 2 stratiotes(water lettuce) and Salvinia molesta(water 0 fern),chemicals compounds for preservatives in the K1 K2 K3 K4 field, namely H2SO4, NaOH, and for laboratoroy Aquatic Plants analysis. Some equipments used during the Figure1. Dissolved oxygen changes (%) in the experiment included: glasswares, tanks, water experiment tanks during phytoremediation process sampler, water checker, and spectrophotometer

Results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed The aquatic plants were placed randomly into the that each treatment plant to give effect to changes in tanks filled with water that taken fromthe post coal dissolved oxygen when compared with the treatment mining pond.Each tank was filled with onekind of without plants (K1). The further test results using the aquatic plant. The experiment was arranged in a least significant difference at 5% level, indicating that completely randomized design (CRD), which the treatment plant of K3 and K4 gave significant consisted of 1 (one) treament without plant, used as affect on DO, yetthere was no significant difference control (K1) and 3 (three) treatments with different between the these two plants. Both of these plants plant species(K2= water hyacinth; K3=water fern; K4 when compared to the treatment plant K2 = water lettuce), with 5 (five) repetitions. The plants havesignificant differences. Similarly, treatment acclimatized for 3 (three) days prior the experiment plants K2 showed a significant difference to the commenced. The waterquality was measured every controls.. week. The parameters were dissolved oxygen, carbon

dioxide, nitrite, ammonia, H2S. Oxygen plays an important role as an indicator of

water quality, because dissolved oxygen plays a role Data of the water quality was compared to the in the process of oxidation and reduction of organic standard quality by East Kalimantan Provincial and inorganic materials. Because of this process, the Regulation No.2 of 2011. The collected data were role of dissolved oxygen is very important to help subsequently analyzed by analysis of variance, and reduce the burden of pollution in natural waters DMRT (Duncan's multiple range test) was used to (Salmin 2005) . Dissolved oxygen levels will be explain the differences that occur among treatments, increased by using water plants, because oxygen is

obtained from the plant fotosintesis process

(Wulandari et al., 2012) Results and Discussion

Some problems often faced by farmers in the postcoal Observation of the media for cultivation should be a mining pond nowadays is a sharp fluctuation of concern, because it is highly correlated with the dissolved oxygen, high pH, turbidity and TSS due to survival and development of cultivated fish. One of eutrophication, as well as the mass death of fish. the concern is the quality of the water that is Besides characterized by low pH, acid mine water expressed by parameters include physical, chemical will also contain metals with a high concentration, so and biological properties. The parameters of water that it can be bad for the environment and human quality tested were dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, NO2, health (Juari, 2006). NH3 and H2S.

During the phytoremediation process, the percentage There were changes in the percentage of dissolved of increasing pH ranged from 5.1% to 7.2%, as seen oxygen (DO) during the phytoremediation process, in Figure 2. The figure shows that the biggest change which were 4.10% up to 9.60% (Figure 1)

occurred in the treatment K4 K2, K3 and K1 NH3level reach a high concentration that could

(control), respectively. Meanwhile, the results of interfere the fish. The highest level of NH3 usually analysis of variance (ANOVA) shows nosignificant occurs after the phytoplankton die then followed by a different on all treatment (P> 0.05) in terms of decrease in pH due to increase CO2 concentrations. changes in pH.Thus, each tested plant did not show 94 95,26 the effect on pH changes when compared with 100 90 controls. Neither did the treatment within the plant 80 60 45 8 7,2 40 6 6,3 Amonia 6 5,1 20 0 4 PH K1 K2 K3 K4 2 Aquatic Plants 0 Figure 4. Ammonia (NH3) changes (%) in the K1 K2 K3 K4 experiment tanks during phytoremediation process Aquatic Plants Figure 2. ph changes (%) in the experiment tanks Nitrite (NO2) is usually found in very small quantities during phytoremediation process in natural waters. The levels are lower than nitrate because nitrite is stable if there is oxygen. Generally,

High concentration of CO2can result in a decrease in nitrite levels in natural waters are around 0.001 mg/L + pH due to the higher CO2, in which the more H ions and should not exceed 0.06 mg/L (Canadian Council separated the lower /acid the pH level. CO2 did not of Resource and Environment Ministers, 1987). detected during the experiment. Moore (1991) stated that nitrite levels that exceeds 0.05 mg/L can be toxic to aquatic organisms. Hydrogen sulfide levelduring phytoremediation process showed a significant decrease that is 100%. 100 82 In week 1, detected H2S content of 0.845 mg/L to 77 78 80 1.87 mg/L, after the process of phytoremediation decrease of 100% or not detectedin treatment K2, K3, 60

Nitrite 40 K4, while for K 1 was detected at 0.06 mg / l (Figure 20 3). 20 0 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) is a gas produced from the K1 K2 K3 K4 decomposition of organic material carried out by Aquatic Plants anaerobic bacteria. It is a gas form that is harmful to Figure 5. Nitrite (NO2) changes (%) in the aquatic biota and produce bad odorr. Unionized experiment tanks during phytoremediation process hydrogen is toxic to aquatic biota. The figure above shown a decline in the process of There was an improvement of ammonia level during phytoremediation during the experiment in which the phytoremediation process which was ranged nitrite level decrease about 20% to 82%. The highest between 45 % - 95,26 % (Figure 4).The level of percentage was shown by K3 treatment plant (Figure toxicity of ammonia NH3 in the pond with short 5). duration contact is between 0.6 to 2.0 mg/L. Deadly effect can occur when the concentration of NH3 in All the improvement shown during the water of about 0.1 to 0.3 mg/L. The level pH and phytoremediation process that was conducted in the water temperature canset the ratio of NH3 to NH4. laboratory using Eichhornia crassipes(water The increase of every 1 unit of pH can cause an hyacinth), Pistia stratiotes(water lettuce) and Salvinia increase in 10-fold of NH3. It is very rarely to found molesta(water fern)were able to increase the

3 dissolved oxygen content in the water therefore molesta in phytoremediation of textile reducing the content of organic ingredients. wastewater. Journal of Water Security, 2018, Vol. 4, 1-8 ;DOI: https://doi.org/10.15544/jws.2018.00 Conclusion Syahputra, R. 2005. Fitoremediasi Logam Cu dan Zn

denganTanaman Eceng Gondok (Eichornia The use of plants give significant effect on the water crassipes (mart.) solms). Jurnal Logika 2(2): 57- quality of post-coal mining pond that used for fish 66. ISSN:1410-2315. cultivation. There were promising changes in water Tim peneliti FPIK, 2012 Kajian Logam Berat Pada Ikan quality such as dissolved oxygen, pH, and H2S within Yang Dipelihara Di Kolam Pasca Tambang Di one week.Dissolved Oxygen increase by 9.6%, pH Wilayah Kabupaten Kutai Kartanegara. Laporan 7.2%, and a decrease of 100% on H2S level, 82% on Akhir. Fakultas Perikanan dan Ilmu Kelautan.Universitas Mulawarman NO2, and 95.26% on NH3, yet changes tended to slow down after 1 week of phytoremediation process. Tim Peneliti PPL, 2010. Kajian Hidroklimatologi Sebagai Dasar Pengembangan Sistem Peringatan Dini Therefore, it is suggested to replace the plants every Bencana Kematian Massal Ikan 01 Danau week to get optimum result. Maninjau Sumbar.Proposal.Pusat Penelitian Limnologi References Wahyudi, T., Ghitarina, Sari LI., 2010.Studi Logam Berat pada Plankton di Kolam Pasca Penambangan Havlin, J.L., J.D. Beaton, S.L. Tisdale and W.L. Nelson. PT.Banpu Kitadin Desa Kertabuana 1999. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers An KecamatanTenggarongSeberangKabupatenKutai Introduction to Nutrient Management. 6 th ed. Kertanegara.Aquarin.Vol 1 No.2.Sepetember: 64- Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 69 Juari, S. 2006. Potensi Penggunaan Hidrotalsit dalam Widiarso, T. (2012).Fitoremediasi Air Terkontaminasi Remediasi Air AsamTambang di Lahan Gambut. Nikel dengan Menggunakan Tanaman Ki SeminarNasional RPKLT Pertanian UGM, 1 Ambang (Salviniamolesta). Februari2006. Wulandari R. YuliSiti F, EkaSeptia W, Jenni Indah Dpn, Moore, J.W. 1991. Inorganic Contaminants of Surface Niken Rh. 2012. PemanfaatanTumbuhan Iris Air Water .Springer-Verlag. New York. 334 p. (Neomarico gracillis) sebagai agen bioremediasi Pagoray H., Ghitarina, Taufan P.D., 2013. Kajian Fluktuasi Air Limbah Rumah Tangga. Seminar Nasional X Kualitas Air KolamPasca Tambang yang Pendidikan Biologi FKIP UNS. Digunakan Sebagai Usaha Budidaya Ikan Dalam Karamba Sehubungan dengan Kematian Massal Ikan. Salmin 2005. OksigenTerlarut (DO) dan Kebutuhan Oksigen Biologi (BOD) sebagai salah satu Indikator Untuk Menentukan KualitasPerairan, Jurnal OseanaVol 30, 21 – 26. Setyaningsih, L. (2007). Pemanfaatan Cendawan Mikoriza Arbuskula Dan Kompos Aktif Untuk Meningkatkan Pertumbuhan Semai Mindi ( Meliaazedarach Linn) Pada Media Tailing Tambang Emas Pongkor. Tesis. Bogor: Sekolah Pasca Sarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor

Subroto, M.A. 1996. Fitoremediasi.Dalam: Prosiding Pelatihan dan Lokakarya Peranan Bioremediasi Dalam Pengelolaan Lingkungan, Cibinong, 24-25 Juni 1996. S.Wickremasinghe and J.M. C. K. Jayawardana (2018). Potential of aquatic macrophytes Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia

Analysis of the Bottom Sediment Oxygen Demand in the Downstream River of Karang Mumus, Samarinda

Apriyanti , Mursidi, Irma Suryana*

Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fishery and Marine Science, Mulawarman University *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Karang Mumus River is located in the middle of Samarinda city which divides the settlement in East and North area of Samarinda city. Karang Mumus River has diurnal tide type every day and it has been on restoration process. The commonly colour of the river was cloudy, but on the low tide, it was blacky by unpleasant odor. The entering of organic materials was effected to the system and decreased the oxygen. This phenomenon were occured in the water column and the bottom of a river. It was followed the high decomposition of organic material by aquatic microbe. The energy was flowed to break the organic material, included organic material in the sediment of bottom river. By calculated the value of oxygen and content of organic material in the decomposition process were conclude the number of Sediment’s Oxygen Demand. The value were analyzed in the difference location and analyzed using comparative statistic test. The result was showed SOD value ranged between 115,089 until 5.094,591 mg/m2/day.

Keywords: karang mumus river, organic material, oxygent, and sedimen oxygent demand.

Quality, FPIK University of Mulawarman. The Introduction analyzed of C-organic and Sediment textured were process in Laboratory of Sand Science of Agriculture River is lotic ecosystem, it has flowing from one to Faculty. The sampling location was choosen based on another location using high currrent driven which the contribution of entering the organic materials, i.e. distributed the mass of water indirectly (Hutabarat, arround Gelatik bridge (1), Ruhui Rahayu st (2), 2010). The distribution of water mass was followed Segiri Market (3), Baru bridge (4), Arif Rahman with materials including organic matter. The water Hakim st (5), Sungai Dama (6), One bridge (7). The capacity has been controled amount of materials, out sediment and water samples were took by incubation of range by high materials, the water body has collaps pipe and measured the amount before and after 6 and hour incubation. Data Analysis for amount of oxygen it was destructed to the water body. The demand was calculated by titrimetric method and decomposition process in the sediment was effected Sedimen oxygen demand was calculated by to amount of oxygen in the water coloumn. It was modification of incubation pipe, amount of C-organic happened in Karang Mumus river, as long as the and decreased of Oxygen demand. reclamation process beheld and the organic materials higher entered to the water body sustained. SOD (mg/l) = DO1 – DO2 SOD SOD (mg) = Methods v k SOD × 10000 × t SOD (mg/m / ) = L of pipe This research was conducted in the downstream of 2 k Karang Mumus river, Samarinda, from February to l 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 March 2018. The measured of water quality were (SODk = amount of consumption SOD; v = water done insitu and eksitu in Laboratory of Water volume; SODl = SOD per width; t = time of incubation)

Results and Discussion The analysis was shown the texture of bottom sediment in category of Sand (S), Sand-Mud (LS), The downstream of Karang Mumus river was Mud-Sand (SL) and Mud (L). (Table 2). measured length and width ±6 km and ±17–42,45 m, the current velocity was slow due the contour of river Table 2. Texture analysis of the downstream of was relatively straight. So, the materials including Karang Mumus River organic matter has been accumulated on the bottom Part Location of river. This statement had supported by the result of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 last research (Putri, 2014) the accumulation of Left side S LS SL SL LS LS SL organic materials in river sediment was happened because of low current velocity of the water. Middle LS LS SL SL S LS SL Right side SL S L LS LS SL SL The amount of DO was measured in the interface layer, due the oxygen in the water not only on the The bottom of Karang Mumus river was analyzed the water coloumn but also in the sediment (Rojaul, texture, it was dominated by blacky sand. Sand 2009). The result was showed DO was in ranged sediment was poor by organic materials (Ardi, 2002 0.084 mg/L - 3,6 mg/L on low tide, but on high tide in Rizal, 2017). But, Karang Mumus river had been 0,182 mg/L - 5,44 mg/L. It was described different condition, due the organic matters always unsupporting amount to aquatic biota life because the entering the water body by the heavy people activity amount of supporting life has > 5 mg/L (Boyd, 1988), and the accumulation had been stayed in the bottom except a little amount on high tide. of the river. The differences of texture was effected to chemist water characteristic, water flow and porosity The amount of SOD were measured in ranged of the bottom (Miller, 1992) 115,089 mg/m2/day - 5.094,591 mg/m2/day (Table 1). Then highest amount was found in the middle of The result analysis of C-organic was in ranged 0,44% location 2 and the lowest in the right side of location - 3,72%, which the highest C-organic was found in 5. left side of location 4 and the lowest in right side of location 2. C-organic was described high productivity Table 1. SOD (mg/m2/day) the downstream of in sediment, it was be affected by type of texture Karang Mumus River (Riniatsih, Kushartono 2009). The colour of sediment Location Left side Middle Right side also describe amount of organic materials inside 1 1.902,799 2.884,889 1.841,419 (Putri, 2016).

