Tanzania W Hiv/Aids S Nepad S Mwafaka Yltp D

Participation 2000 PRSPCOTONOU Political Handbook HIPC & NGO Calendar 2003 Vision 2025 Globalization TANZANIA W HIV/AIDS S NEPAD S MWAFAKA YLTP D

Dear Partners, Friends & Interested Readers,

Karibu 2003!

In the year 2002 we received many positive comments and expressions of appreciation for the Political Handbook/ NGO Calendar. This has encouraged us to continue to make the handbook as comprehensive as possible. Here, then, is the new handbook for 2003. We hope that you will find it just as interesting and useful. Once again we present a wide range of articles that discuss political, economical and social conditions in Tanzania. For readers actively engaged in the development of civil society the handbook is both a source of useful information and a toolbox to assist you in your work. We have done our best to make it as accurate and as reader-friendly as possible, but we are of course open to constructive comments and criticism. At FES we will continue to work with issues that have bearing on poverty reduction, issues such as gender, HIV/AIDS, conflict reduction and human rights. Closely related to poverty reduction is the agreed co-operation between the African, Caribbean, and Pacific states and the European Union, the conditions of which are described in the Cotonou Agreement. FES will contribute by furthering a better and broader dialogue on the issues in order to attain satisfying results for Tanzania and the region. Further projects of major concern for FES and for the partners are: •Leadership for Good Governance (“Youth Leadership Training Programme”) •Participation and Conflict Resolution (“Coping with Conflicts, Agenda Participation”) •Support to the Local Government Development (“Manual and Training for Councillors”)

Finally I would like to thank our many contributors for their work, with special thanks to Alphonce Siarra, Kate Girvan and the coordinator, Angela Ishengoma. The staff of the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Tanzania would like to wish you and your family a healthy, prosperous and peaceful year 2003. And let us stand together for Peace, Shalom, Salaam, Paz and Amani!

PETER HÄUSSLER Resident Director TABLE OF CONTENTS

CALENDAR 2003 7 Guidelines for including the gender dimension in an activity 8

1. OVERVIEW Some basic facts and figures 36 Tanzania: a political and historical overview 37 Introduction to indicators 39 Tanzania at a glance 41

2. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES Different views on globalization 45 Tanzania and the dynamics of the contemporary global economy 47 The new partnership for Africa’s development (NEPAD), East African Community and Tanzania’s perspectives 53 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) 55 COTONOU Agreement 58

3. REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES The first development strategy of the East African Community 1997-2000 65 Origins of violent conflicts in the Great Lakes Region 67 Tanzania and the regional trade agreements 71

4. LOCAL PERSPECTIVES The Tanzania Development Vision 2025 74 Progress on the implementation of Poverty Reduction Strategies in Tanzania 76 Household food security and women’s role: the case of Tanzania 79 Gender and land laws 82 Local government in Tanzania 84 Highly Indebted Poor Countries initiative and linakge to poverty reduction in Tanzania 86 Consequences of privatisation in Tanzania 90

5. CIVIL SOCIETY Impact of NGOs in development 92 The shortcomings of the NGO Bill 98 Theatre for change 102

6. MEDIA The Media Council of Tanzania 103 Code of Ethics for Journalists 105 What is “public relations”? 106 Preparing and running a press conference 106 A press release 107 Internet and email 108 Kiswahili newspapers in Tanzania 110 Journals in Tanzania 112 English newspapers in Tanzania 113 Newsletters in Tanzania 113 Magazines in Tanzania 115 Radio broadcasting in Tanzania 116 Television broadcasting in Tanzania 119 Cable Television Networks in Tanzania 120

7. TRADE UNIONS Trade Unions Act of 1998 122 Information on Trade Unions in Tanzania 2001 124 Tanzania’s ratification of core ILO labour standards 127 The history of the trade unions movement in Zanzibar 128

8. WOMEN AND CHILDREN Major laws relating to women’s lives 131 Some gender indicators for Tanzania 133 Education and gender 135 Gender equality and the empowerment of women through education and training 137 Constraints on girls’ education 138 The nature and extent of the worst forms of child labour in Tanzania 139 Child abuse 142 The girl rape in Kilimanjaro 143 The situation in the Remand Homes 144 Who is Anaeli? - a poem about a street child 145

9. HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS: Government policy and action 146 Major challenges in HIV/AIDS prevention and a look at the situation in some specific groups 148

10. DEMOCRACY Agenda: Participation 2000 in Tanzania 150 Milestones in the democratisation process 152 Separation of powers: the case of Tanzania 153 Democratic consolidation in Zanzibar: one year after MWAFAKA 154 Resolving conflicts in Zanzibar 157 Coping with conflict in Tanzania 159 Good governance: definition and implications 162 Conceptualising conflict and conflict resolution 164 Women in Parliament 166 The Youth Leadership Training Programme (YLTP) 169 Tanzanian cabinet and permanent secretaries 171 List of fully registered political parties 174 Major policy concerns of a selected number of political parties 175 Presidential election 2000 178 By-Elections 180

11. BUSINESS What is the “private sector”? 181 Education and the demands of the market 182

12. ENVIRONMENT The environment: some key issues, institutions and regulations 184 The consequences of urbanisation 187 Environmental education in teaching sciences 188

13. USEFUL TOOLS Holding a workshop, seminar or conference 196 8 tips on how to successfully chair a conference 197 Holding effective internal meetings and planning sessions 198 Project outlines 200 Qualities of a moderator 201 The moderation method 202 The structure of your speech 203 Argumentation techniques 203 How to use blackboards and flipcharts 204 The checklist for good implementation of activities 205 Time management - self management 204 Twelve steps towards conflict resolution 207

14. MISCELLANEOUS Some highlights from the accounting rules of FES 208 Writing a proposal to FES 209 List of FES publications in Tanzania 210 CALENDAR OVERVIEW 2003 / 2004

JANUARY 2003 FEBRUARY 2003 MARCH 2003 APRIL 2003 MAY 2003 JUNE 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 1 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

JULY 2003 AUGUST 2003 SEPTEMBER 2003 OCTOBER 2003 NOVEMBER 2003 DECEMBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31

JANUARY 2004 FEBRUARY 2004 MARCH 2004 APRIL 2004 MAY 2004 JUNE 2004 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30

JULY 2004 AUGUST 2004 SEPTEMBER 2004 OCTOBER 2004 NOVEMBER 2004 DECEMBER 2004 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 GUIDELINES FOR INCLUDING THE GENDER DIMENSION IN AN ACTIVITY compiled by Viktoria Walter

FES Tanzania puts a strong emphasis on assuring gender balance and gender sensitivity in its activities. We invite all our partners to join hands with us in order to make sure that women and men participate and profit equally from the activities. Objectives Development: • Identify a specific gender objective for the activity Target Group: •Which group of men/women will benefit? •What can you do in terms of ensuring gender balance/participation? •Who should participate in order to advocate for gender-balance? Is the Concept Gender-Oriented? Modality and instruments, type of event: •Invitation addressing women, e.g. personal invitation, not only inviting the organisation •What type and design of the event is needed to attract also women? •Consider differences in the time budget of men and women, family supporting facilities •Invite female representatives of the organisation for planning Collaborators/Partner Organisation/Resource Persons: •Prepare yourself for resistance against gender integration and appreciate willingness of partners to integrate gender • Choose gender-responsive resource persons: is there a female to do the job? • Ensure gender-balance in teams • Include women experts Topics to be Covered: • Check that the topics address the gender dimension or issues in question •Avoid having gender as a separate topic Financial Estimates/Resources: •Allow for additional resources for possible extra gender-informed resource person and/or family supportive facilities •Allocation of budget to facilitate that at least 1/3 of the activities are gender responsive Tentative Programme: •Send it out as early as possible (women need time for planning their release from family duties. They might even need to seek permission to attend.) Media Coverage: • Enable women to speak to the media (prepare well!) Expected Outcome: • Check consistency with gender objective • Ensure that women’s concerns are addressed in all documentation and other follow ups week DECEMBER 2002 JANUARY 2003 FEBRUARY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1/2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 JANUARY 2003 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 1st - 12th MON 30 TUE 31 WED 1 THU 2 FRI 3 SAT 4 SUN 5

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 6 TUE 7 WED 8 THU 9 FRI 10 SAT 11 SUN 12

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

9 week DECEMBER 2002 JANUARY 2003 FEBRUARY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3/4 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 JANUARY 2003 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 13th - 26th

MON 13 TUE 14 WED 15 THU 16 FRI 17 SAT 18 SUN 19

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 20 TUE 21 WED 22 THU 23 FRI 24 SAT 25 SUN 26

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

10 week DECEMBER 2002 JANUARY 2003 FEBRUARY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 30 31 1 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 5/6 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 JANUARY – FEBRUARY 2003 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 27th - 9th

MON 27 TUE 28 WED 29 THU 30 FRI 31 SAT 1 SUN 2

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 3 TUE 4 WED 5 THU 6 FRI 7 SAT 8 SUN 9

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

11 week JANUARY 2003 FEBRUARY 2003 MARCH 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 31 1 2 7/8 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 FEBRUARY 2003 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 10th - 23rd

MON 10 TUE 11 WED 12 THU 13 FRI 14 SAT 15 SUN 16

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 17 TUE 18 WED 19 THU 20 FRI 21 SAT 22 SUN 23

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

12 week JANUARY 2003 FEBRUARY 2003 MARCH 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 31 1 2 9/10 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 FEBRUARY – MARCH 2003 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 24th - 9th

MON 24 TUE 25 WED 26 THU 27 FRI 28 SAT 1 SUN 2

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 3 TUE 4 WED 5 THU 6 FRI 7 SAT 8 SUN 9

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

13 week FEBRUARY 2003 MARCH 2003 APRIL 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 11/12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 MARCH 2003 24 25 26 27 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 10th - 23rd MON 10 TUE 11 WED 12 THU 13 FRI 14 SAT 15 SUN 16

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 17 TUE 18 WED 19 THU 20 FRI 21 SAT 22 SUN 23

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

14 week FEBRUARY 2003 MARCH 2003 APRIL 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 13/14 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 MARCH – APRIL 2003 24 25 26 27 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 24th - 6th MON 24 TUE 25 WED 26 THU 27 FRI 28 SAT 29 SUN 30

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 31 TUE 1 WED 2 THU 3 FRI 4 SAT 5 SUN 6

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

15 week MARCH 2003 APRIL 2003 MAY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 15/16 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 APRIL 2003 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 7th - 20th

MON 7 TUE 8 WED 9 THU 10 FRI 11 SAT 12 SUN 13

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 14 TUE 15 WED 16 THU 17 FRI 18 SAT 19 SUN 20

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

16 week MARCH 2003 APRIL 2003 MAY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 31 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 17/18 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 APRIL - MAY 2003 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 21st - 4th

MON 21 TUE 22 WED 23 THU 24 FRI 25 SAT 26 SUN 27

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 28 TUE 29 WED 30 THU 1 FRI 2 SAT 3 SUN 4

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

17 week APRIL 2003 MAY 2003 JUNE 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 1 19/20 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 MAY 2003 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 5th - 18th MON 5 TUE 6 WED 7 THU 8 FRI 9 SAT 10 SUN 11

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 12 TUE 13 WED 14 THU 15 FRI 16 SAT 17 SUN 18

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

18 week APRIL 2003 MAY 2003 JUNE 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 30 1 21/22 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 MAY – JUNE 2003 28 29 30 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 19th - 1st MON 19 TUE 20 WED 21 THU 22 FRI 23 SAT 24 SUN 25

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 26 TUE 27 WED 28 THU 29 FRI 30 SAT 31 SUN 1

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

19 week MAY 2003 JUNE 2003 JULY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 23/24 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 JUNE 2003 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 2nd - 15th MON 2 TUE 3 WED 4 THU 5 FRI 6 SAT 7 SUN 8

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 9 TUE 10 WED 11 THU 12 FRI 13 SAT 14 SUN 15

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

20 week MAY 2003 JUNE 2003 JULY 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 25/26 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 JUNE 2003 26 27 28 29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 16th - 29th MON 16 TUE 17 WED 18 THU 19 FRI 20 SAT 21 SUN 22

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 23 TUE 24 WED 25 THU 26 FRI 27 SAT 28 SUN 29

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

21 week JUNE 2003 JULY 2003 AUGUST 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 27/28 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 JUNE – JULY 2003 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 30th - 13th MON 30 TUE 1 WED 2 THU 3 FRI 4 SAT 5 SUN 6

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 7 TUE 8 WED 9 THU 10 FRI 11 SAT 12 SUN 13

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

22 week JUNE 2003 JULY 2003 AUGUST 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 29/30 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 JULY 2003 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 14th - 27th MON 14 TUE 15 WED 16 THU 17 FRI 18 SAT 19 SUN 20

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 21 TUE 22 WED 23 THU 24 FRI 25 SAT 26 SUN 27

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

23 week JUNE 2003 JULY 2003 AUGUST 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 30 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 31/32 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 JULY – AUGUST 2003 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 28th - 10th MON 28 TUE 29 WED 30 THU 31 FRI 1 SAT 2 SUN 3

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 4 TUE 5 WED 6 THU 7 FRI 8 SAT 9 SUN 10

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

24 week JULY 2003 AUGUST 2003 SEPTEMBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 33/34 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 AUGUST 2003 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 11th - 24th MON 11 TUE 12 WED 13 THU 14 FRI 15 SAT 16 SUN 17

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 18 TUE 19 WED 20 THU 21 FRI 22 SAT 23 SUN 24

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

25 week JULY 2003 AUGUST 2003 SEPTEMBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 35/36 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 AUGUST – SEPTEMBER 2003 28 29 30 31 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 25th - 7th MON 25 TUE 26 WED 27 THU 28 FRI 29 SAT 30 SUN 31

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 1 TUE 2 WED 3 THU 4 FRI 5 SAT 6 SUN 7

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

26 week AUGUST 2003 SEPTEMBER 2003 OCTOBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 37/38 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 SEPTEMBER 2003 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 8th - 21st MON 8 TUE 9 WED 10 THU 11 FRI 12 SAT 13 SUN 14

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 15 TUE 16 WED 17 THU 18 FRI 19 SAT 20 SUN 21

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

27 week AUGUST 2003 SEPTEMBER 2003 OCTOBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 39/40 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 SEPTEMBER – OCTOBER 2003 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 22nd - 5th MON 22 TUE 23 WED 24 THU 25 FRI 26 SAT 27 SUN 28

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 29 TUE 30 WED 1 THU 2 FRI 3 SAT 4 SUN 5

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

28 week SEPTEMBER 2003 OCTOBER 2003 NOVEMBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 41/42 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 OCTOBER 2003 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 6th - 19th MON 6 TUE 7 WED 8 THU 9 FRI 10 SAT 11 SUN 12

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 13 TUE 14 WED 15 THU 16 FRI 17 SAT 18 SUN 19

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

29 week SEPTEMBER 2003 OCTOBER 2003 NOVEMBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 43/44 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 OCTOBER – NOVEMBER 2003 29 30 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 20th - 2nd MON 20 TUE 21 WED 22 THU 23 FRI 24 SAT 25 SUN 26

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 27 TUE 28 WED 29 THU 30 FRI 31 SAT 1 SUN 2

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

30 week OCTOBER 2003 NOVEMBER 2003 DECEMBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 45/46 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 NOVEMBER 2003 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 3rd - 16th MON 3 TUE 4 WED 5 THU 6 FRI 7 SAT 8 SUN 9

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 10 TUE 11 WED 12 THU 13 FRI 14 SAT 15 SUN 16

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

31 week OCTOBER 2003 NOVEMBER 2003 DECEMBER 2003 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 47/48 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 NOVEMBER 2003 27 28 29 30 31 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 17th - 30th MON 17 TUE 18 WED 19 THU 20 FRI 21 SAT 22 SUN 23

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 24 TUE 25 WED 26 THU 27 FRI 28 SAT 29 SUN 30

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

32 week NOVEMBER 2003 DECEMBER 2003 JANUARY 2004 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 49/50 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 DECEMBER 2003 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 1st - 14th MON 1 TUE 2 WED 3 THU 4 FRI 5 SAT 6 SUN 7

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 8 TUE 9 WED 10 THU 11 FRI 12 SAT 13 SUN 14

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

33 week NOVEMBER 2003 DECEMBER 2003 JANUARY 2004 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 51/52 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 DECEMBER 2003 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 15th - 28th MON 15 TUE 16 WED 17 THU 18 FRI 19 SAT 20 SUN 21

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 22 TUE 23 WED 24 THU 25 FRI 26 SAT 27 SUN 28

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

34 week NOVEMBER 2003 DECEMBER 2003 JANUARY 2004 MTWTFSS MTWTFSS MTWTFSS 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 53/1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 DECEMBER 2003 – JANUARY 2004 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 30 31 26 27 28 29 30 31 29th - 11th MON 29 TUE 30 WED 31 THU 1 FRI 2 SAT 3 SUN 4

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

MON 5 TUE 6 WED 7 THU 8 FRI 9 SAT 10 SUN 11

MORNING

NOON

AFTERNOON

NOTES

35 1. OVERVIEW

SOME BASIC FACTS & FIGURES

Geography1 Total area 945,087 sq. km Land area 886,037 sq. km Water area 59,050 sq. km (This includes the islands of Mafia, Pemba and Zanzibar) Total land boundaries 3,402 km Coastline 1,424 km Highest point: Kilimanjaro 5,895 m Natural resources hydropower, tin, phosphates, iron ore, coal, diamonds, gemstones, gold, natural gas, nickel

Land use Arable land 3% Permanent crops 1% Permanent pastures 40% Forests and woodland 38% Other 18% (1993 estimates)

People 1996 1999 2000 Population2 (estimated) 30.5 million 32.9 million 33.7 million Population growth rate % 2.8 2.4 2.3 Population density (people per sq.km) 34.5 37.3 38.1 Ethnic groups3 Mainland - native African 99% (of which 95% are Bantu consisting of more than 130 tribes), other 1% (consisting of Asian, European and Arab) Zanzibar - Arab, native African, mixed Arab and native African Religions Mainland - Christian 45%, Muslim 35%, indigenous beliefs 20% Zanzibar - more than 99% Muslim

1 CIA-The World Factbook - Tanzania: downloaded 30/11/01 2 Population statistics: World Development Indicators database, July 2001 3 Information on ethnic groups and religion: CIA - The World Factbook

36 TANZANIA:A POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

By Mr O.K. Temwende, Kivukoni Academy of Social Sciences

The United Republic of Tan- national freedom in Tan- African Association was zania was formed in April ganyika was not marked by formed in Zanzibar. 1964 by the union of Tan- sharp confrontation and After the Second World ganyika and the state of Zan- bloodshed as was the case in War members of the Tan- zibar, comprising the islands neighbouring Kenya or other ganyika African Association of Zanzibar and Pemba. Tan- African colonies like Mozam- moved with the tide of ganyika had been successively bique, Angola or Zimbabwe. nationalism and, in 1953, a German colony, a British There were two main reasons under the able and skilful administered League of for this relatively peaceful chairmanship of Julius Nations’ Mandate, a United struggle. One was that there Nyerere, the TAA was reor- Nations’ Trust Territory under was only a small body of white ganized as a political party, British administration, and settlers in Tanganyika, num- leading directly to the forma- finally independent since bering about 20,000 in the tion of the Tanganyika 1961 within the Common- 1950s, and as few of them African National Union wealth of Nations. Zanzibar were of British origin, there (TANU) in 1954, while in was a British colony until were not very strong British Zanzibar the African Associa- 1963. political and economic inter- tion was reorganized into the Africans in Tanganyika, as ests in Tanganyika. The other Afro-Shiraz Party in 1957. was the case in other parts of reason was that in 1946, after The formation of TANU Africa, never reconciled them- the Second World War, Tan- in 1954 marked the beginning selves to colonial domination. ganyika became a United of the independence struggle From the very beginning, they Nations’Trusteeship Territory. in earnest. After seven years rose and fought the colonial As such it could scarcely be of intense political struggle invaders. The most outstand- allowed to fall under settler Tanganyika won her freedom ing resistance was shown by control. under the auspices of the the Sambaa led by Kimweri As in the majority of TANU, strengthened by the against the Germans; by the African colonies, nationalism cooperation of the trade Hehe under Mkwawa who developed in Tanganyika after unions and agricultural co- fought a long and bitter war 1945. In fact the first signs of operatives. against the Germans; and national awareness were Two years later, in Decem- during the Maji Maji War already evident shortly after ber 1963, the Islands of Zan- under the leadership of Kin- the First World War when, zibar and Pemba also became jeketile, Mputa and Kibasila. both on the mainland and on independent, but under a Due to the lack of unity Zanzibar, African associations government without wide among these early nationalists were formed. On the main- support. This was a govern- and fighters for freedom, and land the African Association ment dominated by the Sultan due to the superior fighting (AA) was formed in 1929 as a of Zanzibar and a minority of power of the colonial invaders, discussion group among edu- land-owning local Arabs. all of these early liberation cated persons. This associa- Two months after independ- struggles ended up in total tion became the Tanganyika ence in January 1964, the Sul- failure and great loss of life. African Association (TAA) in tan’s government was over- The later struggle for 1948. In 1934 a similar thrown and power passed to

37 non-Arab Afro-Shiraz Party. solidated. This last aspect is party CUF disputed the The leaderships of the seen as President Nyerere’s results and boycotted the newly independent Tan- most significant achievement. House of Representatives. It ganyika and Zanzibar Given the failure of Uja- claimed that victory had been replaced parliament with the maa and self-reliance, Presi- snatched out of the hands of party as the centre of power dent Nyerere’s successor, its leader, Seif Shariff Hamad, and in 1965 a change in the President Ali Hassan and appealed to world opin- constitution made the country Mwinyi, made an about turn ion to denounce the poll and a one-party democratic state. and in 1985 he negotiated an introduce sanctions against Tanganyika had inherited adjustment programme with CCM. an economy torn and dilapi- the Bretton Woods institu- In 1997 the Common- dated by many years of colo- tions. Since 1986 the country wealth secretariat came in as nialism. There was a very low has been involved in a series mediator and, after protracted level of literacy, a poor infra- of adjustment programmes negotiations, an accord was structure and a high rate of following on from the first made but never implemented. disease and poverty. In agreement with the IMF. The situation remained tense response to this, in 1967, the Tanzania had effectively no up to 2000 when the second new leadership made the then choice and was forced to multiparty elections were famous Arusha Declaration implement drastic measures held. Again CCM won both on Socialism and Self- in an attempt to create an in the mainland and in Zan- reliance as the country’s environment favourable to zibar with Mr Mkapa as Pres- development blueprint. The investment in all the eco- ident of the Union and Mr cornerstone was Ujamaa, a nomic sectors. The 1990s Aman Karume as President policy of “villagisation” have seen an acceleration of of Zanzibar. The post 1995 whereby the rural population the reforms with considerable election scenario was repeated was grouped into village com- effort going into the key pro- after the results of the 2000 munities to cultivate land gramme of decentralisation. elections. However, this time, together and be provided with In the early 1990s the rul- CCM and CUF wasted no essential services. The object ing party CCM sensed that time and entered into negoti- was that they should be self- the democratic movement ations, reaching an accord in sufficient in basic needs. was gaining ground across September 2001. The imple- This project did not sur- Africa. It had grasped the mentation of the accord vive. It collapsed along with nettle of economic liberalisa- started towards the end of socialism elsewhere in the tion and now also managed to 2001. world. Central planning swim with the tide of democ- The Revolutionary Gov- proved itself unable to ratisation. A multiparty sys- ernment of Zanzibar (SMZ) mobilise the country’s eco- tem was introduced in July has passed a motion on the nomic forces and there were 1992 and the first multiparty accord in the House of Rep- too many management errors, elections were run in 1995. resentatives. SMZ is also not to mention cases of Benjamin William Mkapa effecting the 8th amendment embezzlement. However, became President of the of her constitution in order to although the economic per- United Republic of Tanzania, provide for the implementa- formance of the period was while Dr. Salim Amour tion of the accord. far from satisfactory, stan- became President of Zan- The President of the dards of living did improve. zibar. Union, Hon. B. W. Mkapa, Access to education and A difficult political situa- has appointed Hon. Hamad health services was extended tion arose after the 1995 elec- Rashid Mohamed of Civic and national unity was con- tions. The main opposition United Front (CUF) an MP

38 in the Union Parliament. The The number of fully regis- Source: Office of the Prime Minister, Union President has also tered political parties September 2002 formed a commission headed increased from 13 in 2000 to by Brig. Hashim Mbita (Rtd) 15 in 2002. Two parties, to inquire into the clash namely PPP and MSHIKA- between the police and MANO, have obtained tem- demonstrators which porary registration. During occurred in the islands of the same period two parties Unguja and Pemba on 26 - 27 have been de-registered, January 2001. namely TPP and PONA. ■

NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO INDICATORS

By Mr C.M.M. Kajege, Kivukoni Academy of Social Sciences

An indicator is a measure that household or community can • Gross National Product can be used to reflect progress, be measured using economic (GNP) per capita is the main stagnation or deterioration in and social welfare indicators. criteria for the country classi- a particular phenomenon or fication. It does not in itself situation such as literacy, the ECONOMIC INDICATORS constitute or measure welfare economy, health and poverty. There are a number of stan- or success in development. It For example, a change in the dardized indicators in this does not distinguish between literacy rate from 5% to 7% area that can give a picture of the aims and ultimate uses of over a five year period reflects a country’s economic situa- a given product, nor does it an improvement in literacy in tion. These indicators are say whether it merely offsets that period. most useful when (1) they are some natural or other obsta- Indicators are also used to compared with those of other cles to welfare. GNP meas- compare a given situation, for countries in the region; (2) ures the total domestic and example poverty, between one they are put into a time per- foreign value added claimed individual and another, spective (e.g. the 1960 Gross by residents. It comprises between one household and National Product compared Gross Domestic Product another, between one com- with that of 1980); and (3) (GDP) plus net factor income munity and another or one when internal variations are from abroad, which is the country with another. taken into consideration (e.g. income residents receive from The economic and social how the project area compares abroad for factor services welfare of an individual, to the nation as a whole). (labour and capital), less simi-

39 lar payments made to domes- This indicator can also be average number of years new- tic non-residents who con- used to measure the pattern of born children can expect to tributed to the domestic econ- the standard of living. live taking into account the omy. • The nation’s debt situa- mortality risks prevailing for • Gross Domestic Pro- tion is an estimate of the the cross-section of the popu- duct (GDP) is the total out- nation’s public and private sec- lation at the time of birth. put of goods and services for tor long-term foreign debt • Literacy is defined as the final use produced in an econ- expressed as a percentage of percentage of women and omy by both residents and the GNP; an assessment of men aged 15 and above who non-residents regardless of the the nation’s ability to pay it can read and write. “Adult allocation to domestic and back and how it affects the illiteracy” is defined as the foreign claims. It is calculated government’s capacity to pro- proportion of the population without making deductions vide services to its people. over the age of 15 years who for depreciation of “fabri- • Rate of inflation is cannot, with understanding, cated” assets or depletion and defined as the percentage read and write a short, simple degradation of natural annual increase in a general statement on their everyday resources. GDP per capita is price level commonly mea- life. obtained by dividing GDP by sured by the Consumer Price • Primary school gross the population.The figures for Index (CPI) or some compa- enrolment ratio is the total GDP are US $ value con- rable price index. Inflation number of children enrolled in verted from domestic curren- affects people’s livelihood. primary school, e.g. Std. I-VII cies using a single-year official Price increases of food and (whether or not they belong in exchange rate. non-food essential items the relevant age group for that • Unemployment is one of means harder lives for people. level), expressed as a percent- the key indicators of the eco- age of the total number of nomy. Unemployment is gen- SOCIAL INDICATORS children in the relevant age erally defined as males and The following represent com- group for primary school, e.g. females in the economically monly used indicators of social 7-13 years old. However, it active age group who are not development. In general they should always be remembered in paid employment in cash or are used in the same way as that the overall net enrolment kind or self-employed on a the economic indicators. rate is, in most cases, much continuous basis, but who are • Infant mortality rate lower due to pupils dropping available and have taken spe- (IMR) is the probability of out of school. cific measures to seek paid dying between birth and The Ministry of Education employment or self-employ- exactly one year of age has issued a directive that “the ment. The rate is derived expressed per 1,000 live births primary pupil-teacher ratio” from the economically active for a given year. It is a very must be 45:1. The primary population. The employed sensitive indicator, which is pupil-teacher ratio is the include regular employees, influenced by maternal care, number of pupils enrolled in a working proprietors, active health services provided and school divided by the number business partners and unpaid infant care. The “under 5 of teachers in the education family workers but exclude mortality rate” is the probabi- system. ■ homemakers. lity of dying between birth • Income distribution is and exactly five years of age Sources: 1) Poverty Monitoring Master the proportion of the con- expressed per 1,000 live births. Plan, United Republic of Tanzania, 2001 2) World Development Report 2000 sumption that the population It is influenced by the liveli- with the lowest consumption hood status of the family. (lowest 20 percent) spends. • Life expectancy is the

40 TANZANIA AT A GLANCE Source: World Development Report 2002, World Bank; Human Developement Report, 2001; UNDP &World Bank 2000, www.worldbank.org/data 1. POVERTY AND SOCIAL INDICATORS

TANZANIA SUB-SAHARAN LOW AFRICA INCOME

2000 Population, mid-year (millions) 34.0 659 2,459 GNP per capita (Atlas method, US$) 270 480 420 GNP (Atlas method, US$ billions) 9.1 313 1,030

Average annual growth, 1990-2000 Population (%) 2.8 2.6 1.9 Labour force (%) 2.6 2.6 2.4

Most recent estimate (latest year available, 1990-2000) Pover ty (% of population below national poverty line) 51 ...... Urban population (% of total population) 33 34 32 Life expectancy at birth (years) 45 47 59 Infant mortality (per 1000 live births) 152 92 77 Child malnutrition (% of children under 5) 31 ...... Access to improved water source (% of population) 54 55 76 Adult illiteracy (% of population age +15)253838 Gross primary enrollment (% of school-age population) 67 78 96 male 67 85 102 female 66 71 86

1. POVERTY AND SOCIAL 2. KEY ECONOMIC RATIOS 3. STRUCTURE OF THE AND LONG-TERM TRENDS ECONOMY

* The diamonds show four key indicators in the country (in bold) compared with its income-group average. If data are missing, the diamond will be incomplete.

