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Home , 1838 in South Africa, Andries Pretorius, Bophuthatswana, Cape Colony, Ciskei, Dick King

THE EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH

EVOLUTION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES ...... 3

SOUTH AFRICA: THE EARLY INHABITANTS ...... 5

THE ...... 6 The San (Bushmen) ...... 6 The Khoikhoi (Hottentots) ...... 8

BLACK SETTLEMENT ...... 9

THE NGUNI ...... 9 The Xhosa ...... 10 The Zulu ...... 11 The Ndebele ...... 12 The Swazi ...... 13

THE SOTHO ...... 13 The Western Sotho ...... 14 The Southern Sotho ...... 14 The Northern Sotho (Bapedi) ...... 14

THE ...... 15

THE MASHANGANA-TSONGA ...... 15

THE /DIFAQANE (Total ) ...... 16 ...... 16 ...... 18 Mzilikazi ...... 19 ...... 20 Mmantatise ...... 21 Sikonyela ...... 21 Moshweshwe ...... 22 Consequences of the Mfecane/Difaqane ...... 23

Page 1 EUROPEAN INTERESTS

The Portuguese ...... 24 The British ...... 24 The Dutch ...... 25 The French ...... 25

THE SLAVES ...... 22

THE TREKBOERS (MIGRATING FARMERS) ...... 27

EUROPEAN OCCUPATIONS OF THE CAPE

British Occupation (1795 - 1803) ...... 29 Batavian rule 1803 - 1806 ...... 29 Second British Occupation: 1806 ...... 31 British ...... 32 Slagtersnek Rebellion ...... 32 The British Settlers 1820 ...... 32

THE

Causes of the Great Trek ...... 34 Different Trek groups ...... 35 Trichardt and Van Rensburg ...... 35 Andries ...... 35 Gerrit Maritz ...... 36 ...... 36 ...... 36 Voortrekkers in Zululand and ...... 37 Voortrekker settlement in the ...... 38 Voortrekker settlement in the ...... 39

THE DISCOVERY OF DIAMONDS AND ...... 41

Page 2 EVOLUTION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES

Humankind had its earliest origins in Africa The introduction of iron changed the African and the story of life in has irrevocably and was a large step proven to be a micro-study of life on the forwards in the development of the people. continent of Africa. South Africa is a rich Mainly, it created the potential for agriculture, store of fossil evidence that has helped to which changed the lifestyles of the African shed much light on the evolutionary history of people forever. Population numbers rose and humankind, going back several million years. a pattern of migration started. The nomadic lifestyle was no longer the only way to live The history of man in Africa is marked by the and people were starting to intrude on each rise of complex societies (chiefdoms and other’s territories. However, while farming states), migrations, agriculture and with implements changed the way of life in pastoralism (a way of life in which people’s Africa, just as it did in , other ways of livelihood depends on the herding of animals life were equally important. Nomadic herders within a certain area. When the natural were successful in the central part of Africa in resources are depleted, the herders move on the great . Hunters and gatherers to the next area with similar resources, and a continued to survive in limited areas such as nomadic lifestyle is created). the Kalahari in , where life has changed very little over the last 10 000 years.

Page 3 Another complication of the was that populations grew more complex and social structures were affected. The histories of African kingdoms, passed on by word of mouth, usually tell of a male founder who persuaded or forced people to accept his rule. Many of these legends refer to the founder-king as a blacksmith, reminding us of the great impact that iron had on African social history.

Almost all the myths also refer to the presence of supernatural authority behind the power of the ruler. African societies were held together by social control that was tied to this supernatural force. The masks and forms of dress unique to African societies, still serve as a reminder of their strong links to the spiritual .

In , the story of Africa is one of contrast and diversity, a tribute to all the people who adapted to the challenges of nature with enthusiasm and courage.

Page 4 SOUTH AFRICA: THE EARLY INHABITANTS

The history of man in South Africa covers such a vast period of time that it is difficult to know exactly where to start. A possible start could be the development of Hominidae ( race), five million years ago, or 2,3 million years ago with the development of the genus Homo. Archaeologists have found evidence that both Homo habilis and Homo erectus inhabited southern Africa.

Archaeological evidence suggests that modern have lived in South Africa for over 100 000 years. Most scientists believe that the Khoisan are probably the descendants of the Late peoples and evidence has shown that they were living in southern Africa long before either the blacks or the whites. Among this evidence is rock art created by the Khoisan some 26 000 years ago. The earliest distinctively Black inhabitants are believed to have arrived significantly later than the Khoisan.

Page 5 THE KHOISAN

The term “Khoisan” has been used to describe a broad similarity in cultural and biological origins. It is derived from the names “Khoikhoi” and “San”. “Khoikhoi” was the original name used by the Hottentots in reference to themselves and “San” was the name the Bushmen used when they referred to themselves. This term was invented because it is often difficult to distinguish clearly between both the past and present “San” and their “Khoikhoi” neighbours, especially after significant changes had occurred in their lifestyles. The Khoisan and the Black peoples are believed to have merged from common gene pools but to have developed separately.

The San (Bushmen)

Up to as recently as 3 000 years ago, all the inhabitants of southern Africa depended on hunting game and gathering wild plant foods for their survival. However, by the middle of the 20th century A.D., the influence of pastoral, agricultural and industrial societies had caused most hunter-gatherers to become assimilated into new ways of life, to have been wiped out by their enemies in conflicts over land or to have died from the diseases brought by the new inhabitants. Consequently, hunter-gatherers could be found only in and around the near-desert .

The hunter-gatherers of Southern Africa have been called by many names: “Bushmen”, “San” or “Sonqua”, “Soaqua”, “Sarwa” or “Basarwa”, and “Twa”, all basically meaning, “those without domestic livestock”.

The San are much shorter than members of the Black group - the average height of an adult is approximately 1,5 m and their complexion is yellowish. They probably originated on the north coast of Africa and were then driven further and further south by stronger nations. When the San reached the southern point of Africa, the Black tribes were primarily still living in the tropical and equatorial parts of Africa.

Page 6 The migration of the Black The have left us tribes to southern Africa an invaluable legacy of rock caused the San to meet up art and their paintings, with them again after depicting their way of life millennia of separation. It and their religious beliefs, also brought them in contact can still be found all over with the phenomenon of the country. They give us a agriculture and glimpse into the lives of stockbreeding (pastoral these tough little people, industry). As hunter- capable of such courage and gatherers, it was the compassion that they could women’s work to gather survive on the land for such food and the men’s work to a long time, without hunt with bows and arrows. destroying all they touched. The hunters smeared poison, gathered from certain beetles There is a small group of or snakes on the arrowheads, San in the in which would paralyse or kill South Africa, today, who are their prey. trying to live as their pre- decessors did. It has, The San were known to be however, become increas- excellent trackers, a skill ingly difficult for them and that helped them to survive most of them have turned to for so long on the land. They either agriculture or lived in caves or shelters stockbreeding to make a made of branches built near living. waterholes, so that drinking water would be near and animals could easily be hunted.