2 3.452,660 5.094,591 1.181,577 3 2.271,083 2.762,128 1.626,586 4 1.281,320 735,033 196,418 5 260,868 185,676 115,089 6 2.823,509 1.565,206 920,709 7 1.872,109 2.025,560 1.304,338

From the result, the amount of oxygen was decreased Figure 1. The visualization of Sediment in the after incubation, it was describe the decomposition of downstream of Karang Mumus river organic materials process has been occured in the

sediment by microorganism (MacPherson, 2003) The water quality also measured for supporting data, whereas the microorganism used oxygen inside the it was describe some of parameter such as pipe incubation to process it. temperature, pH, depth and clearness. From the measurement, the range of value for each parameter

6 were in the range of normal condition, the fluctuation Efendi, M. 2009. Analisis Status Mutu Air dan Formulasi of water temperature in range 1 to 3 degree Celcius. Strategi Pengelolaan Sungai Karang Mumus Kota pH in ranged of netral, the depth measurement was Samarinda. [Tesis]. Sekolah Pascasarjana, Institut low expectation, due depth of water so close to the Pertanian Bogor, Bogor. Hadinaftah, Ryan. 2009. Analisis Kebutuhan Oksigen surface also the clearness following, in tend normally untuk Dekomposisi Bahan Organik di Lapisan same as the water colour, i.e dark cloud. Dasar Perairan Estuari Sungai Cisadane Tangerang. [Skripsi]. Fakultas Perikanan dan Based on comparative test, using statistic. The Ilmu Kelautan. Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor. amount of SOD based on the location had significant Hanifah, M.Z.N. 2007. Kualitas Fisika-Kimia Sedimen difference, it was happen due supply organic matters Serta Hubungannya Terhadap Struktur from surrounding the area and the difference of Komunitas Makrozoobenthos di Estuari Percut texture also amount of C-Organic, so it made DO Sei Tuan Kabupaten Deli Serdang. [Tesis]. before incubation had been low and anaerob Sekolah Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, 95 hal. condition was occured in the system. Hutabarat, H. 2010. Keanekaragaman Plankton dan Hubungannya dengan Faktor Fisik-Kimia Air di Conclusion Sungai Batang Serangan Kabupaten Langkat Sumatera Utara. [Tesis]. Universitas Sumatera Based on the result of Research of Sediment Oxygen Utara. Medan. Demand (SOD) in the downstream of Karang Mumus Kinasih, A.R.N dkk, 2015. Analisis Tekstur Sedimen river at 7 locations, it can be conclude: dengan Bahan Organik, Logam Berat (Pb dan 1. The amount of SOD was in ranged 115,089 - Cd), dan Makrozoobenthos di Sungai 5.094,591 mg/m2/hari. Betahwalang Demak. Diponegoro Journal of Maquares, Vol 4 (3): 99-107. 2. Demand of oxygend in sediment was significat Putri, D.H, dkk. 2014. Sebaran Kandungan Bahan Organik difference in every location based on condition Total di Perairan Muara Sungai Porong of organic materials input, texture and value of Kabupaten Sidoarjo. Jurnal Oseanografi, C-organic Universitas Diponegoro. Vol. 3(4) : 610-617. Putri, A.M.S, dkk. 2016. Hubungan Tekstur Sedimen Acknowledgments dengan Kandungan Bahan Organik dan Kelimpahan Makrozoobenthos di Muara Sungai Laboratory of Water Quality, Faculty of Fisheries and Banjir Kanal Timur Semarang. Jurnal of Fisheries Marine Science Mulawarman University. Science and Technology, Universitas Diponegoro. Vol 12 (1):75-80

Riniatsih, I. dan Kushartono, Edi W. 2009. Substrat Dasar References dan Parameter Oseanografi sebagai Penentu Keberadaan Gastropoda dan Bivalvia di Pantai Ardi, 2002. Standard Methods for The Examination of Sluke Kabupaten Rembang. Jurnal Ilmu Water and Waste Water. 18 th .Washington. Kelautan. Vol. 14 (1): 50-59. Asriani, W.O, Emiyarti, Ermiyanti. 2013. Studi Kualitas Rizal, A.C. 2017. Pendekatan Status Nutrien pada Sedimen Lingkungan di Sekitar Pelabuhan Bongkar Muat untuk Mengukur Struktur Komunitas Nikel (Ni) dan Hubungannya dengan Struktur Makrozoobenthos di Wilayah Muara Sungai dan Komunitas Makrozoobenthos di Perairan Desa Pesisir Pantai Rancabuaya Kabupaten Garut. Motui Kabupaten Konawe Utara. Fakultas Jurnal Perikanan dan Kelautan. Vol. 8 No.2 Perikanan dan Ilmu Kelautan, Universitas Halu Sari, M.A dan Purnomo, W.P. 2016. Analisis Kebutuhan Oleo. Jurnal Mina Laut Indonesia Vol. 3: 22-35. Oksigen untuk Dekomposisi Bahan Organik Effendi, H. 2000. Telahaan Kualitas Air bagi Pengelolaan Sedimen di Kawasan Mangrove Desa Bedono Sumberdaya dan Lingkungan Perairan. Institut Demak. Diponegoro Journal of Maquares, Vol 5 Pertanian Bogor. 258 hal. (4):285-292. Effendi, H. 2003. Telahaan Kualitas Air bagi Pengelolaan Sumberdaya dan Lingkungan Perairan. Kanisius Yogyakarta.

The Economic Role of Coral Reef Ecosystem to Fishermen Income

Erwan Sulistiantoa,b, Achmad Fachrudina, Tridoyo Kusumastantoa, Eva Anggraenia

a Bogor Agriculture University b Mulawarman University *Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

The coral reef ecosystem is one of the important ecosystems in coastal area, beside mangrove ecosystem and sea grass ecosystem. This research aims to find the economic role of coral reef ecosystem to fishermen’s income and fishermen’s perception of the coral reef existences in Bontang waters. The data were used primary and secondary data. Primary data were obtained from direct interviews with fishermen by questionnaire, with sample determination using purposive sampling method. Secondary data were used reports and documentation that related to the research. The research method used quantitative descriptive method. The fishermen's income analysis is conducted to find the role of coral reef ecosystem to fishermen’s income. The fishermen’s perception is used to see how much the fishermen knowledge about the benefits of coral reef. The result is economically the coral reef has an important role on the fishermen’s income, where the average of fishermen’s income per day, is smaller than Minimum Wage of Bontang.

Keywords: coral reef, fishermen

Introduction One of the main economic activities in coastal area is small scale fisheries (Gutierrez, et Every 8th of May, people always celebrate the Coral al, 2011). According to Barkes et al. (2001), small Day. The moment that shows the coral reef is an scale fisheries have the following characteristics: 1) important part of human life. The existences of coral The fishing activities are carried out with small scale reef ecosystem have great benefits for the other fishing units, sometimes using motorized or non- life. Coral reefs support the social prosperity, boats; 2) Ships and fish tackle are usually operated on cultural, and economy of millions people around the their own; and 3) The fishing haul is not sold to large world through extractive activities such as fishing markets but its circulated in landing places or sold at and non-extractive activities such as cultural sea and usually consumed by his family. In daily identity and recreation (Cinner, 2014). A good coral life, small scale fisheries activities are vulnerable to reef ecosystem condition will give a great benefit for shocks and socioeconomic changes (Wardono, environment. The coral reef ecosystem services 2015). The limitations of financial capital severely provided various things, whether the utilization or restrict fishing activities, it cause the selection non-utilization, either directly or indirectly. The of locations that become fishing ground not too far availability of fish resources is one of the ecosystem from where to live. Other problems for small scale services provided by coral reefs. Its function as a fisheries include availability of fish stocks, lack of provider of food, a shelter and breeding grounds, it livelihood alternatives, low management of using cause many fish resources affiliated to coral reef coastal resource (Abreu, et al., 2017, Parsram, 2008). ecosystem, the other of coral reef functions are carbon absorption, recreation and erosion restraint Many types of fish resources found in coral reef (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). ecosystem, both of economic and non-economic values, cause the coral reef ecosystem to be one of

the favorite fishing ground for fishermen, including Secondary data is required as a support and be fishermen in the waters of Bontang City. Although in obtained from District Office, Marine and Fishery the coral reef fishing grounds, the tools that used are Service Office, and related research limited, such as nets or traps, but it does not dampen report. Secondary data collection is done through the intention of the fishermen to do fishing activities literature study and relevant sources to this in the area. The existence of coral reef ecosystems research. Secondary data include: regional profile, with their benefits as a place to fish resources live business model of fisherman's community, (feed providers, breeding grounds, living demographic data and perception also business places) were play an important role in small scale development needs felt by the community. fishing activities. Where it located close enough as fishing ground so it is not too big capital The economic role of coral reef ecosystem to the expenditure. The fishing hauls that obtained for sale fishermen prosperity in Bontang will be seen by the and also used to their consumption. Considering the amount of fishermen’s income. The amount of importance of coral reef ecosystem for fishermen's income that used is the amount of daily income that life, this research aimed to find the economic role of earned by the fishermen who becomes the coral reef ecosystem to fishermen’s life based on the respondent. The amount of daily income compared income that obtained from the fishing haul in with the value of minimum wage (UMK) 2017 of Bontang waters area. Bontang City.

Methods Revenue analysis using NFR (Net Fishing Revenue) analysis with formulation of equation as follows: The research activities were conducted in April, (Torre-Castro et al, 2014): 2017. This research located in Bontang, East Kalimantan. =

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 The sample of this research is Bontang coastal area Where is, B is Benefit (profit received from the sale community, precisely in the District of of fishermen to merchant collectors at once to go to South Bontang, as artisanal fishermen. The sampling sea), C is Cost (Costs incurred by fishermen at once was done by using purposive sampling, assuming that to go to sea), NFR = Net Fishing Revenue (net the sample selected based on needs or specific income from fishing haul), I = Respondents (i consideration by the researcher. The respondents = 1, ...... , n), J = Fishing tackle (j = 1 (net), were selected based on the type of fishing tackle and 2 (splint)). The fishermen’s perception to coral reef splint, where the fishing tackle is commonly used to ecosystem using descriptive analysis, where the catch fish around the coral reef area, also using boats analysis is processing the research results data that without motor and outboard motors. aim to creating a meaningful data.

Primary data is a data that obtained from the main Results and Discussion source, either through direct observation (observation) from the field and conducting Coral Reef Ecosystem interviews to the respondents based on the The area of Bontang waters is about 70.3% of the questionnaire (questionnaire) that have been prepared total area of Bontang city or about 34,977 ha. The in accordance with the purpose of research. The width of marine waters is a blessing for Bontang city questionnaire consisted of two parts, namely Part 1 in terms of natural resources, especially coastal and includes the identity / characteristics of respondents, marine resources. The area of marine waters become and Part 2 covers fishing activity (business a big business land for coastal communities, most of capital, the amount of revenue, the amount of catches all which are depend their life on the sea, either as a cost, fishing location, and perceptions of the coral fisherman, a cultivator or a processor of fishery reef). products.

The waters of Bontang has coral reef ecosystem Department, 2015). The distribution of coral reef scattered at some point. Murbyanto (2003), explains ecosystem in Bontang City can be seen in Figure 1. that coral reef ecosystem is a tropical or subtropical ecosystem and located between 30o LU and The corals that grow in the waters of Bontang City 30o LS. The coral usually grows and develops in mostly have massive and sub massive forms caused relatively shallow areas and generally close to the by the influence of pollutants in the form of coast, warm waters with the temperature between 15- sediments. Sediments that occur may come from o o 30 C and salinity between 30-35 /oo. These waters are organic materials. This sedimentation condition the distribution area of coral reefs with the type of causes the dominant growth of coral species coral reef that close to the shore (fringing reef). The of porites cylidrica or foliosecoral (montipora condition and type of corals that live in these waters foliose) which is a coral species that live in the turbid are also strongly influenced by waters due to the organic material. The cause of natural factors and artificial factors. The natural turbidity may be derived from sea grass or mangrove factors include weather and season changes. Artificial that are destroyed or have died considering the coral factors that can affect the coral reef life such as reef ecosystems location that closed to the sea grass activity on the land and destructive fishing. and mangrove location.

The type of coral reefs found in the waters of The condition of the coral reef ecosystem found in Bontang is dominated by hard coral than soft Bontang waters is in various conditions. By using the corals. The types of hard corals found in the waters of indicator of State Minister of Environment Decree Bontang city are No.4 in 2001 about The Standard Criteria of Coral Porites sp, Galaxea sp., Acropora sp., Montipora sp Reef Damaged, where the conditions are very good ., Pleorogyra sp., Echinopora sp., Hydnophora sp., (75 - 100%), good (50 - 75%), moderate (25 - 50%), and Millepora sp. While the soft coral found in the and damaged (<25%). The condition of coral reef waters of Bontang city is Sinularia, Lobophytum, and ecosystem of Bontang can be seen in Table 1. Sarcophyton. (Fisheries, Marine and Agriculture

Figure 1. Distribution of coral reef ecosystem in bontang city, source: fisheries, marine and agriculture department bontang city, 2015

Table 1. The percentage of coral reef in Bontang waters (%). Location / Station HC SC SP DC S R OT Algae Exp. 1 5.84 0 0.94 28.24 32.42 31.56 0.2 0.8 Bad Tanjung Sekubur 2 3.97 0 0.33 1.10 60.57 32.63 1.07 0.33 Bad 1 31.96 0 0.18 8.28 4.46 4.72 0.4 0 Medium Selangan Island 2 17.02 0 2.2 6.7 16.28 7.4 0 0.4 Bad 1 6.26 18.42 1.26 31.34 9.86 32.16 0.3 0.4 Bad Melahing Island 2 18.20 34.80 0 6.80 13.40 23.73 1.13 1.93 Bad 3 12.53 48.40 0 4.20 16.33 18.00 0.53 0 Bad 1 55.66 0 1,2 29.28 1.68 5.34 6.54 0.3 Good Agar-agar Island 2 57.17 0 1.80 4.03 0 36.73 0.27 0 Good Tebok Batang 1 27.84 0.16 2.14 41.28 8.74 16.12 2.92 0.8 Medium Island 2 28.00 0 1.73 7.83 24.13 37.23 1.07 0 Medium 1 35.56 42.84 3.38 13.3 2.90 1.06 0.72 0.24 Medium Kedindingan 2 45.98 6.94 0 38.9 4.00 0.6 2.02 1.56 Medium Island 3 66.44 0.94 3.76 18.78 3.54 4.42 2.12 0 Good Beras Basah 1 1.47 1.47 0 8.77 5.33 61.03 0 8.70 Bad Island 2 8.90 16.23 0 7.60 0 63.57 1.77 1.93 Bad Manuk-manukan 1 5.97 13.23 0.47 13.70 3.23 63,40 0 0 Bad Island 1 0.48 2.66 0.66 29.56 1,2 62.96 2.48 0 Bad Karang Kiampau 2 4.00 12.43 6.23 8.23 63.17 0.30 5.63 Bad 1 46.33 4.80 1.27 6.07 8.40 24.27 3.93 4.93 Medium Tihik-tihik Island 2 27.17 22.27 2.33 8.47 3.07 35.53 1.17 0 Medium Information : HC: Hard Coral SC: Soft Coral S: Sand R: Ruble SP: Sponge DC: Dead Coral OT: Other Source: Marine, Fisheries and Agriculture Department, 2015 in Mujio, 2016.

Fisheries of Bontang City The fishing activities conducted by small-scale Bontang is located in the southern of East Kalimantan fishermen in the coral reef area of Bontang Indonesia, which are directly borders on Makassar namely one day fishing , because of fishing Straits. It consists of 3 sub-districts, two of them ground location is near to the residence and also the borders on the sea. About 7,000 fishermen do fishing limited financial capital. The fishing activities are activities on the sea, where as many as 3,000 and conducted every day, except Friday for worship. The more are fishermen and the left are fishermen as side time of fishing is usually conducted in the morning or jobs. The number of Fisheries Household (RTP) afternoon. The fishermen who use fishing tackle like small scale is 74 RTP without boat, 64 RTP boat nets and splints is not definitely give a good result, without motor, and 652 RTP outboard motors. because of weather / season factors that affect (Marine and Fisheries Department of East the fishing haul. According to fishermen, the northern Kalimantan, 2017). The amount of fisheries season is the season of many fish that occurs on production in Bontang in 2016 entered the top 3 in November to April. The southern season is a little East Kalimantan, after Kutai Kertanegara and Berau, fish season that occurs on May to October. about 16,881.6 tons with production value Rp 645,075,900.000 (Marine and Fisheries Department of East Kalimantan Province, 2017).

Table 2. The number of fishing haul based on coral reef location. Number of Catches (Kg) Coral Reef No. Siganus Siganus Rastrelliger Lates Location Squid Total canaliculatus lineatus faughni calcarifer 1 Tanjung Sekubur ------2 Selangan Island ------3 Melahing Island ------4 Agar-agar Island 308 111 65 4 11.5 499.5 Tebok Batang 5 ------Island Kedindingan 6 290 83 59 11 0 443.0 Island Beras Basah 7 ------Island Manuk-manukan 8 ------Island 9 Karang Kiampau ------10 Tihik-tihik Island ------Source: Primary data is processed, 2018

Fisheries Production in Coral Reef Ecosystem Area Fisheries Production

Based on the fishing tackle that used in the existing condition, the net is catching 485 kg fishes in Agar-agar Island and 433 kg fishes in Kedindingan Island area. The splint is catching 14.5 kg fishes in Agar-agar Island, and 10 kg fishes in Kedindingan Island. More details see Figure 2.