41 2. KEY ECONOMIC RATIOS AND LONG-TERM TRENDS

1990 1999 2000*

GDP (US$ billions) 4.3 8.8 9.3 Gross domestic investment/GDP 26.1 15.3 17.7 Exports of goods and services/GDP 12.6 13.6 14.7 Gross domestic savings/GDP 1.3 3.3 8.7 Gross national savings/GDP 5.9 2.9 8.6 Current account balance/GDP -17.9 -12.3 -9.2 Interest payments/GDP 1.1 0.7 1.4 Total debt/GDP 151.2 91.9 78.7 Total debt service/exports 34.2 15.7 15.3 Present value of debt/GDP ... 53.1 29.1 Present value of debt/exports ... 373.5 189.2

1990-00 1999 2000 2000-04*

(Average annual growth) GDP 2.9 3.6 5.1 6.2 GDP per capita 0.1 2.4 1.3 4.0 Exports of goods and services 9.3 18.6 18.4 1.7

3. STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY

1990 1999 2000*

(% of GDP) Agriculture 46.0 44.8 45.1 Industry 17.7 15.4 15 Manufacturing 9.3 7.4 7.5 Services 36.4 39.8 40 Private Consumption 80.9 89.8 86 General government consumption 17.8 6.9 12 Imports of goods and services 37.5 25.6 23.8

1990-00 1999 2000 (Average annual growth) Agriculture 3.2 3.1 3.4 Industry 3.1 6.7 7.2 Manufacturing 2.7 4.9 4.6 Services 2.7 5.4 5.8 Private Consumption 2.2 5.2 -0.9 General government consumption 2.5 -1.5 5.0 Gross domestic investment -1.4 -1.5 7.5 Imports of goods and services 0.9 8.7 0.1

Note: 2000 data are preliminary estimates * Compiled from World Bank Report 2000, 2002

42 4. PRICES AND GOVERNMENT FINANCE

1990 1999 2000

Domestic prices (% change) Consumer prices 35.8 7.9 5.9 Implicit GDP deflator 20.2 10.3 5.4

Government finance (% of GDP includes current grants) Current revenue 11.4 10.6 10.7 Current budget balance -1.1 0.5 -0.5 Overall surplus/deficit -3.8 -3.3 -5.8

TRADE (US$ millions) Total exports (fob) 352 541 600 Coffee 85 77 84 Cotton 75 28 38 Manufactures 73 22 34 Total imports (cif) 1297 1631 1592 Food 59 200 176 Fuel and energy 174 104 95 Capital goods 540 710 770

Export price index (1995=100) 75 84 83 Import price index (1995=100) 92 84 85 Ter ms of trade (1995=100) 82 99 98

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS (US$ millions) Exports of goods and services 519 1195 1327 Imports of goods and services 1557 2244 2146 Resource balance -1038 -1049 -819 Net income -186 -66 -43 Net current transfers 461 34 35 Current account balance -764 -1081 -827 Financing items (net) 748 1223 1176 Changes in net reserves 16 -143 -348

Memo Reserves incl. gold (US$ millions) 124 776 950 Conversion rate(DEC, local/US$) 195.1 744.8 800.4

43 5. EXTERNAL DEBT AND RESOURCE FLOWS

1990 1999 2000

(US$ millions) Total debt outstanding and disbursed 6438 8053 7104 IBRD 243 16 11 IDA 1250 2594 2593 Total debt service 179 196 213 IBRD 44 8 6 IDA 14 43 51 Composition of net resource flows Official grants 677 737 763 Official creditors 208 177 111 Private creditors 4 -13 -11 Foreign direct investment 0 183 193 Por tfolio equity 0 0 0 World Bank program Commitments 537 159 272 Disbursements 187 199 142 Principal repayments 32 30 37 Net flows 155 169 105 Interest payments 26 21 20 Net transfers 129 148 85

Source: World Bank, 2002 www.worldbank.org/data/

NOTES

44 2. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES

DIFFERENT VIEWS ON GLOBALIZATION

“The benefits of globalisation and administration. In simple logy that counts in the process are obvious: faster growth, terms, globalization is the free of globalization. The obvious higher living standards, new movement of goods, capital expressions of information opportunities. Yet a backlash and information. technology are the internet has begun. Why? Because and the electronic media. The these benefits are very Dimensions of global news coverage of the unequally distributed; because Globalization CNN is a case in point. the global market is not yet The process of globalization Environmental integration underpinned by rules based manifests itself in a number of is another dimension of the on shared social objectives; dimensions. The most promi- process of globalization. and because, if all of tomor- nent are those in the areas of According to Scott Barret and row’s poor follow the same economics, finance, informa- Charles S. Person “we all path that brought today’s rich tion technology, environment share just one global climate to prosperity, the earth’s and even in politics. At the system and a single ozone resources will soon be economic level, globalization layer, both of which are neces- exhausted...” Kofi Annan, UN is responsible for integrating sary for supporting life on Secretary-General, in the Daily national economies into a sin- earth. The climate and the News, 22nd December 2000, gle world economy. This is ozone layer are global public Noble Peace Prize Winner 2001. expressed through the merg- goods. Use of both by one ing of transnational corpora- country does not diminish the What is Globalization? tions, which are simply amount available to others While globalization may defined as large commercial and no country can be mean different things to dif- enterprises which do business excluded from using them. ferent people, there is no in many countries. The for- Emissions of pollutants that doubt that it is the most fre- mation of sub-regional and change the climate and quently used concept to regional economic organiza- destroy ozone in the hemi- describe contemporary inter- tions such as the East African sphere are global problems” national interaction. Community, SADC, COM- (in SAISPHERE 2000: Can The most prominent areas ESA, ECOWAS, EU, the Environment Survive associated with the concept of NAFTA and ASEAN is yet Globalization?). globalization are information another expression of the eco- At the political level, one technology (IT) and the nomic dimension of the political aspect of globaliza- global economy. The obvious process of globalization. tion is the spread of demo- peculiar characteristics of At the financial level, the cracy throughout the world. globalization related to infor- process of globalization has The emphasis on human mation technology and the integrated the financial mar- rights, rule of law and good global economy are speed, kets. The dimension of infor- governance have become intensity, scope, volume and mation technology is the international concerns. value of the international backbone of the process of Another important political transactions in the areas of globalization. It is the appli- aspect of globalization is information, finance, trade cation of information techno- national security. The process

45 of globalization raises serious poorest. Trade could hurt the We need to rethink the rela- challenges to national govern- poor by lowering, through tionship between market and ments. Information systems international competition, the state - on both national and create new vulnerabilities in a prices of what they produce. the international levels. The nation’s infrastructure, parti- Economic integration leads to inequality of worldwide deve- cularly to its electric power aggregate growth which could lopments necessitates the grid, banking system and lead to higher inequality linking of the economic and water supply. At the interna- within countries. One indus- political spheres, otherwise tional level, globalization trial country’s economy down- the global social question will raises the question of whether turn can pull the rest of the threaten our very survival. the world is safer or more world into recession. Finally, We must take advantage of dangerous place. Due to the globalization is partly one- the opportunities of globaliza- process of globalization many sided or exclusionist. Its tion together. Dividing the nations face both new threats advantages are foremost in the world up into globalization and new vulnerabilities. rich countries and less in the winners and losers isn’t very These include poverty, di- poor countries; or it involves helpful, at least not if we want seases, conflicts and terrorism. urban centers to the detriment to build a lasting world order. of rural areas. Growth, development and Varying perceptions on The opponents coming solidarity are going to con- Globalization from the information techno- tinue to be mutually depen- Whether the process of glob- logy point of view worry about dent values.” Holger Boerner, alization is good or bad, or the Internet’s negative impact. President of the Friedrich- whether its effects are positive A lone cyber terrorist, for Ebert-Stiftung, 17th of June, or negative depend much on example, can cause havoc and 1998, Berlin. one’s perspective. Conse- disrupt millions of PCs quently, the process of globa- worldwide. This fear is related You can get more information lization has its proponents and to security concerns as well, on globalization via the Inter- opponents. For its advocates, for with globalization, it is net: globalization increases pro- easier for global criminal net- www.worldbank.org ductivity by offering better works to operate. There is no www.imf.org access to capital, markets for better demonstration of this www.aidc.org.za/ilrig products, lower-priced con- than the terrorist network that www.odc.org sumption items and informa- was responsible for the crimi- www.globalism.com.au/ tion about new technologies. nal events of September 11 in www.un.org/partners/civil- Economic growth, in turn, New York and Washington society/agard.htm produces new wealth that can DC. bring great improvements in Critical views: the human condition and An FES-Position www.fes.de reduce global poverty. Glob- “Globalization deepens the [email protected] alization also has the potential inequalities in our societies. www.ifbww.org of promoting civil, political Political action must thus [email protected] and economic freedoms. focus on strengthening the www.attac-netzwerk.de The activists against global- foundations of social cohe- ization come from different sion. Existing forms of co- perspectives and motivations. operation and solidarity are For those coming from an being dissolved; and these economic point of view, glob- must now be reestablished and alization harms the world’s secured.

46 Source: The Guardian, 12/11/2002

TANZANIA AND THE DYNAMICS OF THE CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL ECONOMY Role of the Private Sector, Foreign Direct Investments and International Trade

By Prof. F. A. S. T. Matambalya, Department of Marketing, University of Dar es Salaam

I. Introduction the global economy is seen as cial ways, interact with other A very important feature of a prerequisite for competitive- economies on the global fac- the contemporary global ness and sustainable growth tor markets (i.e., markets economy is the increasing of any economy. where they source such inputs international economic inte- International economic as capital, labour and raw gration. There are three major interactions can enable deve- materials) and global markets channels of international eco- loping economies to close the for goods and services (i.e., nomic interaction: interna- gap in terms of such critical where they sell their products, tional investment, interna- strategic resources as capital. including services). Interna- tional trade and international Thus, in a liberal global econ- tional trade, which is the tra- diffusion of new technologies omy, such resources as invest- ditional form of international (Matambalya 2001, Siebert ments can easily flow to economic linkage, is still the and Klodt 1998). developing countries in the most imperative link between The private sector is conform of foreign direct invest- national economies in general, sidered to be the motor for ments (FDIs). and developing economies in economic development in a Besides, through the trade particular. The pertinent liberal global economy. Fur- channel, developing countries interactions are institution- thermore, integration with can in more mutually benefi- alised through arrangements

47 of a bilateral nature, a regional use of controls (e.g., licenses, Instead, liberalisation nature (through regional inte- permits, price controls, etc., expresses a freer economy, in gration schemes), and a multi- exchange rates, etc. (Matam- which the government con- lateral nature promoted and balya 2001, Black 1997). tinues to play a facilitating realised through the World role, by setting and managing Trade Organisation (WTO). B. Empowerment of the a regulatory framework. Against this background, this private sector A conducive regulatory article discusses the roles of The economic liberalisation framework is necessary in the private sector, FDIs and process is firmly founded on order to promote competition international trade in a liberal the empowerment of the pri- and create a level playing field global economy. Using simple vate sector. Hence, the process for individuals, households indicators, it highlights the involves the empowerment of and enterprises participating evolution of the private sector non-state economic units, i.e., in various economic transac- in Tanzania, FDIs and trade. private enterprises and house- tions. Otherwise liberalisation All statistical figures in this holds. In Tanzania this has may lead to such undesirable article are adapted from involved the privatisation of practices as the formation of Matambalya (2001). state-owned enterprises formal or informal cartels (SOEs). (agreement by a number of II. Fundamentals of the Coming after the failure of firms in the industry to restrict contemporary global earlier policy attempts to competition), thus causing less economic dynamics empower the people through efficient economic perform- collective ownership of various ance and distorting the shar- A. Economic liberalisation properties through the state, ing of the benefits of liberali- Economic liberalisation is the the move to empower the pri- sation. foundation of the current vate sector is also seen as a global economic dynamics. possible way of promoting III. Envisioned evolution Technically, it refers to a policy direct, and wherever possible, of investments and trade in stance where economic poli- more widely spread property a liberal global economy cies deliberately seek to pro- ownership in society. In this mote international economic spirit, shares of formerly pub- A. Envisioned evolution of interaction via a freer-market lic enterprises like the Tanza- investments from a global economy. nia Oxygen Limited (TOL), perspective Economic liberalisation is Co-operative and Rural Liberal economic policies are realised through the removal Development Bank (CRDB), expected to induce the growth or reduction of direct controls Tanzania Breweries Limited of international capital flows. of both intra-national and (TBL), etc. were sold to the Trends in FDIs provide international economic trans- public. important information about actions, and a shift towards economic competitiveness. more reliance on price mecha- C. Regulatory framework The proxies for the pattern nism to co-ordinate economic While recognising the poten- and structure of integration activities. It involves designing tials of liberalisation, no with the global economy can and implementing specific responsible government in the be gleaned from, (i) the deve- measures to make possible the world has ever equated liberal- lopment of a country’s capital shift of the economy to a situ- isation with full-scale laissez flows relative to its output and ation where there is, inter alia faire, i.e., a policy of complete trade flows, and (ii) the devel- (a) less direct involvement of non-intervention by govern- opment of a country’s capital government in economic pro- ments in the economy, leaving flows relative global capital duction activities, and (b) less all decisions to the market. flows.

48 In its elementary form, the GDP, and (ii) exports and being directed at extracting its assessment of an economy capital flows. mineral wealth), overall the from a global perspective performance of all the three involves the exploration of C. Baselines for assessing East African Community various indicators of the con- performance in FDIs and (EAC) economies is bad. tribution of international trade trade to economic evolution, In the assessment of a given B. Growth of FDIs flows e.g., (i) the relationship economy, it is important to relative to growth of export between FDIs and GDP, (ii) know whether the economy flows the relationship between under review is, (i) falling The relevant test of integra- FDIs and exports, (Matam- back in relation to the global tion with the rest of the world balya 2001, Siebert and Klodt trend, (ii) keeping pace with, through capital flows is 1998, Grundlach and Nun- (iii) (particularly for develop- depicted in table 2 for Tanza- nenkamp 1996, Stoeckl et al. ing economies) catching up nia and the other two EAC 1990). with, or (iv) outpacing it. economies. For Tanzania the (Matambalya 2001, Grund- average FDI-to-export ratio B. Envisioned evolution lach and Nunnenkamp in the period 1990 to 1998 of trade from a global 1996). increased by a phenomenal perspective 900 percent compared to the Liberal economic policies are IV. Lessons from 1980 to 1989 period. expected to induce the Tanzania’s recent FDI The evidence of positive growth of international trade performance: trends is encouraging. How- flows. Trade trends give selected indicators ever, due to the absence of important information about consistent data to enable a economic competitiveness. A. Contribution of FDIs comparison with the overall The most common approach to GDP global trend, it is not possible to assess the role of interna- Regarding the ratio of net to prove whether the growths tional trade involves measur- FDIs to GDP, the results recorded by Tanzania and ing the trend dimension of a computed using data from Uganda indicate the given economy’s integration WB 2001b and WB 1992 are economies are keeping pace with other economies. In its presented in table 1 for Tan- with the global trend, or even elementary form, this involves zania, alongside her sister catching up. Besides, Kenya, the exploration of various EAC economies. Tanzania’s important eco- indicators of the contribution Apparently, Tanzania is not nomic partner, recorded a real of international trade to eco- yet an attractive destination fall back, and compared to the nomic evolution, e.g., (i) the for FDIs. Although the ratio 1980 to 1989 period, the ratio contribution of trade to out- has been increasing over the in the period 1990 to 1998 put, and (ii) the growth in years, it remained extremely declined from 1.3 percent to trade flows vis à vis growth of low. Hence, although avail- 0.75 percent. output, (Matambalya 2001, able data does not allow a The explicatory power of the Siebert and Klodt 1998, global comparison, with this results is severely restrained by Stoeckl et al. 1990). kind of performance Tanza- the extremely low starting Hence, the evolution of a nia cannot be keeping pace points of FDIs, as Tanzania nation’s trade as an indicator with the world, let alone recorded virtually zero FDIs of its integration with the catching up. during most of the 1980s. global economy can be high- Though Tanzania is now lighted by the relationships attracting more FDI than in between, (i) exports and the past (a substantial part

49 Table 1: Integration of the EAC and selected economies in the global economy as depicted by the relationship between FDIs and export trends.

TABLE 1 NDFI GDP * 100 Year Kenya Tanzania Uganda 1. 1980 1.1 0.00 0.00

2. 1985 0.21 0.00 0.00

3. 1989 0.63 0.80 0.25 Average of 1980 - 1989 0.32 0.02 0.02

4. 1990 0.25 0.9 0.14

5. 1995 0.36 2.1 0.14 6. 1998 0.50 2.8 2.8 Average of 1990 - 1998 0.24 1.5 0.85

Average of 1980 - 1998 0.28 0.76 0.42

Source: NFDI .... net foreign direct investments, GDP... gross domestic product. Source: Matambalya 2001.

Table 2: Integration of the EAC and selected economies in the global economy as depicted by the relationship between FDIs and export trends.

TABLE 2 NDFI X * 100 Year Kenya Tanzania Uganda 1. 1980 3.8 0 0

2. 1985 0.8 0 0

3. 1989 0.27 7.7 6.4 Average of 1980 - 1989 1.3 0.56 0.64

4. 1990 1.0 0.79 1.92

5. 1995 1.1 9.29 0.29

6. 1998 1.4 13.22 27.3 Average of 1990 - 1998 0.75 7.4 7.6

Average of 1980 - 1998 1.03 3.6 3.9

Source: NFDI .... net foreign direct investments, direct investments, X ... exports Source: Matambalya 2001.

50 Table 3: The integration of the EAC and selected economies into the global economy: evidence from selected trade-related indicators.

∆(Xψ) ∆( ψ) TABLE 3 x 100 X x 100 ∆(GDPψ) ∆(Xy) 1980-90 1990-99 1980-99 1980-90 1990-99 1980-99 1. Kenya 105 18 61.5 85 6 45.5

2. Tanzania NA 306 - NA 137 -

3. Uganda 62 226 144 35 236 135.5

4. SSA 140 183 161.5 46 64 55 5. EA and Pacific 140 170 155 213 183 198

6. World 160 276 218 - - -

7. High Income 160 270 215 96 94 95

years, ∆(Xψ) comparable figures for V. Lessons from Tanzania’s ∆( ) x 100 recent trade performance: Xy Uganda were US $ 4 304 and selected indicators growth of country exports 301.28 (equivalent to 7 per- relative to growth of global cent of the GDP) respectively. A. Significance of exports exports, computed as average relative to global exports of the observation years. VI. Conclusions Optimistic observations are EA ... East Asia, SSA ... This article contains some presented in Table 3 (Matam- Sub-Saharan Africa, High important observations with balya 2001). Tanzania Income; (WB 2000: 334- respect to the reform efforts as recorded a notable ratio of 137 335). Source: Matambalya 2001. well as economic performance percent for the period 1990 to efforts related to FDIs and 1999. Compared to the high- B. Importance of exports in trade. Tanzania’s net FDIs to income countries, which GDP GDP ratio has been growing recorded 94 percent, it appears On the basis of results pre- over the years. Yet, the econ- that the economy is poten- sented in table 3 for the period omy is apparently still not a tially catching up. 1990 to 1999, Tanzania sufficiently attractive destina- However, these results allow appears not only to be moving tion for FDIs as the ratio only reserved optimism due to forward in tandem with the remained extremely low. the extremely low starting global trend, but also to be Given this performance, Tan- point. Besides, the EAC’s only systematically catching up zania might not have managed somewhat strong economy, with the more advanced to keep pace with the global i.e., Kenya, shrank from 85 economies. However, the trend, let alone catch up with percent for the 1980 to 1990 observed trends are weakened advanced economies. As to the period to 6 percent for the by the extremely low take-off growth of FDIs flows relative 1990 to 1999 period. levels. In 1980, for instance, to growth of export flows, the Tanzania recorded dismal ratio increased by a 900 per- ∆( ψ) X x 100 Notes: ∆(GDPψ) GDP and exports of goods cent in the period 1990 to and services of US $ 4220 1998, compared to the 1980 to growth of exports relative to millions and US $ 506.4 1989 period. However, the growth of GDP, computed as (equivalent to 12 percent of absence of consistent data average of the observation the GDP), respectively. The makes a comparaison with the

51 overall global trend impossi- power of the results is Sitta, S.: “An Overview of Investment ble. restrained by the low starting Promotion in Tanzania”, unpublished Regarding the significance points of key variables of eco- paper presented at the “Tanzania of Tanzania’s exports relative nomic performance (e.g., Association of Accountants”, Dar es Salaam, Sept 27th, 2001. to global exports, optimistic exports, GDPs, and FDIs, trends are observed as well. etc.) they suggest that the Siebert, H. and Klodt, H.: “Towards From a technical perspective, economy has firmly set off on Global Competition: Catalysts and the country appears to be the arduous path to economic Constraints”, Kieler Working Papers, potentially catching up com- development and modernisa- No. 897, 1998. pared to the high-income tion. countries. Also, Tanzania Stoeckl, A., Pierce, D. and Banks, G.: “Western Trade Blocks: Game Set for appears not only to be moving Main reference Match for Asia-Pacific and the World forward in tandem with the Matambalya, F.: “Integration of the EAC economies in a Liberal Global Economy”, Center for International global trend, but also to be Economics, Canberra, 1990. systematically catching up Trade: Falling Behind or Catching UP?”, Dar es Salaam University Con- with the more advanced vocation Journal, 2001 (forthcoming). World Bank: “African Development economies, regarding the Indicators 2000”, World Bank, New importance of exports in Other references York, 2001a.World Bank: “World GDP. Black, J.: “Oxford Dictionary of Eco- Development Indicators 2000”, Overall, the results give a nomics”, Oxford University Press, World Bank, New York, 2001b. Oxford . New York, 1997. degree of hope regarding Tan- World Bank: “African Development zania’s economic performance Indicators 2000”, World Bank, New in general, and integration Grundlach, E. and Nunnenkamp, P.: “Falling Behind or Catching Up: York, 1992. with the global economy Developing Countries in the Era of (through the investment and Globalisation”, Kieler Discussion trade channels) in particular. Papers, No. 263, 1996. Although, the explanatory

NOTES

52 THE NEW PARTNERSHIP FOR AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD): EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY (EAC) AND TANZANIA PERSPECTIVES

By Mr H.E. Mrango, President’s Office, Planning and Privatization, DSM

NEPAD is a vision and a pro- and halt the marginalisation oil, gas deposits and flora and gramme of action for the of Africa in the globalisation fauna. It is also rich in history development of the African process. and culture and has an eco- continent conceived and As a precondition for sus- logical lung (rainforests) with developed by African leaders. tainable development, a minimum presence of emis- It is a commitment that the NEPAD has first of all iden- sions and effluents. All these African leaders are making to tified its priority as a Peace, could be better harnessed for the African people and to the Security, Democracy and Africa’s development. international community to Political Initiative. Also cov- take leadership in enhancing ered here is Economic and EAST AFRICAN political and economic gover- Corporate Governance and COMMUNITY (EAC) nance and placing African the strengthening of the Sub- NEPAD sees sub-regional countries, both individually regional and Regional and regional approaches as and collectively, on a path of approach to development. necessary for improving sustainable growth and deve- The second area of focus cov- Africa’s competitiveness, lopment and thus accelerating ers the sectoral priorities for mindful of the fact that as the integration of the conti- Bridging the Infrastructure markets most African coun- nent into the global economy. Gap, Human Resource tries are small. The Treaty of Within this framework Development, the East African Community Africa is calling for partner- Agriculture, Environment, (EAC), signed on 30 Novem- ship with the rest of the Culture, and Science and ber 1999, seeks to promote world, and especially with the Technology. The third criti- and strengthen the balanced industrialized countries, in cal element of NEPAD is and sustainable integration of her development on the basis Resources Mobilization. In economic, social, cultural and of her own agenda and pro- the immediate phase of build- political aspects of the three gramme of action. Generally ing capacities, reliance member states: Tanzania, speaking the goals of remains on ODA1, debt relief Kenya, and Uganda. To this NEPAD are not that new. and domestic revenue genera- end EAC is promoting What is new is the approach tion. However, as the funda- regional projects, facilitating to their realization where the mentals for market economies the movement of people and concept of Africa as owner are put in place, Africa hopes vehicles across borders, har- and spearhead assumes a cen- to mobilize most of its monizing policies and regula- tral position. The key goals resources through trade, tions for trade and invest- are to accelerate the eradica- hence the importance of mar- ments and promoting tion of poverty, promote ket access for its commodities, regional infrastructure. EAC accelerated growth and sus- private capital inflows and is implementing its Develop- tainable development improvements in domestic ment Strategy launched in (achieve and sustain 7% GDP private savings. April, 2001 with programmes growth over the next 15 years) Africa is rich in minerals, such as Lake Victoria Basin

53 development, agriculture and ciples of electoral democracy. Human Resource food security, energy, tourism, Tanzania will advocate for the Development civil aviation safety, postal same principles at the conti- Primary education develop- services, meteorology, and nental level. Secondly, the ment, rationalization of terti- inter-university co-operation. Government has effected ary and higher education To enhance good governance comprehensive economic institutions, health sector in the region, two organs of reforms laying the basis for reform, roll back malaria, the Community, namely the competitiveness. Lastly, Tan- telemedicine and health care EAC Court of Justice and the zania is a member of the programme for Tanzania, EAC Legislative Assembly Southern Africa Develop- integrated disease surveillance were launched in November, ment Community (SADC) network, reproductive and 2001. Efforts for concluding and the East African Com- child health, HIV/AIDS the Customs Union Protocol munity (EAC). These control, water and sanitation are at an advanced stage. regional arrangements are and vocational education and Clearly, EAC strategies are in important in promoting training improvement. accordance with the general economies of scale in terms of Infrastructure Development thrust of NEPAD and will market size and the mobiliza- Cross border and domestic serve as vehicles for achieving tion of resources. grid interconnections in the the objectives of NEPAD. context of EAC and SADC, NEPAD PRIORITY AREAS the generation of energy in TANZANIA PARTICIPATION OF FOCUS FOR TANZANIA accordance with 2001 IN NEPAD Tanzania is in the process of Revised Power Sector Master The United Republic of Tan- formulating its NEPAD pro- Plan and the East African zania, as a member of the gramme of action. Emphasis Road Transport Corridors. African Union (AU), is com- will be placed on policy Other areas are railway transmitted to the objectives of actions and programmes with port improvements, ports and NEPAD and is in a good critical bearing on poverty shipping, air transport and position to participate effec- eradication. It will promote aviation, pipeline transport tively and gainfully in all regional and continental and telecommunications aspects of NEPAD for a inter-linkages, the involve- impro-vement. number of reasons. Firstly, ment of the private sector, Productive and Economic Tanzania is committed to the exports to the region and Services principles of democracy, rule beyond, and facilitate cross Trade development, agricul- of law and the protection of border movements. ture diversification, mining, human rights. The govern- manufacturing (export pro- ment has adopted a Good Priorities according to the cessing zones, establishment Governance Framework NEPAD framework: of capacity for agro-process- which promotes the partici- Conditions for Sustainable ing and natural resources pro- pation of its people in deci- Development cessing), tourism, lands sion making; the principles of Capacity building for trans- development, and environ- constitutionalism; the rule of parency and accountability, ment protection and conser- law, the administration of jus- facilitation of private sector, vation. ■ tice and protection of human empowerment of local com- rights; gender equality; the munities, legal sector reform, 1 ODA = overseas development assistance culture of accountability, regional security (SADC & transparency and integrity in EAC) and capacity building the management of public in economic policy formula- affairs; and the positive prin- tion and analysis.