Page 7 The Khoikhoi (Hottentots) San are remarkably similar to certain Khoikhoi dialects and some linguists have even mentioned the possibility that the The Khoikhoi adopted a pastoralist lifestyle (a Khoikhoi language developed out of a San nomadic lifestyle based on herding of ) language. This is another reason for some 2 000 years ago and adapted their combining the words “Khoi” and “San” into cultural lives accordingly. Like the San, the “Khoisan”. But the word also refers to the Khoikhoi also had a yellowish complexion deeper connection between the two peoples, but they were bigger in size. This can be which originated when they started to marry attributed to the fact that their staple diet was into each other’s tribes and, in this way, protein. Their whole lives revolved around became one people. their cattle and they were constantly on the move in search of better grazing for their With the arrival of the black and later the cattle and sheep. The Khoikhoi had perfected in South Africa, trouble started their nomadic way of life to a fine art. They for the Khoisan. The San regarded the slept on reed mats in dome shaped huts made farmers’ cattle as game and started hunting from stripped branches which could be taken them and the Khoikhoi saw the farmers as apart easily to facilitate moving. Their huts intruders on their grazing fields. This caused were erected in a circle formation so that the much strife between the different groups. animals could sleep in the middle. A fence Eventually, the San moved to drier parts such of thorny branches was constructed around as and . the circle of huts to keep intruders from entering. In addition to milk and meat, their Once Europeans began to colonise the Cape, diet consisted of berries, roots and bulbs. the Khoikhoi lifestyle began to change as the Sometimes, like the San, the Khoikhoi used colonists began to intrude on their living bows and arrows to hunt. space and they were eventually reduced to a state of servitude. The population of the Some scientists believe that the Khoikhoi Khoikhoi was also severely reduced by originally came from the great lakes of Africa warring and epidemics such as smallpox. and only migrated to Southern Africa long They eventually became detribalised and after the San. Other scientists, however, are of started mixing with the freed slaves. Because the opinion that the Khoikhoi shepherds of all these changes, the Khoikhoi ceased to evolved from hunter-gatherer communities in exist as a nation, although they numbered Southern Africa. Language studies have nearly 100 000 when the Dutch arrived in proven that certain languages spoken by the 1652.

Page 8 The development of metalworking skills promoted specialisation of products and between followed. The different chiefdoms settled in different patterns; dispersed homesteads were found in the fertile coastal regions to the east, and concentrated in in the desert fringes to the west. In the western half of the country, rainfall was low and desert conditions prevailed and the African farmers were not interested in settling there. These dry regions BLACK SETTLEMENT remained a safe haven of the Khoikhoi and the San. The African settlement patterns had With the development of the iron blade, the effect that, for the first century and a half reaping became easier and agriculture took on of European settlement, the African farmers a whole new meaning. Populations grew were hardly affected by the white presence at faster than before and people were all. encroaching on each other’s land. This necessitated an enlargement of territory, The black population of South Africa is which led to the migration of African peoples divided into several ethnic groups, of which from the Great Lakes in , to the the Nguni forms a major part. Other main North, East and South of Africa. Some groups are the Sotho, the Venda and the anthropologists believe that this migration Shangaan-Tsonga. process could have taken up to 2 000 years.

Some 2 000 years ago, when the first waves THE NGUNI of black settlers began arriving in southern The Nguni group migrated along the eastern Africa, they brought with them the part of southern Africa in their southward advantages of an Iron Age culture, farming move from central Africa. Some groups split skills and domesticated crops. After they had off and settled along the way, while others settled in the eastern parts of South Africa, kept going. Thus, the following settlement they eventually spread out across the high pattern formed: the Swazi in the north, the veld some 1 000 years ago, because of their Zulu towards the east and the Xhosa in the need for more land on which to practise their south. Owing to the fact that these people had growing cattle culture. The first African a common origin, their languages and cultures settlements in South Africa were mainly in show marked similarities. the Transvaal and Natal areas.

In the African culture, chiefdoms were based on control over cattle, which gave rise to social systems of protection (patronage) and hierarchies of authority within communities. The exchange of cattle formed the basis of polygamous marriage arrangements. This system operated on the basis of social power built through control over the labour of kin groups and dependants.

Page 9 The Xhosa

The first Xhosa tribes arrived in the 14th century in the area known as the . At first, they settled in this area but, in time, moved further southwards until they met up with the white settlers at the Fish River, in 1788. At this point, the Xhosa had already been living in the area near the Fish River for more than a hundred years. In their move to the Fish River, clashes with the Khoikhoi (Hottentots) often occurred but they eventually defeated the Khoikhoi.

Many of the Xhosa tribes chose to settle along the south-eastern coast of Africa. These were divided mainly into the Thembu section and the Mpondo section.

Some other Xhosa tribes such as the Fingo, Bhaca, Nhlangwini and chose to settle in the eastern part of the Transkei.

Page 10 The Zulu

While the Xhosa tribes migrated to the Transkei and the , other Nguni tribes such as the Zulu, chose to remain in Natal. In 1806, there were a large number of tribes in the area and there were four important and well-known ones. The Zulu tribe which, during the early nineteenth century, was only a small tribe, had settled between the Umhlatuse and the Umfolozi Rivers. The tribe’s first leader was Malandela and the tribe was named after his son Zulu. The Mtethwa tribe lived east of the Zulu and was a strong tribe under a strong leader called Dingiswayo. The Qwabe tribe lived south of the Mtethwa and its first leader was called Phakatwayo. The Ndandwe tribe was also powerful and its first leader was named Zwide. The Ndandwe lived north of the Mtethwa.

Page 11 The Ndebele

Some Nguni groups migrated from Natal to Transvaal in the middle of the . The Ndebele constituted two important groups. The northern group settled in the area around the towns today known as Pietersburg and Potgietersrus. Intermingling between them and the North Sotho took place and this ultimately caused language changes. Important tribes constituting this section of the Ndebele are the Langa and the Moletlana.

The southern group of the Ndebele people migrated to the southern part of the Transvaal under the leadership of their chief Msi. After Msi died, his two sons, Manala and Ndzundza, founded two tribes and split up the southern section of the Ndebele people. They settled in the districts around the towns today known as Middelburg (Transvaal), Bronkhorstspruit, and Belfast. These tribes became known as the Manala and Ndzundza, after their founders.

Page 12 The Swazi THE SOTHO

During the , Swaziland was home While the Nguni group, living in the eastern not only to Nguni tribes but also to Sotho parts of the country, was moving southwards, tribes. The Ngwane tribe under the leadership the Sotho group, which was living at the edge of Sobhuza became very of the Kalahari, was doing the same. This strong after 1820. Mswazi, who ruled from sporadic movement to the south took place 1840 until 1875, succeeded him and before the year 1600. These people had incorporated the Sotho tribes into his tribe or originally also come from the area around the drove them out of the area. These changes Great Lakes in central Africa. One of the made the Swazi nation take shape and the most important tribes was the Kgalagadi who new nation was called after its founder. settled in Botswana.

