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Cars Beyond Otto's Internal Combustion Engines

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Cars Beyond Otto's Internal Combustion Engines GENERAL I ARTICLE Cars beyond Otto's Internal Combustion Engines A K Shukla Road transportation as an important requirement of mod­ A K Shukla is a Professor at the Solid ern society is presently faced with restrictions in mainly State and Structural two respects, namely the ever tightening emission legisla­ Chemistry Unit, Indian tion as well as the availability of petroleum fuels, and as a Institute of Science, consequence the fuel cost. But in any review of power Bangalore. His current research interests are in sources for future road transport vehicles, the performance materials electrochemis­ of the existing internal combustion engine is likely to be the try with special emphasis yardstick against which other power sources will be com­ on batteries, fuel cells and pared. The power sources most likely to provide favourable supercapacitors. comparison are those, which can display comparable range and speed, long and reliable life and manufactured at a cost comparable to petrol engine. A vehicle which fails in any of these requirements is unlikely to achieve anything but a niche market share. This article is an appraisal of a variety of proposed electrochemical systems, viz. rechargeable batteries, fuel cells and supercapacitors, for an electric car. It is surmised that a viable electric car could be powered with a fuel cell to provide power for cruising and climbing coupled in parallel with a sup~rcapacitor/battery bank to deliver additional short-term burst-power during accelera­ tion. 1. Introduction Deteriorating urban air-quality, growing dependence on inse­ The Otto engine is a four­ stroke internal-combustion en­ cure energy sources and global warming are forcing a re-exami­ gine invented by Nikolaus Otto nation of petroleum-fueled Otto's1 internal combustion engine in 1876. In the ideal Otto cycle, vehicles CICEVs) as the basis for road transportation through­ on which it is based, combus­ out the world. Although modern cars emit far less toxic pollut­ tion takes place at constant volume. In a diesel engine, ants comprising hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monox­ cycle combustion takes place ide and particulates, their increasing number is resulting in at constant pressure. growing insistence to further reduce automobile pollution At --------~-------- RESONANCE I November 2001 49 GENERAL I ARTICLE At present, motor present, motor vehicles account for about one-half of the total vehicles account hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide pollution which combine to for about one-half form ground-level ozone, commonly known as smog, that chokes of the total many of the major urban conurbations in the world. This has hydrocarbon and brought in emission legislation, particularly in the light of the nitrogen oxide Kyoto Protocol [1], requiring the ~nduction of zero-emission pollution which vehicles (ZEVs). This had been thought to mean battery­ combine to form powered cars. But, the battery-powered cars are found to be ground-level doubtful starters [2, 3]. Furthermore, batteries need electricity, ozone, commonly which would be generated by burning coal to CO2 and S02' By known as smog, contrast, the use of fuel cells with on-board reforming 'Of a fossil that chokes many fuel to produce hydrogen is both ecologically and scientifically of the major urban superior [4]. For example, the conversion of methanol to hydro­ conurbations in the gen for producing electricity in a fuel cell will help reducing the world. production of CO2 gas by about 33% and there will be virtually no other polluting gases. This article estimates the power and energy requirements of a modern car and examines the feasibility of various available electric automobile power sources for realizing a viable electric dri ve-system. 2. Power and Energy Estimates for an Electric Car In order to properly assess the use of the electrochemical energy conversion and storage systems, viz. storage batteries, supercapa­ citors and fuel cells, to power electric vehicles, it is mandatory to quantitatively estimate the power and energy required for pro­ pelling a modern car. Neglecting relatively minor losses due to road camber and curvature, the power required at the drive wheel (Ptraction ) may be expressed as [5], P traction. =Pgra de +Pacce l+P,tires +Paero , (1) where Pgrade is the power required for the gradient, P acce1 is the power required for acceleration, P tires. is the rolling resistance power consumed by the tires, and P aero is the power consumed by the