54 WORLD SUMMIT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (WSSD) Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August – 4 September 2002

By Mr Moses Kulaba, Agenda Participation 2000

Preamble and clean environment. had identified five key areas As the delegates from all over Despite the traditional dif- where the Johannesburg the world convened in ferences between the rich and Summit was to make a real Johannesburg, international the poor, the Johannesburg difference: water and sanita- attention was temporarily summit was expected to yield tion, energy, health, agricultural shifted away from the tradi- a political commitment to productivity and biodiversity / tional western capitals and the sustainable development. The ecosystem management. The conflict hotspots in the Mid- summit was expected to con- summit had to deliver con- dle East to the long awaited clude with a statement from crete results in these five areas World Summit on Sustain- world leaders in the form of under an acronym, able Development (WSSD). the “Johannesburg Declara- “WEHAB”. In the preceeding weeks tion” reaffirming their com- the Summit had been mitment to work towards sus- Summation of the described as one of the tainable development. Summit’s conclusions biggest United Nations The Johannesburg Summit meetings ever. The top geared Ministerial meetings once again failed the poor. preparations that preceeded The ministerial meetings held The environmentalists were the Summit led opinion ma- earlier at an Indonesian resort given piecemeal results and kers from all over the world to in Bali had proved promising, the less developed countries believe that the world had with breakthroughs on some were marginalised yet again. finally awakened to the con- of the controversial issues. Planet earth remained concerns of the third world coun- Three quarters of the draft fronted with environmental tries. implementation plan had threats as before while the Considering the issues been agreed upon. The unre- rich nations and the multi- tabled for discussion, most solved issues in Bali related to national corporations delegates hoped that the provisions regarding trade, emerged triumphant. poor nations of the world finance and the setting of The draft text for the would celebrate 4 September timetables. The draft imple- implementation of the resolu- 2002 as the historic day when mentation plan identified tions submitted to the Sum- the world’s most affluent broad areas where action was mit for negotiation was nations came to the rescue of to be taken: poverty eradica- watered down to a toothless the economically downtrod- tion, changing unsustainable document shrouded in ambi- den. It was envisaged that patterns of consumption and guities. The wording of the 10-15 years after the Johan- production, natural resources final political declaration was nesburg Summit, the sick and and eco-systems, globalisation, devoid of strict targets bind- hungry would no longer have health and sustainable developing governments to meet the cause to worry about the ment. same. The Agenda 21, scarcity of food and expen- adopted at the World Earth sive medicine. Children The UN agenda Summit in Rio de Janeiro, would go to school and adults The United Nations Secre- was weakened further by the would go to work in a safe tary General, Kofi Anann, ambigious wording of the

55 Johannesburg text. Development Assistance a common position on the Oxfam International summed (ODA) or meeting targets of most contentious issues under up the Summit as an oppor- 1% of GDP set during the discussion. tunity wasted, while the envi- Millenium Summit; total The ability to advance ronmentalists, e.g. Green- debt cancellation; replenish- views and provoke substantial peace, awarded the Summit a ment of the Global Environ- discussion on the issues at complete ‘F’ grade. The mental Facility; respect of stake depended on economic WSSD had turned its back Human Rights; and access to prowess rather than physical on the poor, said Oxfam’s land as major ingredients of eloquence and the size of Andrew Hewett. The Sum- sustainable development. the delegation. Those who mit had proved a sad disap- lacked economic power pointment, said Oxfam’s However, after the Summit it dropped out or tactfully with- executive director, Barbra became clear that delegates drew from the negotiations, Stocking. only managed to set targets in leaving room for the eco- areas like water and the nomic giants to take the lead. The issues at stake improvement in the Global Economic influence was Some of the issues which Enviromental Facilty (GEF) . manifested by the ability of were to be addressed by the There were no new commit- the rich nations to influence Johannesburg Summit with ments made, nor were time- the debates and wording of specific timetables were: tables set, by the rich coun- the final implementation • Halving the proportion of tries in the realms of agricul- plan. Economically powerful people living in extreme tural subsidies, dumping, the countries such as Japan, poverty and without access to commodity price crisis, the rais- United States, Canada, Aus- safe drinking water by 2015. ing of aid levels and debt cancel- tralia and News Zealand (the • Reducing or phasing out lation. JUSCAN alliance) manipu- environmentally harmful lated other delegates to drop products and trade distorting Proceedings targets on renewable energy subsidies; setting targets for The WSSD drew delegates and market distorting subsi- developed countries and their from all sections of society. dies in rich countries. Poor review in 2007; and increasing While this was essential in nations conceeded to a vague the share of renewables in the providing the summit with wording that would refer the global energy mix by at least the flavour and diversity issues of subsidies to the next to 15 % by 2010. needed in debating world round of talks in Doha and •Setting 2020 as a target for problems, their numbers were also agreed to a wording that eliminating human and envi- overwhelming. The official would ‘encourage’ the reform ronmentally harmful pro- number of delegates attend- of subsidies. At some point ducts; halting and reversing ing the Summit ranged the US held up progress in the current loss of natural between 45,000 and 60,000, the discussion by referring a resources/ biodiversity by excluding the local staff and compromise text on globalisa- 2015; and setting 2004 as a South African residents. tion and trade issues to Presi- deadline for effectively reduc- There were as many interests dent George Bush in Wash- ing, preventing and control- as there were delegates. Dele- ington DC for approval. ling pollutants and their gates competed to advance Indeed, at the end of the sum- health related impacts. their own interests in the mit the political declaration •Trade/financial issues Summit agenda and the final was a representation of what relating to market access; aid political declaration.The situ- the US had said and wanted. and debt relief to poor coun- ation denied the Summit the The lack of focus in the tries by increasing Overseas cohesive force needed to reach topics of discussion weak-

56 ened the WSSD. The topics plan. When looking at the lack of foresight in determin- for discussion were too ge- amount of activity going on in ing the number and compo- neral to generate a feasible these two places one won- sition of delegates, the agenda implementation plan. As ear- dered whether the summit for discussion, the nature of lier hinted, every group re- was in fact being held outside the parallel events and the presented at the Summit Sandton Convention Center. point of reference after the competed to ensure that its The lack of a point of re- Summit. In order to ensure interests were given greater ference and follow up after that a future summit is a suc- priority. As the summit pro- the Summit was yet another cessful one, the following re- gressed it was common for loophole in the final WSSD commendations should be some disgruntled delegates to implementation plan docu- considered: issue statements blaming one ment. The document did not • The composition of the block, e.g. the financial insti- spell out a clear office or con- delegates should be left the tutions or radical social move- tact point to monitor and same but their numbers scaled ments, of hijacking the Sum- ensure its implementation at down to meaningful propor- mit. This was an indication national level. The document tions. The delegates to the that no single delegation was open ended and left the summit should be selected by knew exactly what was on the prerogative of implementa- their respective organisations agenda for the Summit. The tion to the good will of the on the basis of their compe- Summit’s real agenda was respective national govern- tence and of their skill in put- influenced by the strong and ments. Such a carte blanche ting across points on the influential nations. to the governments had ear- issues under discussion. The The Global People’s lier failed the implementation summit organisers would Forum held at the Nasarec of Agenda 21 and therefore invest more in Information Center and the cultural show the Johannesburg Summit Communication and Tech- held at Ubuntu Village acted ought to have corrected this nology (ICT) to ensure the to the detriment of the Sum- mistake by establishing a focal summit proceedings are mit. The two events diverted point of reference and, possi- beamed electronically live the attention of some dele- bly, by giving Civil Society across the globe. Consulta- gates from the serious issues Organisations (CSO) the tions with experts on con- of discussion at the Summit. power to report on the tentious issues arising during The Global Forum degener- progress or the lack thereof in the negotiations should be ated into a platform for the implementation of the arranged via teleconferencing lamentating over missed WSSD plan by national gov- techniques. This would opportunities and social injus- ernments. Although the Sec- reduce the summit costs on tices, while the Ubuntu Cul- retary General, Kofi Annan, transport, accommodation, tural Village degenerated into has since appointed an Under meals, contingency allow- a world cultural showroom Secretary to oversee the ances and security. and crafts market for the del- implementation of the • The topics of discussion egates attending the Summit. WSSD, the failure to have should be focused and shar- The delegates took time off to such an office engrained in pened to avoid ambiguties. shop for some of the world’s the WSSD document Sideline events like the peo- art crafts and Africa’s tradi- reduced its focus even further. ple’s global forum should be tional regalia. The smart ones held before the summit and seized the opportunity to Conclusion and their inputs submitted to the negotiate personal trade deals Recommendations summit as a block represen- rather than to negotiate the It appears that the failure of tation from the Civil Society WSSD draft implementation the Summit was due to the Organisations). CSOs are

57 often poor and are funded by the final declaration should be should be spent on immuni- donor agencies, the cost of specific and clear rather than sing children against killer attending such summits vague and general. The poli- diseases and also providing should be greatly reduced and tical document should clearly HIV/AIDS patients with grounds for conflict avoided. spell out a point of reference anti-retroviral drugs. Some • The summit organisers (contact office) at the national should be spent on support- should insist on targets and level. ing universal primary educa- time bound goals for all reso- • The millions of dollars tion in poor countries like lutions made. The wording of saved by this major cost cut Tanzania. ■

WHAT BENEFITS DOES THE COTONOU AGREEMENT HOLD FOR THE AGRICULTURAL SECTORS OF THE EAC ECONOMIES IN VIEW OF THE REFORMS OF THE EU’S COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY?

By Prof. Francis A.S.T. Matambalya, Department of Marketing, University of Dar es Salaam

INTRODUCTION Heads of State in 1999, which established the Euro- In recent decades, particularly which spelled out more pean Economic Community since 1989, both the ACP- clearly the reform of EU’s (EEC) - the predecessor of EU development co-opera- agricultural sector, the third the EU, dealt with agricul- tion regime and internal EU wave CAP reforms consti- ture. integration policies, have tutes very substantial propor- Article 38 provided that undergone fundamental tions. the common market shall changes. The most vivid Thus, by extrapolating the extend to agriculture and manifestation of these global economic impact of trade in agriculture, and changes is the shift from the CAP reforms, the article ensure that the development Lomé culture of non-reci- derives lessons for the and operation of the common procity in ACP-EU trade to economies of the East market for agricultural prod- the Cotonou culture which African Community (EAC). ucts is guided by a common emphasises reciprocity. It outlines the consequences European policy. Related development refer to within the context of the Article 39 outlined the the ongoing reforms of the changing environment for objectives of the CAP, as CAP. international agricultural being: A crucial process related to trade in general, and the CAP (i) To increase agricultural the internal EU reforms refers reforms in particular. productivity (!), by promoting to CAP reforms. In this technical progress and by regard, the initial wave of cau- ORIGINS AND OBJECTIVES ensuring the rational develop- tious reforms of the mid OF THE EU’S CAP INTER- ment of agricultural produc- 1980s, was followed by a sec- VENTIONS tion and the optimum utilisa- ond wave of more substantial The CAP is one of the origi- tion of the factors of produc- reforms in the early 1990s. nal pillars of European inte- tion, in particular labour. Subsequent to the adoption gration. Already Title II of (ii) To ensure a fair standard of Agenda 2000 by the EU the Treaty of Rome (1957), of living for the agricultural

58 Source: DemoCrazy by GADO community, in particular The latter includes quotas (iii) Export competition com- increasing the earnings of and a system of guaranteed mitments (article 8), through persons engaged in agricul- prices for the main agricul- which member states commit ture. tural crops and products. themselves not to provide (iii) To stabilise markets. In terms of the legal base, the export subsidies other than (iv) To assure the availability WTO’s agreement on agri- those specified in the mem- of supplies.1 culture provides the general ber’s schedule. (v) To ensure that supplies framework for CAP. Accord- (iv) Export subsidies commit- reach consumers at reasonable ingly, each WTO member ments (articles 9-10), specify- prices. country’s schedule of conces- ing the member countrys’ sions should outline, inter alia: resolve to reduce subsidies of CONCEPTUAL AND LEGAL (i) The dedication by member various types (direct, market- FOUNDATIONS OF EU’S state to achieve specific binding, export, etc.), avoid dump- CAP ing commitments in market ing, and desist from trans- Conceptually, the CAP man- access (article 4). The focus is portation costs discrimina- ifests the political economy of the reduction of tariffs and tion. protectionism. Concretely, other access commitments. (v) Sanitary and Phytosani- CAP utilises trade policy to (ii) Domestic support com- tary (SPS) measures, specified insulate the domestic (EU) mitments (articles 6-7, and in article 14, which emphasise agricultural sector from com- annexes 2-4). Through them, that members should research petition (i.e. from imports). member states commit them- an agreement on SPS. CAP protection is realised selves to reduce domestic sup- These provisions call for a through tariff barriers and port in favour of agricultural liberalisation of the agricul- non-tariff barriers (NTBs). producers. tural sector. The setback lies

59 in the fact agriculture is the selling prices for their agricul- stantial velocity in the late least liberalised sector, because tural products, independent 1990s, marking the most pro- the relevant WTO provisions of the actual supply and found CAP reforms since it allow substantially higher lev- demand situations. Thus, came into existence. In line els of protection, compared to analogous to the traditional with these changes, on 26 the provisions on industrial convent of protectionism, the March 1999, the Heads of goods. It should, however, be CAP raises the profits for and State of the 15 European noted that up to 1995, the employment by the EU agri- Union countries meeting in provisions of the general cultural sector. Berlin formalised the Agenda agreement on tariffs and trade Entry Price 2000 provisions for financing (GATT) marginally liber- The entry price is the mini- the EU for the period from alised agricultural trade. Sub- mum price at which products 2000 to 2006. At the Mid- sequently, many areas of may be imported into the EU. Term Review (MTR) of the world agricultural trade were It works through an import CAP presented in July 2002, dominated by export and tax, levied on agricultural the EU’s Commission pro- domestic subsidies, and products entering the EU posed to move on with the restricted import regimes. market and is one of the major reform process that had sources of EU’s revenue, as the already started with the PRICE SUPPORT SYSTEM revenue thereof earned Agenda 2000. AS THE HUB OF THE accrues to the EU budget. CAP Focus on Direct Aid CAP INTERVENTION Hence, since it is designed as a in Place of Price Support INSTRUMENTS tool to protect EU (ineffi- System The CAP that emerged in cient?) producers from (effi- In technical terms, the CAP the 1960s (enacted in 1962) cient) foreign producers, it reforms have so far resulted in was built on a system of guar- causes trade diversion in a shift in agricultural support anteed prices for the main favour of EU producers. from price support to much agricultural crops and prod- Export Subsidy less trade-distorting direct ucts. The system consisted of The export subsidy targeted payments. Invariably, since three types of prices, i.e. target products leaving the EU. direct payments are de-cou- prices, entry prices and export Technically, it is a refund paid pled from current production, subsidies. to EU exporters of agricul- they are posited to be much Target Price tural exports, to fund the gap less trade-distorting than the The target price refers to the between lower (world market price support system. minimum price the EU farm- prices) and higher (EU mar- To underscore, this shift: ers receive on the EU market. ket) prices. Through export (i) In 1991, 91% of the CAP Traditionally, this price is subsidies of this type, EU budget was used on export fixed at a certain level, regard- agricultural products produc- refunds and intervention, thus less of the level of production. ers can dispose of their excess causing trade distortion and Hence, in the case of overpro- supply on the world markets, huge stocks. duction, the target price in what is a de facto dumping (ii) By 2006 (when the reform translates into an intervention practice. process is expected to have price, paid by the government been completed), only 21% or specially established agen- INNOVATIONS OF CAP will be spent on market sup- cies to farmers to buy excess INTERVENTIONS port, while 68% of the budget production in unlimited INSTRUMENTS will be used for direct pay- quantities. The fundamental changes in ments to farmers. Hence, target prices guar- EU agricultural policy that Reform Goals for Main antee EU farmers minimum began in 1992, picked up sub- Agricultural Measures

60 The agricultural measures reformed CAP regime is one Hence, the presentation in cover arable crops (wheat, where aid interventions in the this section is only an attempt oilseeds, protein crops), beef EU Agricultural sector are to further customise the con- and milk. Sugar, olive oil, truly “non-trade distorting”. sequences for the ACP fruits, and vegetables are so far Any deviation from “non- economies, due to their special not included in the reform trade distortion” implies trade linkages to the ACP, with the process but are scheduled for distorting measures, affecting assistance of some examples. reform possibly in connection EU’s competitors on both EU Thus: with the Doha round. Like- on domestic and foreign mar- (i) In view of possible EPAs wise in the cotton sector no kets. between the EU and the reforms are on the table. Hence, the levels of CAP EAC, the CAP reforms are The following changes for subsidies for European agri- likely to have a trade diverting arable crops highlight the culture also partially deter- and trade deflecting effect. major CAP reform targets: mine the competitiveness of The CAP reforms will (i) Initially, the intervention agriculture in other economies enhance the diversion of trade price for arable crops will be and distort trade. Notably: from efficient producers from reduced by 15% in two phases, (i) Although the reforms the Rest of the World i.e., during the 2000/2001 and introduced under the CAP (ROW) to inefficient EU 2001/2002 crop years. may be judged less trade dis- suppliers of relevant products (ii) An in-depth study of mar- torting as in previous arrange- to the East African market. ket changes beginning with ments, the trade enhancing Similarly, it will increase trade the 2002/2003 crop year will impact is conspicuously still deflection from efficient East be made to determine if fur- inconsequential. The reality of African supplies of relevant ther reductions should be the matter is that CAP is products to inefficient EU made. enhancing the price competi- suppliers. (iii) Approximately 50% of the tiveness of EU exports (ii) ACP and EU products drop in intervention prices (through increasing direct aid will compete on third mar- will be compensated for by payments which allow farm- kets. Generally, to the extent per-hectare compensatory gate prices to fall without that the CAP intervention payments. undermining production). prices will fall below world (iv) Direct aid for oilseeds will (ii) By lowering prices, CAP market prices for major agri- be progressively aligned with reforms have stimulated cultural products, EU exports aid for grains by 2002. domestic (EU) consumption are likely to increase beyond (v) The base rate for required of the relevant products, and the pre-reform levels. freezing of fields is set at 10% lowered the costs of surplus (iii) Revenues from ACP for the entire 2000-2006 disposal in foreign markets. exports to the EU will decline, period. (iii) In the coming years, with due to declining prices of spe- (vi) Compensation for set- EU intervention prices falling cific products. Currently, the aside is set at the same rate as below world market prices for ACP economies export to the compensatory aid for arable major cereals, EU exports are EU about 1.6 million tons of crops. likely to increase beyond the ACP sugar, worth 844 million pre-reform levels. in 2001.This is equivalent to OVERVIEW OF THE Implications of CAP 86% of all sugar imports to the CONSEQUENCES OF CAP Reforms for ACP EU. However, as the quotas REFORM ON PRODUCTION Economies have not been changed since AND TRADE The globalist effects of CAP 1983, the quantities of ACP Globalist Consequences reform on trade will equally exports to the EU cannot be The ideal situation for the apply to ACP economies. increased. A fall in sugar

61 FIGURE1: OVERVIEW OF MAIN ACP EXPORTS OF CAP PRODUCTS, 1998 TO 2001 (MILLION EUROS)

1000

900

800

700 sugar 600 cotton bananas 500 tobacco

400 flowers exotic fruits 300

200

100

0 Source: Wolf, S., 2002, un-published paper. 1998 1999 2000 2001

prices will affect the incomes nou Agreement, the Gener- lematic issues arising from it of the EAC economies, as alised System of Preferences also within the framework of they benefit from the sugar (GSP) which may offer a the multilateral trade negotia- protocol. recourse for ACP states not tions. Furthermore, the (iv) The CAP reform may willing to belong to an EPA, Uruguay round of trade nego- also have a stifling impact on and Everything But Arms tiations went a long way the development of non-tra- (EBA) as a special realisation, towards establishing a frame- ditional agricultural exports, are particularly important. work for effective liberalisa- and hence hinder the ongoing Equally crucial is the application of agricultural trade. diversification of exports. As tion of the Safeguard Clause Thus, declines in preferential depicted in figure 1, especially by the EU. The policies may margins in agricultural trade for flowers and fruits, some be struggling to get to terms are a fait accompli. Watertight ACP economies (including with the CAP. In case of lack measures to the contrary can Kenya and Tanzania from of coherence of these policies, only be negotiated within the East Africa) have been able to their achievements will be multilateral fora. increase exports of non-tradi- sub-optimal at best. Conceptual Lessons tional ACP exports, such as The EAC economies also cut flowers to the EU, partly DIGEST OF LESSONS OF need to correctly conceptu- because of to the preferential THE CAP REFORM FOR alise the CAP measures, and treatment. THE EAC ECONOMIES relate them to mainstream, (v)The CAP reforms should Policy Lessons contemporary thinking in also be assessed in relation to The EAC economies must international trade. In this other existing policies of rele- bear in mind that the CAP is context, the EAC policy vance for ACP-EU trade founded upon the legal text of makers need to acquaint relations. In this context, the the WTO, and accordingly, it themselves with the political EPAs advocated by the Coto- attempts to address the prob- economy of protectionism,

62 TABLE 3: EXPORTS OF SELECTED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS TO THE EU BY THE EAC ECONOMIES IN 2000

HS Code Product Kenya Tanzania Uganda % of total 000 € % of total 000 € % of total 000 € exports exports exports 0304 and 0302 Fish - - 28.7 115 772 6.0 14.574 0901 Coffee - - 18.9 76 082 55.9 136.74 9 0603 Flowers 19.1 151 269 2.1 8 264 4.3 10 569 0902 Tea 17.9 141 835 1.4 5 553 0708 and 0709 Vegetables 16.2 127 593 - - 2008 and Fruits and 2009 Fruit Juices 6.2 49 238 - - 2401 Tobacco - - 8.8 10.5 25 676

Source: Own table compiled using data from EUROSRTAT website. and understand the ways in price disturbances are likely to World Economy; the issue is which to deal with the com- substantially affect the export how the EAC is integrated in plications for their economies, revenues of the EAC the World Economy. Is the which arise from protection- economies. EAC going to be integrated ism. Positive Practical Lessons therein as an independent Negative Practical Lessons Since the EAC economies viable economy; or as com- First, the EAC economies occasionally import food, they partmentalized peripheral will not be immune to the stand to benefit, in terms of economy of the major distortions of international cheap sourcing of these sup- economies? Among other trade dynamics and struc- plies at world markets. things, the EAC economies tures, which will be caused by must strategically work to: CAP reforms. This is particu- WHAT CAN THE EAC (i) Defend their domestic larly so, considering the agrar- ECONOMIES DOTO value added industries (i.e., ian nature of the EAC HARNESS THE IMPACT OF processing industries). economies in general, and the CAP REFORMS? (ii) Have capacities to meet heavy dependence of the Specific to trade, the EAC Sanitary and Phytosanitary EAC economies on the EU economies must carefully and (SPS) measures and other market for their agricultural correctly grasp what is at stake technical barriers. exports in particular (cf. table in the next negotiation (iii) Effectively manage the 3). rounds, both within the mul- taxes on imported goods. The agricultural exports to tilateral forum and within the (iv) Offensively market their the EU are concentrated on a EU (cf. EPA trade regime). products domestically and few product categories for all Thus, it should be borne in internally. three EAC economies. mind that the issue is not (v) Defend their economies Therefore, any substantial integrating the EAC in the using WTO-consistent

63 measures (e.g., safeguard guard clause, to WTO-con- of CAP on the EU market, close, domestic support com- sistently protect their agricul- EAC and third (external) mitments, etc.). This will tural industry. markets. ■ require also intelligently As a group of nations with designing commitments on common interests, the EAC Note: This paper is summarised agriculture to WTO-consis- economies should also conversion of the paper “Which tently protect their agricul- sider: Benefits Does the Cotonou tural industry. (i) A common EAC position, Agreement Hold for the Agri- (vi) Negotiate with the EU including a joint negotiation cultural Sectors of the EAC for the multilateralisation of of an EPA with the EU. Economies vis à vis the Reforms the Everything-But-Arms (ii) Clearly spelling out the of the EU’s Common Agricul- (EBA) initiative, i.e. includ- status/role of other regional tural Policy?”, presented at the ing into the EU’s WTO com- integration schemes in which Regional Workshop on The mitments. the EAC economies are Impact and Consequences of (vii) List sensitive products, members. EU-CAP Reforms in East including their substitutes (iii) Conducting country Africa held at Lion Hill Lodge, and exclude them from liber- product-by-product analyses Nakuru, Kenya, 6th to 8th alization obligations within on the impact of CAP. November 2002.” the framework of EPA trade (iv) Analysing sectoral and 1 Implicitly, this was achieved regime. linkage effect of liberalisation. by increasing EU production (viii) Intelligently design their (v) Making macro-economic and easy access to the EU of commitments (WTO agree- and micro (product, sectoral strategic agricultural products ment on agriculture, in arti- and sectoral linkages) impact (which were mainly sourced cles 2 to 14) to WTO-consis- analysis of FTAs with the EU from ACP in particular, and tently protect their agricul- to provide the basis for offen- other developing economies in tural industry. sive and defensive strategies. general). (ix) Intelligently use the safe- (vi) Ascertaining the impact

NOTES

64 3. REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES

THE FIRST DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY OF THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY 1997 – 2000*

By Dr Mohammed Omar Maundi, Centre for Foreign Relations

On 30 November 2001 the in East Africa is undertaken seven major areas: Third Summit of the East through development strate- 1. Confidence Building African Community officially gies. The First Development Measures launched the East African Strategy (1997 - 2000) laid Four specific accomplish- Legislative Assembly and down basic principles to gov- ments can be identified in this swore in six judges of the East ern the process of regional area. The first was the setting African Court of Justice in integration. The first of the up of a Defence Liaison Arusha. The launch of the key principles is people-cen- Office at the Secretariat. The Assembly and the swearing in tred, market driven integra- second was the signing of a of the judges completed the tion. The second is the partic- Memorandum of Under- creation of the institutional ipation of the private sector standing for Cooperation in framework for regional inte- and civil society in the deci- the area of defence. The third gration. sion-making process. The last was undertaking a joint mili- The steady progress made one is the application of the tary exercise annually since by the Community since its principle of subsidiarity in the 1999. The fourth was the launching lays a strong foun- selection of the activities for signing of a Memorandum of dation for the realization of its implementation at the Understanding of Foreign regional integration objec- regional level. Policy Co-ordination. tives. According to the EAC The strategy’s medium 2. Harmonization of Secretariat, the period 2001 to term priority was to establish Policies 2005 is the actualization a single market and invest- Achievements in this area phase of the Community. It ment area in the region. This included the macroeconomic will be guided by the Second was to be realized through the convergence. There is now a East African Community following: firstly, the harmo- convertibility of the three East Development Strategy (2001 nization of policies in order to African currencies. The three - 2005) which was officially promote cross-border move- East African countries now launched during the Second ment of goods and persons; read their budget statements Summit in Arusha on 24 secondly, the development of in the same day and time. April 2001. the regional infrastructure; Yellow fever cards require- The objective of this article and thirdly, enhancement of ments for East Africans have is to provide a brief assess- technological and human been eliminated. There is ment of the First Develop- resources development. now a prefe-rential tariff dis- ment Strategy (1997 - 2000). count as follows: Kenya 90%, It focuses on the strategy’s key ACHIEVEMENT OF THE Uganda 80% and Tanzania principles and objectives, its FIRST DEVELOPMENT 80%. There has been a har- medium term priorities and STRATEGY monization of standards of its achievements. The strategy scored some sig- goods and services as East The process of integration nificant achievements in African standards. Over 300