Small groups of trekked across Other Sotho groups migrated as far as the the border into the Transvaal. These groups . During the Mfecane/Difaqane constituted tribes such as the Nkosi, Shongwe (displacement of black peoples due to and Khumalo who today live in the districts intertribal warring and hunger) the Sotho of Barberton and Nelspruit. The Hhlatyawako suffered greatly under other tribes with live in the districts of Paul Pietersburg and leaders such as Mzilikazi and Mmantatise. Piet Retief, together with some other Swazi The Sotho ethnic group is today divided into tribes. three main groups: the Western Sotho (Botswana), Southern Sotho (Basotho) and Northern Sotho (Bapedi).

Page 13 The Western Sotho The Northern Sotho (Bapedi) The Kgalagadi, initially the Certain tribes that initially main tribe, gave life to the formed part of the Bakgatla Kwena, which divided into a are today part of the large number of tribes. The Northern Sotho. They can Western Sotho live primarily be found in the areas in the area of formerly known as . The most and the important tribes belonging to Pokwani district. These this group are the Tswana, tribes defeated other tribes Kwena, Kgatla, Tlhaping, who used to live there and Tlharo, Rolong and Ngwato. after that, a strong tribe was built up by Thulare and Malekuta. They are The Southern commonly known as the Sotho BaPedi. Mzilikazi often attacked the BaPedi during the Mfecane. The most important Northern Sotho Prior to the Mfecane, many tribes are the Pedi, Koni, independent tribes lived in , Lobedu and and the eastern Free Kutswe. They mainly live State. These people were in areas of Northern related to the Batswana Transvaal and North-Eastern () and Sotho Transvaal. people who lived in Swaziland. They suffered greatly during the Mfecane and many of them were either driven away or killed. However, many of these fugitives found refuge with Moshweshwe’s tribe and in this manner, a strong nation was built. Today this group lives mainly in Lesotho and the eastern part of the Free State. Smaller groups are also found at , Thaba Nchu and Nqamakwe. The most significant tribes are the Kwena, Kgatla, Tlekoa, , Tebele and Vundle.

Page 14 THE VENDA During the 16th century, the Venda migrated from central Africa to the area between the Mountains and the River. Some of them initially lived south of the Soutpansberg, but today they live mainly to the north of the Soutpansberg mountains in the districts known as and . This area is called Venda. The most important Venda section is the Mphephu. One of the smaller sections of the Venda is known as the Lemba

THE MASHANGANA- TSONGA During the Mfecane, Soshangane, together with a part of Zwide’s tribe, fled to . He oppressed the Tsonga who were already living in the area, some of whom chose to flee across the into the Northern Transvaal. Their descendants now live in the districts of Pilgrims Rest, Leydsdorp, , Duiwelskloof, Sibasa and Louis Trichardt. Some Tsonga tribes are the Nhlangu, Nkuna and Tembe. The most significant tribes belonging to the Shangaans are the Tulilamahashe, Shangana and Nkuna.

Page 15 THE MFECANE/DIFAQANE (Destroyed in total war)

One of the most significant historical occurrences in the early was the Mfecane. The term Mfecane () means “destroyed in total war”. The Sotho speaking people on the used the term Difaqane, which means “hammering” or “forced migration/removal”. This occurrence forever changed the settlement patterns and ethnic structure of the African population of the area.

Whole communities of peoples were displaced in their flight from larger warring tribes. The winning tribes would often incorporate the losers into their tribes. Two key figures in this all-out battle for power among the African tribes in southern Africa were Dingiswayo (leader of the Mtethwa tribe) and Zwide (leader of the Ndandwe tribe). Dingiswayo

When Dingiswayo became leader of the Mthethwa, his main concern was to improve the military system of his tribe. Young men of a similar age were divided into regiments. Shaka Each regiment had its own name, colour and weapons. The young men were even required The Zulu tribe was initially a small tribe to remain celibate until such a time when they which recognised Dingiswayo as its had proven themselves worthy of the name paramount chief. The tribe consisted of “warrior”. Dingiswayo’s soon went approximately 2 000 people and its tribal from strength to strength and was employed chief was Senzangakona. Shaka, his son, was in an attempt to expand his territory. The born in around the year 1787. Shaka and his army attacked smaller tribes which were mother Nandi could not get along with some allowed to continue their existence as tribes, of the other members of the Zulu family and but only if they agreed to recognise him as went to live with Nandi’s family, among the their paramount chief. Some of the tribes Lungeni people. When Shaka was 16, his which were dominated in this way were the mother took him to the Mthethwa and, at the Thembu, Qwabe, Mshali Mngadi and the age of 22, he became a soldier in one of Zulu. Dingiswayo’s regiments.

Page 16 He was brave and intelligent and soon He employed cunning military techniques became leader of one of the regiments. When such as the following: when Zwide sent the Senzangakona died in 1816, Sigujane, a half- to attack Shaka, the latter hid the brother of Shaka, became chief of the Zulu. food and led his people and cattle further and Shaka, together with another half-brother further away from the capital. Zwide’s army Ngwadi, plotted against Sigujane, who was followed and Shaka’s soldiers waited until soon murdered. With a regiment borrowed night fell to attack them, when they were from Dingiswayo, Shaka made himself chief exhausted and hungry. The Ndwandwe army of the Zulus. turned back, after which Shaka attacked and destroyed them. A second attempt was made Shaka was an exceptional military leader and by Zwide later in 1819 to destroy Shaka, but organised the Zulu army with military once again the Ndwandwe had no luck. After precision. All the men younger than forty this attempt, Shaka ordered the complete were divided into regiments, based on their destruction of the Ndwandwe people. Shaka age. Shaka built his capital at and, went on destroying several smaller tribes until although he recognised Dingiswayo as Natal was practically depopulated. paramount chief, started incorporating smaller tribes into the Zulu nation. The Zulu eventually grew into a mighty In 1819, when war broke out between the nation when Shaka succeeded in uniting all Ndwandwe and Mthethwa, Dingiswayo was the people in his chiefdom under Zulu rule. killed by Zwide, after which the defeated In 1828, two of Shaka’s half-brothers, Mthethwa tribe was incorporated into Shaka’s Dingane and Mahlangane, murdered him and tribe. In time, Shaka destroyed the Dingane took his place as leader of the Zulu Ndwandwe tribe completely nation.

Page 17 Dingane The Voortrekkers swore Dingane soon sent soldiers vengeance and Dingane’s Dingane’s capital was built to fight the army was defeated at Blood at Umgungundlovu. He was but he also launched attacks River on 16 December 1838 not as good a soldier as against Mzilikazi and the by . Shaka and this caused his Voortrekkers. Dingane’s death brought defeat in many of his . with it an end to the In order to combat the On 3 February 1838, extermination wars waged decline of the , Dingane’s tribesmen killed by the Zulus. However, in Dingane decided to kill a Piet Retief, together with 67 other parts of the country, few important leaders. One of his followers, during an the Mfecane continued under of these leaders, Ngeto (of ambush. Retief had had an leaders such as Msilikazi, the Qwabe tribe), realised agreement with Dingane that Soshangane and Sikonyela. that his life was in danger if he succeeded in returning and, after gathering his Dingane’s cattle that had people and livestock, fled been stolen by Sikonyela, southwards and settled in the the Voortrekkers would be Mpondo district, from which allowed to buy land from the he himself started to attack Zulu. When the other tribes. Voortrekkers returned with the stolen cattle, they were killed.