The composition of fish species that obtained in the coral reefs of Agar-agar Island and Kedindingan Island can be seen in Table 3 and 4. The composition of fish species that obtained by fishermen is Figure 2. Catch based on fishing gear, Source: primary dominantly caught by using net and splint. Based on data is processed, 2018 the results above, both on the Agar-agar Island and Kedindingan Island, Rabbit fish Siganus Table 3. The composition of fishery resource types in canaliculatus (Rabbit Fish/Bawis) is the most agar-agar island dominant species; the next is Siganus lineatus (Gold- Number of Composition lined spine foot/ Baronang) and Rastrelliger faughni Fish Type Catches (Kg) (%) (Island Mackarel) Ketombo, Baronang, Ketamba, Whitefish and Squid. Siganus canaliculatus 308 61.66 Agar-agar Island produce 499.5 kg fishes and Siganus lineatus 111 22.22 Kedindingan Island produce 443 kg of fishes, so Rastrelliger faughni 65 13.02 the fish that caught on existing condition is about Squid 11.5 2.30 942.5 kg, and on the average every respondent Lates calcarifer 4 0.80 produce 12.9 kg. More details see Table 2. Total 499.5 100

Source: primary data is processed, 2018.

Table 4. The composition of fishery resource types in tourism, and biodiversity. Based on the interview kedindingan island results was obtained information that the fishermen’s Number of Composition knowledge about the coral reef ecosystem Fish Type Catches (Kg) (%) benefits. The benefits are known together (100%) as Siganus a place to find fish, because of all respondents do canaliculatus 290 65.46 fishing activity in the coral reef area. The benefits as Siganus lineatus 83 18.74 a tourism area is known as 89% of all respondents, Rastrelliger faughni 59 13.32 the fishermen know it because there are coral reefs areas in the Beras Basah Island waters was visited Lates calcarifer 11 2.48 by many tourists to go Total 443 100 to diving and snorkeling. While the lowest percentage Source: primary data is processed, 2018. is the coral reef ecosystem benefits as biodiversity is only 58%. More details can see Figure 3. Fishermen’s Income The coral reef ecosystem in the Bontang waters has provided benefits for the fisherman communities in the waters area. The benefits that provided by the coral reefs is very helpful and it support the fishing communities life. Ecologically, coral reef ecosystems play a role in the availability of food, a place to live and as breeding ground for several fish species that have highly economic value that will be the fishermen’s target, such as Bawis, Baronang, Ketamba, White fish and Squid. The fishing haul was usually sold to a broker or Figure 3. The fishermen perception on the coral reef public, buyers usually go to the fisherman's house ecosystems benefits in bontang waters directly. The fishermen who are not bound by broker are free to sell their catch with highest price. The Discussion fishermen’s income in around coral reefs area is on average Rp 64,000 per day. That amount is less than The existence of coral reef ecosystem that scattered minimum wage (UMK) of Bontang in 2017 in 10 locations of Bontang waters gives an idea about amounted to Rp 80,000 per day. how is importance the coral reefs for fishermen’s life, Low revenues are considered reasonable because the although there is few in good condition and mostly in scale of fishing business is on a small bad condition (see Table 1), but the coral reefs scale. Fishing ground is near (coastal areas), simple location is remains a fishing ground. There are many fishing gear, the use of non-motorized ships, without factors caused the coral reef is damage, both natural technological innovation, and without financial and non-natural. capital support strongly and seasonal dependence are characteristics of small-scale fishing businesses that Economically, the relationship between also caused of the lower income of fishermen. The the existences of coral reef ecosystem with fishing length of the supply chain is also pointed out as cause activities in Bontang can be seen from the amount of of the lower income of fishermen. (Musiello- fishermen’s income. The amount of fishermen’s Fernandes, 2018). income on average is smaller than the minimum wage of Bontang about Rp 80,000 per day. Looking at the The Fishermen Perception to Coral Reef coral reefs condition in Bontang waters that mostly in Ecosystem bad conditions, it affects the availability of fish The fishermen’s perception on the coral reef resources. It is able to illustrate that the existences of ecosystem benefits based on the benefits that coral reefs in Bontang waters mostly affect the provided such as a place to find fish, breakwaters, fishermen’s income in Bontang. A better

coral reef will be a fishing ground for the fishermen and non-fisheries sectors. Diversification of income because it provides some target for them. The coral can also be done with the provision of loans for reef ecosystem has become one of the fisherman's fishermen to increase business capital. Olale and income supports, through the fishing activities in the Henson (2013) states that income diversification can ecosystem. Parsram (2009) explains that the coral increase the fishermen's income so the fishermen are reef ecosystem have a relevance to human life, able to fulfill their daily needs. The processing of especially in fishing activities. The ecological catches can be done to increase income and the final component of coral reef as a provider of all types fish value of the catch will increase the profit (Musiello- resources. It was integrated with social components, Fernandes, 2018). where the fishermen community used available fish resources by fishing activity as revenue for them. Conclusion

The efforts that can be done in improving the The coral reef ecosystem performs its function as a condition of coral reefs, such as need fish resources provider through the services of to strengthen the people’s mindset of coastal ecosystems as feeding places, breeding grounds, and resources utilization. The fishermen have had fish habitation. With these functions, the coral reef knowledge about the benefits of coral reefs (Figure ecosystem becomes one of the fishing grounds for 3), just how to concerned about the resources must be fishermen. The amount of income that earned by increased then the preservation of coral reefs will be artisanal fishermen is smaller than minimum wage of increased too and to achieve this goal the government Bontang in 2017. But it does not make fishermen to will cooperate with the other parties, including change the fishing pattern to be destructive; it is nongovernmental organizations. It becomes proven by fishermen's perception of coral reefs that important because of worry about the application of have good function. Law no. 23/2014 has a negative impact on the control of coastal resources in Bontang. The marine control The efforts that can be done to maintain and improve becomes the authority of the East Kalimantan the sustainability of coral reefs and to increase the Province to create gaps in illegal fishing activities fishermen’s income is the stabilization of the that threaten the survival of coral reef fishermen mindset in the coastal resources and ecosystems. Rapid and good co-ordination is a key to control that utilization, coral reef planting (long control fishing activities. The trust among fishermen term), installation of artificial coral reefs (short term), also needs to be increased so do not do destructive and income diversification for fishermen. fishing activities. Cahaya (2015), said that by strengthening social capital like trust, awareness, and Acknowledgments mutual cooperation can increase the management of coastal resources positively. Many thanks to all the respondents who were involved in this study. The authors also thank to Mr. The coral reef planting becomes another solution to Erwiantono, Mrs. Qoriah Saleha, Mrs. Nurul Ovia improve the coral reef condition that accompanied by Oktawati, Mr. Harry Setiawan and Mr. Freddy the installation of artificial coral reefs, to elicit the Murwanto for helping in this research. And also fish to come. But the artificial coral reefs are not a thanks to The Ministry of Research, Technology, and long-term solution to increase the artisanal Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia and fishermen’s income, the area where installs artificial LPDP (Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education) coral reefs do not provide better benefits for for the support. fishermen than the areas without artificial coral reefs (Islam et al, 2014). References

Diversification of income can also be done as an Abreu, J.S., Domit, C., Zappes, C.A., 2017. Is there effort to increase the fishermen’s income. The dialogue between researchers and traditional income diversification can be done in both fisheries Community members? The importance of

integration between traditional knowledge and Musiello-Fernandes, J., Zappes, C.A., Hostim-Silva, scientific knowledge to coastal management. M. 2018. Small-scale fisheries of the Atlantic Ocean Coastal Management 141, 10 – 19. seabob shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri): Barkes, F., E. Mahon, P. McConney, R. Pollnac and Continuity of commercialization and R. Pomeroy. 2001. Managing Small-Scale maintenance of the local culture through Fisheries. Alternative Directions and Methods. making public policies on the Brazilian coast. International Development Research Center. Ocean and Coastal Management 155, 76 – 82. Central Statistics Board. 2017. Bontang City in Olale, E., Henson, S. 2013. The impact of income Figures. Bontang Central Statistics Board. diversification among fishing communities in Cahaya, A. 2015. Fishermen Community in the Western Kenya. Food Policy 43, 90 – 99. Coastal Area: A Note from Indonesian Poor Parsram, K. 2008. Social-ecological System Family. Procedia Economics and Finance 26, Interactions in Small-scale Fisheries: Case 29 – 33. Studies of the Large Pelagic and Shallow Reef Cinner, J., 2014. Coral Reef Livelihoods. Current Fisheries of Grenada and St, Lucia Under Opinion Environmental Sustainability 7, 65– Costruction. Proceeding of the 61th Gulf and 71. Caribbean Fisheries Institute, November 10 – Department of Marine and Fishery East Kalimantan. 14, 2008, 57 - 66. Gosier, Guadeloper, French 2017. Annual Report on Capture Fisheries West Indies. Statistics 2016. Department of Marine and Torre-Castro, M., Giuseppe, D.C., Narriman, S.J. Fishery East Kalimantan. 2014. Seagrass Importance For A Small-Scale Gutierrez, N.L., Hilborn, R., Defeo, O., 2011. Fishery In The Tropics: The Need For Leadership, social capital and incentives Seascape Management. Marine Pollution promote successful fisheries. Nature 470, 386 Bulletin 83, 398-407. – 389. Unsworth, R.K.F., Cullen-Unsworth, L.C. 2014. Islam, G.M.N, Noh, K.M, Sidique, S.F, Noh, A.F.M. Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, and The 2014. Economic impact of artificial reefs: A Conservation of Meadows. Coastal case study of smallscale fishers in Terengganu, Conservation, eds B. Maslo and J. L. Peninsular Malaysia. Fisheries Research 151, Lockwood. Cambridge University Press. 122– 129 Wardono, B. 2015. Small Capture Fisheries Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Development Model to Support the Regional Ecosystems and Human well-Being: Economy. IPB Bogor. (not published). Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Wilkinson, C.R., Buddemeier, R.W. 1994. Global Institute, Washington, DC. Climate Change and Coral Reefs: Mujio. 2017. A Model Of Coastal Spatial Planning Implications for People and Reefs: Report of With Land And Sea Connectivity Approach. the UNEP-IOC-ASPEI-IUCN Global Task IPB Bogor. (not published) Team on the Implications of Climate Change on Coral Reefs. IUCN.

The Development of the Indonesian Marine Sector During the Era of Joko Widodo: an Analytical Study of National Ocean Policy

Fajar Apriania, Rahmah Daniahb

aDepartment of Public Administration, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Mulawarman University, Samarinda, 75119, Indonesia. bDepartment of International Relations, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Mulawarman University, Samarinda, 75119, Indonesia. *Corresponding author: [email protected].

Abstract

This study aims to analyze the policy of Maritime Axis which is the main program in the government of Joko Widodo which has been running for 4 years in order to return Indonesia as a maritime country where the oceans, seas, straits and bays are seen as the future of Indonesian civilization. This is a deductive-qualitative research by data collecting done by library research through literature review from scientific articles. Validity and reliability of data is done by reference triangulation. This research focuses on the implementation of the marine sector development policy which is cross-sectoral and institutional integrated program, set forth in the form of National Marine Policy in accordance with the Grand Design of Marine Development in Indonesia. National Maritime Policy has been translated into each sector program in the marine resource development and management plan which includes: management of marine resources, human resource development, defense, security, law enforcement and marine safety, governance and institutions, marine prosperity and economic development, management of marine space and the protection of the marine environment and marine culture. As a policy, the success of the national maritime policy is largely determined by the characteristic of policy problems, of policy itself and environment factor. The results of the research indicate that the development of maritime axis is struck by structural problems and there is no national political awareness to the region about the great economic potential, fishery and maritime owned by Indonesia. The unsuccessful implementation of the maritime axis national policy shows that Indonesia has not become a fully maritime country and has not brought changes to economic and defense development that can control maritime security.

Keywords: Maritime Axis, National Ocean Policy, Marine Sector, Marine Development.

Introduction maritime connectivity, environmental damage rehabilitation and biodiversity conservation, as well Since 2014, the Joko Widodo government has as improving the quality and quantity of marine brought great ambitions to restore Indonesia’s human resources [1]. identity as a maritime country through the Republic of Indonesia’s Presidential Regulation Number 2 of Indonesia has great potential to become a global 2015 concerning the 2015-2019 National Medium maritime axis, considering that Indonesia is in the Term Development Plan. The maritime axis is a equator, between two continents of Asia and strategic idea to ensure inter-island connectivity, Australia, between two Pacific and Indian oceans, development of the shipping and fisheries industry, and Southeast Asian countries. Indonesia consists improvement of sea transportation and the security of more than 17.504 islands with a coastline of of the sea. 95.181 km. The land area reaches around 2.012.402 km2 and the sea is around 5,8 million km2 A number of the main programs in the Jokowi’s (75,75%). As an archipelagic country that has a government to realize Indonesia as a global vast sea and a long coastline, Indonesia’s maritime maritime axis include enforcement of the and marine sector is very strategic in term of sovereignty of the territorial sea of the Republic of ideological, political, economics, socio-cultural, Indonesia, revitalization of marine economic law, environmental, defense and security aspects sectors, strengthening and development of [2]. Indonesia is in a cross position in global trade

and energy routes that connect the European and strategic location. Therefore, many island countries African markets. In this strategic path there is a lot or island countries because they have not been able of potential in the Indian Ocean. Where 2,7 million to take advantage of the sea that is already in its of the world’s population is inhabited, half of the power [2]. world’s container ships, one third of the world’s cargo, half-oil offshore producers, two-thirds of the This research tries to examine the success of the world’s shipment of energy, rich in mineral development of the Indonesian maritime sector resources and fisheries [3]. until 2018 through the implementation of the national maritime axis policy that has been carried In 2010 it was estimated by FAO that humans out by the Joko Widodo government. The consumed 128 million tons of fish and in the last difference between this study and other studies is decade fish consumed by 4,3 billion people. In that other studies examine the realm of defense 2021 an estimated 172 million people will eat fish strategies as stated in [7]; [8]; [9], while this study and the fishing industry will become that fastest is on policy analysis studies as in [15], but with growing industry [4]. So that as a country with the different scope of study. largest territorial waters in the world consisting of 17.000 islands, the development of the outer sea Methods security is very much determined by the management of the oceanic region. Indonesia has This study examines national marine areas. This also become a global maritime axis supported by research is a qualitative descriptive study that five main pillars, namely: 1) rebuilding Indonesia’s explains the problem through the analysis of data maritime culture, 2) commitment to maintain and and information collection, and reports the results. manage marine resources by focusing on building National political strategies and economic sea food sovereignty through the development of strategies are the focus of observed micro the fishing industry by placing fishermen as the phenomena, while policy implementation is the main pillars, 3) encouraging commitment focus of the macro phenomena being studied. Data development of maritime infrastructure and collection for this study was carried out using connectivity by building sea tolls, sea ports, literature and document studies as a source of logistics and shipping industry and maritime research data. So that the type of data used is tourism, 4) maritime diplomacy that invites all secondary data. Test the validity and reliability of Indonesian partners to cooperate in the maritime data is done by content analysis that explains and sector, and 5) builds maritime defense forces [1]; analyzes data from research results that have been [5]. read and summarized from various written data sources (document analysis). Data interpretation is In its journey, recorded on October 2017.\, after then analyzed through deductive methods, which three years of implementing the maritime axis attempt to apply theories that are relevant to the mission, Susi Pudjiastuti, the Minister of Maritime phenomenon, formulate conclusions from the data Affairs and Fisheries who became a central figure [10], and then present the results. in Indonesia’s maritime policy said that the existence of the world’s maritime axis was merely a slogan [6]. The sea is also realized is a special Results and Discussion life, which is not easy to conquer, so it takes a long time to optimize programs towards the sea to see Maritime Issues and National Maritime Policies the results. Indonesia’s territorial territory borders on 10 countries, which seven countries border waters Djalal argued that a maritime country is not the with Indonesia. Indonesia has three Indonesian same as an island nation. A maritime country is a Archipelagic Sea Lanes, and four straits that are country capable of utilizing marine resources, even passed by foreign shipping. This can certainly be though the country may not have many seas, but it an opportunity to enhance national development has the capability of technology, sciences, without neglecting security. But on the other hand equipment, etc. to manage and utilize these marine it creates vulnerability from aspects of defense and resources, both its space and its natural wealth and security, especially maritime security.