65 Source: DemoCrazy by Gado standards have been harmo- airports of the East African East African Power and nized out of which over 90 of countries have also been intro- Energy Master Plans; the them have been notified to the duced. development of oil and gas World Trade Organization 4. Infrastructural pipelines; and the identifica- (WTO) as East African Stan- Development tion of the East African Road dards. Finally, there has been Within the five-year period of Network and the holding of a a mutual recognition of health the strategy, a number of Donors’ Conference on the certificates for goods issued by infrastructural projects were Road Network. national bodies. either formulated or imple- 5. Development of Human 3. Easing of Cross-border mented. One of these was the Resources, Science and Movement of Persons and implementation of the cross- Technology Goods border interconnectivity In the areas of human To ease cross-border move- telecommunications project. resources, science and tech- ment, an East African pass- The other was the formula- nology, the Inter-University port has been introduced. It tion of the digital transmission Council has been revitalized. provides a six-month multi- project. A civil aviation pro- An East African Science and entry allowance. Inter-state ject was formulated as well as Technology Co-ordination passes have also been intro- the implementation of the Committee has been set up, as duced. Apart from the grant- postal automation project. has a Scientific Council. ing of 7 days grace period of There was also the harmo- 6. The Process Towards personal motor vehicles carry- nization of the vehicle transit the Establishment of the ing a maximum of 7 persons, requirement; the development East African Community’s immigration desks for East of the East African Commu- Customs Union Africans at the international nity Railways Network; the In the area of Customs Union,

66 efforts have been directed rated into the World Customs Co-operation in Environ- towards the harmonization of Organization’s Commodity ment Management. the exemption regimes, the Description and Coding Sys- Obviously, the most signif- harmonization and simplifi- tem, Version 2000. icant achievement in this area cation of customs documenta- Outstanding work in this is the signing of the Treaty for tion for application at the area is on the establishment of the Establishment of the East regional level, including the a Common External Tariff African Community, its ratifi- development of a single bill of (CET), EAC Rules of Origin cation and official launching, entry (SBE) custom docu- and the Programme for the as well as the launching of the ment and its draft manual. Elimination of Internal Tariff. East African Legislative Efforts have also been 7. Legal and Judicial Assembly and the East directed towards the develop- Cooperation African Court of Justice. ■ ment of a model harmonized In the area of legal and judicial * This article has heavily depended on the investment code which is cooperation, achievements EAC Secretariat’s briefings, documents waiting completion and its have been in the signing of the and publications. subsequent adoption by the Agreement for Avoidance of partner states. The harmo- Double Taxation; the signing nization of commodity of the Road Transport and descriptions and a coding sys- Water Ways Agreement; and tem to 8 digit level have also the signing of the Memoran- been undertaken and incorpo- dum of Understanding on

ORIGINS OF VIOLENT CONFLICTS IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION

By Prof. Gaudens P.Mpangala, IDS, University of Dar es Salaam

The Great Lakes Region nationalist struggles for inde- gious conflict. In some cases, Six countries constitute the pendence, the period of the nature and character of Great Lakes Region (GLR): nation building and the colonialism necessitated the Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, period of democratization. use of armed struggle such as Rwanda, Burundi and the the Maumau War waged by Democratic Republic of The period of nationalist the Kikuyu against the white Congo (DRC). An interna- struggles for independence settlers and colonialism as a tional symposium on the The struggle for independ- whole. Great Lakes Region was held ence was on two fronts. On Rwanda provides a typical in Kampala, Uganda 8 - 10 the one hand the nationalist example of competition April, 2002 with the partici- political parties fought against between ethnic based political pation of all six countries. The a common enemy, the colo- parties resulting in violent symposium was organized by nial power. On the other there conflict between 1959 and the Mwalimu Nyerere Foun- was fierce infighting amongst 1961. The nationalist parties dation and supported by the the political parties for power struggling for independence Governments of Uganda and at independence. Where were either Hutu or Tutsi par- Tanzania. political parties were ethni- ties. The consolidation of eth- There have been three cally or religiously based, nicity amongst the ethnic phases of violent conflict in competition between them groups throughout the Ger- the GLR: the period of the led to violent ethnic or reli- man and later the Belgian

67 Source: Art in Politics, 1st E.A. competition on political caricatures and cartoons, FES 2001 colonial period was a result of rest for the big powers minority in 1966. Between the ideologies of racism and because of its rich mineral 1966 and 1990 there were civilizing mission of the colo- and agricultural resources. four periods of violent conflict nial powers. Instigated by the These internal and external characterized by massacres. Belgian colonialists, the vio- factors resulted in the assassi- The worst massacres occurred lent conflicts facilitated the nation of Patrice Lumumba, in 1972 when about 300,000 taking over of power by the the first Prime Minister of people were killed. The Tut- Hutu political parties at inde- independent Congo. Civil sis, who were in power, segre- pendence in 1962. war followed and brought gated, oppressed and margin- Mobutu to power. alized the majority Hutu, The period of nation Frequent and serious vio- who in turn resisted and this building: 1960s to 1980s lent conflicts took place in led to violence. Most of the violent conflicts Burundi after the assassina- In Rwanda, the Hutu in this period were about tion in 1961 of a uniting majority was in power and political power and the con- nationalist leader, Prince they oppressed, marginalized trol of socio-economic Rwagasore. Political struggles and segregated the Tutsi resources. Given the weak degenerated into ethnocentric minority. This also resulted in state of the economic base of politics. Immediately after periodic conflict culminating the politicians, political power independence (1962 - 1966) in the outbreak of civil war in became the means of gaining fierce ethnic competition for 1990. economic power. As well as power culminated in the In Uganda violent conflict having its internal struggles overthrow of the monarch in erupted in 1966 as result of for power and wealth, Congo 1965 and the taking over of friction between the govern- became a big center of inte- political power by the Tutsi ment of President Milton

68 Obote and the Kingdom of Conflicts during the reach an agreement. Buganda. The system of indi- period of democratization In Rwanda, the failure of rect rule set up by the British from 1990 to the present the Habyarmana Hutu Gov- had resulted in the consolida- With the exception of ernment to democratize tion of strong kingdoms such Uganda and Rwanda, which resulted in the outbreak of a as Buganda, Bungoro, Ankole have adopted the movement civil war in 1990 when and Toro. At independence political system, the democra- refugees from Uganda Buganda was granted a cer- tization process resulted in attacked the regime.The situ- tain level of autonomy with the establishment of multi- ation led to the genocide of its own Buganda govern- party political systems fol- 1994 when nearly a million ment. This contradicted the lowed by multi-part elections. people were massacred. nationalist spirit of building Although the building of Violent conflicts in this the united nation of Uganda. democracy was expected to period have also taken place The friction resulted in the solve the problem of conflicts, in Kenya, Tanzania and the overthrow of Kabaka, the the early stage of multi-party DRC. In Kenya violent con- King of Buganda who fled competition has nonetheless flicts erupted in the Rift Val- into exile in Britain. given rise to violent conflicts, ley Province from 1991 to Other violent conflicts in particularly where multi- 1992 shortly before the first Uganda began in 1971 when party politics assumed the multi-party elections in 1992 Idi Amin staged a coup, over- character of ethnically based and again in 1997/98. Using throwing the Obote govern- politics. the ideology of regionalism ment and establishing a mili- In Burundi, nearly all the (majimboism) some politi- tary rule of terror lasting for political parties established in cians, opposed to and threat- eight years during which 1992 were ethnically based, ened by multi-partyism, more that 300,000 people either Tutsi or Hutu domi- instigated the Kalenjin Eth- were killed, including promi- nated parties. Thus, when the nic Group to fight and evict nent politicians and religious Hutu based party, the Kikuyu, the Luhya and leaders. Many more fled to FRODEBU, won the elec- other groups from the Rift neighbouring countries as tions of 1993 the Tutsi, who Valley. More than 1,500 peo- refugees. The Idi Amin had made coup attempts, ple were killed. regime was given substantial eventually assassinated the As Kenya moves towards support from big powers such Hutu President Melchior the third multi-party elec- as Great Britain. In the same Ndadaye three months after tions in December, 2002 period the relationship he was elected. The situation there is a substantial risk that between the Amin govern- resulted in a civil war that has further violent conflict will ment and the government of continued up to the present. erupt. Protest against Moi’s Tanzania grew from bad to Despite peace negotiations choice of Mr Uhuru Kenyatta worse, culminating in a war since 1996 culminating in the as KANU’S presidential can- between the two countries Arusha Peace Agreement of didate has been widespread from 1978 to 1979. Assisted 28 August, 2000 and the and to the extent that some by the anti-Amin people of establishment of a transitional prominent politicians of Uganda, Tanzania overthrew government, peace has not KANU have moved out of the Amin regime. Continu- been achieved in Burundi. KANU and joined the Rain- ous struggles for power Peace can be achieved if the bow Alliance which has resulted in civil war from current (October, 2002) brought the opposition par- 1980 to 1986, a war that ceasefire negotiations be- ties together to stage one brought President Museveni tween the transitional gov- opposition presidential candi- to power. ernment and the rebel groups date, Mr Mwai Kibaki. There

69 are fears that if the elections Mobutu’s regime was Solutions for ending the are rigged in favour of Mr overthrow in May, 1997 after violent conflicts in the Uhuru Kenyatta, political vio- a military campaign launched GLR lence might erupt. by Laurent Kabila in October, The continuation of violent In Tanzania there have 1996, assisted by Rwanda and conflicts is detrimental to the been conflicts between the Uganda. Kabila’s failure to development of the region. strong competing political carry out democratization, Every possible effort must be parties i.e. the ruling party and his deliberate marginal- made to bring about peace. CCM and the opposition ization of his allies who had Sustainable peace requires party, CUF, in connection assisted him in the war short-term measures such as with the multi-party elections against Mobutu, resulted in peace negotiations that incor- in Zanzibar. After the elec- the eruption of another war porate all the parties con- tions of 1995 conflict was by rebel groups against him, cerned in the conflicts. latent, but after the elections assisted by Rwanda and Efforts should be made of 2000 violent conflict Uganda. In that war Laurent within the region and within erupted between CUF Kabila was supported by the individual countries to demonstrators and the police Zimbabwe, Namibia and develop conflict resolution and more than 23 demonstra- Angola. The assassination of capacities. The Peace Agree- tors were shot dead on 26 and Laurent Kabila brought his ment between CCM and 27 January, 2001. In both son, Joseph Kabila, to power, CUF Political Parties elections CUF accused CCM and he is making efforts to (Muafaka) in Tanzania in of rigging and manipulating end the war. October, 2001 provides us the elections to snatch its vic- So far Mr Joseph Kabila with an example of the tory. Conflicts over land have has created conditions which strengthening of the peace- also taken place in some parts have enabled his government, building capacity within a of the country as in the Kilosa the opposition parties and country. It must be stressed District, Morogoro Region. rebel groups to carry out a that sustainable peace also In the DRC dictator process of dialogue in South requires long-term measures Mobutu mishandled the Africa which is to lead to the that include democratization, democratization process by establishment of a transitional economic transformation and allowing the formation of government and then demo- regional integration on the more than a hundred small cratic elections. He has also basis of people-centered and weak political parties. signed peace agreements with democracy and people-cen- This was to the advantage of the Governments of Rwanda tered development. ■ the regime in power. and Uganda.

NOTES

70 TANZANIA AND REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS

By Prof. F. A. S. T. Matambalya, Department of Marketing, University of Dar es Salaam

Policy framework of Table 1: Tanzania’s membership of regional trade protocols in Tanzania’s international Eastern and Southern Africa trade Presently Tanzania’s trade Country/Scheme EAC Trade Regime a SADC Trade Regime policies are influenced by a 1. Angola * set of partly interlinked 2. Botswana * forces, which act at various 3. DRC * levels. 4. Kenya * * At the primary level Tanza- 5. Lesotho * nia is a member of a number 6. Malawi * of trade regimes. 7. Mauritius * a) Tanzania participates in 8. Mozambique * 9. Namibia * two major regional integra- 10. RSA * tion schemes, i.e., the East 11. Seychelles * African Community (EAC) 12. Swaziland * and the Southern African 13.Tanzania * * Development Community 14. Uganda * * (SADC). Table 1 depicts 15. Zambia * Tanzania’s partners in each of 16. Zimbabwe * the two arrangements. The Notes: a ... EAC trade protocol under preparation, * denotes country membership in the country’s trade policies are scheme. therefore influenced by two sets of trade regimes, i.e., the c) Tanzania subscribes to the major trading block of the EAC and SADC trade World Trade Organisation Latin American sub-region, regimes. (WTO) and its trade policies and the North American Free b) Tanzania subscribes to the must be WTO-compatible. Trade Area (NAFTA). Cotonou Agreement which links the European Union At the secondary level, co- EAC Trade Regime (EU) and 77 African, operation between regional Article 5 of the Treaty of the Caribbean and Pacific blocks to which Tanzania sub- EAC on the Objectives of the (ACP) states. As a member scribes and other regional Community, specifies in para- of the ACP group of nations, blocks, constitutes develop- graph 3 that the Community Tanzania has to harmonise ments which affect the coun- shall ensure the strengthening trade policy with the special try’s trade policies. SADC, for and consolidation of: provisions of the Cotonou instance, has signed a co- (i) co-operation in agreed Agreement on EU-ACP operation agreement with the fields that would lead to equi- trade regime. The Cotonou Association of South East table economic development Agreement is a Framework Asian Nations (ASEAN), and within the partner states and Agreement. Detailed negoti- made initial moves to intro- which would, in turn, raise the ations of the Agreement will duce relationships with the standard of living and improve commence in September Mercado Comun del Sur the quality of life of their pop- 2002. (MERCOSUR) which is the ulations.

71 (ii) long-standing political, the result of the Maseru Sum- The WTO economic, social, cultural and mit of 1996. This Protocol, The WTO provisions provide traditional ties and associa- which technically presents a the base of international trade tions between the peoples of Framework Agreement, is an relations. The main character- the partner states so as to pro- interim arrangement, which istics of the WTO trade mote a people centred mutual should be systematically regime are tariff reduction and development of these ties and strengthened and in 2008, reciprocity in trade conces- associations. transformed into a fully- sions. The WTO also pro- The EAC is, therefore, also fledged Free Trade Area, in vides for the formation of working on the institutionali- compliance with Article closer regional co-operation. sation, at the regional level, of XXIV of the GATT, revised co-operation in trade. Maas- in 1994. Implication of the dorp and Hess (1999), in a The protocol is relatively multiplicity of trade report prepared for the EU, comprehensive, containing 39 arrangements recommends the establish- Articles and five annexes. The multiplicity of arrangement of an EAC Trade Proto- Being a trade protocol, all its ments is intrinsically a poten- col. articles are logically relevant tial source for overt and covert for trade. They jointly aim to friction. For instance, in con- The SADC Trade Regime systematically remove intra- junction with the overall As an integration scheme, the SADC trade barriers and turn objectives of EAC and the SADC is one of the latest the region into a free trade SADC, the EAC and SADC additions to similar initiatives area (FTA) by 2008. trade protocols may be follow- in Southern Africa. Formally, ing partly common, partly it was established in August The Cotonou Agreement conflicting goals. Both the 1992 through the Windhoek On 23 June, the EU and its EAC and the SADC are Treaty to replace the Southern ACP associates signed a New pushing for rather fast eco- African Development Co- Partnership Agreement in nomic integration. Even if the ordination Conference Cotonou, Benin. The Agree- two schemes have not become (SADCC) of which the key ment replaced the Lomé competing schemes they have objective was to lessen eco- Convention which governed certainly become duplicating nomic dependence on the EU-ACP development co- schemes. The weaknesses are apartheid RSA. operation from 1975 to 2000. camouflaged by two facts. This objective was inherited The New Partnership Agree- First, only Tanzania belongs by the SADC. Following the ment will govern EU-ACP to both regionalisation multi-ethnic election of 1994, co-operation in the next 20 schemes. Second, the SADC which paved the way for the years. trade protocol explicitly speci- dismantling of the apartheid Economic and trade co- fies in Article 24 on most system, the RSA joined the operation constitute one of favoured nation treatment SADC as its 10th member in the key pillars of the Agree- that (i) members shall accord 1994. This brought a new ment. In line with the new the most favoured nation reality to integration efforts in Agreement, EU-ACP trade (MFN) treatment to one Southern Africa, heavily will build on the so-called another and (ii) nothing in boosting the chances of the economic partnership agree- this protocol shall prevent SADC as a tool for the devel- ments (EPA), which shall member states from granting opment of the region. consist basically of free-trade or maintaining preferential The SADC trade regime is areas (FTAs) between the trade arrangements with third expressed by the SADC Trade EU and groups of ACP countries. Note also that, Protocol. The Protocol was countries. technically, a country may

72 belong to more than one significant liability. However, Matambalya, F.: “The Merits and FTA, because it does not have the rationalisation of trade Demerits of EU Policies Towards to implement a common arrangements at the same Associated Developing Countries: external tariff (CET). level, e.g. the EAC and An Empirical Analysis of EU- SADC Trade and Overall Economic The duplication has also SADC trade regimes will be Co-operation within the Framework political implications. While an advantage and should be of the Lomé Convention”, 2nd the secretariat of the EAC is considered. Tanzania should revised Edition, Peter Lang Science based in Arusha (Tanzania), work to ensure that differ- Publishers, Bern . Berlin . Frankfurt . that of the SADC in based in ences between the EAC New York . Paris Vienna, 1999. Gaborone (Botswana). This internal instruments and Matambalya, F. and Wolf S.: “The suggests that partly for strate- SADC instruments are at a Cotonou Agreement and the Chal- gic and partly for prestigious minimum. ■ lenges of Making the New EU-ACP reasons, Tanzania is exposed Trade Regime WTO Compatible” in to diplomatic pressure to Selected references Journal of World Trade, Vol. 35, No. ensure the continued exis- Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung: “The 1 February 2001. tence of both the EAC and Maseru SADC Trade Protocol”, Johannesburg, 1997. SADC: “Protocol on Trade in the the SADC. Southern African Development Maasdorp, G. and Hess, R. The Community (SADC) Region”, Conclusion Establishment of An East African SADC Secretariat, 1996. Basically, the multiplicity of Trade Regime, unpublished Report trade arrangements is not a prepared for the EU, 1999.

NOTES

73 4. LOCAL PERSPECTIVES

THE TANZANIA DEVELOPMENT VISION 2025

By Mr C. K. Tandari, Department of Poverty Eradication, Vice President’s Office

The Tanzania Development High quality livelihood society and seeks to ensure Vision 2025 projects that by Ideally, a nation’s development that its people are empowered the year 2025 Tanzanian soci- should be people centred, with the capacity to make ety will be free from poverty based on sustainable and their leaders and public ser- and will have graduated from shared growth and be free vants accountable. By 2025, the group of least developed from abject poverty. This good governance should have countries to that of middle entails the creation of wealth permeated the national socio- income countries, with a high and its equitable distribution. economic structure thereby level of human development. Society must be free from ensuring a culture of account- inequalities and all forms of ability, rewarding good per- The Concept social and political relations formance and effectively curb- Development Vision 2025 is a that inhibit empowerment ing corruption and other vices long-term development phi- and effective democratic and in society. losophy that is the articulation popular participation of all of a desirable future condition, social groups (men and A well educated and which the nation envisages it women, boys and girls, the learning society will attain, and of the plausible young and the old and the Tanzania will be a nation course of action to be taken for able-bodied and disabled per- whose people are well edu- its achievement. It seeks to sons). It is anticipated that by cated with a developmental actively mobilise the people the year 2025, racial and gen- mindset and competitive and other resources towards der imbalances will have been spirit. These attributes are the achievement of shared redressed. At the same time, critical for the nation to effec- goals. The vision is like a vehi- law, politics, employment, tively mobilise domestic cle of hope and an inspiration education, culture, will have resources to assure the provi- for motivating the people to been reformed. sion of people’s basic needs search and work harder for the and to attain competitiveness betterment of their livelihood Peace, stability, and unity in the regional and global and for prosperity. A nation should enjoy peace, economy. The Tanzania of 2025 will political stability, national To this effect Tanzania have five major attributes: unity and social cohesion in an should: • High quality livelihood. environment of democracy • attain self-reliance driven by •Peace, stability and unity. and political and social toler- the psychological liberation of • Good governance. ance. the mindset and the people’s •A well educated and sense of confidence. learning society. Good governance • be a nation whose people •A competitive economy Tanzania cherishes good gov- have a positive mindset and a capable of producing ernance and the rule of law in culture which cherishes sustainable growth and the process of creating wealth human development through shared benefits. and the sharing of benefits in hard work, professionalism,

74 entrepreneurship, creativity, through: with a substantial industrial innovativeness and ingenuity •Food self-sufficiency and sector comparable to typical and who have confidence in food security. middle-income countries. and high respect for all people • Universal primary • Macroeconomic stability irrespective of gender. education. manifested by a low • be a nation with a high •Gender equality. inflation economy and basic level of education; a nation •Access to quality primary macroeconomic balances. which produces the quantity health care for all. •A growth rate of at least 8% and quality of educated peo- •Access to quality reproduc- per annum. ple sufficiently equipped with tive health services for all •An adequate level of the requisite knowledge to individuals of appropriate physical infrastructure solve the society’s problems, age. needed to cope with the meet the challenges of devel- • Reduction in infant and requirements of the Vision opment and attain competi- maternal mortality rates by in all sectors tiveness at regional and global three quarters of current •An active and competitive levels. levels. player in the regional and • Universal access to safe world markets, with the A strong and competitive econ- water. capacity to articulate and omy capable of producing sus- • Life expectancy comparable promote national interests tainable growth and shared to the level attained by and to adjust quickly to benefits typical middle-income regional and global market Tanzania should have created countries. shifts. a strong, diversified, resilient •Absence of abject poverty. and competitive economy Driving forces for the real- which can effectively cope Good governance and the rule of isation of the Vision with the challenges of devel- law The major strengths, which opment and which can also Tanzanian society will be Tanzanians must capitalise easily and confidently adapt characterised by: on, are national unity, social to the changing market and •Desirable moral and cohesion, peace and stability. technological conditions in cultural uprightness. The following three key then regional and global •Strong adherence to and driving forces need to be pro- economy. respect for the rule of law. moted and utilised: • Absence of corruption and •A development mindset Impediments to the reali- other vices. imbued with confidence, sation of past visions •A learning society, which is commitment and •Donor dependency syn confident, learns from its empowering cultural values. drome. own development •Competence and a spirit of •A weak capacity for experience and that of competitiveness. economic management. others and owns and • Good governance and the •Failures in good determines its own rule of law. governance. development agenda. •Ineffective implementation For more details on the driv- syndrome. A strong and competitive ing forces for the realization economy of the vision and for the The targets of the VISION The economy is expected to means by which the vision 2025 have the following character- will be implemented, go to High quality livelihood istics: the Tanzania Government A high quality livelihood for •A diversified and semi- website: all Tanzanian will be attained industrialised economy http://www.tanzania.go.tz/vision.htm

75 PROGRESS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGIES IN TANZANIA

By Mr Clifford K. Tandari, Department of Poverty Eradication, Vice President’s Office

In 2000 the Government approved the Poverty Reduc- tion Strategy Paper (PRSP) which provides a medium term strategy for poverty reduction in the context of the Highly Indepted Poor Coun- tries (HIPC) initiative. Areas that are getting strong focus as far as poverty reduction is concerned are:

Education: The abolishment of primary school fees in 2002 has raised enrolment rates in primary schools. The enrolment went up to 1,600,000 pupils for Grade I during the first year of school fees abolishment. Great focus will be ownership, improving mana- (ii) Safe blood transfusion; on improving the quality of gent and introduction of (iii) Prevention of mother to education in primary schools, health insurance services. child transmission; raising enrolment, optimum Programmes for the health (iv) Youth programmes; utilisation of resources and sector: (v) Voluntary counselling and capacity building at grassroots (i) Health Sector Reform Pro- testing; level to manage primary gramme (vi) Provision of highly active schools. Others will be (ii) Roll Back Malaria antiretroviral therapy; addressing gender, environ- (iii) Telemedicine and Health (vii) Care for orphans. ment and HIV/AIDS con- Care Programme; cerns. Programmes for the (iv) Integrated Disease Sur- Water: Emphasis is put on education sector: veillance Network. the implementation of the (i) Primary Education Devel- revised National Water Policy. opment Programme; HIV/AIDS: Specific actions Programmes for the water (ii) Rationalisation of Institu- on HIV/AIDS policy include sectorinclude the water and tions of Tertiary and Higher implementation of multi-sec- sanitation programme. This Education. toral HIV/Aids Policy and programme will implement improving primary health care the international commitment Health: Priority actions services. to water for all by the year include rehabilitation of Programmes for HIV/AIDS: 2005/6. The programme will health infrastructure, promo- (i) Behavioural change com- entail establishing and reha- tion of private and public munication; bilitating and expanding water

76 schemes; rainwater harvest- and 2001 the sector grew by Support of the Rural Sec- ing; exploration of water an average of 3.7 per cent. tor: This is being done sources as well as assessment During 2002/03 the Govern- through the facilitation of and training in specialised ment increased the budget for crop credit, intensified search skills. the agricultural sector by 32 for export markets, revival of per cent so that the sector agro-processing plants, Agriculture: Focus is on the could have grown to seven per rationalization of local gov- preparation of the action pro- cent, instead the sector grew ernment taxation of crops and gramme for the sector. Prior- by 5.5 per cent only. livestock, further liberalization ity is on the improvement of of internal and cross-border the agriculture policy and the Roads: Focus is on rehabilita- agricultural trade and the dis- institutional environment to tion and upgrading the road tribution of disease-resistant promote private investment network and emergency seedlings. and improve the profitability repairs of feeder, district and and productivity of the agri- regional roads; in addition, Formulation of a Micro- cultural sector. Agriculture is mobilisation of communities Finance Policy: The formu- critical to Tanzania’s economic to carry out improvements on lation of a policy and promo- and social development goals community roads (paying spe- tion of savings and credit that are espoused in the Tan- cial attention to paths, tracks schemes will facilitate the pro- zania Development Vision, and trails). motion of income-generating 2025 for the three reasons. activities of the poor popula- First, improvements in farm Energy: Priority areas tion in rural and urban areas. incomes of the majority of the include the expansion of rural population are a precon- power generation and distri- Strengthen the Economic dition to the reduction of rural bution, extension of rural elec- Infrastructure: Continued poverty. Second, any strategy trification schemes and devel- efforts to strengthen the eco- for addressing food security opment and promotion of nomic infrastructure include must involve actions to other renewable energy the complete privatization of improve agricultural and live- sources such as solar, wind, the utilities and transport stock production and farm mini-hydro, and geothermal services and approval of incomes to ensure availability plants. related regulatory frame- and access to food. Third, works, and the continued use agriculture, as the single major Good Governance: Com- of the road agency (TAN- contributor to GDP,is the key prehensive initiatives aimed at ROADS) to manage trunk to the country’s overall eco- fostering good governance, and regional roads. nomic development now and notably the preparation of the in the near future. Its poten- National Anti-corruption Promotion of an Enabling tial in this regard is substan- Strategy and Action Plan and Environment for Private tial. During 2002/03 the its dissemination throughout Investment: This includes growth of the agricultural sec- the country. Other actions the thorough enactment of tor was unsatisfactory due to involve extending the offices of new land legislation and the low investment, the use of the Prevention of Corruption strengthening of the Com- poor technology, and lack of Bureau to the districts; mercial Court. inputs. Other factors were a amendment of the Public drop in price of some core Leadership Code of Ethics; Tracking of the Income cash crops, invasion of worms and complementary reforms and Social Indicators of and under-utilisation of irri- for the civil service and the sys- Poverty and adoption of gated land. Between 1999 tem of local government. measures, such as the Tanza-

77 nia Social Action Fund raising the quantum of pro-poor sectors. (TASAF), to alleviate rural employment led investment. • Abolition of primary income poverty and provide school fees and other enrol- relief to vulnerable groups. A Broad Range of Reforms ment related contributions. was implemented within pro- • Establishment of the Edu- Elaboration of Develop- grammes supported by the cation Fund to support chil- ment Strategies for the edu- IMF under the Poverty dren from very poor families. cation and agricultural sec- Reduction and Growth Facil- • The amendment of the tors; amplification of strate- ity (PRGF), and the World Land and Village Act to pro- gies for other sectors and Bank under the Program- vide for land ownership by cross-cutting areas (HIV/ matic Structural Adjustment women. AIDSs governance, environ- Credit (PSAC-I), and other •Preparation of the action ment, gender and employ- international partners. The plan for the elimination of ment); and costing of inter- reforms were aimed mainly at child labour. ventions. strengthening further the macroeconomic situation, There were encouraging Employment: The positive bolstering the efficiency of the developments in education macroeconomic performance financial and goods markets, (increased gross primary recorded recently has not supporting the development school enrolment); health trickled down to create of the rural sector, improving (expanded management of employment. the performance of utilities, child illnesses and strengthen- Programme for improving and creating enabling envi- ing of maternity service); judi- employment levels: ronment for private invest- ciary (strong performance of (i) Vocational education and ment. Moreover, the reforms the commercial court). Also, training improvement included the conditions for financial management and (ii) Country Action Pro- the HIPC-Completion accountability (rolling out of gramme (CAP). This has Point, virtually all of which the IFMS); and empower- been prepared with ILO sup- were carried out as planned. ment of the poor (continued port through the “Jobs for progress in local government Africa Programme” and the The Budget for FY reform and operations at the “Poverty Reducing Employ- 2001/02: The budget pro- community level). ■ ment Strategies for Africa”. vided for continued strong CAP is based on the findings support for the priority sec- of the Investment for Poverty tors, as well as comprehensive Reducing studies that were fiscal initiatives. It included done in 1999/2000 to evalu- measures directed at promot- ate public and private invest- ing private sector-led eco- ment strategies in order to nomic growth, and strength- provide new directions for ening the performance of the