Page 18 Mzilikazi

Another small Nguni tribe that was forced to Mzilikazi decided to trek to the central join Zwide’s Ndwandwe tribe was called the Transvaal and he eventually settled in the Khumalo. The Khumalo tribe was suspected vicinity of what is today known as . of treachery during the war against He moved because he needed to put even Dingiswayo’s Mthethwa and its leader, more distance between himself and Shaka and Mashobane, was summoned to Zwide’s kraal he was also in need of more grazing land. and killed. Zwide appointed Mzilikazi as the After this move, his tribe became even more new leader of the Khumalo. He was an bloodthirsty. intelligent leader who knew how to gain the trust of the tribes that had been incorporated When the Voortrekkers came on the scene in into his own. Trouble started when Mzilikazi 1836, Mzilikazi once again went on the began to suspect that Zwide wanted to kill attack. At Vegkop, the Voortrekkers him. In preparation, Mzilikazi formed an succeeded in defeating the Matebele, but they alliance with Shaka, who allowed him to be lost all their cattle. In 1837, the Voortrekkers the leader of one of his regiments. once again succeeded in defeating the Matebele at Mosega and the Voortrekkers, In 1821, Mzilikazi felt strong enough to under the leadership of Potgieter, recovered become independent. Shaka sent him to some of their stolen cattle. The Matabele attack a small Sotho tribe northwest of then moved away only to be defeated by the Zululand and, as always, he brought back Zulu. In an attempt to get away from his with him a number of cattle taken during the enemies, Mzilikazi crossed the Soutpansberg battle. However, this time he did not hand Mountains and the into which them over to Shaka as he had done before. is today known as . He died in When Shaka sent his messengers to collect 1868. the cattle, Mzilikazi refused to return them. After this, he was attacked by Shaka’s army and had no but to flee with his people.

Mzilikazi trekked northwards with his people until he reached the Olifants (Elephants) River. He was now in the territory of powerful Sotho tribes, which he attacked, taking their women, children and livestock. He attacked tribes as far as and overpowered them by the military tactics perfected by the . His tribe eventually became known as the Matabele.

Page 19 Soshangane

After the tribes of Zwide, Soshangane, and Nxaba,had been defeated by Shaka, they fled to Mozambique. There, they destroyed the Portuguese settlement at Delagoa Bay.

As the Mfecane continued, the land was devastated and tribes were attacked. Much damage was done. Soshangane’s capital was near the modern day and Shaka attacked him here in the campaign that cost Shaka’s life. Soshangane then moved on to Middle Sabie and settled near Zwangendaba and his people.

The tribes of Soshangane and Zwangendaba coexisted in harmony until 1831, when they went to war. Zwangendaba had to flee before Soshangane, after which Soshangane, went on to attack Nxaba, who responded by fleeing with his followers to the present-day . With Soshangane’s biggest enemies out of the way, he began building his Gaza Kingdom. From his capital, Chaimite, soldiers were sent in all directions to attack other tribes. Even the Portuguese were forced to accept him as paramount chief. His kingdom stretched from the to the Limpopo Rivers and his army resembled that of the Zulus in its military strategies. As Soshangane grew older, he began to believe that the Matshangano had bewitched him. In retaliation, he attacked them and many fled to the Transvaal where their descendants still live today. Soshangane died around the year 1826.

Page 20 Mmantatise Sikonyela

During the early 19th century, two of the Moshweshwe was living on the mountain biggest Nguni tribes, the Hlubi and the with his small tribe and after repeatedly Ngwane, lived near the present-day attacking Mmantatise, Moshweshwe’s tribe . The Hlubi was under the moved to Peka. There they continued the leadership of Mpangazita and was Mfecane and defeated the Hlubi. Sikonyela the leader of the Ngwane. The Zulus had was by now old enough to lead the Batlokwa forced these two tribes across the in battle and, in 1824, they made another Mountains into Sotho territory, attempt to reconquer Moshweshwe’s which meant the start of the Mfecane for the mountain stronghold at Butha-Buthe. The Sotho tribes. mountain was surrounded in order to stop the from obtaining food. After two The first tribe to be attacked was the months, a Nguni tribe came to Moshweshwe’s Batlokwa. The tribe’s chief had just died and rescue and the Batlokwa were forced to leave. his successor, Sikonyela, was still too young The Batlokwa subsequently went to settle on to rule. His mother, Mmantatise was a strong two other mountains. In 1852, Moshweshwe leader and ruled in his place. After the Hlubi finally drove the Batlokwa away. tribe defeated the Batlokwa, they took to wandering around and attacking other tribes and tribes such as the Bafokeng were forced to flee. The Batlokwa eventually settled at Butha-Buthe, a mountain stronghold.

Sikonyela

Page 21 Moshweshwe

Moshweshwe, the builder of the Sotho empire, was born in 1793. His mother belonged to the Bafokeng tribe and his father was chief of the Bakwena tribe. When the Mfecane began in 1816, Moshweshwe was 23 years old. During the early years of his chieftainship, leaders such as Shaka, Dingane and Mzilikazi were waging the destructive wars of the Mfecane. Many of the people who got caught up in these wars turned to Moshweshwe for refuge. He took them all in and his tribe grew bigger and stronger. In 1823, Moshweshwe established Butha-Buthe as the capital of his chiefdom. A year later, he established a safer stronghold at Thaba Bosigo. This mountain stronghold was so secure that when Mzilikazi attacked it in 1831, he had to turn back without accomplishing anything.

Moshweshwe was a diplomatic and powerful leader and was too clever to try to expand his territory northwards because he knew that this would incur the wrath of strong leaders such as Mzilikazi, Shaka and Dingane.

Page 22 Consequences of the Mfecane/Difaqane

The Mfecane had a great influence on the The whites took advantage of this situation history of South Africa. Large parts of the by moving into the empty areas and in this country in Natal, the Transvaal and Free State way the ethnic map of South Africa was were largely depopulated because people fled changed completely. in droves to safer areas such as the Transkei, the edge of the Kalahari, the Soutpansberg Many people died during the Mfecane. and the present-day Lesotho. In consequence, Violence and starvation were rampant, these areas could not cope with the sudden because the livestock was stolen and people influx and became overpopulated. could not stay long enough in one place to cultivate crops. Although hundreds of After the Mfecane, the Black peoples were thousands of people lost their lives, it also living in an area shaped like a horseshoe. The gave rise to the formation of big new nations Tswana and Pedi lived in the west and the such as the Sotho. The tribes of leaders such Venda, Shangaan, Tsonga and Swazi lived in as Dingane, Shaka, Mzilikazi and Soshangane the north. The Zulu lived in the eastern part were significantly strengthened and changed. of the country, as did the Sotho and the inhabitants of both Transkei and Ciskei.

