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A Large-Scale Study of Microbial and Physico-Chemical Quality of Selected Groundwaters and Surface Waters in the North West Province, South Africa

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A Large-Scale Study of Microbial and Physico-Chemical Quality of Selected Groundwaters and Surface Waters in the North West Province, South Africa A Large-Scale Study of Microbial and Physico-Chemical Quality of Selected Groundwaters and Surface Waters in the North West Province, South Africa Report to the Water Research Commission by CC Bezuidenhout and the North-West University Team WRC Report No. 1966/1/13 ISBN 978-1-4312-0400-7 APRIL 2013 Obtainable from Water Research Commission Private Bag X03 GEZINA, 0031 [email protected] or download from www.wrc.org.za This report contains a CD with raw data measurements. DISCLAIMER This report has been reviewed by the Water Research Commission (WRC) and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the WRC, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. © WATER RESEARCH COMMISSION ii North-West University Project team and their contributions Carlos Bezuidenhout Project Leader, Compiled this report and supervised Simone Ferreira, Lesego Molale, Deidre van Wyk (Co- supervised), Karen Jordaan, Werner Ressouw, Wesley van Oeffelen, Suranie Prinsloo (Co-supervised), Rasheed Adeleke Owen Rhode Supervise yeast work (ARC – Potchefstroom) Thami Sitebe Supervise the phage work Collins Ateba Supervise the phage work Rialet Pieterse Supervise the cytoxicity Rasheed Adeleke Enterovirus analysis Maureen Taylor Phage and enterovirus analysis (University of Pretoria) Simone Ferreira Groundwater physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis Lesego Molale Surface water physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis Deidre van Wyk Surface water physico-chemical and yeast analysis Keabetswe Mabote Phage analysis Werner Ressouw Phage analysis – Mooi River Karen Jordaan Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and high throughput sequencing analysis Wesley van Oeffelen (Avans multiplex PCR analysis of E. coli Hogen School, Netherlands) Suranie Prinsloo Cytoxicity assay development and analysis Jaco Bezuidenhout Assisted with the statistics iii iv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE Water from the North West Province (NWP) catchment areas supports prosperous gold and platinum mining, manufacturing industries, agricultural sector as well as a growing urban and rural population. This land-locked province thus contributes generously to the Gross Domestic Product of South Africa. However, water allocation for the province has almost reached the quota available, based on surface water estimates. Furthermore, there are reports that the source water within the catchment may be exposed to pollution from various sources but particularly from economic activities. These reports have demonstrated that several surface waters and groundwaters are faecally contaminated and some with opportunistic pathogenic bacteria. Faecal pollution of surface waters has been blamed on service delivery problems in several peri-urban areas and small towns. There are also reports of poorly treated and in some cases untreated effluent being discharged into rivers and other receiving waters. This practice has health, economic as well as environmental implications. The growth in the agricultural and mining sectors has resulted in increased water requirements as well as pollution. These developments have also played a role in human population distribution dynamics. Such economic activities were responsible for the development of major growth points in the province. Mining activities are mainly centred in the eastern part of the province and the agricultural development across the province. Mining operations were (in some cases still are) responsible for decant of heavy metal-containing water of low pH (acid mine drainage: AMD) into surface water. This has devastating ecological and economics effects. The real impacts of the AMD on groundwater in the North West Province are undetermined. Water pollution from agricultural runoff from livestock farming, including poultry farming and feedlots as well as several other practices in the province is also undetermined. Rainfall in the eastern and central parts of the province is higher than the western part. The latter borders on and is part of the Kalahari Desert. Further social and economic developments as well as climate change will impact on the anticipated water availability, requirements and quality of water. Baseline data in these categories will be important for long-term planning. Water requirements are national priorities and processes such as National Water Resource Strategy are in place. However, detailed large water quality studies v have not been conducted. The present study was an effort to address this gap. It extended the WRC-funded work done by Bezuidenhout (2011). AIM 1. To determine the water quality of surface and groundwater in the North West Province from chemico-physical and microbiological perspectives. 2. To determine the profile of selected gastroenteritis-associated pathogens in the contaminated water sources. 3. To investigate the usefulness of molecular fingerprinting data in microbial water quality determination. 4. To determine the cytotoxic effects of associated with consumption of untreated water as well as such effects exerted by some of the indicator mycological and bacterial species isolated from the water sources. 5. To investigate potential risk of consuming such water without any prior treatment. 6. To provide an overview of previous large-scale water quality studies conducted nationally and internationally. 7. To generate a report on whether human health risks could be associated with current trends of water provision in the North West Province and if necessary suggest improvement strategies. The following describes the scope of the work in each chapter: Chapter 2: The purpose of this work was to generate data on microbiological and physico- chemical quality of surface water sources in the North West Province. A secondary goal was to establish skills with respect to several research methodologies. These technologies include determining levels of (a) culturable indicator bacteria (faecal coliforms, enterococci), (b) yeasts, (c) pathogenic E. coli (d) bacteria by culture independent microbial detection methods (Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis and High Throughput Sequencing) and (e) enteroviruses and bacteriophages. vi Chapter 3: The purpose was to generate data on microbiological and physico-chemical quality of groundwater using some of the methodologies and methods referred to in Chapter 2. Chapter 4: The purpose was to evaluate faecal sterol determination in water quality applications in the North West Province. Chapter 5: The purpose was to evaluate the various bacteria and fungi isolated during this study for potential human health effects and to develop a cost an effective method to determine the cytotoxicity effects of polluted water on intestinal cells. Chapter 6: The purpose was to conduct a social and water management study in order to identify the most important social aspects for future research and interventions in the province. METHODOLOGY Water samples were collected at specific time periods from selected groundwater and surface water sources in the North West Province using standard procedures. An effort was made to include dry winter as well as wet summer sampling periods for each of the sites. The groundwater sampling sites were grouped into sampling areas so groundwater locations in this report refer to an area, not specific boreholes. Standard methodologies were used to collect and analyse the water samples. Global positioning data (GPS waypoints) were recorded and used to generate the sampling maps. Certain physical and chemical (temperature, pH, electrical conductivity) parameters were measured on site using multi-probe equipment. Chemical parameters such as chemical oxygen demand, nitrates, phosphates etc. were measured in the laboratory using Hach kits and equipment. The levels of faecal indicators and other microbial organisms were determined using standard or previously-published methods. Standard biochemical and DNA sequencing methods were used for identification of microbes. The presence of E. coli and pathogenic E. coli were determined in water using direct DNA isolation and PCR. Faecal sterol levels were determined by the Szűcs method which involves liquid-liquid extraction and resolution by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. Levels of bacteriophages were determined by standard methods and enterovirus by qPCR based methodology. A sequential exploratory mixed-methods design was used for the social water management study. A mixed-methods approach includes the use of both qualitative and quantitative vii research methods to collect, analyse and interpret the research data. Interviews, focus group discussions and observations (n = 25 participants) were used as the main data gathering methods during the qualitative phase. This was followed by the development of a research questionnaire and a community survey (n = 1 000 participants) during the quantitative phase of the study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Microbiological and physico-chemical quality of surface water sources Selected river systems covering the upper middle and lower Vaal river management areas were targeted. Average physico-chemical and microbial levels measured at some sites during the 2010 and 2011 seasons were elevated. Some exceeded the Target Water Quality Range (TWQR) for full and intermediate recreational contact, livestock watering and irrigation. Elevated electrical conductivity when compared to TWQR for drinking water was not at levels likely to cause health impacts.
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