NOTES

78 HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY AND WOMEN’S ROLE: THE CASE OF TANZANIA

By Dr Bertha Koda, Institute of Development Studies, University of Dar es Salaam

Food security is one of the es Salaam, between 1998 and in Africa, food matters are critical concerns in the world 2002, the issue of gender was very much a function of gen- today and more so in the also found to have a strong der roles stereotyping. This African continent where inci- impact on the food sector. was especially true during the dences of hunger are often The gender issue includes colonial era and has been ever reported in the media. This access to ownership and con- since. Women, who are the concern has even attracted the trol over materials, human majority in rural areas and in attention of sub-regional and social resources by all the agricultural sector, form a blocks like the Great lakes those who work in the food critical human resource Region in East Africa where sector, women inclusive. responsible for the food sector discussions on food security Material resources include while men are generally rele- are no longer confined to physical capital, that is ani- gated the role of managing individual countries. In a mals, land implements, work- the cash and export sector. Up recent symposium held in ing capital and savings while to this day, women continue Kampala, Uganda from 8 - 10 human resources entail the to be the custodians of house- April 2002 for instance, food labour force, technical knowl- holds’ food needs either by security featured prominently edge and the health of people. producing food or by strug- as one of the thematic prob- Social resources on the other gling to earn an income in lems to be addressed by the hand include the social posi- kind or cash which is eventu- region in the 21st Century. tion of either a household or ally used for food purchase. Africa is endowed with members of the household However, the same patriar- abundant natural resources and the kind of production chal system which relegated which are critical for ensuring and distribution they are women the role of food pro- food security, yet Africa is still exposed to, or a household is duction continues to limit grappling with the challenge engaged in and upon which women on matters of deci- of eradicating hunger. Avail- the household depends sion-making on “how”, able data show that food (Kamugisha, 2002). “when” and “where” the food security is affected by a multi- The combination and full will be produced and who tude of factors. These include utilization of the material, should assist in food produc- low levels of production and human and social resources in tion. It is here that the issue of hence recurrent food deficits, a household guarantees who “owns”, “controls” and rudimentary technology and household food security. If “accesses” material, human the absence of strategic food this is the case, how do and social resources applies. A reserves policy. Others women come into the pic- good example which is worth include poor transportation ture? The answer to this ques- noting is the issue of land. infrastructure, under-capitali- tion calls for a critical review In an agrarian country like sation in the agricultural sec- of the status and position of Tanzania where more than tor and poor land use and women together with the 80% of the population management. In a recent whole issue of democracy at depends on agriculture for study done by the Rural Food both household and public their livelihood, land becomes Security Research Group levels. a major resource. Despite this, based at the University of Dar In Tanzania, and elsewhere most women and youth have

79 no say in making decisions on yet, and women continue to affordable technology for the household land-use, espe- have limited land rights. food sector promotion. cially on the clan land. It is There is need, therefore, to let Lack of democracy at men who usually decide on every woman and man know household level also affects land use matters. Indeed, this law and use it for their decisions on the use of house- most women have “access own good. hold income. Women con- rights” to land but even this The other equally impor- tinue to contribute hand- minimum right is increas- tant factor in food security is somely to export crop pro- ingly being eroded due to the the issue of democracy. Much duction managed by male speed at which land renting too often people talk about heads of households but (especially in land-deficit democracy at public levels but when it comes to decisions on areas) is taking over. Land forget the household level cash expenditure women are selling is also on the increase where major decisions on normally “informed” and not in some places and this food and related matter are “consulted”. The misuse of reduces the amount of land also made. It should be household incomes by the for household use. Women remembered that the house- male heads has been pointed are doubly affected. Not only hold is both a unit of produc- out by many women in Tan- is there less land for cultivation and consumption. Under zania but the problem persists tion, but they lack the power the patriarchy system which is as it is protected by the to decide on how to spend prominent in rural Tanzania, African patriarchal culture. money accrued from the sales matters related to production This biased practice on cash of such land. Since women are usually decided upon by expenditure demoralises depend on land for food pro- the head of the household women and reduces their duction, they are often forced who is generally a male. level of participation in pro- to borrow land or rent it, (if (Only about 30% of rural duction of both food and they are among the few who households are headed by export crops, resulting in have money). However, most females). Due to the lack of reduced incomes and house- borrowed land tends to be participatory decision making hold food in security. Besides, infertile and this affects the at household level, women are poverty which as Mukiibis et amount of crop harvest. Since assigned greater work loads all (2002) contend: “is linked most of those who borrow with no access to modern not only to poor performance land are poor, they also fail to technology, they have to work of national economies but use modern farm inputs and in the farms for many hours also with unequal distribution implements and hence the and when they return home of income and a political poor harvests leading to their they also have to perform structure that renders poor households becoming food household chores and other people powerless, whether in insecure. This means that domestic responsibilities. a democracy or a dictatorship” poor households, which are They also rarely use improved (page 6). Poverty affects many in Tanzania, are often technology in food transport- household expenditure, even threatened by food insecurity. ing, processing and preserva- on food. The 1999 Village Land Act tion because they neither have Regarding expenditure on gives women a chance to money to buy such techno- food, the disparity between share ownership and control logy nor do they have ade- women and men is seemingly rights over family land. Such quate power to influence conspicuous where women land has to be registered decisions made by men at all spend more than men. This under both the husband and levels (household, village, dis- echoes what Engels once wife’s names. However, the trict, national) on issues of contended as quoted by Law is not well publicized appropriate, accessible and Kapunda et al (1996) that the

80 percentage of total income ally based policies. With tural Development Strategy spent on food tends to regard to the food sector, pol- (2002) is a positive govern- increase with poverty. Using icy matters include choices of ment attempt at addressing the 1991/92 National House- crops to cultivate and the some of these anomalies with hold Budget survey data, it is sources and quality of the respect to food security and noted that male-headed required labour. At the women’s role. households spent 67% of total household level, such policy It should be realized at this household expenditure on issues are addressed by house- juncture that women from food compared to 74% for hold heads who are, to a great poor households are not com- female headed households extent, influenced by patri- placent about the problem of (Koda, 2002). archy. Most heads tend to food insecurity. On the con- The most affected people promote cash/export crops trary, they have adopted sev- during periods of hunger are more than food crops but eral strategies to cope with elderly women, the disabled, since income accrued from food shortages. These include orphans and children. About the sale of such crops is not selling their labour to wealth- 6.6 million Tanzanians faced equitably distributed among ier households in exchange chronic food insecurity in all household members, most for food during the peak sea- 1997 and since then this young people have realized sons of soil preparation, number may have increased that agriculture does not pay weeding and harvesting as due to an increased number of and thus they drift to urban noted in Rukwa and orphans who lost their par- areas and expose themselves Shinyanga Rural Districts ents due to HIV/AIDS pan- to social ills, unemployment (Kamungisha 2002; Koda, demic. and HIV/AIDS, all of which 2002). Another coping strat- The gender dynamics con- again affects women’s access egy is engaging in petty-busi- tinue to dictate “who” should to productive labour ness in non-farm activities to eat “what” and hence they (Kamugisha, 2002). earn money for food pur- impact on the health status of At the national level poli- chase. Other strategies women, the very people who cies related to the food sector include appealing to the gov- are expected to work every (such as food and nutrition ernment and other agencies day. According to the culture policy, agriculture and live- for famine relief (as an emer- of most Tanzanians, men eat stock policy, employment pol- gency measure), pushing the the best food even though the icy, etc.) are also made with government for change of food is normally produced, little involvement of women, policies towards pro-poor and cooked and served by women. and fail to adequately address pro-food security policies, etc. The marginalized position of women’s concerns related to Women are also increasingly women, economically, politi- food security because most of demanding their rights to cally and socially, limits these policies lead to land, training and democracy women’s influence on the dis- increased social differentia- using different avenues (Rural tribution of food even at the tion, ignore cultural inhibi- Food Security Research consumption level. At times tions and have little publicity Group, 2001). the women themselves and while others promise unsus- All in all, efforts to reduce their children are prone to tainable material support.The the gendered poverty intrinsi- malnutrition despite the fact heavy emphasis on export cally go hand in hand with that they are the ones who crops reflected in most agrar- efforts to ensure household know how much food has ian policies also marginalize food security. ■ been cooked for the family. women’s concerns on the food

Food security is affected by sector. However, the recently Chachage et al (2001): Location Specific both household and nation- prepared National Agricul- Poverty Alleviation in Songea and Mbulu

81 District: A Research Report (unpub- Kapunda et al (1996): “Household, Food Koda B (2002): “Household Food Secu- lished) October, 2001. Security of Female-headed Households rity and Women’s Role: The Case of Tan- in Tanzania.” REPOA Research Report zania” published paper in FES (2002) FAO (1995a): A Fair Future for Rural Dar es Salaam, April, 1996. Political Handbook & NGO Calendar Women, Rome: FAO. 2002 Koda B. & Mukangara F. (1997): Kamungisha, C.A. (2002) “The Bottle- BEYOND INEQUALITIES Women in Mukiibi, J.K. et al (2002):”Food Suffi- necks to Household Food Security in the Tanzania SARDC & Tanzania Gender ciency in the Great Lakes Region. What Great Lakes Region.” Paper presented at Networking Programme (TGNP), 1997 can Be Done to Make Sure The Region the Symposium on the GREAT LAKES Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Does Not Lack Food?” Paper presented at REGION: REINFORCING THE the Kampala Symposium, 8-10 April. REGION’S SOLIDARITY AND Koda, B. (2002): “Food Security and SETTING THE AGENDA FOR A Regional Food Self-Sufficiency.The Case RFSG (2000): Policy Review Processes at CULTURE OF PEACE, UNITY AND of Tanzania Symposium Paper, Kampala, the Grassroots Level. Case of Shinyanga PEOPLE-CENTERED DEVELOP- 8 - 10 April, 2002. Rural, Ngorongoro and Njombe Dis- MENT, Kampala, Uganda, 8-10 April, tricts, Dar es Salaam, 2002. 2002.

GENDER AND LAND LAWS

By Mr K.A.K. Mkumbo, University of Dar es Salaam

The recent laws that consider lage Council is responsible for Council issues a certificate of gender balanced relations the management of all village Customary Right of Occu- regarding land ownership in land, while the Commissioner pancy to that applicant. Tanzania came into force in for Land deals with land other 1999 and 2001. These laws, than the village land. In prac- Requirements and unlike the previous ones, cate- tice, The Village Council Application Procedures gorically state the right of men exercises the functions of for Customary Right of and women to acquire, hold, management as a trustee, Occupancy of Village and use resources accrued managing property on behalf Land from land without regard to of a beneficiary, while the vil- The following person(s) may gender. The laws in question lagers and other persons resid- apply provided that they are are: The land Act No. 4 of ing in a particular village are villagers and citizens: 1999 and the Village land Act beneficiaries. In this arrange- •A person No.5 of 1999 that came into ment, the Village Council is •A family unit force in May 2001. The laws prohibited from allocating •A married person who has contain provisions that protect land or grant customary right been divorced the land rights of women, pro- of occupancy without the •A married person whose hibit discrimination against prior approval of the Village spouse was a villager who women, as well as ensuring Assembly. left the village at least two the participation of women in years previously. making decisions concerning Customary Right of •A group of person recog- land matters. Occupancy nized under customary law A Customary Right of Occu- •An association Administration pancy means a right to occupy •A primary co-operative The administration of the village land on agreed terms society Village Land Act No.5 of and conditions. Where the • Any other body recognized 1999 is entrusted to the Vil- Village Council grants any by any law lage Council and the Com- applicant a Customary Right •A group of people who are missioner for Land. The Vil- of Occupancy, the Village not residents in the village

82 An applicant for a customary position by way of transfer (2) His dependants right of occupancy is required mortgage, sale, gift, lease or to fill in a form, which should otherwise of that land or b) Where the person who be: dwelling house without the has surrendered the a) accompanied by the consent of the other spouse(s). customary right of prescribed fees Where it is proved that the occupancy is a woman: b) accompanied by a decla- other spouse has not con- (1) Her husband ration indicating whether sented to the aforesaid dispo- (2) Her dependants the applicant holds any sition, that disposition is other land deemed void by the law. Land applicable to c) accompanied by any other Customary Right of Occu- information that is Surrender of Customary pancy required by the Village Right of Occupancy to a Customary law will be applied Council Village to all matters relating to the d) signed by the applicant(s) Any person(s) holding a Cus- administration and manage- as provided in the pre- tomary Right of Occupancy ment of land that is not pro- scribed form may at any time surrender the vided in the Land Act of 1999 Customary Right of Occu- or any other law. Any rule of In determining whether to pancy to the Village Council. customary law and any deci- grant a Customary Right of Land held under a Custom- sion taken in respect of land Occupancy or not, the Village ary Right of Occupancy but held under customary tenure Council respects the equality surrendered with the purpose must take into account the of all persons without gender of depriving, or placing customs, traditions and prac- or any other discriminatory impediments in the way of, a tices of the community con- attitude. woman from occupying land cerned provided that they are that she would be entitled to in accordance with the funda- Mortgages occupy under customary law mental principles of the The mortgage of a matrimo- or otherwise, is inoperative. National Land Policy and of nial home is valid only if: any other written law. Any • It is signed by a spouse(s) Re-grant of surrendered rule of customary law and any living in that matrimonial Customary Right of decision in respect of land home Occupancy held under customary tenure • It is assented to by the bor- Where the person who has which denies women, children rower and any spouse of the surrendered a Customary or persons with disability law- borrower living in that mat- Right of Occupancy has ful access to ownership, occu- rimonial home dependants or is married, pation or use of any such land before publicizing that the is void in operative. It should be observed that cus- land is available to be granted tomary mortgage of land should to any villager, the Village The Participation of be in accordance with the cus- Council is required to first Women in the Settlement tomary law applicable to the offer the land to the following of Disputes mortgaged land. persons in order of preference: a) Village Adjudication a) Where the person who Committee Disposition and surrender has surrendered the The law envisages a Village A spouse holding land or a customary right of Adjudication Committee dwelling house for a right of occupancy is a man: responsible for determining occupancy in his or her name (1) His wife, wives in the boundaries and interest in alone must not undertake dis- order of seniority land, setting aside or demar-

83 cating rights or pathway. The A Village Adjudication Com- be women who are nomi- committee is also responsible mittee shall consist of between nated by the Village Council for safeguarding the interest six and nine person, of whom and approved by the Village of women, absent persons, three or more persons must be Assembly. The quorum of a minors and persons with dis- women. meeting of the Village Land abilities. Council must be four persons, b)Village Land Council of whom at least two must be Note: In making decisions the Every village is required to women. ■ Village Adjudication Commit- establish a Village Land tee must treat the rights or Council to mediate between women and the rights of pas- and assist parties in arriving at toralists to occupy or use or have a mutually acceptable solution interest in land as equal to the on any matter concerning vil- rights of men or agriculturalists lage land. The Village Land to occupy or use or have interest Council must consist of seven in land. persons, of whom three must

LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN TANZANIA

By Mr G. Chale, the Local Government Think-Tank

VISION OF FUTURE LOCAL The role of the central gov- mandated to perform by the GOVERNMENT SYSTEM ernment institutions will be local people and by central The vision was formulated confined to: government and endorsed at the National • The facilitation and enabl- •Adequate appropriately Conference: Towards a shared ing of local governments in qualified and motivated staff Vision for Local Government their service provision recruited and promoted in Tanzania, May 29 - 31 • The development and exclusively on basis of merit 1996. The overall objective is management of policy and • The necessary training and to improve the delivery of regulatory framework professionalism services to the public and the • The monitoring of the •The capacity to operate main strategy to do so is accountability of the local efficiently and cost effectively decentralisation. The vision government authorities has been summarised and •Financial and performance The leadership of the local elaborated in Local Govern- auditing authorities will be chosen ment Reform Agenda 1996 - • The provisions of adequate through a fully democratic 2000 that was endorsed in grants process that should also be November 1996. extended to village councils The local government The strength and effective- and grassroots organisations. councils will be free to make ness of the local government policy and operational deci- institutions will be under- The local government will: sions consistent with the laws pinned by: •Facilitate the participation of the land and government •The resources and the of the people in deciding on policies without the interfer- authority necessary to effec- matters affecting their lives, in ence of the central govern- tively perform the roles and planning and executing their ment institutions. functions that they have been development programmes

84 •Foster partnerships with ments have responsibility for 3. Administrative decentrali- civic groups socio-economic development sation involves de-linking and public service provision is local authority staff from their Each local government will also within their jurisdiction, respective ministries and have rules and functions that such as the maintenance of establishing procedures for correspond to the demands law and order and issues of establishing a local payroll. for its services by the local national importance such as Local governments will thus people and the socio-eco- education, health, water, roads recruit their own personel nomic conditions prevailing and agriculture. organised in a way decided by in the area. The structure of The reform of local govern- the respective councils in each local government will ment thus includes four main order to improve service reflect the nature of its roles policy areas: delivery. and functions. The local government 1. Political decentralisation is 4. The relationship between authorities will be transparent the devolution of powers and rural districts, urban councils and accountable to the peo- the setting of the rules for and lower local authorities ple. This will be the basis for councils, councillors and will be defined. Administra- justifying their autonomy. committees. Political decen- tive decentralisation makes Local government leaders tralisation includes the inte- local government staff (councillors) and staff will gration of the previously cen- accountable to local councils. adhere to a strict code of tralised service sectors into a As local governments have a ethics and integrity. holistic local government sys- body corporate status (they The implementation tem with the council as the may sue and be sued) the process will be phased as most important local political management responsibility of endorsed in the Local Gov- body within its jurisdiction. local administration shall ernment Reform Agenda Political decentralisation reflect this status. because of capacity and fund- implies the creation of real, ing constraints. Lessons multi-functional governments Changed central-local rela- learned during the short at the local level within the tions: implementation period can framework of the national 1) The role of central govern- subsequently be used to pre- legislation. ment vis-à-vis local councils pare a high quality new Local will be changed. The mi- Government Act that will 2. Financial decentralisation nistries will become policy have lasting value. Phasing means that councils have dis- making bodies will also facilitate more inten- cretionary powers and powers 2) Supportive and capacity sive and meaningful public to levy local taxes. Central building bodies debate about the scope and government, in turn, has the 3) Monitoring and quality content of a new local govern- obligation to supply local gov- assurance bodies within the ment system in Tanzania. ernments with unconditional local government legislation Local government will be grants and other forms of framework and holistic i.e. multi-sectoral grants. The principle also 4) The minister responsible government units with a legal allows local councils to pass for local government will co- status (body corporate) oper- their own budgets reflecting ordinate central - local rela- ating on the basis of discre- their own priorities as well as tions and in particular all ini- tionary, but general powers the mandatory expenditure tiatives from ministries under the legal framework required by the national stan- towards local government and constituted by the National dards set by central govern- will be enabled to issue regu- Legislation. Local government legislation. lations and guidelines but

85 only within the policy areas to zens, and in the way that book has eleven solid chapters be specified in the law reflect- councils and their staff operate to which experienced local ing the spirit and principles of - hence the importance of government practitioners in the reform agenda. The law councillor training. the country have contributed. should specify the scope of the The name of the book is regulations issued by the min- COUNCILLOR TRAINING “Councillors and Develop- ister and how they should In order to achieve the above- ment” (Diwani na Maen- relate to sectoral legislation. mentioned government objec- deleo). This book has been These regulations should tives, the training of council- adopted by the Ministry and specify the details of political, lors and technical staff at will form the bases for training financial and administrative council and sub-council levels of all local government staff at decentralisation. is imperative. all levels. FES, the Ministry In short, the overall object Recently, FES’ Think- of Regional Administrative of the reform is to improve Tank, in collaboration with and Local Government and service delivery by making the Ministry of Local Gov- all the District Councils local authorities more demo- ernment, produced a 175 page should co-operate in financ- cratic and autonomous within text written specifically to ing this training program the framework established by assist grass-root people’s rep- before the next election of the central government and resentatives (councillors) and councillors. under conditions of severe technical staff at council and Special thanks to FES for resource constraints. For this sub-council levels to enhance financing the completion of to succeed it requires in depth their daily performance in this training manual for coun- changes in local government order to improve democracy cillors. ■ relations, in relations between and the livelihoods of the peo- local councils and their citi- ple in their communities. The

HIGHLY INDEBTED POOR COUNTRIES INITIATIVE AND LINKAGE TO POVERTY REDUCTION IN TANZANIA

By Prof. I. A. Msambichaka, Economic Research Bureau, UDSM

This article highlights a num- obligations to creditors. An another government (debtor). ber of issues on debt and excessive debt refers to a situ- The condition for this kind of HIPC. They include the type ation when the costs of fulfill- transfer is that after an agreed of debts, the magnitude of ing the obligations exceed the amount of time, the debtor debt, the definition of HIPC, benefits of doing so. Tanza- has to repay the loan plus the process of debt cancella- nia’s debt is one of those cate- interest to the creditor. The tion, the impact of the HIPC gorized as burdensome. internal debt arises when a initiative on poverty reduc- government borrows from tion, the varied voices on Type of Debts institutions and individuals HIPC and future prospects as There are two types of debts: within its boundaries. Under a result of debt cancellation. (i) external debt (ii) internal such circumstances, the gov- debt. External debt accrues ernment agrees to pay its citi- The Burden of Debts when one government (credi- zens the borrowed amount A country’s debt burden usu- tor) or a private institution plus interest. ally refers to the weight of her lends financial resources to

86 Tanzania’s Debt ditional debt relief mecha- and establish a satisfactory Magnitude nisms are insufficient to deal track performance record. Tanzania’s debt increased with the external debt prob- The decision point comes at from less than US $ 1,500 lems. The HIPC initiative the end of the first stage dur- million in the 1970s to US $ aims at ensuring that no poor ing which a Debt Sustainabil- 3,332 million in 1985, to US country faces a debt burden it ity Analysis (DSA) is con- $ 6066 million in 1990 and to cannot manage. HIPC has ducted to determine the cur- US $ 7507 million in 1998. one central aspect, the coun- rent status of the country’s On a per capita basis the 1998 try’s continued effort towards external debt situation. If, debt magnitude was US $ 234 macroeconomic adjustment after allowing for the tradi- per head which was about 90 and structural and social pol- tional debt relief mechanism, per cent of the per capita icy reforms. the country’s external debt GDP of US $ 250. The debt ratio to the net present value magnitude per head was The Process of Debt of exports is above 150%, the higher than the country’s Cancellation in the country in question qualifies poverty line of US $ 227 per HIPC Initiative for the HIPC initiative. At year. It is plausible to claim At present there are 43 coun- the decision point the Execu- that under such circumstances tries, most of them in Sub- tive Boards of the IMF and the country’s debt is not only Saharan Africa (including World Bank formally decide a heavy burden but retards the Tanzania), which are catego- on a country’s eligibility, while economic growth of Tanzania rized as heavily indebted and the international community and enhances the vicious cir- poor. However, the list may commits itself to providing cle of poverty. change from time to time as sufficient assistance by the some country’s external debt completion point. The HIPC Initiative: situation becomes sustainable. During the second stage What is it? Any eligible country request- and, once a country’s eligibil- The Heavily Indebted Poor ing HIPC initiative support ity for support has been estab- Countries (HIPC) initiative should fulfill two basic condi- lished, the country has to is a comprehensive approach tions. First it must have for- establish a further track to external debt reduction for mulated a Poverty Reduction record of good performance poor countries like Tanzania Strategy Paper (PRSP) under IMF/World Bank sup- that requires the participation through a broad-based partic- ported programmes, includ- of both multilateral and bilat- ipatory process by the deci- ing the maintenance of eral creditors. It was James D. sion point (when a formal macroeconomic stability and Wolfensohn, President of the commitment to reduce pay- the implementation of the World Bank, who first sug- ments by all multilateral cred- PRSP. This is the second gested the initiative at the end itors is made). Secondly, it stage, Bilateral and commer- of his visit to Africa in 1995. must have made progress in cial creditors are now gener- It was then designed by the implementing the PRSP for ally expected to reschedule International Monetary Fund at least one year by the com- maturing debt obligations (IMF) and the World Bank pletion point (when actual with a 90 % reduction in the in September 1996, but payments are reduced). There net present value. At the com- reviewed in September 1999 are two basic phases before a pletion point the remaining to provide special assistance country can finally qualify for assistance is provided. Bilat- for heavily indebted poor the HIPC assistance. In the eral and commercial creditors countries undertaking IMF first stage, the country has to are expected to show reduc- and World Bank supported adopt adjustment and reform tion in the net present value of adjustment and reform pro- programmes (supported by the debt stock in proportion grammes, and for whom tra- the IMF and World Bank) to their HIPC commitments.