was one of the driving forces when foreign ships Problems faced in the management of Indonesian were free to enter the waters of Indonesia which at marine areas from the aspects of defense and that time were vulnerable to Holland security include: awareness of the archiplego recolonialisation efforts. So that the struggle of Ir. conceptual conception that has not been fully Djuanda which began in 1957 and was successfully understood, limited infrastructure and the main passed in 1982 embodies the concept of an intact tools of the weapon system, maritime field archipelagic state which later became the regulations that do not have supremacy so as to conceptual conception of the archipelago, although have an impact on increasing illegal activity using with the existence of UNCLOS it was also unable maritime media. Illegal exploitation and activities to minimize the various problems of Indonesia’s of maritime resources are carried out by local and territorial disputes with its neighbors. transnational actors. Another problem is the delimitation of maritime borders, the quantity and The maritime axis policy which is part of the world quality of maritime human resources, weak law maritime axis shows the choice between domestic enforcement, and limited maritime infrastructure policy and international policy. International and adding to the list of maritime problems in domestic choices in the policy show the existence Indonesia [2]. of intermesticism [12]. Maritime axis policy on Joko Widodo’s vision and mission shows the A number of these problems are expected to be orientation of Indonesia’s foreign policy on overcome through a maritime axis policy that can maritime geopolitics. As Alfred Thayer Mahan increase the defense power to maintain the prove that sea power is a state instrument to rule sovereignty of Indonesia. Maritime axis policy is a the world [13]. The view of the Sea Supremacy public policy that applies domestically, but at a offered by Mahan has until now become the certain level it will have implications for relations “backbone” for maritime development for between nations. developed countries. Even the behavior of the state that puts forward marine instruments ranging from As a result of the vast waters owned, Indonesia has marine security technology to developing the 10 maritime boundaries that must be considered, power of sea transportation to support a country’s because it can potentially be an entry point for economic power to reach the destination of the sea maritime criminals. Indonesia has at least 11 water supremacy [14]. points which indicated illegal fishing activities. From 11 points, 8 of them are maritime waters that The implementation of the world maritime axis directly border with other countries. In addition, the policy in the Joko Widodo era invite reactive waters in the Sea of Sulawesi, Malacca Strait, attitudes from countries within and outside the Natuna Sea, South China Sea, and the Arafuru Sea Southeast Asia region that show on attitude that are of the being the locations of illegal fishing. This does not support or oppose what is carried out shows the vulnerability of the maritime border unilaterally by the Joko Widodo fovernment [15]. region of Indonesia to the threat of maritime This certainly can affect the harmony and stability security be foreign countries not only weaken the of security nationally and influence the interaction sovereignty of the Indonesia state but also harm of bargaining positions between countries in the fishermen. At least, there are a thousand foreign region. ships back and forth fishing illegally at the Indonesia every year. Moreover, it has the potential Regional approaches that have been carried out by to cause losses to the state of IDR 80 trillion per the Joko Widodo government include continuing year, which consists of the potential of lost fish cooperation with ASEAN which has been initiated reaching IDR 30 trillion and potential loss of non- at the 9th Bali Summit, 7-8 October 2003 which tax state revenues of IDR 50 trillion every year agreed on Bali concord II on the importance of [11]. maritime security cooperation among ASEAN member countries to deal with various marine and Indonesia ratified UNCLOS in 1982 and was cross-border issues, regionally and legalized by Law Number 17 of 1985. The long comprehensively, followed by various subsequent process of ratification and realization of UNCLOS summits. One of the result of the collaboration is

the establishment of the ASEAN Maritime Forum Fishing, 4) Presidential Regulation Number 16 of which is a dialogue forum related to framework of 2017 concerning Indonesian Maritime Policy. ASEAN and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). Table 1. Indicators of Maritime Axis National Maritime cooperation between Indonesia and Marine Policy from the Perspective of Defense neighboring countries in the Joko Widodo era Strategy. recorded the bilateral cooperation between No Indicator Source Indonesia and Malaysia on April 29, 2016 1 There has not been a Coordinator discussing joint patrol plans. In the collaboration it significant development of of the was agreed that there would be supervision, maritime infrastructure such Maritime evaluation and review efforts in coordination as sea tolls that connect Conscious between Indonesian marine maritime law between islands, development National enforcement agencies such as Marine Security of the shipping industry, and Movement Agency, the Indonesian Navy, Air Force, police, improvement of sea [23]. Maritime Affairs Ministry and the Ministry of transportation. Transportation, Indonesian customs, with 2 The limitations of alusista Ses Ditjen Malaysian law enforcement agencies namely power as a concept of Kuathan of Maritime Enforcement Agency Malaysia (MMEA), deterrence in the national Ministry of Royal Navy, Royal Airforce, Malaysia’s Royal defense strategy. Defense Police, as well as the Department of Fisheries and [24]. Royal Customs of Malaysia [16]. In addition, there 3 The use of national defense Ses Ditjen is a trilateral cooperation between Indonesia- doctrine/strategy that uses a Kuathan of Malaysia-Philippines through a trilateral defensive pattern when linked Ministry of coordinated maritime patrol activity called to active free politics which is Defense Trilateral Maritime Patrol Indomalphi [17] which still a polemic for some [24]. was inaugurated on June 19, 2017 in Tarakan, circles, because the North Kalimantan. projection of force as the use of force in maritime areas In 2013-2015, Indonesia initiated the EAS includes the use of offensive Statement on Enhancing Regional Maritime military operations. Cooperation. In the collaboration, eradication and 4 The military defense Ses Ditjen prevention of Illegal, Unreported dan Unregulated architecture is only in the Kuathan of (IUU) Fishing became an important part that was drafting stage which still Ministry of successfully agreed. Especially in the Joko Widodo requires periodic studies. Defense era, Indonesia hosted the 6th ASEAN Maritime [24]. th Forum and the 4 Expanded ASEAN Maritime Source: Hidayat and Ridwan [2]. Forum (EAMF) meetings in Manado, 9-10 September 2015. At this meeting, Indonesia Specifically related to Presidential Regulation proposed the establishment of a binding instrument Number 115 of 2015, Task Force 115 was formed in the effort to deal with IUU Fishing in the region on 19 October 2015 as a one-step ad-hoc law and in the Indonesian division. enforcement agency consisting of the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, the Indonesian In an effort to present appropriate legal Navy, Navy Security Agency, Water Police and the instruments, the Indonesian government through Attorney General’s Office which has a role in the Indonesian Ministry of Maritime Affairs and fisheries law enforcement in Indonesia, is Fisheries adopted a number of policies: 1) Law integrated under the command of the Miniser of Number 32 of 2014 concerning Marine Affairs, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries in following up on October 17, 2014, 2) Presidential Regulation the handling of illegal fishing [18]. But in reality, Number 178 of 2014 concerning Marine Security illegal fishing is only one of a series of crimes that Agency, 3) Presidential Regulation Number 115 of occur in fisheries crimes. In addition to illegal 2015 concerning Task Force to Eradicate Illegal fishing there are other related violations, including illegal oil transactions, immigration crimes,

customs crimes, money laundering, tax crimes, In addition to the political strategy, Indonesia also corruption, human rights violations, drug has an economic strategy carried out through the transactions and labor crimes. Therefore, the law allocation of the State Budget for maritime defense used to carry out acts of eradicating crime at sea and marine infrastructure. Maritime axis policy as a does not only refer to the Fisheries Law, but also form of Indonesian geopolitical awareness about other related regulations such as shipping laws, the position and form of its territory which is then immigration laws, criminal law, etc. used as a “backbone” for the country, as seen from the incoming foreign exchange from several Political and Economic Strategy in the Indonesian marine resources which then continue Implementation of National Maritime Policies to be prioritized with the security of its maritime The implementation of the national marine policy border sovereignty. is faced with a number of threats both nontraditional and traditional. Traditional threats The Relevance of Public Policy Implementation include pirate threats, sea pirates, and foreign Theory fishing vessels. In the era of Joko Widodo Grindle stated that in the policy process there is government, the sinking of foreign ships had always the possibility of a difference between what become an affirmation and changed a little image is expected (planned) by the policy maker and what of national sovereignty. The traditional threat in is actually achieved (as a result or achievement of terms of maritime defense was in the form of the activity) where Dunsire calls it an territorial disputes in the South China Sea, which implementation gap [21]. Thus, the success of later made the Indonesian government focus its public policy is not only based on economic, military budget on the construction of military efficiency and administrative principles, but the bases in the Natuna Islands as the territorial frontier ethical and moral consequences become a bet in closest to the dispute. In the political strategy, these reflecting the behavior of the apparatus in relation threats need to be overcome with pro maritime to the interests of people’s welfare including those domestic policies. relating to national security.

With regard to Indonesia’s economic strategy faced Any policy actually contains a risk of failure. with domestic politics as well as international Policy failures have two categories, namely politics and geopolitics through the existence of a policies that are not implemented and number of regional cooperation and bilateral implementations that are not successful [21]. diplomacy regarding disputes. As it is known that maritime boundary dispute have not been On the domestic side, the implementation of the completely resolved by Indonesia together with national maritime axis policy in Indonesia shows neighboring countries. Looking back on the that maritime is only the concern of the Minstry of conception of the archipelago’s insight which is the Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. While other Indonesian nation’s perspective on themselves and ministries or institutions still ignore attention to the their environment has implications for the maritime sector. The narrow view on the maritime realization of te archipelago as a political, sector shows the truth of Hasjim Djalal’s economic, socio-cultural, and defense and security conception which states that many island nations unit [19], this is what is further understood as are not maritime countries. Maritime countries geopolitics when linked to the geography of a should be demonstrated by the existence of country can show choices in his foreign policy as maritime utilization and management that existed well as his position in hierarchical state as Griffith in the Joko Widodo government not yet realized in stated that: “Geopolitics is the study of the the synergy between institutions. This shows that influence of geographical factors on state behaviour the policy has not been implemented properly and – how location, climate, natural resources, the existence of ministries or institutions that have population, and physical terrain determine a state’s not succeeded in running it because the execution foreign policy options and its position in the is bad. hierarchy of states” [20]. As the formulation of Mazmanian and Sabatier about three groups of variables that affect the

successful implementation of a policy, the maritime Then the policy socialization needs to be addressed axis policy in the Joko Widodo era of government to all parties, especially those who are directly has not been implemented properly because: involved in order to accept the maritime axis policy 1) Characteristics of the policy problems that as a common interest. have a high level of technical difficulty, high level of plurality of target groups because it References includes neighboring countries as well as the Indonesian itself (which includes fisherman [1] http://presidenri.go.id/berita- and production and seafood producers), as well aktual/indonesia-sebagai-poros-maritim- as the complexity of the expected range of dunia.html, “Indonesia sebagai Poros changes in behavior, Maritim Dunia”, 13 November 2015. 2) Characteristics of the policy itself which ha Accessed March 14, 2018; clarity, theoretical support, and lingkages and [2] Hidayat, Safril dan Ridwan. “Maritime Axis support among various implementing Policy and Indonesia National Security: institutions, but not yet supported by: a. good Challenges and Hope”. Jurnal Pertahanan financial resources, b. strength of consistency & Bela Negara, Vol.7, No.3 : 107-121, of rules and implementing commitments Desember 2017. towards policy objectives, and c. the lack of [3] http://presidenri.go.id/berita-aktual/ktt-iora- access to outside groups to participate in the teguhkan-indonesia-sebagai-poros- implementation of the policy, maritim.html, “KTT IORA Teguhkan 3) Environmental factors related to socio- Indonesia sebagai Poros Maritim”, 6 Maret economic conditions of the community and the 2017. Accessed March 20, 2018. still low level of existing technological [4] Dhewy, Anita. “Perempuan Nelayan”. progress, still low public support and attitudes Jurnal Perempuan 95, Vol.22, No.4 : 4-5, towards policy implementation. November 2017. [5] http://www.kemlu.go.id/id/berita/siaran- Conclusion pers/Pages/Presiden-Jokowi-Deklarasikan- Indonesia-Sebagai-Poros-Maritim- The result of the study show that with the Dunia.aspx, “Presiden Jokowi Deklarasikan unsuccessful implementation of the Joko Widodo Indonesia Sebagai Poros Maritim Dunia”, 15 government in implementing the national maritime November 2015. Accessed March 14, 2018. axis of the national maritime policy, Indonesia has [6] http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2017/ not become a maritime country whose whole and 10/30/09370631/susi-pudjiastuti-indonesia- national maritime policies have not brought poros-maritim-dunia-hanya-slogan-doang, changes to economic and defense development that "Susi Pudjiastuti: Indonesia Poros Maritim can control maritime territorial security. Dunia Hanya Slogan Doang?", Kompas.com, 30 Oktober 2017. Accessed The implementation of Indonesia’s maritime axis March 14, 2018. policy requires cooperation with neighnoring [7] http://majalahsamudra.com/urgensi-strategi- (regional) countries and global cooperation that not dan-dokrtin-maritim-untuk-poros-maritim- only needs to be carried out by the Ministry of dunia, Salim, "Urgensi Strategi dan Doktrin Maritime Affairs and Fisheries for the welfare Maritim untuk Poros Maritim Dunia," aspect as well as the Ministry of Defense for Majalah Samudra, 1 November 2017. security aspects only. However, it requires the Accessed March 14, 2018. cooperation of all parties because the maritime axis [8] https://www.selasar.com/jurnal/41606/ Apa- policy is an intermestic policy that requires Kabar-Poros-Maritim-Dunia-Sebuah- integration policy that requires integration between Pemikiran-Stretagi-Pertahanan, “Apa Kabar all components of the nation to succeed in order to Poros Maritim Dunia? Sebuah Pemikiran avoid policy failure. The implementation of the Strategi Pertahanan”, Selasar, 20 Februari maritime axis policy also requires a better technical 2018. Accessed March 17, 2018. policy with a clearer determination of the [9] Ikhtiari, Richarunia Wenny. Strategi implementor in each field as the leading sector. Keamanan Maritim Indonesia dalam

Menanggulangi Ancaman Non-Traditional [20] Griffiths, Martin dan Terry O’Callaghan. Security, Studi Kasus: Illegal Fishing International Relations: the Key Concepts. Periode Tahun 2002-2010. Routledge, New York, 2002. [10] Silverman, David. Doing Qualitative [21] Wahab, Solihin Abdul. Analisis Kebijakan: Research. Sage, London, 2005. Dari Formulasi ke Implementasi Kebijakan [11] http://www.haluankepri.com/nasional/ Negara. Bumi Aksara, Jakarta, 2005. 3057-negara-rugi-rp80-triliun, “Negara rugi [22] http://www.kompasiana.com/imosacindo Rp80 triliun”, 16 Januari 2017. Accessed nesia/empat-pihak-sampaikan-ancaman- March 15, 2018. gagalnya-visi-indonesia-poros-maritim- [12] http://www.viva.co.id/berita/dunia/98969- dunia_5973197ab614012d6518ff32, warisan-besar-menlu-hassan-wirajuda2009, “Empat Pihak Sampaikan Ancaman Renne R.A Kawilarang, “Warisan Besar Gagalnya Visi Indonesia Poros Maritim Menlu Hassan Wirajuda”. Accessed March Dunia”, 22 Juli 2017. Accessed March 20, 17, 2018. 2018. [13] Westcott, Allan (Ed). Mahan on Naval [23] Brigjen TNI Sisriadi. ”Pengembangan Warfare, Selections from the Writing of Rear Postur Pertahanan Militer Guna Mendukung Admiral Alfred T. Mahan. Dover Terwujudnya Poros Maritim Dunia”. Publications, Inc., Mineola, New York, Majalah Wira, Vol.59, No.43, 2016. 1985. [24] Subarsono, AG. Analisis Kebijakan Publik [14] Flint, Colin. Introduction to Geopolitics; (Konsep, Teori dan Aplikasi). Pustaka Tensions, Conflicts and Resolutions. Pelajar, Yogyakarta, 2010. Routledge, 2006. [15] https://jurnal.dpr.go.id/index.php/politica/ article/view/312/246, Nainggolan, Poltak Partogi, “Kebijakan Poros Maritim Dunia Joko Widodo dan Implikasi Internasionalnya”. Accessed March 20, 2018. [16] https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2016/04/ 30/090767243/Indonesia-dan-malaysia- kerja-sama-patroli-illegal-fishing, “Indonesia dan Malaysia Kerjasama Patroli Illegal Fishing”. Accessed March 20, 2018. [17] https://www.kemhan.go.id/2017/06/19/ Indonesia-malaysia-dan-filipina-resmi- mulai-kerjasama-patroli-maritim- terkoodinasi.html, “Indonesia, Malaysia dan Filipina Resmi Mulai Kerjasama Patroli Maritim Terkoordinasi”. Accessed March 20, 2018. [18] https://bakamla.go.id/style/peraturan/ Perpres-Bakamla-No.178.pdf, Peraturan Presiden Republik Indonesia Nomor 115 Tahun 2015 tentang Satuan Tugas Pemberantasan Penangkapan Ikan secara Ilegal (Ilegal Fishing), Bab I, Pasal 2. Accessed March 20, 2018. [19] Lemhanas RI. Bahan Ajar Bidang Studi Geopolitik dan Wawasan Nusantara. Lemhanas RI, Jakarta, 2017.