aerodynamic drag. -50-------------------------------~-------------------------------- RESONANCE I November 2001 GENERAL I ARTICLE The first two terms in (1) describe the rates of change of poten­ The potential and tial (PE) and kinetic (KE) energies associated during climbing kinetic energies and acceleration, respectively. The power required for these acquired by the car actions may be estimated from the Newtonian mechanics as as a result of follows. climbing and acceleration P d = d(PE)/dt = MgvsinB (2) gra e represent and reversibly stored energies and, in 2 Paccel =d(KE)/dt = d(l/2Mv )/dt = Mav, (3) principle, may be recovered by where M is the mass of the car, v is its velocity, a is its accelera­ appropriate tion, and tanB is the gradient. The potential and kinetic ener­ regenerative gies acquired by the car as a result of climbing and acceleration methods wherein represent reversibly stored energies and, in principle, may be the mechanical recovered by appropriate regenerative methods wherein the energy is mechanical energy is converted and stored as electrical energy. converted and The last two terms in (1) describe the power, which is required stored as electrical to overcome tire friction and aerodynamic drag that are irrevers­ energy. ibly lost, mainly as heat and noise and cannot be recovered. The power required here may be estimated from the following em­ pirical relations. (4) and (5) where Ct and Ca are dimensionless tire friction and aerodynamic drag coefficients, respectively, d is the air density, w is the head­ wind velocity, g is the gravitational acceleration, and A is the frontal cross-sectional area of the car. From the parameters associated with a typical modern medium­ A d size car, viz. M = 1400 kg, = 2.2m2, Ct = 0.01, Ca = 0.3, = 3 1.17 kg/m , its power requirements may be estimated from (2)­ (5). For the irreversible losses, (4) and (5) show that while P.tires is linearly dependent on velocity, P aero varies as the third power -RE-S-O-N-A-N-C-E--I-N-o-v-e-m-b-e-r--2-00-1----------~-------------------------------~- GENeRAL I ARTICLE Figure 1. Energy perfor­ mance and power require­ 5 ~--------------------------------~50 ments of the car as a func­ • P.tires tion of wind speed at ve­ 4 ... Paero 40'-' ~ hicle speed of 80 kmlh. ·81ergyperformarce ~ E ~ 30 --; o C to E 20 ~ dI CL >. tI) 10 w~ o ~----~----~----~----~----~--~O -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 \Moo speed (knvh) of velocity and although negligible at low velocities, the latter / becomes the dominant irreversible loss at high speed. As an example, for these parameters, for a car travelling at about 50 km/h, tire friction is twice. the aerodynamic drag and together amount to about 3 kW. At 100 km/h highway cruising, aerody­ namic drag increases considerably to over twice the tire friction, increasing the total power requirement to about 12 kW. It is noteworthy that for both these estimates, the wind spe~d (w)has been taken to be zero for the sake of simplicity (see Box 1). But, in practice the effect ofwind speed on the performance of the car could be quite substantial as shown in Figure 1. Taking the example of a hill with a substantial 10% gradient, climbing at 80 km/h requires about 38 kW, including tire friction and aero­ dynamic drag (see Box 1). Acceleration is more demanding, particularly at high velocities. For 'example, acceleration at 5 km/h/s requires 30 kW at 50 km/h and increases to 66 kW at 100 km/h (see Box 1). The above estimates are for the power supplied to the wheel of the car and do not include the losses incurred in delivering that power to the wheels. At this time in the development of electric­ traction systems, a precise estimate of losses is difficult to obtain --------~-------- S2 RESONANCE I November 2001 GENitAL t ARTICLE Box 1. Appendix (a) Estimation ofPlires at vehicle speed (v) of 50 and 100 km/h. 3 At v = 50 km/h: Plires = 0.01 x 1400 x 9.S x 50 x 10 /3600 W = 1.9 kW. 3 At v = 100 km/h: Plires = 0.01 x 1400 x 9.S x 100 x 10 /3600 W =3.SlkW. (b) Estimation of Paero at vehicle speed (v) of 50 and 100 km/h. In these estimates the wind velocity (w) has been taken to be zero. 3 At v = 50 km/h: Paero = 0.5 x 1.17 x 0.3 x 2.2 x (50)3 x (10 )3/(3600)3 W = 1.03 kW. At v '= 100 km/h: Paero = 0.5 x 1.17 x 0.3 x 2.2 x (100)3 x (103)31(3600)3 W = S.27 kW. (c) Estimation of Pgrade at 10% gradient and v = SO km/h. d X 3 P gra e = 1400 x 9.S x SO 10 x 0.113600 W = 30.49 kW. (d) Estimation of Paccel at v = 50 and 100 km/h with an acceleration of5 km/h/s. At v = 50 km/h: Paced = 1400 x 5 x 50 X (103)2/(3600)2 W = 27 kW. At v = 100 km/h: Paccel = 1400 x 5 X 100 X (103)2/(3600)2 W = 54 kW.
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