87 The multilateral creditors are grammes - primary basic implemented, could make a also expected to show a reduc- health, education, water, rural real ‘dent’ on poverty. The tion in the net present value of roads and HIV/AIDS, in the PRSP is such a programme. their claims sufficient to case of Tanzania. reduce the country’s debt to a Secondly, it emphasizes The Various Voices on sustainable level. the broad participation of the HIPC: Government, Civil Recently the Cologne stakeholders and thirdly it is a Society, Intellectuals Summit made some impor- consultative approach involv- Voice of the Government tant changes in the HIPC ing the creditor and the Most governments, especially debt relief initiative. The indebted nations. However, those of the heavily indebted Summit recommended the IMF and the World Bank countries in SSA including specifically the adoption of a acknowledge that the HIPC Tanzania, received the HIPC floating completion point. initiative is not a panacea.The initiative with a lot of enthu- This meant that the debt debt and poverty problems of siasm and hope and as an “exit relief could be enjoyed by a countries like Tanzania will strategy” for the debt and country “depending on the not end with HIPC. If, for poverty problem. Their con- depth and speed of imple- instance, all of the external cern, however, was the “condi- menting the agreed actions debts of the heavily indebted tionalities” attached to the rather than wait for a fixed countries were forgiven, most HIPC initiative, especially three year period”. This would still depend on conces- the one requiring them to change was considered a sional external assistance continue to service outstand- favourable move because it greater than their debt-service ing debt obligations as a con- allowed for faster access to repayments. A follow-up of dition to qualify for the initia- relief by those countries this point is made in a section tive. The condition requiring which showed greater deter- analyzing the future prospects government to use the debt mination and concerted of HIPC. relief funds for poverty reduc- efforts to reform. The Sum- tion activities has been mit also recommended the Debt Cancellation Vs favourably received by most adoption of front-loading of Poverty Reduction: governments, including Tan- relief in the interim period, Is there any Relationship? zania. So Governments view that is between decision and Debt is related to poverty in HIPC as a burden off-loader. completion points. that the servicing of external debt (that is repaying the Voice of Civil Society Impact of HIPC and principal and interest) repre- International co-operation to Debt Relief on Poverty sents a “leakage” of resources solve the problem of Reduction away from poor countries. If unpayable debt has focused The HIPC initiative is signif- the debt is cancelled, the on the problems of low- icant in three main respects. resources currently being used income countries, including First, it recognizes that the to service the debt can be used Tanzania, many of which prevalence of poverty in the in other programmes, includ- have been devastated by heavily indebted countries is ing the importation of criti- unsustainable debt burdens the factor which limits their cally required foreign since the 1980s. HIPC has capacity to repay the loans. In resources. It must be empha- extended debt relief to more that respect, it focuses its sized that if debt cancellation than 20 countries mostly in efforts on poverty reduction is to have any meaningful Africa. The initiative has suc- measures and most impor- impact, poor governments ceeded in reducing the pro- tantly on ensuring additional should have a programme portion of export earnings finance for social sector pro- and a priority list which, if directed towards debt servic-

88 ing to an average of less than the HIPC initiative and the the on-going debt relief 10 % for these countries. pursuing of the reform pro- notwithstanding. The real However, creditors’ demands grammes as another opportu- dent in poverty will be made still weigh heavily on national nity to assist poor countries in when the loan resources are budgets. A number of coun- integrating in the globalizing used where they are most tries still spend more on debt world. Pessimists tend to dis- needed by the poor and where servicing than on primary miss the HIPC initiative as the poor are. The basic rule of education and on health serv- adding nothing really new the thumb where external ices. Although the HIPC ini- into the existing initiatives or borrowing is involved is that tiative has marked an impor- strategies for addressing the borrowed funds should be tant advance compared to debt problem facing LDCs. used in a manner that ensures past efforts, it is difficult to They claim that the HIPC that the cost of borrowing is justify public spending priori- initiative is merely a strategy at least equal to the marginal ties that prioritize debt servic- to ensure that the heavily revenue. If such an avenue is ing above investment in edu- indebted countries do not found and it generates broad cation and health services. default on their outstanding based pro-poor growth, exter- This appears to be one of the debt obligations. nal borrowing will have a real major concerns of civil society positive impact on poverty on the HIPC initiative. What are the Future reduction in Tanzania. ■ Prospects as a result of Voice of Intellectuals Debt Cancellation and References The impact of the HIPC ini- Rescheduling Mjema, G.D., Kilindo, A.A.L. (2002); “External Debt Burden and Social Ser- tiative on debt relief and There is virtually little (if any) vices Delivery in Tanzania: Lessons from poverty has been a notable opposition to the fact that the the Nyerere Legacy” in Mbelle, A., topic in discussions amongst HIPC initiative, if properly Mjema, G.D., Kilindo, A.A.L. (Eds); intellectuals in Africa and at implemented, will have an The Nyerere Legacy and Economic Pol- icy Making in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam the global forums. Opinions impact on poverty and University Press Ltd. are sharply divided between indebtedness in poor coun- Tarimo, B. (2002); “Tanzania’s Debt the optimists and the pes- tries like Tanzania. However, Reduction Strategy” in Tanzanian Eco- simists. Optimists view the the HIPC initiative per se is nomic Trends, Vol. 11, No. 1 December involvement of both multilat- not a panacea. LDCs like 1997 and Vol. 11, No. 2 June 1998. eral and bilateral creditors as a Tanzania will continue to plausible strategy for address- solicit, and are likely to get, ing the debt problem of heav- concessional and other types ily indebted poor countries. of borrowing from bilateral as They cite the link between well as multilateral creditors,

NOTES

89 CONSEQUENCES OF PRIVATISATION IN TANZANIA

By Mr N. K. Ngulla - Trade Union Congress of Tanzania (TUCTA)

Government commitment enacting a Public Corpora- • Expanding the role of the to privatisation tion Act of 1992 which, in private sector in the economy The economic adjustment effect, replaced that of 1969. and making it a powerful programmes formulated by The PCA of 1992 was the engine for economic develop- the World Bank and the first serious step in the privati- ment International Monetary Fund sation process in Tanzania. •Freeing the government for developing countries from controlling and manag- enhance the privatisation of Establishment of the ing the public enterprises public owned enterprises. Presidential Sector The Government of Tan- Reform Commission Policy implementation zania has committed itself to (PSRC) The main thrust of the pri- privatising the public sector The PSRC was established in vatisation policy is to promote for renewed economic devel- 1993 with a view to: the participation of the pri- opment. After independence, • Improving the operational vate sector in the economy Tanzania had established efficiency of the parastatal through the restructuring of more than 400 parastatal enterprises the public enterprises. The institutions. In order to fur- • Reducing the burden of restructuring exercise has the ther the process of privatisa- loss making parastatals on the following objectives: tion, the Government estab- government’s expenditure •To improve efficiency and lished a legal framework by budget utilization capacities

Source: The Guardian, Tuesday, April 9, 2002

90 •To offer new employment large numbers of workers giving workers good ground opportunities and enhance with inadequate terminal to complain. Most of divesti- production benefits tured parastatals were speci- •To harness new skills and • Emergence of private fied under the PSRC Act of technologies enterprises with hostile atti- 1993. The Act’s regulations •To open up international tudes towards trade unions and provisions do not allow markets workers to adequately negoti- •To reduce losses incurred Privatisation in Tanzania has ate terms and conditions for by parastatals and improve caused insurmountable diffi- retrenchment. ■ government revenue culties to the victims of retrenchment due to the References: Privatisation in Tanzania - Investment Consequences of absence of updated labour Opportunities - PSRC Dar Es Salaam privatisation laws. Socio - Economic Transformation in The process of privatisation Retrenched workers are Tanzania edited by: H. P. B. Moshi and has had the following prob- clearly disadvantaged due to A. T. Maenda lems: their inability to negotiate Pivatisation - Workers Eclipse? •Loss of jobs due to adequate retrenchment bene- Legal and Human Rights Implication of retrenchments, introduction fits. Privatisation on Industrial Relations by: of new skills and technologies In addition, decisions Legal and Human Right Centre • Closure of loss making made regarding the provision enterprises hence displacing of benefits vary extensively

NOTES

91 5. CIVIL SOCIETY

THE IMPACT OF NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN DEVELOPMENT

By Mr R. G. Mutakyahwa, Resource Mobilisation & Management Centre (ROMME Centre)

INTRODUCTION which hinder their effective- systems from which an assess- Civil society1 as a concept is ness. ment can be made. This is an experiencing global revival area that requires further both in the overburdened THE IMAGES,PERCEPTIONS research and action. Further- welfare states of Western AND IMPACTS OF NGOS more, NGOs have not been Europe and in Africa with the Despite all the efforts made disseminating the results of demise of the one party state. by the NGO sector and the their work. The regional transition from impact it has had on society According to recent stud- authoritarian rule to multi- there are people and some ies carried out (in 2001/2002) partyism has created a vac- institutions/organisations by the author of this article, uum of experience in ensuring who are not satisfied with the NGOs participate in thirteen the comprehensive embodi- current state of affairs. They different programmes. What ment of democratic values have not been able to see what follows is a brief of only a few and practices in the region. socio-economic contributions programmes. Examples of Civil society organisations have been made by NGOs to impact as a result of NGO (CSOs) in Tanzania have the development of the peo- interventions are also cited. taken the role of promoting ple. Not only are these contri- and consolidating democrati- butions not visible to the pub- Poverty Alleviation sation processes and human lic, they are not visible to the Tanzania is one of the poorest rights. In Tanzania CSOs sector itself. countries in the world with an have emerged to fill the gap NGOs have been chal- annual per capita estimated to caused by the gradual with- lenged by different authorities be $2503 and almost half of drawal of the government including the World Bank to the population living below from providing its citizens demonstrate whether or not the basic needs poverty line with basic services. However, their interventions in sup- (i.e. $180 per year)4.A few persistent poverty reinforced porting local institutions have years ago, the government by the HIV/AIDS pandemic, had an impact on the lives of formulated a strategy on the the absence of a viable middle the people. It has not been reduction of poverty resulting class and a poor knowledge easy to find clear evidence and in the Poverty Reduction base, restricts the realisation to draw any conclusion on Strategy Paper (PRSP). of the potential capacity of this matter. This is because, in NGOs participated in the civil society. Thus, in spite of most of cases, NGOs have development of this strategy the phenomenal growth of not been asking this question paper and are expected to take NGOs2 in the country, they and have had no baseline an active role in monitoring all operate under structural, database before any interven- and evaluation during the material, financial and organ- tion. At times, there are no implementation of PRSP. isational capacity constraints monitoring and evaluation The NGO sector has been

92 recognised as one of the main Training. It is estimated, for wellbeing of the people. actors in the country’s struggle example, that for the four-year NGOs, therefore, come to the to overcome poverty. Poverty period (1997 to 2000) assistance of the most needy in Tanzania is characterised by INADES Formation who cannot get financial help low income and expenditure, imparted skills and knowledge from the formal finance insti- high mortality and morbidity, to a total of 4,640 farmers who tutions (FFIs) such as com- poor nutritional status, low participated in its two training mercial banks. NGOs that are educational attainment, vul- projects. Other services pro- providing savings and credit nerability to external shocks vided include the provision of facilities include Women and aid dependency. Other agricultural inputs and other Advancement Trust (WAT), poverty characteristics include resources. Through NGO sup- Poverty Africa (POA), Caritas lack of access to credit facili- port, we expect increased agri- Tanzania, Youth Self- ties, low prices for farm pro- cultural production in general, Employment Foundation duce, and poor access to infor- and food security in particular (YOSEFO), SATF and mation. Poverty is widespread which will in turn lead to PRIDE Africa. In addition to in rural areas, but is not increased people’s incomes. ADP6 employment creation, these insignificant in urban settings. Mbozi Trust Fund, Isangati projects enhance gender bal- Those most at risk include Trust Fund, Rural Resource ance as they generate employ- children and youths, the very Centre and Chama cha ment for women and thus old, women and those Maendeleo Vijijini Tanzania enable them to improve their involved in subsistence agri- (CHAMAVITA) are other status. NGOs have facilitated culture and small-scale fish- NGOs that support the com- women in establishing savings ing. NGO poverty alleviation munity in the field of agricul- and credit facilities and programmes have been ture. women empowerment pro- designed to tackle these issues. grammes. The recent study on Economic and Micro Poverty Africa Credit Shops Agriculture Financing Activities Program revealed a positive This sector has been given These activities involve finan- impact on the 5,204 direct priority for two main reasons. cial, material and manpower beneficiaries of which 70% are One, the country’s economy, support to small and medium women. The areas of and most of the population, is enterprises (SMEs) and indi- improvement include the heavily dependent on agricul- vidual income generation quantity and quality of food, ture. It accounts for half of the projects (IGPs). Most of the nutrition and health status GDP and provides 85% of NGOs taking part in eco- and increased incomes. exports, as well as employ- nomic and other poverty alle- ment and incomes for most viation initiatives boast of cre- Human Rights and Tanzanians5.Two, the poor ating jobs for the people and Governance are concentrated in subsis- thus improving their liveli- Mbilinyi (1996)7 calls NGOs tence agriculture. Farmers and hoods. These projects, which “schools of democracy”, livestock keepers are provided are intended to raise the “where members learn lessons with modern and appropriate incomes of poor people, also of good governance and knowledge and skills imparted include training in relevant democracy or the opposite”. through training workshops, business skills and production These programmes involve including Land Use Manage- techniques. It is expected that, raising awareness on peoples’ ment, Farmers Networking through training, the manage- rights (human, civil, legal, and Leadership Training, ment of economic resources child, the elderly, and women Marketing, Indigenous will be improved and thus lead rights, land and property Knowledge and Women to increased incomes and the rights) and obligations. Cam-

93 paigns against the abuse of CODA13 and ENVIRO- while infant and maternal power, domestic/gender- CARE14 have been conduct- mortality rates are on the based and sexual violence ing campaigns against female increase. NGO interventions have been conducted genital mutilation (FGM) in include the provision of throughout the country. addition to awareness pro- health and medical care/serv- Through advocacy and lobby- grammes on human and ices, the supply of drugs and ing, various NGOs such as women’s rights. other working tools. Some TAMWA, TAWLA, TGNP, With the assistance of organisations such as the PAS 8 and WAT have man- NGOs, the voices of the Christian Social Services aged to influence the formu- voiceless and marginalised Commission (CSSC) are lation of various bills such as groups (older persons, chil- involved in the rehabilitation those on sexual violence and dren, women and disabled of infrastructures. Preventive land. The civic and voter edu- persons) have started to be measures, especially against cation programmes have heard and actions have been the causes of illness and increased people’s knowledge taken by appropriate authori- death, are a concern to all and about how their country is ties and bodies to take care of are given priority. Training governed and about citizen’s the interests of these groups15. projects include reproductive rights and obligations in the The government has also health and primary health election of leaders. For the taken protective and affirma- care (PHC). October 2000 elections in tive actions e.g. the inclusion Tanzania, about 68% of 41 of women in various decision- HIV/AIDS institutions involved in civic making bodies (Parliament, Most indicators suggest that education activities were Regional and District leader- the prevalence rate of HIV in NGOs9. Between 1997 and ship and legal bodies). Tanzania has steadily 2001, SAWATA10 Karagwe Through campaigns, training increased during the 1990s, (concerned with the welfare and counselling activities, rising from an average of of older persons) trained 776 these marginalised people 5.5% in 1992 to 9.4% in 1999. paralegals in 73 villages in have also become aware of The gender gap in HIV Karagwe District11.Since their rights and started to play prevalence has also widened: then these paralegals have an active role where appropri- in 1992 the prevalence rate educated SAWATA members ate in demanding their rights. breakdown was 5.3% male on their civil and legal rights. Women and children, for and 5.9% female; in 1999 it They have also assisted in the example, have had audiences was 8.7% male and 12.6% settlement of disputes and with the President of the female. In Tanzania, conflicts among and between United Republic of Tanzania. HIV/AIDS is considered to older people12.The settlement On their own initiative, be the single greatest threat to of conflicts out of court has women have started to stand the country’s security and promoted harmony, peace, for leadership positions in socio-economic development, trust and love in the villages. various fields including poli- as well as to its citizens’ sur- By their nature, NGOs have a tics. Surely, NGOs have a vival and wellbeing. The potentially transformative role played a crucial role in policy problem of AIDS orphans is to play in strengthening civil dialogue and presenting alter- also extremely alarming. Data society, providing space for native opinions. from the 1999 TRCHS16 sur- women, youths, the poor and vey reveal that about 9% of all other disadvantaged groups to Health and Medical Tanzanian children under the organise themselves around Services age of 15 are orphans mostly their own concerns and chal- Life expectancy in Tanzania due to AIDS. ESAURP has lenge the status quo. HAWA- has declined to about 50 years estimated the total number of

94 HIV/AIDS orphans (in and WAMATA also provide very little share when it comes 2002) at 2,549,88517 and the home based care services. to wealth, property and other number is projected to reach 4 resources. Gender based vio- million by 201018.Orphans Through such initiatives lence, such as sexual harass- face a shortage of basic some people living with ment, wife battery and female needs19,run the risk of not AIDS have lived with confi- genital mutilation (FGM) are being enrolled in school20,of dence while others have man- rampant. Gender inequalities being withdrawn from class21, aged to live longer and sup- and inequities have a negative of becoming working chil- port their families. effect on women. Reports dren, of living on the streets, have revealed that gender and of being sexually abused. Water and Sanitation imbalances have important There are NGOs and CBOs NGOs are involved in the consequences for the overall that have been formed specif- provision of reliable, clean and HIV/AIDS infection rates in ically to deal with the safe water protection of tradi- Tanzania (see the section on HIV/AIDS pandemic and tional water sources (Caritas HIV/AIDS). AIDS orphans. They include, Kigoma and KADETFU), NGOs have played an among others, WAMATA22, drilling shallow wells (Caritas important role in empower- KIWAKKUKI23,SWAA- offices in Shinyanga and ing women economically T24,PASADA25 and KOTF26. Arusha) and piped water. The (through grants and credit With regard to the provision of sanitary and facilities), socially and politi- HIV/AIDS epidemic and hygienic facilities helps com- cally. Advocacy and human orphaned children, the NGO bat communicable diseases rights training and advocacy sector provides necessary such as diarrhea, one of the campaigns have been con- services including: main causes of child mortal- ducted extensively. Self-confi- • Caring for and supporting ity. Two water and sanitation dence among women has AIDS orphans in terms of projects completed by been developed and strength- education (fees, clothes, shoes CHAMAVITA of Lushoto ened. There are good indica- and other educational in 2001, for example, benefits tions that progress is being requirement), medical and 2,775 people and by 2019 the made towards gender equality health care, food and general number will reach 4,300. and gender equity. clothing. In 2002, SATF sup- PINO has assisted in the con- ported the education of struction of pit latrines at pri- Environment 18,026 AIDS orphans at primary schools and health units There are clear signs that the mary and secondary schools in Cholesamvura, Kisarawe NGO’s efforts to increase in 14 regions of Tanzania District. NGO intervention public awareness about the Mainland. The amount of in this field is expected to importance of environment money for this support has improve people’s health status management and conserva- increased to Tsh. 350 million and reduce the burden of tion is bearing fruit. There are from Tsh. 300 million that women and girls, the main not less than 160 NGOs and was made available in 2001. water carriers/drawers. CBOs devoted to environ- • Infected and affected per- mental issues. They have sons are provided with relief Women and Gender Issues become important govern- supplies, medical/health care, Women have been margin- ment partners for implement- socio-economic, spiritual and alised and discriminated in ing various programmes legal and human rights sup- almost every sphere of society. related to environment con- port. Counselling and Volun- They contribute greatly to the servation, management and tary Testing (CVT) is another socio-economic development sanitation in both urban and activity carried out. PASADA of the country, yet they get rural areas. NGO activities in

95 this area include proper land use, soil conservation, establishing tree nurseries and the planting of trees.These efforts have been complemented by public education programmes on and awareness campaigns against deforestation, uncon- trolled bush fires and soil erosion. Afforestation programmes have also been one of the ways of conserving the environment. MECA of Morogoro, for instance, is engaged in the preservation of Ulugulu Mountains, while Source: Hakikazi Catalyst 2001, cartoon by Ali Masoud (Kipanya) Pelum Tanzania is engaged in been no formal NGO man- •Financial problems can proper land use. In 2001, agement training pro- result from inadequate funds 27 KADETFU distributed grammes. As a result, there is and overdependency on for- 1,000,604 tree seedlings to widespread weak manage- eign donors and sometimes communities and institutions ment which manifests itself in on very limited sources. (Over in Bukoba and Muleba Dis- various ways, e.g. the low par- 76% of NGOs are donor tricts. Several NGOs are ticipation of the beneficiaries dependent and over 80% of working in specific areas like in most of the project cycles; their budgets come from Lake Victoria (LANESO), the late accountability of overseas.) Problems also arise Lake Tanganyika (TACARE) funds by those who had from the untimely and and Lake Nyasa. These received them. Board mem- delayed disbursement of efforts are helping to raise bers in some NGOs are often funds by donors which might public interest in, and com- inactive due to their lack of be the result of late or lacking mitment to, environmental knowledge and the skills financial and narrative reports conservation and manage- required to fulfil their roles from the recipient NGOs to ment in Tanzania. and responsibilities. donors (due to lack of ade- • The lack or shortage of quate financial/accounting OPERATIONAL working staff leads to (a) the skills and lack of staff to do CONSTRAINTS AND overstretching of the available the job). Financial manage- PROBLEMS staff; (b) jobs being carried out ment is a common problem in Despite these apparent suc- by unqualified people; (c) low this sector as most NGOs cesses the NGO sector has quality services and products; have yet to put in place effec- realised it has operational and (d) lack of data/informative accounting systems and problems and other weak- tion (including financial procedures for smooth opera- nesses, which hamper its per- records and reports) for deci- tions. formance. The main con- sion-making. Inadequacy of * The lack of proper working straints are related to manage- staff also leads to inability to premises has led some NGOs ment, personnel, financial respond to needs immediately to be termed “Briefcase” management and non-finan- especially in emergency cases NGOs. The lack of or out- cial resources. and effective staff develop- dated office equipment and • The Tanzanian NGO sec- ment programmes are not ineffective management tor is young and there have easy to implement. information systems (MIS)

96 have also been a hindrance to • The introduction of a com- that sphere of more or less autonomous social organisations, which lie between timely decision-making. petitive environment (trade family and the state. liberalisation and globalisa- 2 The NGO definition used in this article Conclusion is according to the 5th Draft of the tion) in Tanzania will have an National Policy on NGOs: There is no doubt that NGOs effect on the place of this sec- a voluntary grouping of individuals or have a role to play in the tor. NGOs are now compet- organisations which is autonomous, non- political and not-for-profit sharing, improvement of the liveli- ing for contracts to undertake organised locally at the grassroots level, hoods of the Tanzanians. The service provision. This could nationally or internationally for the pur- continuing growing demand pose of enhancing the legitimate eco- undermine the independence nomic, social and/or cultural development for NGO services, the interest of the sector, which could in or lobbying or advocating on issues of shown by the government and turn lead NGOs to compro- public interest or interest of a group of individuals or organisations. the general public and the mise their role in advocacy 3 IDT/MDG Progress: International/ continued donor support is an and support for the grassroots. Millennium Declaration Development indication that there has been Goals, URT February 2001. NGOs have to be cautious 4 The National Poverty Eradication Strat- satisfactory performance in about this matter. This is a egy, Vice President’s Office, URT 1998 this sector. In order to have challenge to the NGO sector. 5 DFID, 1999 6 ADP: Agricultural Development Pro- more impact the NGO sector • There is a great need for gramme. has to take positive steps in intensification of training for 7 ESAURP, Tanzania’s Tomorrow, Tema some areas. Publishers Company Ltd, Dar es Salaam. CSOs in Tanzania. The gov- 8 Tanzania Media Women Association; •A quick analysis shows that ernment, the corporate sector Tanzania Women Lawyers’ Association; NGO operations are concen- Tanzania Gender Network Programme; and donors should help and Paralegal Aid Scheme for Women. trated in the wealthiest provide CSOs with financial 9 Records of the Elections 2000 Basket regions of Dar es Salaam, Kil- and material support to enable Fund at the Royal Danish Embassy, Dar es Salaam. imanjaro, Arusha and them to participate in various 10 Saidia Wazee Tanzania Mwanza. Very few NGOs training workshops on issues 11 SAWATA Karagwe: The Improve- work in the poorest and mar- ment and Extension of the Civic and which are of importance for Legal Rights Education Project with ginalised regions of Kagera, CSOs’ development. These Older People, Mutakyahwa, 2002. Kigoma and Lindi. There is should include NGO man- 12 During 1997/2001 period, 646 disputes were settled. need for NGOs to prioritise agement, project manage- 13 Hanang Women Counseling and the poorest regions of the ment, counselling skills for Development Institute. country. More efforts are 14 Environmental, Human Rights Care mainly health and education and Gender Organisation. needed to extend NGO serv- personnel, local resource 15 A policy on Elder Persons is in the ices in rural areas where the mobilisation, fundraising and pipeline. 16 Tanzania Reproductive and Child most needy live. other financial issues. Health Survey. • NGOs need to build and • There is need to empower 17 ESAURP 2002. “Neglected Children: strengthen a culture of involv- HIV/AIDS Orphans Study: Identifica- the sector to be accountable tion and Needs Assessment” ing key stakeholders, espe- and transparent, and to have 18 UNICEF (1999) cially direct beneficiaries, in 19 ESAURP (2002). sufficient communication and 20 UNICEF (1999) and World Bank their planning, implementa- media skills for lobbying and (2001) tion and evaluation processes. advocacy. 21 Mnenge (1997) Members and working per- 22 WalioKatika Mapambano na AIDS • They must be broadly Tanzania sonnel, for example, have to based. ■ 23 Kikundi cha Wanawake cha Kuzuia take part in the formulation of Ukimwi Kilimanjaro. vision and mission statements. 1 Civil society has been defined as, “.... an 24 Society for Women and AIDS in arena where manifold social movements Africa -Tanzania Chapter. They have to be accountable and civic organisations from all classes ... 25 Pastoral Activities and Services for to their members, the general attempt to constitute themselves in an People with AIDS - Dar es Salaam. ensemble of arrangements so that they can 26 Kagera Orphan Trust Fund public, the donors as well as to express themselves and advance their 27 Kagera Development and Credit the government. interests” (Bratton, 1990:417). It refers to Revolving Trust Fund

97 THE SHORTCOMINGS OF THE NGO BILL

By Mr Chambo Max Kajege, Kivukoni Academy of Social Sciences

On 12 November 2002 the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania passed an Act to provide for the registration of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and the coordination of their activities. The NGO community pointed out that the Bill had a number of shortcomings before it was passed. The reason for these shortcomings, according to the NGO community, is that the policy makers did not involve a wide spectrum of the stakeholders. Moreover, the Bill was drawn up very quickly thereby denying the NGO community sufficient time to present its input. The result is that it is not a “user-friendly” Bill. Below I have highlighted those key issues which in the opinion of the NGO community, and indeed in my own opinion, still need attention for the proper execution of the NGO Bill. These issues remain in spite of the Government’s move to amend and produce the Amended Bill sup- plement a few hours before it was enacted. On the whole, instead of promoting an enabling environment for NGOs, the enacted Bill stresses control and restriction, and this is contrary to the spirit of the NGO Policy.

Section Legal mischief that may Recommendations occur as a result of the provision

S.2 The definition of “public interest” is not sufficiently The definition should be amended to Definitions inclusive. For example it does not include groups add:”or protection of the environment, advocating for environmental concerns, human rights promotion and protection of human and the welfare of animals. rights or welfare of animals”

“Community based organisation” is not defined.This is Needs careful thought and must be liable to cause unnecessary confusion at local levels. defined in such a manner that overly bureaucratic requirements that may impede on people’s efforts at community level are not imposed.

Overall, the definition of NGO still remains Needs further work and should reflect problematic (e.g. it provides for peculiar conditions international best practice and keen whereby a CBO can establish an NGO). understanding of local NGO situation.

S. 3,4 and 4. The two offices of Director and Registrar remain The two offices should be streamlined The offices of the causing unnecessary bureaucracy and expensive. into one so as to ensure the smooth Director and Registrar and un-bureaucratic regulation of NGO of NGOs The roles and functions of the Registrar remain affairs in the country. unspecified and she/he seems to have been reduced to be a mere clerk of the Board.

S. 6 and 7 The Board continues to have too many roles and The functions of the Board should be Functions of the Board responsibilities so as to make its functioning unwieldy streamlined and limited to focusing on and expensive, and also increase the likelihood for few core areas only (make it learn and delays. efficient).

S. 7 (1) c Requirement to “facilitate and coordinate activities of The Board should not focus on this. NGOs” is not appropriate and practically not possible. NGO activities can be facilitated and How can a Board that meets a few times a year coordinated by the Council and the coordinate the tens of thousands of activities of NGOs? NGO networks themselves.

98 Section Legal mischief that may Recommendations occur as a result of the provision

S. 7 (1) i. Requirement to “provide policy guidelines to the NGOs The non-governmental nature of for harmonizing their activities in light of the national NGOs should be respected and there development plan” is inappropriate and contrary to should not be an expectation that they the very essence of many NGOs. This provision may may only work within the confines of lead to undue pressures that curtail NGOs providing government plans and policies. critiques or alternatives.

S. 7 (1) The function of the Board “to investigate and to inquire Fraud, corruption and other penal into any matter regarding the performance of NGOs offences that may be committed by is too general and sweeping and could be abused by NGOs or their officers can be officers, employees or agents of the Board and increase adequately handled by existing law opportunity for undue harassment and corruption. and institutions. The provision should be made more precise so that it applies only in extenuating circumstances. There must be adequate provisions for ensuring that it does not lead to harassment.

S. 7 (1)m This provision requires the Board “to perform such The Minister’s powers should be other functions as may be directed to it by the clearly specified and discretion should Minister” is too sweeping and broad. be limited to operationalising aspects of the Act.

S. 7 (2) (b) Delegation to “any member of the Board, public officer This provision should be amended to or employee of the Board, the exercise of any of the reflect the following concerns: powers or the performance of any of its functions” is • Delegation should not be extended inconsistent with the principles of administrative law in this way. It should ensure that only a and is likely to usurp the intended effect of delegation. limited number of members of the Board (in a prescribed number) can be delegated such powers. • Serious matters should not be delegated. Power relating, for instance, to cancellation of NGOs registration cannot be well executed by a single employee or agent of the Board upon delegation.

S. 12 (1) The compulsory registration requirement threatens to The law should create an enabling Registration violate the constitutional freedom of association, environment that can guarantee requirement particularly to infant and growing small NGOs and freedom of association, development CBOs which do not have the immediate resources and the thriving of NGOs in Tanzania. required for registration, but are still capable of undertaking initial activities. Registration procedure should not attract penal sanction as stated in S. 44 The requirement also contravenes the provisions of of the NGO Bill, because, according to Item 2.0 of the National Policy on NGOs (2001), the policy, NGOs should be “formed, which insists on the regulatory law to assist run, developed (and ) terminated only “promotion and development of NGOs in Tanzania” through free and voluntary acts of (P.5). individuals and associations” [Item 2.1.2, at p.5]. The requirement defeats the spirit of the Policy objectives that aims at putting “in transparent, Therefore, these provisions should be decentralized and which will facilitate better replaced by provisions that reflect the coordination of NGOs while safeguarding the internationally recognized approach freedom of association” [Item 4 (iii)]. which is to encourage registration by prescribing a set of benefits that come with registration, and not criminalize non-compliance.

Persons or bodies that may abuse the

99 Section Legal mischief that may Recommendations occur as a result of the provision

freedom of association to commit corrupt, dangerous or criminal acts can be squarely dealt with through existing penal legislation.