Aluminium Air Battery Using Rhodomyrtus Tomentosa Leaves Extract In Salt Water As Electrolyte

Mardiah*, Ari Susandy Sanjaya

Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Mulawarman, Jalan Sambaliung 9 Kampus Gunung Kelua, Samarinda, Indonesia *Corresponding Author : [email protected]

Abstract

Marine natural resources have a lot of potential such as the salinity of sea water which can be used as an electrolyte medium of aluminium air battery. The oxidation reaction was occurred at the anode aluminium that is susceptible to corrosion. Therefore, it is necessary to add an environmental friendly inhibitor such as Rhodomyrtus tomentosa leaves extract to decreased the rate of corrosion aluminium.This study used artificial salt water NaCl as an electrolyte, activated carbon from empty palm fruit bunches and rice husks as air cathode and aluminium as anode. The effect of Rhodomyrtus tomentosa leaves extract was determined by immersion test on aluminium in NaCl solution 1 M either with extract or not. Then the voltage and current of battery was measurred by multimeter. Based on the immersion test, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa leaves extract has an inhibitory effect on the corrosion rate of aluminium. Based on the results of the research shows that the performance of aluminium air batteries which given Rhodomyrtus tomentosa leaves extract do not make performance decrease and the performance of battery is better.

Keywords: aluminium, air, battery, inhibitor, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa

Introduction environment, aluminium is susceptible to corrosion before the battery is used. Therefore, it is necessary Nowadays, clean energy is required to minimize to add inhibitor substances to decreased rate environmental pollution. Electrochemical energy corrosion of aluminium. Some inhibitors include conversion and energy storage devices such as derivatives of pyridine, benzotriazole, triazoline, batteries are promising technologies because they hydrazine, phenol and others. However, most of have low vibration, low air pollution and low noise these inhibitor are expensive and toxic [3]. pollution [1]. Aluminium air batteries have gained Therefore, inhibitors that are more environmentally great interest due to their enviromental friendly are needed. Several plant extracts have compatibility and economic availability because been reported as inhibitors for aluminium in acid, aluminium is abundant and can be recycle. alkaline and neutral solutions [3-5]. Meanwhile, karamunting plants (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa) is Aluminium air battery consists of three main shrubs that is rarely used. Literature search reveals components. Aluminum as an anode, electrolyte as that no study has been done on the inhibitive medium, and oxygen in the air which is free and effects of R.tomentosa extract on salt water abundant as the cathode. While the cathode can use corrosion of aluminium. Therefore, we study the carbon as an air absorbing medium [2]. The effects of R.tomentosa in NaCl solution to reaction involved in making aluminium air aluminium. And also the effect of R.Tomentosa in batteries is oxidation and reduction reactions. The electrolyte in the producing of aluminium air oxygen (O2) reduction reaction occurrs at the battery. cathode. And the oxidation reaction occurs at the anode, which is aluminum and forms an oxide Methods precipitate at the end of the reaction. Karamunting leaves (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa) was Aluminum is a corrosion resistant metal because it extracted using ethanol 96% to obtain an inhibitor. has a thin layer but when it is in an aggressive After obtaining karamunting leaves extract, it was

continued by testing aluminum ( 5 x 2 x 0,01 cm) Aliphatic and aromatic amine compounds, thiourea which was immersed in a 80 ml solution of NaCl 1 (S compounds) and aldehydes (compound O) have M for 1 hour either with 10 ml addition of free electron pairs which cause inhibitors to be karamunting leaves extract 120 ppm and not. Then charged so that inhibitors will be attracted to the with the gravimetric method, the corrosion rate and metal surface, preventing metal dissolution and the efficiency of the use of inhibitors was obtained. further oxidation [1]

Corrosion rate =

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴−𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = x 100% 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 E = efficiency of the use of inhibitors; Ro= mass of aluminium after immersion with addition of Figure 1. chromatogram of Karamunting leaves inhibitor (g) Ri= mass of aluminium after extract by GC-MS immersion without inhibitor (g) Table 1. Identification of Karamunting leaves extract compounds by GC-MS Air Cathode The activated carbon as cathode was made from No. Compound %Area empty palm fruit bunches (EFB) through pyrolysis 1 Neo Pentanol 22,54 method using temperature 600 0C. The char 2 Filicinic acid 4,3 obtained was dissolved in NaOH 1 M and HCl 1 M 3 .beta.-Caryophyllene 9,64 each for 24 hours. Then washed with destilled 4 Cyclohexanone, 2,5- 3,41 water until the pH is 7 and dried in the oven. dimethyl-2-(1- methylethenyl) Batteries Performance Test 5 Diisoamylene 0,91 The test was done using a pipe cassing 2,54 cm in 6 Caryophyllene oxide 0,84 diameter and 1.5 cm in height. Inhibitor 120 ppm 7 Trans-3(10)-Caren-2-Ol 14,44 and NaCl 1 M ( Merck CAS No : 7647-14-5, made 8 2-Decyn-1-ol 15,26 in Denmark) as electrolyte . 6 ml of NaCl for non 9 2-Cyclopenten-1-one, 4- 12,66 inhibitor (sample A) and mixture of 8 ml of NaCl hydroxy-3-methyl-2-(2- and 1 ml of inhibitor 120 ppm. Then was pipetted pentenyl) 6 ml for 1, 2, and 3 grams of activated carbon. 10 Cyclohexanone, 5- 0,67 Then the voltage and current of single battery was methyl-2-(1- measured by multimeter. methylethenyl)- Naphthalene, decahydro- Results and Discussion 2-methyl- 11 1-Octadecyne 1,8 Characterization of karamunting leaves extract 12 Octadecanal, 0,98 (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa) as an inhibitor by Stearaldehyde Gas-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) 13 Pentadecanoic acid, 14- 0,81 Chromatography. methyl-, methyl ester The solid karamunting leaves extract which is 14 Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl 4,35 obtained, was dissolved in ethanol carried out GC- ester MS analysis with a maximum temperature of 300 15 Octadecenoic acid, 0,79 oC. The chromatogram of Karamunting leaves methyl ester extract can be seen in Figure 1, and was obtained 16 Ethyl cis-4-decenoate 3,24 20 peaks with compounds shown in Table 1. The 17 cis-4-Decenal 0,71 compounds such as aromatic, phenoll, ketone, 18 Ethyl Ester Of 0,66 aldehyde and ester was found. Docosanoic Acid 19 Caranol 0,68 20 Nerolidol 1,31

Table 2. The proximate analysis of raw material and activated carbon No. Name Water content Ash Volatile matter Fixed carbon (%) (%) (%) (%) 1. EFB 2,9062 14,3871 81,4532 1,0537 2 Activated Carbon 2,0202 9,8480 20,7211 67,4106 3 Activated Carbon SNI Max 15 Max 10 Max 25 Min 65

Table 3. Corrosion rate of Aluminium in NaCl No. Name Initial Mass Out Mass Mass corrosion Rate corrosion (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg/cm2 h) 1. Non inhibitor 570.5 557,2 13,3 0,6604 2. With inhibitor 577,81 573,65 4,16 0,2066

Table 4. Performance of battery Current of Mass of Voltage of Battery Voltage of Battery Current of Battery Battery with activated carbon without inhibitor with inhibitor without inhibitor inhibitor (g) (Volt) (Volt) (mA) (mA) 1 0,56 0,58 0,07 0,07 2 0,58 0,60 0,1 0,11 3 0,60 0,7 0,15 0,22

Characterization of activated carbon as air Therefore, the immersion test of aluminum metal cathodes based on proximate analysis has been carried out in a solution NaCl with a In this research, activated carbon is used as an air concentration of 1 M for 1 hour. The corrosion rate absorbing medium. The activated carbon is of the aluminum metal can be seen in Table 3. derived from empty palm fruit bunches (EFB) which was pyrolzed at temperatures of 600 oC until In Table 3 show that the mass of aluminium is gas and tar are not formed. After that, the char decresed from 13,3 mg to 4,16 mg with the adding obtained was activated with 1 M NaOH and 1 M of inhibitor. This shows that Karamunting leaves HCl. The yield of activated carbon was 66%. The extract can reduce the corrosion rate of aluminum in proximate analysis of raw materials and activated NaCl solution. By comparing the corrosion rate carbon can be seen in Table 2 between aluminum metal given the inhibitor, the corrosion rate is slower than without inhibitors. The Based on the proximate analysis results was efisiensi using inhibitor is 68,72%. obtained the water content, ash , volatile matter and fixed carbon of activated carbon from EFB Batteries Performance accordance with SNI 06-3730-1995 (Indonesian Aluminum air battery was made by using single National Standard). High of water content and cell battery. Aluminium as anode, NaCl as volatile matter will reduce the quality of activated electrolyte and activated carbon as air cathode. carbon. Because the water adsorbed on activated The results of voltage and current measurements carbon will reduce the capacity and power of can be seen in Table 4. adsorption of gas. Based on table 4, it can be seen that the use of Immersion Test Results karamunting leaves extract doesn’t make the Corrosion has known as one of the degradation voltage and current decreased. The increasing of processes that often occurs in metals. Corrosion activated carbon does not affect the magnitude of cannot be stopped but can be controlled,such as the voltage but it is indicated that the battery using an inhibitor substance. In this study using a current may increase. natural inhibitor Karamunting leaves extract.

Conclusion

The effect of kKaramunting leaves extract in the corrosive medium of NaCl 1 M can reduce the rate of corrosion of aluminum. The batteries show better performance indications by using karamunting leaves extract.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of Indonesia who has given the research fund through scheme PDP 2018.

References

[1] Rahmawati Fitria. 2013. ‘Elektrokimia Transformasi Energi Kimia-Listrik’. Edisi Pertama. Graha Ilmu. Yogyakarta. [2] Pino M., Herranz D, Chacon J., Fatas E., Ocon P. 2016. Carbon treated commercial aluminium alloys as anodes for aluminium-air batteries in sodium chloride electrolyte. Journal of Power Sources. (326). 296-302. [3] Deng S, Li X. 2012. Inhibition by Jasminum nudiflorum Lindl. leaves extract of the corrosion of aluminium in HCl solution. Corrosion Science .(64). 253–262. [4] Abiola O, K. Otaigbe J.O.E. 2009.The effects of Phyllanthus amarus extract on corrosion and kinetics of corrosion process of aluminum in alkaline solution. Corrosion Science. (51). 2790–2793 [5] Halambek J., Berkovic K., Vorkapic F. J.. 2013. Laurus nobilis L. oil as green corrosion inhibitor for aluminium and AA5754 aluminium alloy in 3% NaCl solution. Materials Chemistry and Physics (137).788- 795.

Take It Slow: The Response of Indonesia Slow Food Actors into Food Security

Uni W Sagena*, Lady Paramita, Muhammad Nizar H

Department of International Relations, Mulawarman University, Indonesia Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract.

This article aims to discuss the presence of Indonesia slow food actors, namely Presidia, as a response to fast food phenomena, globally and locally. Those phenomena raised several impacts such as health problems, negative consumer lifestyle and environmental degradation. From food security perspective, those impacts of fast food phenomena could cause food insecurity in the future. Food security concept helps to explain the objective of Presidia and how they promote slow food project through food security approach of FAO. This article is a qualitative and descriptive study using primary and secondary data obtained from interview with the Presidia activists and literature review from books, journal and online sources. This article offers fairly new concept from non-traditional security studies and introduces Indonesia Presidia and slow food actors in Indonesia. The importance of this study relays on the food issues as public goods but less of concern in International Relation studies. The result is that fast food trends in Indonesia showed the fulfillment of risks indicators of food insecurity, such as unavailability, no access, no utility and no stability. As the counterbalance, the actors specifically tried to cover the Presidia’s rare products which began to appear, including Tengkawang Nut Oil, Heritage Banana Varieties Yogyakarta and Cingagoler Honey from Cerana Bees. Meanwhile, formal actors of governments and social movements are still lacking. Therefore, the benefit of this article is to help understanding the issue of food insecurity and the movements of local actors as well as to address newly International Relation concepts of non-traditional security studies.

Keywords: slow food, food security, indonesia presidia, fast food.

Huntington, West Virginia, and Los Angeles1. This Introduction region is famous for its people who like to eat fast food. Oliver met a doctor who warned his patient Fast food issue is a global phenomenon of the 20th who has type 2 diabetes with 80lbh body weight, century that experienced rapid development which that if he was unable to go on a diet then he would has emerged in the form of food industry. This not reach the age of 30 years. This patient is an phenomenon develops in society with the example for those who often consume fast food. emergence of fast food outlets, fast food mass The pastor also said that he visited hospital diabetic production, and increasing of fast food patients several times a week. Huntington then consumption. The main impacts of these became the unhealthiest area in America based on phenomenas, globally and locally, are including; an analysis of data collected in 2006 by the Centers health problem, negative consumption behavior for Disease Control and Prevention.2 Other impact and environment degradation. is negative consumption behavior which is shown by the trend of instant lifestyle because of its cheap Health problems come from fast food products price and practicality, for instances, canned food, which generally contain a lot of oil, salt and high soda, fast food franchise and processed foods with cholesterol and instant ingredients process. Based elements of biotechnology such as light snack on popular articles, US become the highest ranked pack. Besides that, consumers tend to be wasteful country with diabetes and heart disease. This was and will result into food waste. Basically, mass mentioned in the "Jamie Oliver's Food Revolution" Program in 2010-2011, which made its first trip to 1 Independent. 2012.“Jamie Oliver Takes On America’s Fast food Culture”. Accessed from http://www.independent.co.uk at August 8th 2018 2 Ibid. 27