Page 23 EUROPEAN INTERESTS The Portuguese

The white population arrived on the South African scene long after the blacks. Bartolomeu Dias was the first Portuguese seafarer to sail around the southern point of Africa in 1486. He named it “The ” (“Cabo de Boa Esperanca”), because it was hoped that it would clear the way to , which would simplify trade with the East. Upon returning home Dias and his men reported that they had spotted Khoikhoi along the coast.

Nine years were to pass before , another Portuguese seafarer, attempted a voyage around the southern point of Africa on his way to India. Once again the seafarers met up with Khoikhoi and some of the crew were hurt in a skirmish with them. The Khoikhoi were prepared to trade with the seafarers but, because of communication problems and misunderstandings, there were many problems and disagreements between the two groups. On 25 December 1497, Da Gama reached the coast of Pondoland and called it “Natal”, meaning “Christmas”.

Although the Portuguese were the first to travel around the Cape, they were not seriously interested in southern Africa. They were wary of the indigenous population and the weather at the Cape was sometimes treacherous and dangerous. Some of the early Portuguese seafarers referred to the Cape as “The Cape of Storms” and preferred not to sail around it. Furthermore, as far as trade was concerned, South Africa offered very little - gold had not yet been discovered and, except for the presence of the Khoikhoi, the southern point of Africa seemed deserted and without promise. The British

In June 1580, nearly a hundred years later, Sir Francis Drake sailed past the Cape. He was on a voyage around the world, commissioned by Elizabeth I of . It was winter; the weather was calm and the serene. The sight inspired Sir Francis Drake to utter the following words: “This Cape is a most stately thing and the fairest Cape we saw in the whole circumference of the earth.”

More British expeditions followed and other European countries soon followed in their footsteps.

In the first half of the 17th century, it was mainly the English and the Dutch who made use of the route around the Cape of Good Hope for trading purposes. Danish and French ships also made stopovers to replenish their water supplies and to up with fresh produce. Although the English, French and Dutch Companies all toyed with the idea of establishing a base at the Cape in the 17th century, it was the Dutch who finally took the plunge.

Page 24 The Dutch The French

On 6 April 1652, arrived in In 1689, some 180 Huguenot refugees were with his three ships, De Reiger, De brought to the Cape after Louis XIV had Drommedaris and De Goede . His banned Calvinism in . They settled mission was to establish a supply station on mainly in the district near what is behalf of the Dutch today known as . People from ( V.O.C.) where fresh produce could be G e r m a n y, , Flanders and cultivated to supply the ships passing through Switzerland also contributed to the diverse on their way to the East. They soon realised population of the Cape. the importance of trading with the indigenous people of the country and, as a result, intermingling started to take place on several levels. The V.O.C. also realised that a hospital was urgently needed at the outpost.

Proper food and medical care were needed to combat the great loss of men on their trade expeditions to the East. At this time approximately half of all ships’ crews died, mainly from scurvy. Scurvy was caused when people consumed only food preserved in salt over a prolonged period of time, resulting in a lack of Vitamin C.

O r i g i n a l l y, the V.O.C. did not intend to establish a full-fledged at the Cape, but it committed itself when it gave nine Company servants their freedom in 1657 to establish private farms in the area below the eastern slopes of . This was done in an attempt to combat a wheat shortage at the time.

In 1679, was sent to the Cape to become the new and a further 20 settlers were granted land beyond the in the area that is today known as Stellenbosch.

The population at the Cape grew even larger as the granting of property to private citizens encouraged the immigration of white woman to the area and servants and seamen were recruited from the hinterlands of Europe

Page 25 THE SLAVES Most slaves were In addition to the economic condemned to a lifetime of contribution that the slaves The importation of slaves , but a few owners made to the Cape, they made greatly enlarged the made provision for their other important population of the Cape. slaves to be freed after their contributions, e.g. social and Slaves were imported from death. Slaves would do extra religious, as well. The slaves other parts of Africa, work during their free time from Malaya brought Islam , India and East to save some money for with them, which religion is . They were mainly when they were freed. The still practiced in South used as labourers and freed slaves at the Cape Africa. The intermingling servants but many of them often earned a living by between the slaves and the were skilled carpenters and catching fish, selling European population created bricklayers. Their skills vegetables and running small the Coloured community, played an invaluable role in canteens. But the end of which today still lives speeding up the progress and slavery was near, although mainly in the . development of the Cape. owners tried to fight it. Towards the end of the 18th The Dutch East India century, the V.O.C. declared Company (V.O.C) owned that no people who belonged some of the slaves and they to the Christian faith could lived in a huge slave hostel be sold as slaves and slave in the Cape. This slave lodge owners became very was later converted to house reluctant to let their slaves the old Supreme Court and convert to . currently houses the South African Cultural History In 1807, the British Museum in Adderley Street. Parliament made the slave trade illegal throughout the Many of the slaves were . However, it owned by free citizens was only in December 1833 (vryburgers). They were that slaves were set free called free citizens because under a law allowing a the Dutch East India period of four years’ Company gave them their apprenticeship for domestic freedom to make a living slaves and six years for independent of the plantation slaves. After the Company, e.g. by farming period of apprenticeship, the their own land. The slaves slaves would finally be free who were in the employ of to leave the employ of their the free citizens helped with owners. The emancipation the cultivation of wine, of the slaves bankrupted wheat and vegetables and many slave owners because others were employed as there was no one left to do domestic servants. A the work. Many ex-slaves number of slave owners used joined the bands of roaming the slaves to work in their Hottentots, while others which supplied went into for goods such as shoes, clothes themselves or started a new and furniture. life as paid employees.

Page 26 THE TREKBOERS (MIGRANT FARMERS)

During the early years of Dutch occupation, Until 1750,there was nothing to prevent the the focus was primarily on agriculture. With Trekboers from advancing rapidly into the the growth of the population, more and more interior. There was plenty of water in the people started cultivating agricultural interior and they employed Khoikhoi to tend products, which, before long, resulted in a to the cattle. However, the Dutch East India surplus of products such as wine, wheat and Company became worried about the vegetables. Trekboers moving so far because it became This overproduction of agricultural products increasingly difficult to exercise any authority forced the free citizens to explore other over them. In order to maintain its authority, avenues, such as stock farming. Soon the the V.O.C. was forced to follow in their stock farmers began to move deeper into the tracks. This constant moving also resulted in interior in their search for more and better the V.O.C. having to continually change the grazing. Young men married and set up their boundaries of the eastern frontier of the own farms and the resultant large families colony. Eventually, in 1778, the Great Fish caused the number of stock farmers to River became the eastern frontier. It was also increase rapidly. The lack of sufficient space here that the Trekboers first experienced for proper stock farming prompted the problems with the Xhosa farmers to pack their possessions into their ox wagons and move deeper into the interior. This kind of farmer was called a “Trekboer”. The word means, “a migrant farmer”.