S. 12 (2) f The requirement that the application form should This provision is unnecessary and accompany “any other particulars or information as should therefore be deleted. may be required by the Registrar” is too vague and sweeping a provision, and it may be prone to abuse.

S. 15 The appeal process ends with the Minister. Explicit reference to the option of an appeal to the Courts should be made if an applicant is dissatisfied with the decision of the Minister.

S. 17 (2) b The requirement to state “the area of operation” is not Stating area of operation is not appropriate at the level of the certificate of registration. necessary. It renders obsolete the freedom of NGOs to determine their own areas of operation.

S. 19 The requirement for the Board to approve work This provision should be deleted. Work permits permits for non-citizens unnecessarily adds to the work Existing procedures should apply (as is of the Board and is likely to cause undue delays to the case with other legislation). The processing applications. matter is best left to be handled in the Immigration Act.

S. 22 and 23 The requirements for registration at district levels, the This is one of many examples of how powers of the public officer charged to carry out the the Bill contains provisions that require responsibility and the time for response remain more time for further reflection, unspecified. clarification and precision.

S. 24 (1) In case of the suspected cessation of an NGO, the The provision should be amended to provision allows the Board to either write to the office ensure that notice in writing by bearers or provide a notice in newspapers. registered or other secure means to Time provided to give notice of one month is too little the official address of NGO is always given the remoteness of many locations in the country. given first, failure of response to which should lead to notice in newspapers. The time should be extended to 90 days.

S. 29 The provision has excluded the Registrar from being The provision should be amended to served with the Annual Report of NGOs not include the Registrar. withstanding the fact that the Registrar is responsible for keeping records and reports of NGOs {4(1) (g).

S. 29 (b) Provision requires all NGOs to submit audited Internationally accepted practice of accounts on an annual basis, which many small and having thresholds requiring auditing forming NGOs may not be able to do. For example, (for examples all NGOs with annual are accounts of each village government independently income over Tshs 10 million could be audited? Accountability is important, but regulations required to have accounts audited) be should be appropriate and not kill voluntary spirit. adopted.This is one of many examples of how the Bill contains provisions that require more time for further reflection, clarification and precision.

S. 31 (b) This provision compels NGOs to respect all traditions This provision is entirely unnecessary that are not against the law. This is overly restrictive and should be deleted. Existing and curtails. NGO action to bring social and legislative provisions can take care of change. For example, since corporal punishment and inappropriate acts by NGOs. capital punishment are both allowed under the law

100 Section Legal mischief that may Recommendations occur as a result of the provision

NGOs may not under this provision campaign against them.

S. 31 (C) (iii) The provision threatens the exercise of right to free NGOs should be left free to participation of international NGOs with regard to participate in the development modern sprit of competition among organizations. process of the country. The provision to introduce fines and imprisonment as The entire section S. 35 should be penalties can be used harshly to curtail the right to replaced by the following words, “Any freedom of association. The sweeping provisions of person who contravenes the provision many sections of the Bill means that harsh penalties of this Act may be proceeded against may also be applied for minor infractions. under the provision of the Penal Code and any other penal law relevant to the offence”.

S. 35 Existing provisions under this bill and existing laws of the land are sufficient to handle abuses by NGOs or its officers.

NOTES

101 THEATRE FOR CHANGE

By Mrs F. Massoy, Morogoro Paralegal Centre

nection with feasibility studies. While the play is going on, the audience’s reactions - such as when people shout, “ It is true”, “It has just happened” - can reveal the needs, problems and behavior of the society concerned. The theatre performances conducted in Zanzibar and Pemba during the Zanzibar International Film Festival (ZIFF) by the Tanga Paralegal Aid Scheme for Women and the Morogoro Paralegal Cen- tre thrilled the hearts of the people, especially the part where one performer fainted after receiving a letter from her aunt informing her that a man with whom she was hav- Morogoro Paralegal Unit theatre group performing during ZIFF, 2001 ing a love affair had just died of Aids complications. Theatre is a method of com- Theatre performances bring Then the Aids virus appeared municating which can be used together people of different in a funny costume to describe to bring about change. ages, sex, status, beliefs and how it can kill many people if Theatre is entertaining. It even ideologies. This mixture they don’t take care and use can make people become of spectators makes theater an preventive measures, and at excited, feel sympathetic, cry, effective learning institution, this stage the adults were laugh, shout. In fact it can which does not discriminate quiet. The young children bring about all sorts of feelings against any group in society. were shouting in fear of the in people, depending on how Well-prepared and well- Aids Virus and I also think the performers reveal the mes- performed theatre can bring those who really knew what sage concerned, on the cos- about behavioral change. The AIDS is and the hazards it tumes used and on other action used by the performers causes had different feelings equipment such as flutes, can thrill the heart of an indi- and maybe some of them drums, spears, gourds and vidual to the extent that it decided to change their life even loud shouting. The way paves the way for new life styles to avoid this killer. performers dress can make a skills and a new vision, and Such is the contribution of very big impression on the thereby a better life for the theatre to development. ■ audience and it can stick in individual. their minds and not be easy to Theatre performance as a forget. method can be used in con-

102 6. MEDIA

THE MEDIA COUNCIL OF TANZANIA

By Mr Anthony Ngaiza, Media Council of Tanzania

Introduction (c) To consider and adjudicate (j) To publish papers, journals, The Media Council of Tanza- upon complaints from the newsletters and other materi- nia is a voluntary, independent public and amongst the media als to achieve these objectives and non-statutory organiza- inter se against alleged (k) To do such other things as tion. The Tanzania media infringements of the code of may be in the interest of the practitioners believe that they ethics Council, the media and the are duty bound to serve the (d) To encourage the develop- public as may be necessary to truth, guided by the principle ment of the media profession achieve these objectives of the public’s right to infor- in Tanzania Membership of the mation. The duty and respon- (e) To maintain a register of Council sibility of the Council is to developments likely to restrict The Membership of the ensure, enhance and defend the provision of information Council shall consist of the the freedom of the press, of public interest and impor- following: guided strictly by the profes- tance, keep a review of the (a) Media outlets sional principles of accuracy, same, and investigate the con- (b) Journalists’ training objectivity, honesty, fairness, duct and attitude of persons, institutions decency and independence. corporations and governmen- (c) Professional journalists Vision tal bodies at all levels towards associations A democratic Tanzania with a the media, and make public (d) Press clubs free, responsible and effective reports on such investigations Associate members of media (f) To involve members of the the Council Mission public in the work of the The Council shall accord the To create an environment that Council by granting them status of associate member- enables a strong and ethical membership of the Council ship to any professional asso- media contributes towards a and constantly and reasonably ciation whose aims and objec- more democratic and just keeping the public informed tives complement, support or society of the Council’s operations, relate to the Council’s objec- Objectives of the Council views and decisions tives. (a) To assist, safeguard and (g) To promote and defend Organs of the Council maintain freedom of the the interests of readers, view- A National General Conven- media in the United Republic ers, and listeners tion (NGC), a Governing of Tanzania (h) To promote gender sensi- Board, the Secretariat, an (b) To oversee that journalists, tivity, equality and balance Ethics Committee and a editors, broadcasters, produc- (i) To raise funds for the pur- Finance and Administration ers, directors, proprietors and poses of the Council on such Committee. all those involved in the media terms as are compatible with The NGC may establish industry in Tanzania adhere to the autonomy of the Council any other committee or com- the highest professional and and within the spirit of its mittees whenever it deems ethical standards mission and vision necessary.

103 The Governing Board shall have more than one rep- shall among other functions (1) The Governing Board resentative on the Governing given to it by the constitution, shall consist of a President, a Board. (8) The President shall enforce the Ethical Code and Vice-President, an Executive be an eminent citizen of implement the Council’s Secretary, seven media repre- impeccable integrity and objectives. sentatives and four public rep- proven intellectual ability. (9) Terms of Office resentatives, two of them The President shall be the All members and their alter- being lawyers PROVIDED head of the Governing Board nates may hold office for three that a minimum of one third and shall chair all meetings of years. A Board member may of the board members are the Board and shall have a serve for four consecutive women. (2) With the excep- casting vote. (10) The Gov- terms and may be re-elected tion of the Executive Secre- erning Board, in matters after a lapse of one un-served tary, who shall be an ex-officio requiring expert advice, shall term, provided that at any member of the Board and be at liberty to invite experts given moment at least one shall assume office on the to render consultative services third of current Board mem- basis of a special contract of to it. (11) The Board from bers must have served the service with the Board, and amongst its members shall Council for at least one term. the Vice-President, who shall elect the Vice-President. (12) Complaints procedure be elected by members of the Except as otherwise expressly If you have a complaint Board from amongst them- provided by the Constitution against a newspaper, radio or selves, the rest of the Board or by any regulation made television you should first take members shall be elected after under the Constitution, the it up with the editor or every three years by the Governing Board may exer- another higher authority of NGC. (3) Media Representa- cise all the powers of the the concerned institution. If tives shall be persons who at General Convention and no the complaint is not resolved, the time of election are regulation made under the you may refer it to the Media actively engaged in publishing Constitution shall invalidate Council of Tanzania. A com- or other media activities in an any prior act of the Govern- plaint must be specific, in administrative, editorial or ing Board which would have writing and accompanied by a journalistic capacity. They been valid if such regulation cutting or clear photograph or shall be elected by the NGC had not been made. (13) The recorded cassette of the mat- by secret ballot. (4) Public Governing Board may from ter complained of, with sup- representatives shall be per- time to time appoint sub- porting documents of evi- sons who at the time of committees consisting of dence of any. appointment are not engaged members of the Board, and Complaints must be lodged may, except as otherwise within 12 weeks of publica- in publishing or other media tion or broadcast. The Coun- activities in an administrative, expressly provided by the cil will not hear a complaint editorial or journalistic capac- Constitution or by any regu- subject to legal action or, in the ity. (5) Jurists of high standing lations made under the Con- Council’s view, possible legal shall be persons who are not stitution, delegate to any such action unless the complainant is willing to sign a waiver of employed as civil servants or sub-committee all or any of the right to such action. in military service of the the powers of the Board. (14) United Republic of Tanzania. The procedure of the Board Where to direct your complaint: (6) All members of the Gov- and of every sub-committee The Executive Secretary erning Board shall be elected appointed as aforesaid shall be Media Council of Tanzania at the National General Con- as may be prescribed by the P. O. Box 10160, Dar es Salaam Tel: 2775728/ 2771947 vention. (7) No media organ, Board from time to time. Fax: 2775728/27003720 institution or organization (15) The Governing Board Email: [email protected]

104 CODE OF ETHICS FOR JOURNALISTS

Extracts compiled from Codes of Ethics of TAJA, AJM and IFJ

Article 1 (a) A journalist should avoid always draw a clear line The Right to Truth violation of individual between comment, (a) Every journalist has a privacy and human dignity conjecture and fact. duty to tell, adhere to, adore unless such violation is done (b) A journalist should not and faithfully defend the for a provable public plagiarise, and where other’s truth. interest. material is used credit (b) A journalist should (b) A journalist should should be given to the make adequate inquiries, do guard against libel, slander source. cross-checking of facts in and defamation in general. Article 9 order to provide the public (c) A journalist should Sensationalism with unbiased, accurate, respect and consistently Sensationalism is mainly balanced comprehensive work for attainment of inherent in stories but a information/news. human rights and fuller journalist must guard freedom. Article 2 against highlighting Professional Integrity Article 6 incidents out of context, A journalist should not Discrimination either in headlines or in solicit, nor accept bribes or A journalist should not reportage/narration. any form of inducement engage in publication Article 10 meant to bend or influence directly or indirectly or by Correction and Right of professional performance. implication, or stories, Reply information, photos that Article 3 (a) Any warranted injure, or discriminate corrections must be done Non-Disclosure of against anybody for his/her Sources promptly and with due colour, religion, origin or prominence. A journalist should not sex. disclose sources or (b) Apologies should be information given in Article 7 published whereever confidence. Identity and the appropriate and accorded Underdog due prominence. Article 4 (a) A journalist should not (c) An individual, group or Social Responsibility ridicule the underdog organisation who disputes a A journalist shall, in including minors, the old, published report should be collecting and disseminating the bereaved and any other given an opportunity to information, bear in mind underprivileged persons or reply. his/her responsibility to the communities. public which means to Article 11 (b) A journalist should Working Together educate citizens and others avoid identifying victims of on matters affecting them Journalist should work sexual assault unless the together in safeguarding this and their surroundings, and victim is dead and until a consistently strive to put Code of Ethics which is journalist secures consent applicable to members in ahead of others, matters of from a living victim. public and national interest. the state-owned media, private media and to local Article 5 Article 8 freelance journalists. Respect for Human Facts and Comments Dignity (a) A journalist should

105 WHAT IS PUBLIC RELATIONS?

Public Relations (PR) is about relations between an organization - be it a business enterprise, a political party or an NGO - and the public. Such relations exist, whether we want them to or not. It is therefore wise to consider what image you wish the public to have of your organization and to work consciously on the promotion of that image. An organization manifests itself to the public in many ways. It can be through its propagated political aims, the behaviour of its representatives and members, its public statements and activities, the atmosphere at its public meetings and press conferences, its transparency and its accountability.

The traditional “tools” of a public relations officer are: • press conferences • publications • leaflets • posters • press releases • public events

These tools must be used carefully. A public meeting held without being well prepared or a badly designed and written publication may do more harm than good!

PREPARING AND RUNNING A PRESS CONFERENCE

A press conference is an event to which members of the press are invited for a briefing by the host organisation or personality. The briefing is followed by an opportunity for the journalists to ask questions. Often press conferences are held when the subject matter is intricate and further questions from journalists are expected and desired. If the information/news to be given at the press conference is not sufficiently interesting, relevant or “meaty” for the invited media’s readers/viewers, then it is likely that the journalists will not show up.

Preparation • Are the objectives clear and is the topic well defined? • Which media are to be invited? Remember, TV & radio may have special needs. • Is the time/date well chosen and convenient for journalists? Does it allow them to meet their deadlines? Does it coincide with other important events? • Who will chair the conference? • Who will act as the organisation’s spokesperson/s? • Is the opening statement well prepared? • Are the major arguments well supported in the written handouts? • Check the venue: make sure that there are enough chairs, tables and lights. • Have handouts ready, e.g. press release. You might prepare a press folder that includes the most important statements, a report and background material.

Invitation • The headline must clearly indicate the host organisation, the name of the person responsible

106 and how to contact him/her. • State the subject matter clearly. (Who did/does what, when, where, why and how.) • Provide information about the speakers. • Provide details about the venue, time and date. • Send out/deliver the invitation at least a week in advance. • Send out a reminder one or two days before the event.

Running it • Ask journalists to note their names and which media institution they represent on a prepared list. This is useful information for making follow-ups. • Make the written handouts available for journalists when they arrive. • The chairperson opens the conference and introduces the speakers and subject. • The key presenter makes his/her statement clearly and concisely, and relates them to the handouts. • The chairperson moderates the question and answer session. • Answers must be brief, clear and concise. It is good to give practical examples to illustrate the message you want to give. • Speakers must remain relaxed, friendly and forthcoming even when provoked.

A PRESS RELEASE

This is one of the most useful mediums through which an organization can make itself and its views known to the public. The contents might be: • Statements on pertaining issues. • Reports on activities or events you have organized. • Announcements of forthcoming events. • Reactions to statements made by others.

PROS AND CONS Issuing a press release is a relatively cheap way of creating awareness about one’s stand. However, badly written press releases and those dealing with unimportant issues will annoy the recipients and may create negative feelings towards your organization.

HOW TO WRITE IT • The headline must state clearly the name of the organization issuing the release and the subject matter. • State the most important themes first. • Make clear why you are issuing the press release at this particular point in time. • The journalist must be able to pick out relevant information easily and quickly. • Use a typewriter or word processor, double-space and use only one side of the page. • Give information about how to contact the person responsible: name, address, telephone, e-mail address.

107 INTERNET AND E-MAIL

The Internet make it accessible on the web. chose as the most important This is a computer network Internet users must therefore ones. Here is the secret: what that joins other networks approach websites with a very sort of key words should you together e.g. those of aca- critical mind. use, and how to combine demic and government insti- A web is distinguished by them? tutions, schools, libraries and the prefix http:// in its corporations, making them address, which you should 1. Be specific seem to be just one network write on top of the page of The more specific your search to the user, who sits in front of your “browser” software (e.g. is, the more likely you will her/his computer at home, in Netscape, Internet Explorer). find what you want. For the office or at an “internet Each website has a unique example if you want to know café”. The Internet provides address, known as URL. The how many international access to information stored FES Tanzania address is treaties Tanzania has signed, in different computers all over http://tanzania.fes-interna- you should write “Tanzania the world and it also provides tional.de international treaties signato- the opportunity to engage in Take care when writing a ries” or you even write “how discussions and to share ideas web addresses for they are many international treaties and research with people con- sensitive to punctuation and Tanzania has signed?” You’ll nected to the network. spaces (there are no spaces in be surprised at how often this To access the Internet you electronic addresses), and are works! need a computer with the normally written in lower adequate software, a tele- case. 2. Use the symbol + to add phone-line and a modem If you want to be sure that the (modem = contraction of Search engines and pages you will find contain modulator/demodulator) to websites not only one or another word link your computer with the When you are looking for you typed, but all of them, you telephone. You also need to information you might should use the symbol +. For subscribe to an “internet already know the website to instance, you want to find provider”, (see our list of look in and its address. If you pages where there are refer- major internet providers in do not know where to look, ences to President Mkapa Tanzania). then you will have to use a together with references to search engine. A search Mwalimu Nyerere. You World Wide Web (www) engine helps you find infor- should then type: Through the Internet, you mation. To access the search +Mkapa+Nyerere. You can can access the WWW.This is engine you write http://www. narrow down your search by the name given to the appar- and the name of the search adding more specific words. ently seamless “web” of many engine, e.g. www.google.com geographically separate OR www.altavista.com OR 3. Use the symbol - to subtract sources of information. The www.yahoo.com. These addr- If you want all the pages mass of data available is over- esses open the websites of related to those key words but whelming. There is no guar- Google, Altavista and Yahoo. not the ones referring to a antee that it is accurate, up- When you access a search specific subject, you can use to-date or even meant to be engine, you will have to type the symbol -. Using the above helpful. Anyone with access some key words in the space example, you want references to the internet can publish provided. The search will be to President Mkapa and his/her own material and based on those words you Nyerere, but do not want ref-

108 erences to Ujamaa, you can engines for Africa are: tronic address and will send type: +Mpaka+Nyerere-Uja- • Mosaique.com your message to another maa. • ClickAfrica.com address. If you have a connec- •Orientation Tanzania tion to an internet provider 4. Use quotation marks to keep •Woyaa.com you will receive an address expressions together •Ananzi.com which is composed of two If you want to find references •Zebra.co.za parts: your-login-name + the to a special combination of •Siftthru.com symbol @ + the name of the words, you will have to write •Searchenginewatch.com internet provider. FES Tanza- those words in quotation •Fishhoo.com. nia’s electronic address is marks. For example, if you [email protected] type+President+Mkapa, you’ll E-mail get sites that make references This refers to electronic mail Chatting and conferencing to those words together or as opposed to airmail or sur- The Internet provides the separated. But if you write face mail (today popularly possibility of communicating “President Mkapa”, you’ll get known as “snail mail”). You directly with others “on-line”. only the references where both can send messages to anyone In other words the people of the words appear in that with an Internet account, and chatting or holding a confer- same order. it can include not only text, ence are at their computers but also pictures and spread- and are on the Internet at the 5. Combining all of it sheets. Incoming messages are same time. ■ Try to use the different signs stored in your mail-box on to be specific. For example: your internet provider until +“President Mkapa” + “Mwal- you access it. E-mail is deliv- NOTES imu Nyerere” + development - ered very fast, in a matter of “international cooperation” seconds or a few hours. This depends amongst other things Here are the names of a few on the amount of data being search engines: transferred and the quality of • Google (www.google.com) telephone lines and that of • Altavista your modem. The cost of (www.altavista.com) sending e-mail depends on •Yahoo the amount of data and there- •Lycos fore the length of time it takes •WebCrawler to send it from your computer • HotBot to the local server. It is rela- •Fast tively cheap: sending e-mail to • InfoSeek the other side of the globe is • Dogpile not more expensive than • MSN sending one to a computer •LookSmart. next door. To send and receive e-mails You can also enter a search you will need a dedicated pro- engine and search for specific gram, such as Outlook search engines, for example, Express, Microsoft Outlook, +“search engines”+Africa. Eudora, Pegasus and others. Some of the specific search You will have your own elec-

109 KISWAHILI NEWSPAPERS IN TANZANIA

Source: Registrar of Newspapers, September 2002

KEY D Daily W Weekly M Monthly BA Bi-Annual BM Bi-Monthly BW Bi-Weekly Q Quarterly * Information not available

NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS

Academia Professional Publications Ltd P. O. Box 14190 Dar es Salaam W Felix Kaiza

Alasiri The Guardian Ltd P. O. Box 31042 Dar es Salaam D V. Urassa

An-Nuur Islamic Propagation Centre P. O. Box 55105 Dar es Salaam W K. Charo Bahari The Tribune Press Agency P. O. Box 31912 Dar es Salaam W W. M. Kachelele

Champion Global Publishers &General Enterprises P. O. Box 7534 Dar es Salaam W Ltd. Oliver Katto

Dar Leo Dar Leo Publications P. O. Box 71439 Dar es Salaam D S. Mkilla

Dimba Salva Rweyemamu P. O. Box 7277 Dar es Salaam W J. Mbwambo Habari za MS- Tanzania P. O. Box 2579 Dar es Salaam Tanzania Q

Hamu International Publishing Agency Ltd P. O. Box 2765 Dar es Salaam W Sammy Polly

Ijumaa Global Publishers Ltd. P. O. Box 7534 Dar es Salaam W Oliver Katto

Imara Tanzania Association for Mentally P. O. Box 70236 Dar es Salaam Q Handicapped N. Jabir

Kasheshe The Guardian Ltd P. O. Box 31042 Dar es Salaam W O. Angetileh

Kiongozi Catholic Publishers P. O. Box 9400 Dar es Salaam BM Father Paul Haule

Lete Raha The Guardian Ltd P. O. Box 31042 Dar es Salaam W V. Urassa

Maisha Tanzania Business Times Ltd P. O. Box 71439 Dar es Salaam W J. Kulangwa

110 NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS

Majira Business Times Ltd P. O. Box 71439 Dar es Salaam D Mobhare Matinyi Msanii Afrika Sahari Communication & Publishing P. O. Box 1962 Mwanza BW Company Ltd Msema Kweli WAPO P. O. Box 7740 Dar es Salaam W E. Minja

Mtanzania Habari Corporation Ltd P. O. Box 4793 Dar es Salaam D J.Ulimwengu Mwadeta AFREDA(Action for Relief & P. O. Box 10014 Dar es Salaam Q Development Assistance) D.Waijaha Mwafrika Afro Media Systems Ltd P. O. Box 11727 Dar es Salaam W G. Mugumu

Mwanaspoti Media Communications Ltd P. O. Box 32597 Dar es Salaam D R. Makaranga

Mwandishi Horizon Publications Ltd P. O. Box 33772 Dar es Salaam W L. Mbwina Mzalendo Uhuru Publications Ltd P. O. Box 9221Dar es Salaam W

Mzawa Kwimba Commercial & Publishing Co. Ltd P. O. Box 10773 Mwanza BW James Nhende

Nasaha Tanzania Muslims Professionals Association P. O. Box 72045 Dar es Salaam W Ltd. TAMPRO I. M. Mtuwa Nipashe The Guardian Ltd P. O. Box 31042 Dar es Salaam D V. Urassa

Nyakati Ayubu P.Mwakangata P. O. Box 31423 Dar es Salaam W Arnold Victor Msuya Rai Rai Publications Ltd P. O. Box 4793 Dar es Salaam W S. Rweyemamu Spoti Dar Leo Publications Ltd P. O. Box 71439 Dar es Salaam W Mobhare Matinyi Tamasha International Publishing Agency Ltd P. O. Box 79211 Dar es Salaam W S. Polly

Taifa Letu The Guardian Ltd P. O. Box 31042 Dar es Salaam W V. Urassa

Tunda Tunu Tanzania Ltd P. O. Box 77444 Dar es Salaam W Catherine Nyokas Newa Uhuru Uhuru Publications P. O. Box 9221 Dar es Salaam D Safe Guard Ltd Ukweli na Uwazi Jacob Kambili P. O. Box 7534 Dar es Salaam W Young Africans Sports Club Ltd

111 NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS

Yanga Imara Lucas Anthony Kisasa P. O. Box 15202 Dar es Salaam W

Bingwa Habari Corporation Ltd P. O. Box 4793 Dar es Salaam J. Ulimwengu

Mwananchi Media Communications Ltd P. O. Box 79356 Dar es Salaam

JOURNALS IN TANZANIA Source: Tanzania Information Services, September 2002

NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS

Journal of Building and Land Ardhi Institute Editorial Board P.O. Box 35176 Development Dar es Salaam Q Materials Management National Board of Materials P.O. Box 5993 Journal Management Dar es Salaam Q Tanzania Christian Medical Tanzania Christian Medical Association P.O. Box 1949 Association Journal Prof. P.H. Shao Dar es Salaam Q Alat Journal Association of Local Authorities of P.O. Box 70039 QTanzania Dar es Salaam Eluminata Makwaya Cane and Sugar Journal Tanzania Society of Cane and Sugar P.O. Box 5128 ATechnologists Dar es Salaam Juma Kachemela

The Accountant National Board of Accountants and Auditors P.O. Box 5128 Q L.S.L Utouh Dar es Salaam

NOTES

112 ENGLISH NEWSPAPERS IN TANZANIA Source: Registrar of Newspapers, September 2002

NAME OWNER & EDITOR ADDRESS

Business Times Business Times Ltd P.O. Box 71439 Dar es Salaam WB.B. Palela The African Habari Corporation Ltd P.O. Box 4703 Dar es Salaam DJ.Ulimwengu

Daily News Tanganyika Standard Newspapers P.O. Box 9033 Dar es Salaam D

Family Mirror General Publications Ltd P.O. Box 6804 Dar es Salaam

Financial Times The Guardian Ltd P.O. Box 31042 Dar es Salaam W Sunday News Tanganyika Standard Newspapers P.O. Box 9033 Dar es Salaam WS.Kamuhanda The Arusha Times F.M. Arusha Ltd P.O. Box 212 Arusha WW.Lobubu The East African National Newspapers Ltd P.O. Box 8101 Dar es Salaam W The Guardian The Guardian Ltd P.O. Box 31042 Dar es Salaam D

NEWSLETTERS IN TANZANIA

Source: Tanzania Information Services, September 2002

ADVERTISING DAR AMUA DRUG INFORMATION Owner: J.P. Muthali Owner: Population Services BULLETIN P. O. Box 9890 Dsm International Owner: Pharmacy Board Editor: Semkae Kilonzo Editor: Rose Dhiji/ Mwasha AGENDA P. O. Box 7099 Dsm P. O. Box 9083 Dsm Owner: Business Care Tel: 2139765 Service Agenda Initiative 0741-612623, ELIMU YA AFYA Editor: Theo Tunga E-mail: [email protected] Owner: Muhimbili Health P. O. Box 71439 Dsm Education Division BUNGE NEWS Editor: Kiluvia/Nchimbi AMANI Owner: Clerk of the P. O. Box 65291 Dsm Owner: AMC Royal National Assembly Insurance Agency Ltd Editor: R. F. Msaki HABARI ZA RELI Editor: Nyambona Masamba P. O. Box 941 Dodoma Owner: Tanzania Railways P. O. Box 5560 Dsm Corporation

113 Editor: Winston Makamba TANZANIA SCIENCE AND NYEGEZI WEEKLY P. O. Box 468 Dsm TECHNOLOGY NEWS Owner: Nyegezi Social Tel: 2126241 Owner: Tanzania Training Centre Commission for Science & Editor: Head Journalism HAM Technology Dpt. Owner: Ministry of Health Editor: T.E. Mlaki P. O. Box 307 Mwanza Editor: Phares Masaule P. O. Box 30 4302 Dsm P. O. Box 9083 Dsm MCT - NEWS RUMULI Owner: MCT GAZETI LA HESAWA Owner: Catholic Diocese of P. O. Box 1016, Dsm Owner: HESAWA Bukoba Editor: E. E. Mahawi Editor: Father Mpambo EAC - NEWS P. O. Box 199 Dsm Private Bag Bukoba Owner: EAC P. O. Box 1096, Arusha HABARI MAALUMU YA MIOMBO Tel: 027 250453/8 UZIMA TELE Owner: Wildlife Fax: 027 2504255 Owner: Pentecostal Church Conservation Society E-mail: [email protected] Editor: Marco Kisanji Editor: Executive Committee P. O. Box 222 Tabora P. O. Box 70919, Dsm

ERBENGINEERS NEWSBRIEF SAUTI YA BILAL Owner: Engineers Owner: The Bilal Muslim Registration Board Mission of Tanzania Editor: H.N. Ilahuka Editor: D.O. Kiondo P. O. Box 14942 Dsm P. O. Box 20033, Dsm

NOTES

114 MAGAZINES IN TANZANIA Source: Tanzania Information Services, September 2002

ALAT MAGAZINE (Q) FEMINA MAGAZINE P. O. Box 2308 Dsm Owner: Association of local Owner: East African Tel: 2129047 Authorities of Tanzania Movies Ltd. Editor: Iluninata Maliwaya Editor: Saidi Ibrahim WHAT’S HAPPENING IN DAR P. O. Box 7912 Dsm P. O. Box 7429 Dsm Owner: Hakuna Matata Tel: 2123551/7 Tel: 2121472/3, 2111529 Travels Ltd E-mail: [email protected] Editor: Christine Wolf BONGO (M) P. O. Box 33259 Dsm Owner: J. S. Commodities THE IMAGE Editor: Sabbi Masanja Owner: Images and P. O. Box 77444 Dsm Communications Ltd Tel: 2181531 Editor: Richard Mgazija NOTES P. O. Box 420 Dsm CHANGE Owner: Change Publications SANI (M) Ltd Owner: Saidi Bawji/Nico Editor: Abdul Mtemvu Mbajo P. O. Box 3206 Dsm Editor: Jabir R. Omari/ Yusuf Ahmed CONTACTMAGAZINE P. O. Box 5370 Dsm Owner: National Insurance Corporation (NIC) SAUTI YA SITI (Q) P. O. Box 9262 Dsm Owner: Tanzania Media Tel: 2126561/7 Women Association (TAMWA) DAR ES SALAAM Editor: Leila Sheik Hashim GUIDE (M) P. O. Box 6143 Dsm Owner: East African Movies Ltd TABASAMU (M) Editor: Michael Lanfrey Owner: Paunu Enterprises P. O. Box 7429 Dsm Company Ltd Tel: 2121472/3 Editor: Ramadhani Fax: 2111529 Mkumbukwa E-mail: [email protected] P. O. Box 868 Iringa Phone: 0742 762618 FAITHMAGAZINE - YESU NIJUBU (M) UKULIMA WA KISASA Owner: Faith Centre and Owner: Ministry of Missions Agriculture Editor: Jackson Kisonda Editor: Cleophas P. O. Box 13196, Dsm Rwechungura

115 RADIO BROADCASTING IN TANZANIA Source: Tanzania Broadcasting Commission, September 2002

RADIO TANZANIA DAR ES SALAAM - RTD (NATIONAL SERVICE) P. O. Box 9191, Dar es Salaam Tel: 022 2860760-5, Fax: 022 2865577 Owner: Government of the United Republic of Tanzania Location: Nyerere Road/Mandela Road Date of license issue: 1 January 1994 Frequencies: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) FM Frequencies 90.0 MHZ, 92.3 MHZ MW Frequencies 531 KHZ, 657 KHZ, 837 KHZ, 1035 KHZ SW Frequencies (IN KHZ) 9785, 5050, 5985, 6105, 7165, 7280, 9550, 9685, 9750, 15435. Dodoma Booster Station 87.7 MHZ, 603 KHZ Mbeya Booster Station 92.3 MHZ, 621 KHZ Mwanza Booster Station 89.2 MHZ, 88.5 MHZ, 720 KHZ Arusha Booster station 91.6 MHZ, 1215 KHZ Nachingwea Booster Station 684 KHZ Lindi Booster Station 107.1 MHZ, 93.5 MHZ Masasi Booster Station 92.3 MHZ, 105.9 MHZ Songea Booster Station 98.7 MHZ, 990 KHZ Kigoma Booster Station 88.4 MHZ, 711 KHZ.