production also results in food waste, whereas works locally in his area with the application of SF production will continue to be carried out whether and understanding of local ecosystems. On the food is needed or not. Fast food generally only uses other hand, food issue and food security concept is food warmers. Those impact then causing the raise a new issue in the non-traditional aspect of of mass production to reach high demand of fast international security studies. food consumers. Impact to environment degradation comes from fast food ingredients that This article uses the concept of food security as a generally produced from certain biotechnology in basic for research analysis. The FAO definition at order to have superior properties that are the 1996 World Food Summit stated that "Food environmental resistant. This product also contains Security is realized or exists if all communities, for the danger of Genetically Modified Organic all time, have access physically and economically (GMO), which is the result of genetic engineering. to meet the needs of food needed for the needs of In addition, fast food generally does mass living activities and healthy living".6 Nowadays production with a mixture of biotechnology and food is not only seen as nutrition fulfillment, food impurities, which contain emissions that will has become a global issue by FAO in 2006 this ultimately lead to environmental degradation. approach is explained in four dimensions including Another impact is the loss of land and ecosystems availability, access, utility, and stability due to massive land clearing as well as pollution dimension7. due to chemical waste. If these impacts left unchecked, another threat that will emerge is food Methods insecurity. This research is categorized as descriptive research Indonesia on the other hand also experienced the which uses primary data in form of virtual impact of the modern fast food phenomenon. The interviews by telephone and correspondence via condition of people who tend to be busy, especially email with presidia actor such as Bibong Widyarti in urban areas also triggers consumption of fast and Wandy Assayid from Cingagoler Honey food. As one of the countries with tropical climate, Presidia and SFC Jabodetabek, Amaliah from Indonesia is rich in biodiversity and food3, but the Heritage Banana Varieties presidia and SFC green environment that has replaced many of its Yogyakarta and Hendra Wisnu Whardana from land into fast food industries creates massive Tengkawang Nut Oil presidia. Secondary data is urbanization into the city. Finally, the phenomenon literature review from FAO website of fast food results in less production of local http://www.foodsecinfoaction.org, SF website products. Production and consumption that are http://www.slowfood.com and decreasing ultimately result in food insecurity in http://www.foundazioneslowfood.com. This study particular foods in Indonesia. uses qualitative analysis supported by quantitative data. Data collection that is used is literature study This study is interesting, because the efforts made which is conducted by studying existing documents actually emerged from slow food4 as an informal such as books, articles, and so on. actors, not international regimes or environmental protocols. SF movement which supports agriculture The first literature study is Maulvi Dzikrana M and livestock business in accordance with the thesis with the title Identification of the Counter climate and ecosystem of each region makes food Slow Food Hegemony in the Resistance to Fast as the core; they are slow food community5 of Food. Maulvi tried to explain SF movement as an Jabodetabek and Yogyakarta. The limitation of effort to fight the hegemony of the global fast food actors in this article are presidia as producers, while industry was identified as a form of counter- local SFC acts as distributors, consumers, hegemony. The second literature from Indonesia consultants and supervisors. Each presidia actor Presidia's interview that concluded Presidia Project as the response of fast food phenomena has begun 3 Hesty widyanti and Ika N. Khrisnayanti. 2003. “Bioteknologi, Imperialisme Modal dan Kejahatan Globalisasi”, Insist Press. Yogyakarta. Page 2 6 An Introduction to the Basic Concepts of Food 4 This section then will be called SF Security, FAO 2008 5 This section then will be called as SFC 7 Ibid. 28

locally in Indonesia. Through (Through or though?) banana, namely Raja Bagus, Raja Bulu, Raja Pulut, resourceful persons namely project coordinators Raja Sere, Raja Kluthuk, Raja Uter, and two types and producer groups, informs that SF foundation of Ambon banana, Yellow and Green.10 Cingagoler till the day keep the presidia. The third literature Honey from Cerana Bees, Lebak, Banten.11 This that came to give some critics for this SF project is Cingagoler honey has its own characteristics for its The Commodity of Products and Taste: Slow Food products, as well as its unique process. The and Conservation of Agro biodiversity written by protection of bees will be a natural safeguard Arianne Lottie. Lottie mentions the case that factor, but the production process was poorly occurred in one of the production groups in the inadequate, because of the lack of knowledge and Basque Country, whereas binding regulations lack of access make the honey production group caused the potential for production groups to be diminished. In 2012 presidia had 250 hives but in confined. In this case, Lottie also claims that SF 2014 just about 150 hives of bees were left. The makes limitations for producer, so they could not purpose of the establishment of this presidium is to expand and raise product for commodity. maintain the unique nature of this original Cingagoler honey product. Based on Maulvi's view as a counter-hegemony and also supporting his positive efforts Presidia Discussion Interview, this article attempts to explain the response of production groups in Indonesia in In this discussion, this article will discuss how achieving food stability towards particular food as Indonesia SF actors responds to the phenomena of a realization of support for global SF projects. This fast food which is identified with the presidia’s article will describe the role of Indonesia SFC and protection, in case to realize food security against Presidia as the actor in order to support the project specific food in Indonesia. The process will be in chase to response the fast food phenomena in answered through the four dimensions of FAO Indonesia. Result Response to Availability Problem The main actor of this response is Presidia as Presidia is a term for groups of traditional and local producer of the products, whereas the response is to producers who are actors for this movement in defend producer for good product process. response to the phenomenon of fast food. In Basically SF supports the protection of this Indonesia, the three particular foods above are producer group by providing education funds to foods that experience scarcity and generally have Italy at the annual Terra Madre program12 that they their own problems for the production group. For are exempt from fees. This education followed by example Tengkawang Nut Oil, Kapuas Hulu, West TNO in 2014, HBV Yogyakarta in 2015, 2016 and Borneo.8 Existing production groups do not survive 2017 and Cingagoler Honey in 2014 and 2016. The in producing products, because they do not have selected actors were the heads of their respective stable prices and tend to create monopolies. In production groups such as Hendra Wardhana for addition, lack of promotion and minimum access TNO, Lasiyo for HBV Yogyakarta and Wandy for make people leave the profession. Finally Cingagoler Honey where SFC act as supervisor and Tengkawang fruit as a source of excessive fruiting coordinator. Beside that, they also attempt for products, but with less utilization which in the end technical matters in order to give effort for create food waste. Heritage Banana Varieties availability. For example, HBV Yogyakarta, in Yogyakarta,9 It struggles as a variety of natural banana plants. The issue of banana plants will be 10 used as GMO products to encourage the formation Lady Paramita, “Gerakan Slow Food Internasional Merespon Fenomena Fast Food (Case of protection for this producer group. In addition, Study: Perlindungan Presidium di Indonesia)” minimum access makes banana production in the (Samarinda:Mulawarman University, page. 55-56, traditional way getting less attention. The nine 2018) presidia types of bananas include five types of Raja 11 This section then will be called Cingagoler Honey 12 Annual Slow Food event involving food 8 This section then will be called TNO communities from around the world, youth, chefs 9 This section then will be called HBV and producer groups. 29

order to realize anti GMO products, they produce prices for products. Finally monopoly no longer their own natural fertilizers that are used to fertilize exist, no more food waste due to excessive but not banana plants. Cingagoler Honey, in technical processed Tengkawang fruit. Different with HBV, matters, the coordinator Bibong Widyarti and in this sustainability food education they learn that Wandy works together to teach hygienic honey traditional food is very important in the midst of production. In this case, Cingagoler people used to global fast food. Thus, they unify the views of the harvest honey while smoking and taking honey by producer and cooperate in developing the squeezing. For understanding based on the value of community. Cingagoler Honey in other hand trying SF, they seek more hygienic honey production by to keep the hereditary culture. People of Cingagoler not smoking also draining honey without having to used to consume bee larvae, so sometimes the use squeeze it. of typical Cingagoler Honey does not reach the maximum stage. For this reason, this habit is then Response to Access Problem reduced so that the utilization of honey can be done The main actor of this response is Indonesia SFC, optimally. whereas the response is to create market access globally and locally. The next process and the most Response to Stability Problem important effort then carried out by the presidia The main actor of this response is Indonesia SFC, itself. Another access has created by the autonomy whereas the response is to describe the of the actors of Indonesia SF presidia including coordination and communication that is always coordinators and communities, they are SFC interwoven between actors. TNO in this case is Jabodetabek and SFC Yogyakarta. Another effort coordinated by Djoko Prakoso and supported by as a form of autonomy is that they run a banana the SFC Jabodetabek. Since the establishment of exhibition event every year which later gets the presidia in 2014 until now, communication is government support. Different from Cingagoler also always coordinated in realizing and increasing Honey presidia, after the return of food education the productivity of presidia. This community also in Italy in 2014, they were then committed to initially gave access to global SF. Whereas in continue fighting to defend Cingagoler Honey. Cingagoler Honey, communication and Evidently, the area now has its own workshop to coordination are also supported by SFC maintain the honey. Besides that, they routinely Jabodetabek since 2014 with Bibong Widyarti as hold local food festivals, including PARARA or coordinator. At the HBV Yogyakarta this process Nusantara Harvest which is usually done every was supported by the Yogyakarta Community with October. This event is one of the local food Amaliah as the coordinator chair since 2015 until exhibitions which also supported by local SF actors now. and presidia. Other festivals which were held in December 2017 was called Lebak Food Festival Conclusion with Cingagoler Honey as the flagship product. The Tengkawang Nut Oil is also supported by the Indonesia SF actor has succeeded in protecting the business of PARARA. existing food assets and biodiversity in Indonesia, namely TNO, Cingagoler Honey from Cerana Bees Response to Utility Problem and HBV Yogyakarta. The effort was made in The main actor of this response is Indonesia SFC, form of defending on good production, food whereas the response is to teach food sustainability. education, promotion of access and coordination SF came in 2014 for TNO and for Cingagoler and communication between actors. The succession Honey. At the same year in 2014 they gave food was not complete yet, because the government education about utility, by SF foundations. 2015 should emerge as a formal actors in realizing for HBV Yogyakarta and also gave them food stability dimensions in maintaining food security. education about utility which was including the But, in fact, local SFC is still play role as the main form of food sustainability. At the initial meeting actor, whereas it is what then needs to be where food education was conducted, it considered. Food is a vital assets, which should be emphasized on aspects of traditional and local food a responded by the government. consumption. From here some actors at TNO, tried to give fair access to marketing, as well as fair 30

Table 1. The Response of Indonesia SF Actors into Food Security Heritage Banana Cingagoler Honey from No. Responses Tengkawang Nut Oil Conclusion Varieties Yogyakarta Cerana Bees 1. defends educational funding to creating traditional GMO- educational funding to works producer/teaching Italy free farming patterns and Italy, teaching hygienic for good product educational funding to Italy honey production, process (Availability) 2. teaching for 2014, by slow food educated by the foundation 2014, by slow food works sustainability food foundations in 2015 foundations (utility) 3. create access with promotion of local promotion through local promotion of local events works member events PARARA, Yogyakarta events, Terra PARARA, Terra Madre, networking Terra Madre, ark of Madre, ark of taste Ark Of taste (access) taste

4. Maintaining the Supported by Supported by Yogyakarta Supported by slow food works Coordination and Jabodetabek community since 2015 Jabodetabek since 2014 communication community since 2014 between presidia actors (Stability)

Here are the figures of Indonesia SF Presidia Source: Photo on Slow Food Yogyakarta, from product: http://www.facebook.com

Cingagoler Honey from Cerana Bees

Acknowledgements

We thank the Slow Food Jabodetabek Community and Yogyakarta including all member for sharing valuable data and information.

Source: Accessed from http://vdocuments.site at References th March 14 2018 [1] Dzikrana, Maulvi M., 2014. “Identifikasi Tengkawang Nut Oil Counter Hegemony Dalam Perlawanana Slow Food Terhadap Fast Food” Thesis on Faculty of Society science and Political Science Archives, UGM. Yogyakarta. [2] FAO. 2008. “An Introduction to the Basic

Concepts of Food Security”. Accessed from Source: Documentation by Tengkawang Nut Oil http://www.foodsecinfoaction.org at August 8th Presidium 2018.

[3] Hesty Widyanti and Ika N. Khrisnayanti. 2003. Heritage Banana Varieties Yogyakarta “Bioteknologi, Imperialisme Modal dan Kejahatan Globalisasi”, Insist Press. Yogyakarta. [4] Independent. 2012.“Jamie Oliver Takes On America’s Fast food Culture”. Accessed from http://www.independent.co.uk at August 8th

2018

[5] Lady Paramita, 2018. “Gerakan Slow Food Internasional Merespon Fenomena Fast Food (Studi Kasus: Perlindungan Presidium di Indonesia)” Thesis of International Relation Study Faculty of Social and Politic Archives. Mulawarman University, Samarinda.

[6] Manalu, Yohana C. 2014. “Upaya Gerakan Slow Food Indonesia dalam Penetrasi Pasar Eropa (studi kasus:Pemasaran Garam Kusamba)”, Thesis on Faculty of Social Science and Political Science Archives.Mulawarman University. Samarinda. [7] Nano, Paola dan Capaldi, Giulia. 2018. “slow food good, clean and fair food for everyone”. Accessed from http://www.slowfood.com at April 19th 2018. [8] Nano, Paola. 2016. “The Six Key issues for Slow Food, The Themed spaces at Terra Madre Salone del Gusto explore problems and solutions”. Accessed from http://www.fondazioneslowfood.com at June 7th 2018. [9] Schlosar, Eric. 2001. “Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of All American Meal”. Insist Press. Yogyakarta. [10] Slow Food. 2013. “Companion: Good, clean and fair”. Accessed from http://www.slowfood.com at August 17th 2016. [11] Slow Food. 2013. “Slow Food, Mission Report at Closure of Balance Sheet, as at 31/12/2013”. Accessed from http://www.slowfoodfoundation.com at August 16th 2016. [12] Slow Food. 2015. “Slow Food Presidia”. Accessed from http://www.fondazioneslowfood.com at July 19th 2017. [13] Slow Food. 2015. ”Our Them”. Accessed from http://www.fondazioneslowfood.com at August 31st 2017. [14] Slow Food Yogyakarta. 2013. “hal-hal yang sering dipertanyakan, Ark of Taste”. Accessed from http://www.docplayer.info at March 17th 2016.

Sources Optimation of Bawis as Endemic Seagrass Comodity in Waters of Bontang City

Nurul Ovia Oktawati*, Qoriah Saleha, Oon Darmansyah

The Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Mulawarman University *Corresponding authors: [email protected]

Abstract

Bawis fish (Siganus Canaliculatus) is an endemic fish in the ecosystem of seagrass. It is economically valuable and could be found easily in Bontang waters area. Local fishermen do catching by years. A high demand of bawis fish causes massive and continues catching, it also leads to decreased catch per unit effort (CPUE) and downs sizing of fish time by time, in which the over fishing is indicated. This research aims to demonstrate bioeconomic analysis in some regime using Gordon Scheafer model and estimation model of CYP biological parameter and its implementation rate in the waters of Bontang City. Potential Sustainable Yield (PSY) of bawis fish in MSY management regime could be shown by its production value by 2.21,35 tons with economic value as much as 42.550.060 IDR, its MEY was 2.083,33 tons with economic value of 42.819.015 IDR and its OA was 602,69 tons with 0 IDR of economic value. Therefore, the rate of effort at MEY balance point seems to be more eco-friendly than the rate of effort at MSY & OA balance points. Eventually, optimum economic of bawis fish is achieved at MEY condition.

Keywords: Bawis Fish, Bioeconomic, Bontang City

ecosystem in Bontang city. The society living in Introduction Bontang city consumes bawis fish for years and therefore it is now popular as a trademark for The fisheries sector considered to have a strategic Bontang fish culinary. role in the national development. Based on its natural resources potential, Indonesia is well- Bioeconomic study on bawis fish is essential to do known as maritime country where relatively in order to create a standard reference for the numerous fisheries resources existed. The fishery future management of bawis fish endemic. Helping sector has also created job opportunity for workers fisherman to achieve better income was one of the to be involved in activities such as capture, final goals in the utilization of resources. It should conservation, production and distribution in be achieved without ignoring sustainable resources trading. in any of their natural circumstances. Bioeconomic is an approach to observe biologic, Bontang city is one of cities with big seagrass economic and social aspects of fish capturing ecosystem that existed in 13.990,8 hectares and is efforts. widely spread along coastal and island in Bontang. The research is done in order to analyze biologic Among many resources living in the seagrass and economic aspects of bawis fish resources ecosystem, Bawis fish (Siganus canalicatus) has utilization rate of capture fisheries in waters of found to be the one that is considered to have Bontang city. economically high price and tends to stay stable related to its demand. Methods

Bawis fish (Siganus canalicatus) is a kind of Data Analysis Method renewable resources and it is also an endemic fish Capture gears standardization living only in waters of Bontang city. The The standard of gears used was based on what existence of bawis fish has played important role formulated by Spare & Venema (1999) in in maintaining the sustainability of seagrass 33

Rahmawati, et.al, (2013) and by Fishing Power Index standar (FPIs) equals 1, where : K = eα (2+r )/ (2r ) / q

Economic parameter covers the cost and price structure gained from bawis fish average cost.