Page 27 Until that time, the Trekboers had only experienced serious clashes with the San when the San attacked them with poisoned arrows and hunted their cattle. The Trekboers frequently organised hunting parties in reprisal for the San attacks. When the frontier farmers, as they were now called, met up with the Xhosa, serious clashes followed. Each group felt that the other was intruding on their livelihood and wanted to protect its territory at all costs. The V.O.C. established new districts such as and Graaff- Reinet in order to maintain authority over the frontier and to quell the ongoing violence, but to no avail. The frontier farmers kept on moving across the border and the Xhosa refused to let go of their heritage that easily. A number of frontier wars followed and both groups leant to live with regular occurrences of theft, arson and murder.

Page 28 which furthered economical EUROPEAN growth. British taxation was also lenient. OCCUPATIONS The biggest problem the Batavian rule: OF THE CAPE British had to contend with was the unrest on the 1803 - 1806 eastern frontier. The British farmers on the frontier were Occupation: 1795 not prepared to submit to British rule without a fight The Batavian - 1803 and the African population appointed Janssens as After the , also resisted. The farmers governor of the Cape and De the newly founded Republic tried to recapture the Cape, Mist became Commissioner- of France conquered the but eventually surrendered. General. These two leaders in 1795. The When Gaika became chief of were supporters of the Dutch Netherlands became known the Xhosas, unrest and Patriots and they tried to re- as the tension on the eastern establish Dutch settlement at and the ruler of the frontier intensified. The the Cape. They also brought Netherlands, Prince William farmers revolted under the about some significant of Orange, had to flee to leadership of Adriaan van political and administrative England. In England, the Jaarsveld and relations changes. Janssens, as prince asked the British to between the farmers and governor, held supreme prevent France taking authorities deteriorated . legislative power and a possession of the Dutch political council assisted him . Britain obliged In 1803, after the Cape had in his duties. He also and, as a result, became been returned to the Dutch instituted a Council of involved with the Cape. in terms of the Peace of Justice to represent the Problems occurred almost Amiens (signed between interests of the colonists. immediately because not all England and France), Municipal councils were the inhabitants of the Cape British rule at the Cape instituted in Cape , were in favour of British came to an end. Stellenbosch, Swellendam occupation. and Graaff-Reinet and every district had an appointed However, the British did (magistrate). bring with them certain improvements. Under British rule, officials received set salaries and were no longer dependent on incomes from fines. This eliminated most malpractices in the . British iron ploughs were imported,which assisted with agricultural development. Because of the war in Europe, there was a growing demand for agricultural products from the Cape,

Page 29 In 1804, De Mist published the Church Order that allowed for freedom of religion. Education was improved by importing teachers from the Netherlands. Sheep farming was also improved by importing merino rams from Spain. Wine experts from were imported to try and improve the quality of wine.

Unfortunately, some of De Mist’s plans for the frontier failed. The alliance between the Khoikhoi and the Xhosa on the frontier caused more friction and De Mist did not have sufficient funds to effectively carry out his frontier policy. When the Batavian flag was lowered for the last time on 10 January 1806, the Cape Colonists were sad to see De Mist and Janssens leave, because they had achieved much good over a short period of time.

Page 30 Second British Occupation: 1806

When war broke out in Europe in 1803, I tried to stop British trade with Europe. Britain had lost its American colonies with their valuable trading opportunities and was forced to look elsewhere to find new markets for trade. The logical choice was the East. This meant trading by sea and the Cape was the ideal place for ships to obtain fresh water and produce. This prompted the second occupation of the Cape by Britain, in January 1806.

Remembering the problems that it had had in its American colonies, Britain decided to be more autocratic in its governance of the Cape. The Cape would be governed as a , with a governor appointed by England and inhabitants of the Cape would no longer have any say in political matters. The governor took his instructions only from the Minister of Colonies in and was given the power to make laws and dismiss officials as he saw fit. However, the system of local government, which enabled magistrates and councils to continue as before, was retained

Page 31 British Governors Slagtersnek The British Rebellion Settlers: 1820 British governors ruled the Somerset was a Following the Napoleonic Cape from 1807 - 1814. The particularly stern governor wars, Britain was first governor, Caledon, and did not tolerate any experiencing a serious formed the Circuit Court, insubordination from the unemployment problem and which had magistrates travel colonists. His harsh Somerset was therefore keen to remote districts to conduct attitude gave cause to to entice British immigrants court cases of importance. much dissatisfaction and to the Cape. He also The administration of justice one particularly ugly thought that they would help was greatly improved by this incident took place during to maintain peace on the new method. These courts his rule. A farmer, who border between the Fish and also kept an eye on the had been accused of ill- Sundays Rivers. In 1819, magistrates and councils in treating one of his the British government the remote areas. labourers, was summoned decided to send emigrants to before court but resisted the Cape. Attractive In 1811, Cradock took over arrest and was killed in a conditions such as free land as governor and he ruled were offered and 90 000 subsequent shoot-out. His until 1814, after which Lord applications, of which only 4 brother swore to avenge Charles Somerset became 000 were approved, were his death and this led to a the new governor. received. revolt against Somerset’s government in which sixty The first settlers arrived in men took part. Table Bay on 17 March 1820. From there they were After the revolt was sent to Algoa Bay, today crushed, a tribunal was known as . held in which 39 men Life on the border was harsh were found guilty. Five of and the settlers encountered them were hanged at many problems such as Slagtersnek and the others drought, rust (a condition were imprisoned. It was affecting crops) and a lack occurrences like this that of transport. As a result, strengthened negative many settlers left the eastern feelings against the British border in search of a better government. life in the towns. The eastern border thus never became as densely populated as Somerset had hoped.

Page 32 The settlers who did remain as farmers, made a significant contribution to agriculture by planting maize, rye and barley. They also started wool farming which, in time, became a very lucrative trade. Some of the settlers, being traders by profession, also made a significant contribution to business and the economy, and new towns such as Grahamstown and Port Elizabeth grew rapidly.

The settlers also effected some significant political changes in the Cape. They had known a “free press” as their right in England and could not see why it should be different in the Cape. Despite Somerset’s opposition, a free press was obtained in 1825. The settlers also played an important part in establishing the Council of Advice in 1825. This council consisted of six members who advised the governor on matters of importance.

Despite the efforts of the council, dissatisfaction was rife at the Cape, especially among who felt that, since the churches and schools were rapidly being anglicised, their language was in danger of becoming extinct.

Unrest on the eastern border became worse and caused much dissatisfaction. When Somerset intervened in tribal matters between two Xhosa factions, it caused a backlash by those who resented his intervention. The Xhosa group also did not take kindly to the British settlers who, according to them, had been given land that rightfully belonged to the Xhosa. Neutral zones were established but not even this could stop the violence and fighting.

It was just a matter of time before the people living on the eastern border would devise and implement their own strategies to stay alive, because it was evident that the British governors could not fully control the situation.Many farmers left the eastern border in an attempt to establish independent states in the interior. This move was later referred to as the Great Trek, the historical event that, together with the Mfecane, greatly determined the shape and structure of the South Africa of the future.

Settler Church, Port Elizabeth Page 33 THE GREAT Causes of the During the sixth eastern frontier war, farmers lost TREK Great Trek livestock to the value of R600 000. Over a time span of three One of the most important years starting in 1835, more causes of the Great Trek was Vagrant Hottentots also or less 10 000 white people the unrest on the eastern plundered the farms. left the and border. The government Conditions deteriorated trekked/moved into the was unable to segregate the badly after the institution of interior by ox wagon. In Xhosas from the whites and Ordinance 50 of 1828, the two groups kept on time, after facing many which cancelled the pass clashing. The Xhosas stole hardships, these farmers laws. In 1834, when the the white farmers’ cattle and started to build a unique slaves were freed, the the farmers occupied identity and started calling situation worsened even territory that had themselves Afrikaners. They further, as many of them had traditionally belonged to the no option but to steal to also developed a hybrid Xhosa. Not even the make a living. The freeing language, , which establishment of neutral of the slaves also meant stemmed from high Dutch territory could keep the financial loss for the farmers but incorporated strong parties from becoming and this added to their French, Malay, German and involved in battles with each dissatisfaction. Black influences. The other. Some governors did Afrikaans-speaking more than others to protect descendants of these people the frontier farmers but there would later simply be called was nevertheless a Boere (Farmers). significant number of wars on the eastern frontier

Page 34 The Dutch-speaking people also felt that their identity was being threatened. A series of laws proclaimed between 1823 and 1828 enabled the government to substitute the official use of Dutch with English. When the magistrates and councils were also abolished, the colonists no longer had any say in the government and their desire for self-government increased. Different Trek groups

Trichardt and Van Rensburg

Louis Trichardt and Hans van Rensburg led the first groups to leave the Colony. There were 53 people in Trichardt’s group and they crossed the Orange River in 1835 on their way to the Soutpansberg. Hans van Rensburg also left the colony at the same time with his group of followers but his aim was to move to Mozambique. The Van Rensburg party was subsequently massacred near the Limpopo River.

Louis Trichardt moved on to the area where the town of Louis Trichardt is situated today. He waited for some time for Potgieter’s trek to meet up with them but eventually became impatient and moved on to Lourenco Marques (present day Maputo). By the time Trichardt reached Maputo, on 13 April 1838, many of his cattle had been killed by tsetse flies and nearly half of his group had died of malaria.

Andries Hendrik Potgieter

Potgieter left the Cape Colony towards the end of 1835 with 200 people. They also wanted to go to Lourenco Marques for trading purposes, but they did not get that far. They were attacked by an army of 1 000 men sent by Mzilikazi. A few of the Voortrekkers were killed and Potgieter left his trek temporarily to meet up with Louis Trichardt. On his return, he instructed his people to form a laager (circle of ox wagons) as a defence strategy against the black . Two months later, all their cattle were stolen during another attack at Vegkop. Moroka (chief of the Barolong) and Gerrit Maritz helped Potgieter’s group to get back to Thaba Nchu.

Page 35 Gerrit Maritz

Gerrit Maritz left for Thaba Nchu with 700 people. When they arrived in November 1836, they held a mass meeting with the Voortrekkers who had already arrived. Maritz was elected as the president of a council of 7 members who were to look after the interests of the Voortrekkers. Potgieter was elected the military leader. One of the first decisions of the council was to send an expedition out to recapture their cattle from Mzilikazi.

Piet Retief

Piet Retief was the commandant of the Winterberg ward in the district of Albany. He was also a farmer, building contractor and speculator and had sufficient money to finance a venture into the interior. Before he left, he published a manifesto in the Grahamstown Journal in which he explained the reasons for the trek. He left the Cape in March 1837, together with 400 people. When he joined the Voortrekkers in the Free State, they numbered more or less 5 000. Retief was elected governor and military leader at a convention held at . At the same convention Maritz was elected chairman of the Political Council.

Piet Uys

Piet Uys and his followers were the last to leave the Cape as part of a big organised trek. These 100 odd men, women and children departed from the district of in April 1837. They arrived in the Free State in August of the same year.

Page 36 Voortrekkers in Zululand and Natal Dingane was finally defeated The Voortrekkers had In April 1838, Uys and by who became the opposing views about the Potgieter retaliated by new paramount chief of the direction the trek should launching a counterattack Zulus. The Voortrekkers now take. Potgieter felt it best to against the Zulus. They felt safer and on 14 February remain in Transvaal, since were defeated by the Zulus 1840, Andries Pretorius Britain might annex Natal, at Italeni. The Zulus proclaimed Natal a which would mean that the attacked again on 13 August Voortrekker Republic,the Voortrekkers would once and in December 1838, the Republic of Natal. They again be under British rule. last remaining Voortrekker formed a government and Maritz, Cilliers and Retief leader, Maritz, died. As the was chosen did not his fears and Voortrekkers needed a new as the new capital. decided to move to Natal. leader, they sent for Andries Piet Uys was not quite sure Pretorius. Pretorius acted as The Republic of Natal where his trek should be their leader in the Battle of existed for only 5 years until heading. on 16 the governor of the Cape, Sir December 1838 when they George Napier, sent When the Voortrekkers defeated the Zulu army. Sir Harry Smith and his men arrived in Natal, the greater Dingane fled, after setting to annex Natal. A struggle part of Natal was under the fire to his kraal. At Kwa followed, during which the control of Dingane. Retief Maritane, the skeletons of British suffered a number of attempted to buy land from Retief and his men were casualties and lost two of Dingane who promised to found, together with a their . (a sell it if the Voortrekkers satchel containing the treaty legend in South African agreed to recover the cattle between Dingane and the history) escaped on which had been stolen by Voortrekkers. The horseback, and Sikonyela. When Retief and Voortrekkers were now the astonishingly, it took him his people brought back the owners of the land between only six days to reach stolen cattle, they signed a the Drakensberg Grahamstown. The British contract with Dingane. Mountains,from the Tugela sent reinforcements and the Later that day, however, River to the Umzimvubu Voortrekkers were forced to Dingane’s people killed 67 River and the sea. retreat to Pietermaritzburg. of the Voortrekkers, On 12 May 1843, Natal including Retief. Dingane’s became a British colony and soldiers then went to the most of the Voortrekkers laagers (camps) of the chose to return to the Free Voortrekkers and killed State and the Transvaal. many more, including women and children. The Zulus also drove off the bulk of the Voortrekkers’ cattle.

Page 37 Voortrekker settlement in the Transvaal

After being attacked, the Voortrekkers in the Transvaal moved back to Thaba Nchu under the leadership of Andries Potgieter. In two attacks against Mzilikazi, one a counter-attack and the second a precautionary attack, the Matabele were defeated and Potgieter and his followers thought it safe to remain in Transvaal. Soon after, Potgieter gave in to pressure and moved to Natal, but soon returned to the Transvaal where he founded the town of . He proclaimed the district as the Republic of Winburg-Potchefstroom. From here, the Voortrekkers moved to Marico and .