Discount Rate Estimation Discount rate (δ) value used was market discount rate by 12%, as a comparison toward Ramsey’s According to Gulland (1983) in Hakim (2014), the discount rate which attached with technique by standard of capture efforts is calculated by using Anna S (2003) that adopted the technique equation as follow: developed by Kula (1984). Kula (1984) quoted in Anna (2003), basically used the same formula as

SE = Ʃ(FPIi x fi) Ramsey’s, that real discount rate (r) is defined as: r = ρ − γg where, UI: CPUE capture gears unit by i, Where ρ describes pure time preference, γ was for Us: CPUE capture gears standard unit, income elasticity toward the utilization of natural CI: Capture gears production by i, resources and g describes the economic Cs: Capture gears standard production, development (Newel and Pizer, 2001). Kula (1984) fi: Capture gears capturing effort by i, quoted in Anna S (2003) estimated the growth rate fs : Capturing effort of capture gears standard, by regression as the following: FPIi: FPI capture gears by i, ln Ct = α0 −α1 ln t FPIs: FPI capture gears standard

SE: Standard effort where t was time period and Ct was the consumption per capita at t period. The result of Sustainable production function the regression created elasticity formula, where: The function of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) production was based on Schaefer model, (1957) in Hakim, (2014): The equation could mathematically be simplified as the following:

where, hmsy : Maximum sustainable yield production, r : logistics growth rate, Bioeconomic analysis q : capture ability coefficient, The analysis of Bioeconomic was done by using K : environmental support Gordon Schaefer model in Fauzi, (2010): E : capture effort Table 1. Bioeconomy model of Gordon Schaefer Biology and economic parameter estimation analysis The technique for estimating biologic parameter from surplus model production was based on coefficient estimation developed by Clarke, Yoshimoto, and Pooley (1992) which is well- known as CYP. CYP equation is formulated as the proceeding: Source : Fauzi, 2010

where the estimation of r, q and K value, was:

r = 2(1 − β1 )/(1 + β1) q = 1 − β2 (2 + r)

Results and Discussion The data also shows that there were significant increase in the capture of fish in 2013 by 114% out 1. The potential of Bawis fish (Sigannus of the total production where 733,6 tons climbed up canaliculatus) in Bontang city into 1.690,4 tons. The elevation of production was The activity of capture fisheries in Bontang city happening during the growth of Bawis fish stocks existed in 2 subdistricts called south Bontang and in waters of Bontang city. On the other hand, the north Bontang. Most of the area coverage is coastal production rate of the capture was also influenced with fisherman, as the majority of inhabitant living by some factors such as capture effort and the in the society. The biggest capture found in development of fisherman management capability. subdistrict of South Bontang was 11.082,94 tons out of the total production (55%), whereas fisheries 2. Sustainable production analysis production in the subdistrict of North Bontang was A. Biology parameter estimation 9.067,86 tons (45%) out of the total production of There are some estimation models which can be fisheries in Bontang city. used to do biologic parameter estimation. One of them is the estimation model The production of capture fisheries in Bontang city was indicated to be increased per year. In 2015, the Developed by Walter Hilborn (1976), and Clark, capture fisheries in Bontang city reached 16.550,73 Yoshimoto and Pooley (1992). This research used tons, and it kept growing up by 20.150 or 21,75% estimation model proposed by Clark, Yoshimoto in 2016. and Pooley (1992) recognized as CPY. The estimated parameter covered intrinsic development An illustration on the total production of Bawis fish rate (r), waters environment support (K) and (Sigannus canaliculatus) is shown in picture 1 capture ability coefficient (q). The result from the below: estimation of the three parameters was used to measure sustainable production such as maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and maximum economic yield (MEY). In table 2, regression variable was used to estimate biologic parameter with CYP estimator model explaining about bawis captured with gill net and fish trap.

Based on data analysis it was found that R2 was 0,400358, it explained that 40% the variety of CPUE value was influenced by the variable of Figure 1. Total production of Bawis fish (Sigannus effort at t period by t+1 period, the rest was canaliculatus) in the waters of Bontang city during influenced by another variable off the models 2007-2016 used. Walpole (1992) stated that R2 value describes the percentage rate from the variety of The production of Bawis fish was considered to be dependent variable, that there was linear growing each year. The rise of production was in correlation with independent variable. 2007 until 2015, and decrease in 2016. The peak was in 2015 by 1943.9 tons. The increase of The value from table 2 then calculated thoroughly production happened because of the massive to estimate the biologic parameter of bawis fish. capturing effort with 17.3% compared to what Table 2 also describes the biologic parameter happened a year before. In 2016, the production or estimation where fish resource was described by capture fisheries were decreased by 1.5 tons setting using CYP estimator and logistics development up 1.942,4 tons from the preceding total function. production. The fall agreed with the decrease of effort, but the reduction of production that year was The data in table 3 shows that natural development caused by resources degradation as a result of coefficient (r) of small pelagic fish resource was at overfishing. 1,69, resulted that bawis fish would naturally grow without any obstacle whether it is from the nature 35

or human activity, proven by 1,69 tons of parameter such as c (cost per unit effort), real price, production per year. Capture gears coefficient was and annual continues discount rate (). The 0,00037, indicated that each capture effort unit sustainable production estimation result from each would affect 0,00037 tons per trip toward bawis of fish resource every year from 2007 until 2016 fish resource capture. Environment support (K) was presented in picture 2. was at 5.218, this illustrated that bawis fish resource production was of 5.218 tons per year Table 4. Cost per Effort unit and the average of observed from its biological aspects such as plenty fish price per ton in 2007-2016 of food supply and the growth of fish including the Year IHK Cost Price size. (Million rupiah per ton) 2007 113,28 0,66 27,77 Table 3. The result of biologic parameter 2008 101,41 0,59 24,87 estimation using logistics function 2009 86,58 0,5 21,23

2010 91,02 0,53 22,32 No Parameter Unit Value 2011 95,9 0,56 23,51 1 r (tons/th) 1,6989991 2012 100 0,58 24,52 2 q (tons/Tri 0,0003778 3 K (tons) 5.218 2013 106,98 0,62 26,23 Source : Processed data, 2018 2014 85,34 0,5 20,92 2015 90,61 0,53 22,22 2016 93,81 0,55 23,00 B. Economic parameter estimation Average 96,49 0,56 23,66 The value of economic parameter estimation was Source: Processed data, 2018 collected from data of cost and price structure. The cost and price structure were cross section data gathered from primary data and series of data obtained from secondary data. Cost structure from each of the capture gears and fish price per ton was collected from time series data by adapting Costumer price index (IHK) from Central Bureau Statistics (BPS) East Kalimantan province. It was done purposely to create value series from 2007-2016. The calculation cost result per effort unit and fish price per ton from 2007-2016 explained in table 4. Figure 2. Actual and sustainable production of Bawis fish development in Bontang city C. Sustainable production estimation Sustainable production is the relationship Figure 2, shows that the production level was between capture outcome and capture effort in a higher compared to sustainable production and thus quadratic structure where both effort level and had a rising up tendency. In 2007-2012, the actual capture outcome would not give any harm to fish production was below the sustainable production, resource sustainability. this condition was due to the influence of capture gear limitation as well as the capture effort. In In this study, the sustainable production was 2013, it was found that the actual production was divided into two terms; Maximum Sustainable above the sustainable production. Yield (MSY) and Maximum Economic Yield (MEY). On MSY variable analysis, the only This tendency has been developed until recently. parameter used was biologic parameter whereas on The demand and the stability yet increasing of the analysis of MEY, not only biologic parameter price were two elements that force the fisherman was used but also other parameter namely doing intense capture of fish. This problem economic parameter. Biologic parameter used to explained that bawis fish utilization had become an measure MSY were r, q, K parameter, while the indication of biological overfishing. parameter used to measure MEY were economic 36

D. Static Optima Analysis on Bawis fish source and OA at 602,69 tons per year. The optimal effort utility level from the lowest until the highest was used to Bioeconomic analysis is used to measure the exploit bawis fish resource continued effort. There maximum effort level done by fisherman by adding were OA by 4.116,66 trips per year, MSY at economic factor such as capture cost and fish price. 2.248,28 trips per year while MEY was at 2.083,33 trips per year. Biologic and economic analysis approach is an alternative that can be implemented in regards to The highest rent level of optimization occurred at the domination of fish capture with continued the condition of MEY at 42.819.015 IDR per year, effort. Adding economic factor was one way to get MSY at 42.550.060 IDR per year, OA by 0 IDR the optimal level of utilization value or rent created million per year. from the utilization of fishery resource taken by fisherman in the society. Therefore, grand target of Fish resource utilization at OA had a tendency of fishery resource utilization is a higher income and degrading existed fish resource sustainability. It prosperity for fisherman. was shown by a very high of the total effort level, yet it valued economic rent equal to zero. Open The optimization analysis of fishery resource access is the condition where fisherman and the utilization was done by models named static society had uncontrolled exploitation toward on optimization model with open access (OA), sole the resource (Clark in Randika, 2008). owner or maximum economic yield (MEY). The estimation of optimization analysis and surplus The utilization of Bawis fish resource at the analysis result were briefly shown in table 5. condition of MEY tended to be sustainable and even created a higher rent level compared to the Tabel 5.The estimation of Static optimization value utilization in open access condition or in MSY. To of Bawis fish resource utilization know the condition of fish resource management, in particular which was related to production level, effort level and rent level, it was essential to do comparison between actual use condition and the condition of static optimization analysis by each group of fish resource into the study. The explanation described in table 6. Source: Processed data, 2018

The comparison result of bawis fish resource Table 6. The comparison between actual utilization utilization was clearly seen in table 6 where the and static optimization of Bawis fish resource optimum of economic rent for bawis fish resource with static approach was successfully gained in the condition of MEY. It was proven by relatively

Source: Processed data, 2018 higher rate compared to another rent rate by another condition. Picture 3 also explains that open Table 7. The value of Dynamic Estimation access needed higher level of effort than the effort level in MSY and MEY condition. As a result, it created inappropriate utilization of resource. The effort level needed to reach maximum MEY condition seemed smaller compared to what needed In data analysis result, as seen in Table 5, bawis to reach MSY. Therefore, the effort level at MEY fish resource data were finally revealed. It was balance seen to be eco-friendly compared to the found that biomass level in open access, MEY, and effort level at MSY balance level (Hannesson MSY was 328,82 tons per year; 2.609 tons per 1993, Fauzi A 2004 in Randika, 2008) year; 2.800,41 tons per year. The highest production level (h) was in the condition of MSY with 2.216,35 tons per year, following up the production level of MEY at 2.204,42 tons per year,

E. Dinamic optimization analysis of fish Figure 4 shows the comparison of discount rate resource utilization level toward dynamic of optimal economic of Discount rate was one of the aspects used to bawis fish resource in Bontang city. It described analyze the data with dynamic model approach. that a high discount rate would create acceleration Discount rate level used in this study was at 6,5%, on the effort level. On the other hand, lower 15% and 29%. It had clearly seen, in table 7, the discount rate would slow the acceleration of effort distinction between bawis fish utilization and level. As seen in in picture 4 and table 7 that the discount rate level. From the production rate lower discount rate, the higher economic rent perspective, utilization based on dynamic optimal gained. On the other hand, higher discount rate approach would create bigger production compared level would result lower economic rent tendency. to production rate with actual utilization (table 9). On the other hand, the effort level done was smaller than the actual effort. From economic rent, the dynamic optimum utilization was away bigger than the economic rent in actual condition. At this stage, it could be seen that bawis fish resource utilization in the waters of Bontang city had considered becoming overfishing, not only that it was biological overfishing but also it was economical overfishing. Therefore, capture effort to exploit bawis fish resource should be decreased Figure 4. The correlation of Discount Rate level because it created many problems to the with Economic Rent on Bawis fish utilization sustainability of bawis fish resource in Bontang city. A relatively smaller production input was used Conclusion to create optimal yield at discount rate compared to the production input at discount rate which was The analysis of capture fisheries of bawis fish higher. It explained that lower discount rate would sustainable potential resource in Bontang city was decrease the sum of production input. done using Schafer model by CYP technique (Clark, Yoshimoto and Pooley), production rate with MSY management regime was 2.216,35 tons with economic rent at 42.550.060 IDR, MEY at 2.083,33 tons with economic rent of 42.819.015 IDR and OA at 602.69 tons with economic rent 0. IDR. In conclusion, optimum economic rent on bawis fish was gained at the stage of MEY.

References

Figure 3. Static optimization Curve of Bawis Food Security Office, Fisheries and Agriculture, fish utilization resource 2017. Capture fisheries of Bontang city. DKP3, Bontang. Thus it naturally would increase the optimal yield from fishery resource. Generally, lower discount Fauzi A. 2010. Economic Fishery.Theory, rate would create optimal yield and higher optimal Policy, and Management. PT biomass if the comparison was done by using GramediaPustaka Utama. Jakarta Gordon higher discount rate. It can be concluded that HS. 1954. The Economic Theory of a higher discount rate level will create extractive Common Property. resource hunting and the effect would grow pressure on the resource. If it has happened, this Resource: The Fishery. Journal of Polytical situation will build degradation with resource Economy (61) Hakim L, Zuzy Anna, extinction. Junianto, 2014. Bioeconomic Analisys of Tenggiri fish resource (Scomberomorus 38

commerson) in waters of Indramayu District, West Java. Journal of policySosek KP, Volume 4, No. 2.

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Addressing Non-Tradisional Threats in Maritime Border of Indonesia-Malaysia

Uni W Sagena*, Andi Purnawarman, Bagoes Rahmad E

Department of International Relations, Mulawarman University, Indonesia Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

Indonesia and Malaysia have very wide maritime borders ranging from the Malacca Strait to the South China Sea which are sLOCs in Southeast Asia. Its strategic position makes this maritime border very vulnerable to threats of security both traditional and non-traditional. This article will specifically identify non-traditional threats that involved non-state actors as a newly developed field of security studies of international relations for the maritime region. The non-traditional threats in question include piracy and armed robbery, maritime terrorist act, arms trade and narcotics and psychotropic trade, trafficking and smuggling of people, and Illegal fishing. To explain that we use the concept of maritime security where the problems of the characteristics and use of the sea and the threats occur in it, thus maritime security is the responsibility of all countries as well as maintaining the security of their territories, especially for countries that have vast territories and maritime boundaries. With the descriptive research method, the data used are secondary data, the method of data collection used is literature study method in which the resulting data comes from reading literature related to research. Meanwhile the analysis technique used is qualitative, which is looking for facts and information obtained and then analyzed and concluded. This article concludes that the cause of the emergence of the threat comes from non-state actors, not from those who are usually the perpetrators of maritime threats, from the threat finally emerged solutions from both countries to resolve the maritime problems. The significance of this article is to open the perspective of international relations, to know Indonesia as a maritime country, and to know about the foreign policy plan of President Joko Widodo who wants to make Indonesia a global maritime axis.

Keywords: maritime security, maritme borders, Indonesia, Malaysia non-traditional security.

5. Illegal fishing.13 Introduction This article uses the concept of maritime security Indonesia-Malaysia maritime security issues are as a basis for research analysis. Reviewing the currently gaining attention because of their analysis framework of Barry Buzan et al (1998), increasingly widespread nature, including threats of the concept of maritime security seems to be violence, threats of navigation, threats of resources, between two different thought of interactions and threats of sovereignty and law. While the between groups that use traditional frameworks on Report on Oceans and the Law of the Sea in 2008 security and groups that use non-traditional mentions some indication expressed as a threat to frameworks. As it is well known, traditional groups maritime safety, these are the following: tend to limit the concept of security while non- 1. Piracy and Armed Robbery, marine crimes that traditional groups have tendency to expand it. endanger the safety and security of navigation Maritime security has never been identified as an and commercial lines. issue that is not tied to a particular sector, in the 2. The Terrorist Act, which threatens ships, sense that the issue can be in the form of problems installs oil refineries that have an impact on in various sectors of interaction between state economic conditions.