Potgieter and his people wanted to move as far away from the Cape as possible and in the process, other towns such as Ohrigstad and were founded. Many of the Voortrekkers returned to the Republic of Winburg-Potchefstroom after the of Natal by the British. Conflict arose between Potgieter and another group and Potgieter moved even further north and founded the town of Schoemansdal. Some of the Voortrekkers who had fled to northern Natal after the British occupation, asked to be incorporated into the ZAR (the ) as the Transvaal had been named. In order to do this, the land on which the town of Utrecht was founded the following year, had to be bought from Mpande.

Britain did not recognise the independence of Transvaal, but made no attempt at annexation.The reason for its inactivity was the hostile attitude of certain black tribes towards Britain and also the fact that war was looming in Europe. On 17 January 1852, the Convention was signed between Britain and the Transvaal Republic. It was the first time that Britain had acknowledged the independence of a Voortrekker Republic.

Page 38 Voortrekker Settlement in the

The Trekboers moved into the area that would come to be known as the Free State, as early as the 17th and 18th centuries. At the start of the 19th century there were already different groups present in the area. Some of these groups were the Basotho (under leadership of Moshweshwe, the Griqua (under Adam Kok), the Batlokwa, the Bataung and the Barolong. The area that became known as Trans Orangia was situated between the Orange and the Vet Rivers. Many of the Trekboers settled in the Phillippolis area, where Adam Kok rented land to them. The Trekboers considered themselves British subjects but, when the Voortrekkers passed through the area, some Trekboers joined them while others chose to remain.

When the Potgieter trek arrived at Thaba Nchu in 1836, Potgieter made an arrangement with Makwana, chief of the Bataung, that, in exchange for cattle and protection against Mzilikazi, Potgieter would be given land in an area between the Vet and Vaal Rivers. This area became known as Winburg. When Retief arrived, it was decided that the Trekkers should move to Natal. Potgieter eventually agreed, but he moved back to Winburg after his defeat at Italeni by Dingane. He later also founded Potchefstroom, a town next to the . Potgieter linked the towns of Winburg and Potchefstroom by declaring the Winburg-Potchefstroom Republic.

The divided the area between the and the Orange River. The southern part became known as Trans-Orangia and the Northern area formed part of the Winburg - Potchefstroom Republic.

Jan Mocke and Jan Kok were the leaders of the Voortrekkers who lived in the vicinity of the Vet

River. After the annexation of Natal, their numbers increased because many people who were not prepared to submit to British rule moved back to the area. In Trans-Orangia, however, the Trekboers, under the leadership of Machiel Oberholzer, wished to remain under British authority. Oberholzer therefore informed the judge at of the plans of the upper to establish a republic. Without consulting the British government, the judge immediately annexed the area but the British government would not ratify the annexation.

Page 39 When Sir Harry Smith became governor of the Cape Colony in 1847, he wanted to annex the territory as far as the Vaal River. He informed the British government that the majority of the people living in the area strongly supported such an annexation, which was not true. However, Smith went ahead and annexed the area up to the Vaal River and called it the Orange River . The citizens of Winburg revolted but were defeated at Boomplaats by Smith’s soldiers. Potgieter was outlawed and magistrates were appointed in the districts of , Winburg and the Vaal River.

The Battle of Boomplaats disturbed the British government because it cost a lot of money and proved that many of the inhabitants were opposed to the annexation. The Basotho under Moshweshwe were one of the dissatisfied groups and in 1854 they defeated a British armed force sent to punish them for their raids.

The British government was of the opinion that since the independence of Transvaal had been recognised in 1852, there was no reason why the same could not be done for the Orange Free State. When the Basotho defeated another British force in the area of Berea, Britain decided to officially recognise the Republic of the Orange Free State.

On 23 February 1854, the Bloemfontein Convention was signed and the area between the Vaal and Orange Rivers officially became the Republic of the Orange Free State.

Page 40 THE DISCOVERY OF DIAMONDS AND GOLD

With the discovery of diamonds in the 19th In 1886, farms such as Elandsfontein, century, urbanisation started in earnest in Turffontein and Roodepoort were proclaimed South Africa. People came from all over the public diggings. These diggings later became world to stake their claims in the well-known suburbs of . fields. In 1867, diamonds were discovered at and in 1871, more diamonds were Johannesburg was officially established on 4 discovered in the vicinity of the present-day October 1886, and by 1893 there were 14 Kimberley. A company, “ suburbs in the new town.By 1896, the of Consolidated Mines” was established under Johannesburg had a total population of more the leadership of Cecil John Rhodes. This than 100 000 of which a third was made up of company went from strength to strength and foreigners. President Kruger appointed a is still in existence today. More towns, such magistrate to see to legal matters and a Health as Koffiefontein and , started up Committee controlled the town until 1897. as a result of a concentration of diamond This committee had a difficult task, as diggers in certain areas.When gold was inadequate water supplies and the lack of a discovered in the eastern Transvaal (Pilgrim’s sewerage system contributed to poor health Rest and the Mac-Mac Waterfalls) a similar conditions. process took place. New towns were established to accommodate the huge influx There were many other problems too. Many of people. magnates such as Cecil farmers, who came to seek their fortune in John Rhodes and , who both Johannesburg after a severe drought had had interests in the diamond industry, also driven them off their farms, became even became involved in the mining of gold. The poorer as the divide between rich and poor wealth they had accumulated at Kimberley increased. A group of people, the so-called was used to establish large mining companies. “Poor Whites,” lived in shacks and depended on welfare organisations to support them. The establishment of mining companies was The , who had left their essential because, although people were able traditional homes, had similar problems. to pan gold in rivers and streams in the Many of them became detribalised and eastern Transvaal (today known as struggled to adjust because of the differences ), the gold reef on the between their traditional culture and the was too deep for individual European culture. The Transvalers with their digging. Mining companies gave Christian, conservative views also found it employment to foreigners as well as to locals, difficult to adjust to a lifestyle that was, in as more and more people streamed into the their view, immoral. area. Since the miners had certain basic needs, such as food, clothes, schools, houses, medical care and furniture, whole industries grew in the mining areas.

Page 41 Towards the end of the 19th century, problems once again arose between Britain and the Transvaal. In 1895, some British imperialists such as Rhodes organised the (an attempt to make the Transvaal a British colony). Although the raid did not succeed, it severely damaged the economy of the Witwatersrand.

An employment problem was created when many of the labourers left in an attempt to get out of the way of the troubles. The foreigners either returned overseas or fled to the two British colonies, Natal and the Cape. The black people returned to their traditional homes and many of the Transvalers left to take part in the Anglo-Boer War. The mines were left without virtually any workers. Lord Milner, the new governor of the Transvaal, was anxious to get the gold mines back into production again and decided to recruit workers from Mozambique. In 1904, Milner also started importing labourers from . By 1907, there were more than 50 000 Chinese in the country.

When the Conservative Party took over in Britain, it was decided that the Transvaal and the Free State should once again be granted self- government. The Chinese were then repatriated and workers were once again recruited from all over Southern Africa.

Page 42