3. Arms trade and narcotics and psychotropic 13 Natalie Klein, Joanna Mossop, dan Donald R. trade. Rothwell, Maritime Security : International Law 4. Trafficking and smuggling of people. and Policy Perspectives from Australia and New Zealand, (New York : Routledge,2010), pages 5. 40

actors and non-state actors. Maritime security tends and literature review. This study uses qualitative to examine the character of the sea and its use and analysis supported by quantitative data. Data the threats faced.14 Maritime security has been seen collection used is literature study. Literature study as an important element in the idea of the ASEAN is research conducted by studying existing Security Community. Within this framework, it can documents such as books, articles, and so on. In also be understood that the regional organization searching for a literature review, this article uses created the mechanism of the ASEAN Maritime several articles such as The Role of ASEAN Forum. However, there is no definition of what is Maritime Forum in Safeguarding Maritime meant by maritime security. It was only mentioned Security (Piracy Case Study in the Malacca Strait) that the Asean Maritime Forum was designed as a by Trialen Lumban Gaol, the second literature forum to discuss steps to respond to maritime study is Richarunia Wenny Ikhtiari entitled security threats. Indonesian Maritime Security Strategy in Overcoming Non-Traditional Security Threats The inability to define maritime security is caused (Case Study: Illegal Fishing Period 2005-2010). by 3 things. First, the discussion on maritime Meanwhile the authors explain maritime security in security in the UN is not considered important, general based on non-traditional issues on the because if the UN defines the maritime security, it maritime borders of Indonesia and Malaysia which will result in a lack of mechanism in other forums. are said to be maritime crimes. Second, there is a refusal to unify the definition of the concept of maritime security with the concept Results of maritime safety, although both are still related to the other view that the concept of maritime safety In this result, this article will address list of non- contains the interests of ship shipping traditional threats from non-state actors in maritime organizations. Third, there is a fear that the border area of Indonesia-Malaysia. definition of rigid maritime security will result in the national authority managing its marine sector to 1.Piracy and Armed Robbery be greatly reduced.15 Based on the perspective of the number of involved actors it can basically be Table 1. Piracy Data and Ship hijacking in divided in two ways, namely: Indonesian and Malaysian maritime border 2013- 1. Through a direct bilateral mechanism. 201717 2. Through the mechanism of regional Locations 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Indonesia 68 72 86 33 23 16 Southeast cooperation. Malacca Asia 1 1 5 Straits The need for maritime security cooperation both Malaysia 5 15 11 5 6 bilaterally, regionally and internationally with Total 74 88 102 38 29 threats to maritime issues will be easier to be implemented if there is an agreement from the Based on the data above, the piracy case in 2013 to conflicting countries. If this cannot be achieved 2017 experienced quite rapid dynamics, in 2015 then the maritime security cooperation will result in was the year with the most cases for the Malacca the internationalization of the national sea area. Strait with the total amount of 5 cases, where the previous year only 1 case in 2014 and 2013, while Methods for Indonesia the piracy cases continued to experience decline even though in 2015 it reached This research is descriptive research which uses 86 cases where the following year was only 33 secondary data from various related written data, cases. Meanwhile Malaysia experienced a decline since 2014 which numbered 15 cases, 2015 fell to 14 Chris Rahman, Concepts of Maritime Security, 11 cases, the following year 2016 fell again to 5 (New Zealand, 2009), pages 29. cases, but in 2016 increased up to 6 cases. 15 Makmur Keliat, “Keamanan Maritim dan Implikasi Kebijakannya Bagi Indonesia”. Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik. Vol. 13 No 1, Juli 2009, pages 118. 17 ICC-IMB Piracy and Robbery Against Report 16 Keliat, Loc. Cit. 2017, pg 5 41

in the Sulu Sea, which is the maritime border of Indonesia-Malaysia-Philippines. The aim of the 2. People Smuggling terrorism group is to convey political messages and force the government or state to do something as the ultimate goal to be achieved. Damage to installations or vital maritime objects and attacks with violence against ships and their crew are only ways to convey their political message. However, this action has a huge impact considering that public infrastructure in the maritime region is increasingly diverse, such as seaports, oil and gas Figure 1. Map of the Route for Spreading Human pipelines, fiber optic communication cables, Through Sea Smuggling from Malaysia-Indonesia- offshore exploration facilities, and maritime Australia18 tourism objects, which will have a global impact.

The International Organization for Migration 4. Narcotics and Psychotropic Trade (IOM) notes that human smuggling, which is the Indonesia's main interest in overcoming drug "dark side" of globalization, is a large business that trafficking and illicit trafficking is to prevent drug is growing and developing. In addition, people outflow. At the multilateral level, Indonesia smuggling also creates its own problems for the continues to play an active role in combating illicit country where they seek asylum. It also hit the drug trafficking in various forums such as the country of Indonesia.19 Human smuggling is Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Special Session of difficult to solve by one country alone and should the United Nations General Assembly on the World be resolved by involving many countries, through Drug Problem which will be held on April 19-21, various coordination, communication, negotiation 2016 of National Drug Law Enforcement for Asia- and joint regulation. Handling people smuggling in Pacific and various other meetings under the cooperation is very appropriate considering the UNODC framework.20 Indonesia will continue to flow of human smuggling involves many countries support every effort to strengthen the role of UN that pass. The flow of human smuggling which is agencies, improve coordination among now widespread in the borders of Indonesia and stakeholders at the international and regional Malaysia actually uses both countries as transit levels, in an effort to overcome narcotics problems countries. As a transit country, Indonesia and in an integrated and comprehensive manner, Malaysia are used as temporary stops by including through alternative development immigrants to rest, collect supplies, and prepare approaches, which reduce the planting of plants energy to sail back to the destination country like containing narcotics through steps - steps for Australia. development and income generation in the community. 3. Terrorist Act One of the maritime terrorist acts that is still fresh 5. Illegal Fishing in our memory, how panic is our government when In the table above, it can be seen that the number of the 10 Brahma crew members of Indonesian foreign vessels carrying out illegal fishing from citizens were held hostage by the Abu Sayyaf year to year has experienced ups and downs. From group on March 26, 2016. After that, the hostage of 2013, the Indonesian Ministry of Fisheries and crew member Henry Charless 001, became an easy Maritime Affairs arrested 68 illegal vessels from target for kidnapping by militant groups operating foreign and local fishermen. to be 108 ships. In 2016 there were an increase in the number of

illegal vessels caught, amounting to 163 vessels, 18 Peta Rute Penyebaran Penyelundupan Manusia, http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_6RPgNTUdZtw/TQkVP and in 2017 experienced a decline which recorded av0NVI/AAAAAAAADZo/aP3VZMjHzAA/s1600 /Map-Christmas-Island-loca-001.jpg 19 Smuggling and Trafficking: A Conference 20 https://www.kemlu.go.id/id/kebijakan/isu- Report. International Migration Review, Vol. 34, khusus/Pages/Penanggulangan-Kejahatan-Lintas- No. 3 (Autumn, 2000), pages. 969-975. Negara-Teroganisir.aspx. 42

99 illegal vessels. The table above shows that every purely due to economic motives because the year in the territorial waters of Indonesia illegal perpetrators demand a ransom instead for the fishing violations committed by foreign and local release of hostages, criminal acts at sea with the fishing vessels stil exist.21 use of violence by terrorist groups or affiliating with certain terrorist groups will be increasingly 160 complex, especially from the impact or aspects of 140 legal action. Narcotics trading are generally 120 transnational (cross border), so that no country is 100 Foreign 80 separated from the targets of international drug Vessels 60 crime syndicates including Indonesia. Because of 40 20 its cross-border nature, drug problems cannot be 0 solved alone. Indonesia's main interest in 20 20 20 20 20 overcoming drug trafficking and illicit trafficking 13 14 15 16 17 is to prevent drug outflow and its precursors. Foreign 44 16 60 140 75 Indonesia principled on a balanced approach Vessels Local Fisherman between 'supply and demand reduction' and Local Vessels comprehensive and integrated response. Illegal Fisherman 24 22 48 23 24 fishing is fishing activities carried out by a Vessels particular country or foreign vessel in waters that are not a jurisdiction and without permission from countries that have jurisdiction or fishing activities Graphic 1.Data on Illegal Fishing Vessels Arrested that is contrary to the law and regulations of that in 2013-201722 country. Indonesia as an archipelagic country has a great interest in maintaining its territory and Discussion upholding sovereignty including against illegal fishing. This is in line with the vision of President In this discussion, the article will discuss several Joko Widodo's Government to make Indonesia a non-traditional threats in maritime border of World Maritime Axis by promoting maritime Indonesia-Malaysia that shows the main actors cooperation through diplomacy and the from non-state actors, they are piracy and armed development of maritime defense forces to secure robbery, people smuggling, terrorist act, narcotics marine natural resources and exclusive economic and psychotropic trade, and illegal fishing. zones.

Piracy is one of the forms of maritime crime. The Among the five threats above responded by both term piracy has various meanings, both academic, countries by conducting bilateral meetings between practical and juridical and agreed upon by countries Indonesia and Malaysia at a JCBC (Joint in the world. People smuggling is a crime and it has Commission on Bilateral Cooperation) meeting a been recognized that people smuggling is an act of memorandum of understanding was made violating human rights and forms of contemporary “Common Guidelines for Concerning Treatment of slavery. Terrorist act is one of the form of threat to Fisherman by Maritime Law Enforcement maritime domain that sometimes lacks public Agencies” on January 27, 2012 in Nusa Dua, 23 attention and it is usually called maritime terrorism. Bali. This cooperation continues on Friday 29 The complexity of marine terrorism threat is often April 2016, Malaysian Minister of Agriculture overlooked, even though the possibility of its Dato Sri Ahmad Shabery Cheek visited the occurrence is increasing, although some parties Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries to argue that attacks on sailing ships are acts of piracy discuss Cooperation in the field of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. The meeting discussed about 21 Bagoes Rahmad, “Upaya Indonesia Menangani Illegal Fishing Dalam Kerangka AMF (ASEAN 23 Maritim Forum) Di Perbatasan Maritim http://www.kkp.go.id/index.php/mobile/arsip/c/701 Indonesia”, Mulawarman University, 2018. 1/INDONESIA-MALAYSIA-SEPAKAT- 22 Indonesia Marines and Fisheries Book 2017, SELESAIKAN-MASALAH-NELAYAN- pages 27 LEWAT-JALUR-DIPLOMASI/?category_id=34 43

joint patrol plans carried out with Indonesian side, [1] I Nengah Putra, Abdul Karim, “Analisa possibly with the Badan Keamanan Laut (Bakamla) Peluang dan Ancaman Keamanan Maritim or Marine and Fisheries Resources Supervision.24 Indonesia Sebagai Dampak Perkembangan The two countries agreed to the supervision, Lingkungan Strategis”. evaluation and review efforts in coordination between Indonesian marine maritime law [2] Buntoro,. “Antara Piracy dan Armed enforcement agencies such as Bakorkamla, Robbery Di Laut (Tinjauan Singkat Indonesian Navy, Indonesian Air Force, Police, Kemanan di Selat Malaka). Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, [3] Chris, Rahman, Concepts of Maritime Ministry of Transportation, Indonesian customs, Security, (New Zealand, 2009). with Malaysian law enforcement agencies Maritime Enforcement Malaysian Agency [4] ICC-IMB Piracy and Robbery Against (MMEA), Royal Navy, Royal Airforce, Royal Report, 2017 Malaysian Police, and the Department of Fisheries and Royal Malaysian Customs. [5] Indonesia Marines and Fisheries Book, 2017 Conclusion [6] “Kasus Illegal Fishing Tak Ganggu The issue of maritime security in the Malacca Strait Hubungan Indonesia-Filipina”, Tribun will remain an important part of the policies of the Manado. coastal countries and the Malacca Strait user countries. The Malacca Strait Security will be [7] Keliat, Makmur, Keamanan Maritim dan largely determined by the extent to which the Implikasi Kebijakannya Bagi Indonesia, active contributions of the coastal states and the 2009 international community have an effect on the security of the strait itself. [8] Sagena, Uni W, 2013, Memahami Keamanan Tradisional dan Non-Tradisional Of the 5 threats above, the most difficult threat to di Selat Malaka: Isu-isu dan Interaksi Antar overcome is the threat of illegal fishing, where Aktor, Jurnal Interdependence Hubungan there are still many ships act as perpetrators of Internasional Universitas Mulawarman, Th. illegal fishing which are fishermen who does not 1, Vol. 1. Samarinda. only come from both countries, but come from other countries in the region. Thus in resolving the [9] Lerian, Novella Putri, 2017. “Kepentingan threat, a good cooperation between the two Indonesia Bekerjasama Dengan Malaysia Di countries and regional is needed in resolving these Bidang Kelautan dan Perikanan Tahun maritime threats. 2013-2016 (Studi Kasus : Perairan The cooperation between the two Natuna)”. countries is expected to reduce friction between the two countries in maritime disputes and it could [10] Kusumaatmadja, Mochtar, 1978. Hukum encourage synergy between the two countries in Laut Internasional, Bandung: Binacipta. working together to secure their maritime sovereignty. Therefore it has a good impact on the [11] Purdijatno, Edhy T. “Mengawal Perbatasan progress of the Indonesian-Malaysian economy and Negara Maritim, Grasindo, security, especially in the maritime sector. [12] Laporan Mengenai Perdagangan Orang, References Pekerja Paksa, dan Kejahatan Perikanan Dalam Industri Perikanan Di Indonesia, 2016. [13] Nurulizwan Ahmad Zubir and Wan Siti 24 Adibah Wan Dahlan. “Maritime Violence https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2016/04/30/0907672 : Implications to Malaysia”. 43/indonesia-dan-malaysia-kerja-sama-patroli- illegal-fishing. 44

[14] Gaol, Trialen Lumban, 2017, “Peran Asean [24] Indonesia-Malaysia Sepakat Selesaikan Maritime Forum (AMF) Dalam Menjaga Masaalah Nelayan Lewat Jalur Diplomasi. Keamanan Maritim (Studi Kasus Diakses dari Perompakan Di Perairan Selat Malaka)”. http://www.kkp.go.id/index.php/mobile/arsi p/c/7011/INDONESIA-MALAYSIA- [15] Smuggling and Trafficking: A Conference SEPAKAT-SELESAIKAN-MASALAH- Report. International Migration NELAYAN-LEWAT-JALUR- Review, Vol. 34, No. 3 (Autumn, 2000) DIPLOMASI/?category_id=34. At 3 February 2018 [16] Albek, Aminuddin, 2017 “Terorisme baru dan Panglima baru”. [25] Indonesia-Malaysia Sepakat Patroli Maritim Bersama Antisipasi Teroris. Diakses dari [17] Dhiana Puspitawati, Krisyanto, https://news.okezone.com/read/2017/06/19/ 2017, “Urgensi Pengaturan Keamanan 337/1720116/indonesia-malaysia-dan- Maritim Nasional Di Indonesia”. filipina-sepakat-patroli-maritim-bersama- antisipasi-teroris. At 3 February 2018 [18] Terotisme Maritim Kelautan Diakses dari https://www.pressreader.com/indonesia/kom [26] Indonesia dan Malaysia Kerjasama Patroli pas/20171215/281621010685165. At 28 Illegal Fishing. Diakses dari January 2018. https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2016/04/30/0 [19] Perkembangan Kemanan Maritim di Sulu. 90767243/indonesia-dan-malaysia-kerja- Diakses dari http://apdf- sama-patroli-illegal-fishing. At 3 February magazine.com/id/perkembangan-keamanan- 2018 maritim-sulu/. At 3 February 2018 [27] http://www.tnial.mil.id. At 3 February 2018 [20] Nawa Cita Presiden Joko Widodo, Poros Maritim Dunia, Diakses dari [28] Fenomena Armed Robbery dan Piracy, https://web.kominfo.go.id/sites/default/files/ Diakses dari KSP%202%20Tahun%20Jokowi%20JK.pdf http://maritimnews.com/review-fenomena- . At 25 January 2017 armed-robbery-dan- piracy/. At 25 Januari 2017. [21] Minimalkan Kasus Illegal Fishing : Indonesia-Malaysia Sepakat Berjuang. Diakses dari https://www.bakamla.go.id/home/artikel_len gkap/1695/db2f9285e755ab0ccf89bb54035 b28d5. At 25 January 2018

[22] Majalah Masyarakat ASEAN : Membangun Kiprah Maritim Indonesia di Kawasan. Diakses dari https://www.kemlu.go.id/Majalah/ASEAN %20Edisi%2014%202017.pdf. At 2 February 2018 [23] Kebijakan Isu Khusus Penanggulangan Kejahatan Lalu Lintas Negara Terorganisisr. Diakses dari https://www.kemlu.go.id/id/kebijakan/isu- khusus/Pages/Penanggulangan-Kejahatan- Lintas-Negara-Teroganisir.aspx. At 28 January 2018