RADIO FREE AFRICA (RFA) P. O. Box 1732, Mwanza Tel: 028-2503262, 0741-640375 Fax: 028-2500713, 2561890 Owner: Anthony Diallo Location: CPLC Building, Ilemela- Mwanza/Posta Road Date of license issue: 6 September 1996 Frequencies: Base Station Mwanza 89.9 MHZ, 1377 KHZ Arusha Booster Station 89.0 MHZ Shinyanga Booster Station 88.2 MHZ Dar es Salaam Booster Station 98.6 MHZ Mbeya Booster Station 88.8 MHZ

RADIO ONE P. O. Box 4374, Dar es Salaam Tel: 022- 277591, 022-2775916, 022- 2773980, Fax: 022-2779737 Owner: Reginald Mengi, Agapitus Nguma Location: Plot No. 130- Mikocheni Industrial Area Date of license issue: 3 February 1994

116 Frequencies: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) 89.5 MHZ Arusha Booster Station 99.3 MHZ Mwanza Booster Station 102.9 MHZ Dodoma Booster Station 100.8 MHZ Moshi Booster Station 1323 KHZ

RADIO EAST AFRICAN FM P. O. Box 4370, Dar es Salaam Tel: 022-2775914, 022- 2775916, Fax: 022-2775915, 022-2119373 Owner: Reginald Mengi, Agapitus Nguma Location: Plot No. 130- Mikocheni Industrial Area, Dar es Salaam Date of license issue: 2 January 2000 Frequency: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) 87.8 MHZ

RADIO SAUTI YA INJILI P. O. Box 777, Moshi Tel: 027-252772 Owner: Tanzania Evangelical Lutheran Church Location: Moshi (Off Arusha Road) Date of license issue: 29 January 1996 Frequencies: Base Station (Moshi) 92.0 MHZ Moshi Booster Station 97.2 MHZ Arusha Booster Station 96.2 MHZ Same Booster Station 104 MHZ

RADIO KWIZERA Ngara Field Office, P. O. Box 1154, Ngara Tel: 028-223679, Fax: 028-222207, 028- 25560712 Owner: Jesuits Refugee Service Diocese of Rulenge-UNHCR Location: Ngara Date of license issue: 28 December 1995 Frequencies: Base Station (Ngara) 93.6 MHZ Kakonko Booster Station 97.9 MHZ

CLOUDS ENTERTAINMENT RADIO FM P. O. Box 32513, Dar es Salaam Tel: 022-2412060, Fax: 022-2112435 Owner: Joseph Kusaga Location: NIC House, Dar es Salaam Date of license issue: 12 December 1998 Frequencies: Base Station (Dar es Salaam 88.4 MHZ Arusha Booster Station 98.4 MHZ Mwanza Booster Station 99.4 MHZ

117 RADIO TUMAINI P. O. Box 9916, Dar es Salaam Tel: 022-231094, 0742-780887 Owner: Catholic Archdiocese Dar es Salaam Location: 1 Bridge Street, Dar es Salaam Date of license issue: 3 January 1994 Frequencies: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) 96.3 MHZ Kibaha Booster Station 91.6 MHZ

RADIO UHURU FM P. O. Box 9221, Dar es Salaam Tel: 022-2182224, 022-2182234, Telex: 41239 Owner: Uhuru Publication Ltd Location: Lumumba Street Plot No.70 Date of license issue: 2 February 2000 Frequencies: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) 95.2 MHZ Arusha Booster Station 99.7 MHZ Mwanza Booster Station 92.9 MHZ

RADIO 5 ARUSHA P. O. Box 11843, Arusha Tel: 027-278052, 027-254216-7, Fax: 027-4201 Owner: Didas D. Kavishe Location: CCM Building Date of license issue: 26 November 1999 Frequency: Base Station (Arusha) 105.7 MHZ

CHEMICHEMI RADIO SUMBAWANGA P. O. Box 34, Sumbawanga Tel: 027-22765, 027-2178, Fax: 027-0637, 027-2641 0wner: Catholic Archdiocese, Sumbawanga Location: Plot No. 506 Block N, Sumbawanga Date of license issue: 29 November 1999 Frequency: Base Station (Sumbawanga) 92.2 MHZ

RADIO MARIA P. O. Box 152, Songea Tel: 025-2602004, Fax: 025- 2602593 Owner: Catholic Archdiocese- Songea Location: St. Joseph Building- Songea Date of license issue: 3 May 1996 Frequency: FM 89.1 MHZ

118 TELEVISION BROADCASTING IN TANZANIA Source: Tanzania Broadcasting Commission, September 2002

TELEVISHENI YA TAIFA (TVT) Moshi Booster Station P. O. Box 31519, Dar es Salaam Channel 9 (VHF) Tel: 022-2700011, 2700062, 2700464 Dodoma Booster Station Fax: 022-2700468 Channel 11 (VHF) Owner: Government of the United Mwanza Booster Station Republic of Tanzania Channel 10 (VHF) Location: Kijitonyama, Off Bagamoyo Rd. Date of license issue: 10 March 2002 STAR TELEVISION Frequency: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) P. O. Box 1732, Mwanza Channel 5 (VHF) Tel: 028-2503262, 028-2560561 Fax: 028-2500713, 028-2561890 COASTAL TELEVISION NETWORK (CTN) Owner: Anthony Diallo P. O. Box 8983, Dar es Salaam Location: CPLC Building, Tel: 022-2185240, Fax: 022-2185354 Ilemela, Mwanza Owner: Shabbir Abji, Jayesh Shah, Date of license issue: 19 June 2000 Ramesh Patel, Girish Chande, Bud Frequencies: Kassam & Mahmood Mawji Base Station (Mwanza) Location: Jamhuri/Zaramo Street, Dsm Channel 31 (UHF) Date of licence issue: 14 February 1994 Dar es Salaam Booster Station Frequency: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) Channel 42 (UHF) Channel 7 (VHF) Arusha Booster Station Channel 34 (UHF) DAR ES SALAAM TELEVISION (DTV) Mbeya Booster Station P. O. Box 21122, Dar es Salaam Channel 58 (UHF) Tel: 022-2116341/6, Fax: 022-2113112 Owner: Shabbir Dewji, Murtaza Dewji, TELEVISHENI BURUDANI Franco Tramontano (Managing Director) P. O. Box 1528, Arusha Location: Jamhuri/Zaramo Street, Dsm Tel: 027-2500400, Fax: 027-2500400 Date of license issue: 20 May 1994 Owner: Didas Kavishe/ Anthony Glass Frequency: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) Location: Kijenge, Arusha Channel 40 (UHF) Date of license issue: 5 March 1999 Frequencies: INDEPENDENT TELEVISION (ITV) MMDS - Group X P. O. Box 4374, Dar es Salaam (Channel 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22) Tel: 022-2775914, 2775916, 2773980 Fax: 022-2775915 Owner: Reginald Mengi & Agapitus Nguma Location: Mikocheni Industrial Area Frequencies: Base Station (Dar es Salaam) Channel 11 (VHF) Arusha Booster Station Channel 6 (VHF)

119 CABLE TELEVISION NETWORKS IN TANZANIA

Source: Tanzania Broadcasting Commission, September 2002

CABLE TELEVISION NETWORK (CTV) TABORA CABLE TELEVISION - TABORA P. O. Box 3774, Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 506, Tabora Tel: 022-2116594, 2116611 Tel: 026-2855 Fax: 022- 2112119 Owner: Shashikant M. Patel (Director) Owner: Hitesh Tanna (Director) Jagdish M. Patel Bhasker Rughan & Harold Mgone Location: Tabora town Location: Sewa Street, Dar es Salaam Date of license issue: 23 January 1996 Date of license issue: 13 June 1995 SPACE SATELLITE CABLE TELEVISION STAR CABLE TELEVISION LTD. - MUSOMA P. O. Box 1468, Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 946, Musoma Tel: 022-2151768, 0742-781837 Tel: 028-2550675, 2255480 Owner: Jahagir Hassan Dalvi (Director) Owner: Geoffrey Kajanja (Director) Karim A. Ladha Location: Mkendo Street, Plot No. 36 Location: Mfaume Road, Upanga West Date of license issue: 27 July 1997 Date of license issue: 15 December 1995 MILLAN VIDEO CENTRE BHARAT VIDEO CENTRE P. O. Box 10367, Arusha P. O. Box 2768, Mwanza Tel: 027-2506471 Tel.: 028 242475, 242200 Owner: Sudha Millan (Director) Owner: Bharat Unadkati (Director) Millan T. Majithia & Mohamed Hassan Dhilu Jadawji Location: Aman Road, Plot No. 112, Location: Gurio/Nkurumah Rd. (AICC staff house) Date of license issue: 18 July 1994 Date of license issue: 29 January 1994

MWANZA SATELLITE COMMUNICATION INTERNATIONAL ENTERTAINMENT LTD. (MSCTN) CABLE TELEVISION NETWORK - MOSHI P. O. Box 647, Mwanza P. O. Box 757, Moshi Tel: 028 42550, 2502187 Tel: 027-2752307, 2752478 Fax: 028 2500713 Owner: Shobhag D. Shah (Director) Owner: Rizwani Kanji (Director) Location: Mwanza Road 45 F Section 3 Hino/Moihin Barmeda Date of license issue: 15 July 1996 Location: Nkomo Street Date of license issue: 8 February 1994 BAHMAN SATELLITE CABLE TELEVISION - TANGA AYOUB CABLE TELEVISION CO. LTD P. O. Box 52444, Tanga P. O. Box 333, Shinyanga Tel: 027-242 911, Fax: 027-247041 Tel.: 028-2762013 Owner: Ally H. Said/Ahmed H. Said Owner: Ayoub Aziz (Director) Location: Bandari House, Tanga Location: Shinyanga town (by the Market) Date of license issue: 11 May 1996 Date of license issue: 24 August 1996

120 DHANDHO CABLE NETWORK CABLE TELEVISION NETWORK (CTN) P. O. Box 161, Mbeya P. O. Box 88, Tanga Tel: 025-24479, 4329, 3453 Owner: Hitesh Tanna, B.S. Rughan Fax: 025-24079 & H. Mgome Owner: Karim Dharsi (Director) Location: Taifa Road Location: Mbalizi Road Date of licence issue: 1 June 1999 Date of license issue: 3 January 1997

ARUSHA CABLE TELEVISION (ACTV) P. O. Box 7043, Arusha Tel: 027 2506937, 2502284 Fax: 027 2502284 Owner: Abdi Abdulrasul (Director) Location: Goliondoi Road, Arusha Date of license issue: 13 June 1996

NOTES

121 7.TRADE UNIONS

TRADE UNIONS ACT OF 1998

By Mrs D. M. Uiso, Office of the Registrar of Trade Unions

Background trades e.g.The Tanzania Rail- employers are now free to Tanzanian trade union his- ways Workers’ Unions form the trade unions of their tory has passed through two (TRAWU), the Tanzania choice. major phases since the 1950s. Industrial and Commercial • The Registrar The first workers’ movement Workers Union (TUICO) The Registrar of Trade was the Tanganyika Federa- and the Tanzania Union of Unions is vested with the tion of Labour (TFL) estab- Government and Health functions of the overall lished in 1955. In the struggle Employees (TUGHE). Such administration of the Trade for independence it worked unions were, however, not Unions Act. hand in hand with what was registered in their own right • Registration to become the ruling party but as affiliates of OTTU. Every trade union should be (TANU). The latest development is registered with the Registrar In 1964 the TLF was dis- The Trade Unions Act No. 10 in order to acquire legitimacy banded and the National of 1998 that accommodates within a month of its being Union of Tanganyika Work- the demand for multi-trade established. A trade union for ers (NUTA) took its place. unions. The Act became employees must have at least Just like TFL, NUTA’s main operational on 1 July 2000. twenty members, while a objective was to promote the trade union for employers policies of TANU. The Act must consist of four or more Political changes in the The Act makes provisions for employers. Registration can country brought with them the establishment of the be cancelled for reasons elab- the need to have a trade union Office of the Registrar of orated under section 15 of the that would cater for the whole Trade Unions (Part II), the Act. The right of appeal is country. Jumuiya ya modalities of the registration guaranteed by section 16 of Wafanyakazi Tanzania of trade unions, the power of the Act to the High Court of (JUWATA) was established the registrar, the requirements Tanzania. in 1979 and, as a mass organ- for unions to be registered •Membership of a trade union ization of the new ruling and appeal procedures by By law members must be party (CCM), it had to prop- aggrieved parties (Part II), the above the apparent age of 14 agate party policies. formation of a federation of years. With the demand for mul- trade unions and consultative •Legal personality of a tiparty democracy, JUWATA bodies (Part IV and V), the trade union was replaced in 1991 by the management of trade union Once a trade union or federa- Organization of Tanzania funds (Part VI, IX and XI), tion is registered it acquires Trade Unions (OTTU). rights and liabilities (part legal personality capable of During the OTTU era some VII). It is important to note suing and being sued, owning employees were able to that in the new Trade Unions property etc. organize within their own Act both employees and • Expenditure of trade

122 union funds Tanzania (TUCTA) as a fed- Conclusion By law such funds are for eration replacing OTTU. Trade union leaders are urged strictly trade union matters TUCTA was registered on 18 to be proactive and innovative only, e.g. payment of salaries, May 2001. in handling grievances and legal consultancy, affiliation Two or more trade unions disputes with their employers fees and service charges. may form a federation. Fur- so as to promote good indus- • Inspection of accounts thermore, a trade union, with trial relations at the work- The law allows any member the consent of its members, place. of a trade union, including the may affiliate with a registered Despite the fact that Registrar, to inspect the federation and notice thereof employers have not registered account books. Any obstruc- must be given to the Registrar. their unions yet, they are tion or impediment is a crim- A trade union may also affili- urged to respect trade union inal offence. ate with consultative bodies rights like other basic human • Clients under this law registered within or outside rights, taking into account Any employed person even Tanzania with the approval of that the fundamental objec- from the Government Ser- members and notification tive of trade unions is to vice, save for members of the thereof must be given to the ensure the development of the military forces, police force Registrar within sixty days. social and economic wellbeing and prisons are clients, under Members of TUCTA are: of both workers and employ- this law. These categories are Tanzania Union of Industrial ers. ■ exempted probably for secu- and Commercial Workers rity reasons. (TUICO) NOTES •Offences Tanzania Plantation and All offences mentioned in this Agricultural Workers’ Union Act can be tried in the court of (TPAWU) a resident magistrate. Some Teachers’ Trade Union of the offences include, failure (CWT) to register a trade union, oper- Tanzania Seamen’s Union ating while not registered or (TASU) when the certificate of regis- Researches and tration is cancelled. Academicians Workers’ Union (RAAWU) Tanzania and the ILO Trade Union of Government As a member of International and Health Employees Labour Organization (ILO) (TUGHE) Tanzania has ratified Con- Communication and vention No. 87. The provi- Transport Workers’ Union sions of the Trade Unions Act (COTWU) are in line with this conven- Tanzania Mining Workers’ tion. Union (TAMICO) Conservation Hotels and Federation of Trade Domestic Workers’ Union Unions and consultative (CHODAWU) bodies Tanzania Railways Workers’ An important event that took Union (TRAWU) place after the Act became Tanzania Local Government effective is the formation of Workers’ Union the Trade Unions’ Congress of (TALGWU)

123 INFORMATION ON TRADE UNIONS IN TANZANIA 2001 Source: Compiled by Mr D. M. Uiso, Office of the Registrar of Trade Unions in Tanzania, September 2002

UNION ADDRESS LEADERSHIP MEMBERSHIP STATUS AS AT 31ST AUG. 2002

TANZANIA P.O. BOX 5680 Chairperson Vacant 34,700 REGISTERED UNION OF D’Salaam Secretary General INDUSTRIAL Tel: 2866910 Mr B.Y.Nkakatisi AND Ass. General COMMERCIAL Secretaries WORKERS Ilala Shariff Mr Hassan Mchamzim (TUICO) Shamba Tamimu Salehe

TANZANIA P.O. BOX 6097 Chairperson F.M. Musita 34,888 REGISTERED LOCAL D’ Salaam General Secretary GOVERNMENT Tel: 2121380 Mr J.S.Makongwa WORKERS 2185633 Ass. General UNION Lindi/UWT St. Secretary Mr. Kimei (TALGWU)

TANZANIA P.O. BOX 2196 Chairperson Mrs Sitta 118,000 REGISTERED TEACHERS D’ Salaam General Secretary UNION Tel: 2120206 Mr Yahaya Msulwa (CWT) Fax: 2120206 Ass. General KIivukoni Rd. Secretary Mr. Ezekei Oluoch

RESEARCHERS P.O. BOX 22532 Chairperson 10,113 REGISTERED ACADEMICIANS D’ Salaam Mr N.O Masaki AND ALLIED Tel: 2138114 General Secretary WORKERS Lindi/UWT St.Mrs Mgaya UNION (RAAWU) Deputy General Secretary A. Mgaya

TANZANIA P.O. BOX 75034 Chairperson 310 REGISTERED SEAMEN’S UNION D’ Salaam Nassoro B. Mtupa (TASU) Tel: 180036 General Secretary Cell: 0741-327162 Mchafu Chakoma Aggrey/Sikukuu St. Ass. General Secretary G. R. Kimbute

TANZANIA Chairperson Capt. Ligunda 409 REGISTERED FISHING AND General Secretary ALLIED WORKERS Khalid Shelukindo UNION Ass.Vice Chairperson (WAMEUTA) Ambari Kapilima Ass. General Secretary Waziri Mbwana

CONSERVATION P.O. BOX 15549 Chairperson 22,000 REGISTERED HOTEL Dar es Salaam Ms M.C. Castico

124 UNION ADDRESS LEADERSHIP MEMBERSHIP STATUS AS AT 30TH AUG. 2002

DOMESTIC AND Tel: 2110559, General Secretary ALLIED WORKERS 2110823 Mr S.S Wamba UNION Lindi/UWT St Ass. General (CHODAWU) Secretary Mr Mansur

TANZANIA P.O. BOX 78459 Chairperson 10,340 REGISTERED RAILWAYS D’Salaam Mr J.J.Mbogo WORKERS Tel: 2114847 General Secretary UNION Cell: 0741-618509 G.N. Machengo (TRAWU) Fax: 2110559 Ass. General Lindi/UWT St Secretary Mr Mihayo, G. Makula

TANZANIA P.O. BOX 13920 Chairperson 10,954 REGISTERED COMMUNICATION D’Salaam Mr M.H.Misanga AND TRANSPORT Tel: 2118154/5, General Secretary WORKERS UNION 2118271 C.M Samang’ombe (COTWU) Cell: 0742-763185 Cell: 0742-763185 Fax: 2111170 Ass. General Lindi/UWT St Secretary Mr Mjema Mr Robert Akili

TANZANIA UNION P.O. BOX 4669 Chairperson 29,328 REGISTERED OF GOVERNMENT D’Salaam Dr Diwani Mrutu AND HEALTH Tel: 2118152, Deputy Chairperson EMPLOYEES 2118271 Ms Maclean Chitete (TUGHE) Cell: 0742-782206 General Secretary Lindi/UWT St Mr J.S Rutatina Ass. General Secretary Mrs Kaganda Laurent Mr X.K. Msaliboko

TANZANIA P.O. BOX 77420 Chairperson 28,000 REGISTERED PLANTATION AND D’Salaam Mr K.N. Kabengwe AGRICULTURAL Tel: 2182496/7 General Secretary WORKERS UNION 2184848/9 Mr G.P Nyindo (TPAWU) Cell: 0741-132211 Ass. General Aggrey/Sikukuu St Secretary Mr. H.M Issa

TANAZANIA MINES P.O. BOX 72136 Chairperson 7,228 REGISTERED AND D’Salaam Mr F. M. Masasi CONSTRUCTION Tel: 2119200, General Secretary WORKERS UNION 2110569/70, Mr Makwaya Pingu (TAMICO) 2115524 Ass. General Cell: 0741-616732 Secretary Lindi/UWT St Mr Kasian

125 UNION ADDRESS LEADERSHIP MEMBERSHIP STATUS AS AT 31ST AUG. 2002

INDUSTRIAL & P.O. BOX 72174 Chairperson 86 REGISTERED GENERAL D’Salaam Ms Sarah Wanyancha WORKERS UNION Tel: 0744 370503 Vice Chairperson TANZANIA Mr S.K. Makongoro (IGWUTA) General Secretary Mr S.S. Marenda Ass. General Secretary Mr Kasian

TANZANIA P.O. BOX 7151 Chairperson 384 REGISTERED SOCIAL D’Salaam Mr S.K. Kikule INDUSTRIAL General Secretary WORKERS’ UNION Mr S. Chaila (TASIWU)

TANZANIA UNION P.O. BOX 33772 Chairperson 80 REGISTERED OF JOURNALISTS Mr J. Kwayu (TUJ) General Secretary Mr G. Kambenga

DOCK WORKERS P.O. Box 50143 Chairperson REGISTERED UNION OF D’Salaam Mr Hamisi Kapilima TANZANIA General Secretary (DOWUTA) Mr Johnathan Msoma

FEDERATIONS UNDER THE TRADE UNIONS ACT 1998

UNION ADDRESS LEADERSHIP MEMBERSHIP STATUS AS AT 31ST AUG. 2002

TRADE UINION P.O. BOX 15359 Chairperson 350,000 REGISTERED CONGRESS OF D’Salaam Ms M. Sitta TANZANIA Tel: 2130036 General Secretary (TUCTA) Telex: 41205 Mr N.K. Ngulla Fax: 2130036 Deputy General Secretary Hassan Raha

NOTES

126 TANZANIA’S RATIFICATION OF CORE ILO LABOUR STANDARDS Compiled by Mr C. M. M. Kajege, Kivukoni Academy of Social Sciences

Tanzania, like other members • The elimination of (1973), the Minimum Age of ILO, has been in the discrimination in respect of Convention. Also Conven- process of ratifying core ILO employment and tion No. 182 (1999), the worst labour standards, which are occupation. Forms of Child Labour was intended to establish a ratified in October 2000. friendly relationship between The conventions are: the Government, business • Freedom of Association Tanzania has yet to ratify the community and the labour and Rights to Collective Discrimination and Equal force. The move is in line with Bargaining.Convention No. Remuneration,ILO Conven- the commitments Tanzania 98 (1949), the Right to Orga- tion No. 100 (1951), and ILO accepted in Singapore in 1996 nize and to Collective Bar- Convention No. 111 (1958). and Geneva in 1998 in the gaining Convention I 1962. WTO Ministerial Declara- On February 2000, the Parlia- tion and in the ILO Declara- ment of Tanzania ratified ILO Sources 1. International Confederation of Free tion on Fundamental Princi- Convention No. 87 (1948), Trade Unions (ICFTU) (2000): Report ples and Rights at work the Freedom of Association for the WTO General Council: Review adopted in June 1998. and Protection of the Right to of the Trade Policies of Tanzania (March These core international Organize Convention. 2000). labour standards fall into 4 • Forced labour 2. Strengthening Labour Relations in categories: In 1962, Tanzania ratified East Africa (SLARCA): ILO Project • Freedom of association and ILO Convention No. 29 RFA/OO/M50/USA- INT/OO/MOS/USA, Dar es Salaam, the effective recognition of (1930); the Forced Labour May 2001. the right to collective Convention and ILO Con- bargaining. vention No. 105 (1957); the • The elimination of all forms Abolition of Forced Labour of forced compulsory Convention. labour. • Child Labour • The effective abolition of In 1998, Tanzania ratified child labour. ILO Convention No. 138

NOTES

127 THE HISTORY OF THE TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN ZANZIBAR By Mr Talib O. Mbwana, Zanzibar Local Government Workers Union (ZALGWU)

Historical background to formed. These unions had few assistance in attaining this the formation of trade members because at this point goal. This was the start of unions in Zanzibar in time, Zanzibar was not very cooperation between Zan- After World War II socio- densely populated and the zibar trade unions and those economic activities in Zanz- socio-economic activities were of the mainland. ibar were limited in scope and few. Trade unions were there- Mr Mpangala, and later, in employment opportunities fore not very active and they 1956, Mr R.M. Kawawa, were were minimal. The few had not enough economic dispatched to Zanzibar by employed felt the pain of poor power and numerical strength TFL to join force with their working conditions and poor to effectively face the Zanzibar counterparts in their pay.The few workers in differ- employer. The union that struggle for the registration of ent work places knew their catered for workers in the the Zanzibar Workers’ Feder- problems, but they had no building sector and other ation. institution that united them related activities were joined As Zanzibar was under and gave voice to their griev- together to form a trade union foreign domination any ances. In 1948 the dock work- called “Building and Con- attempt that signified the ers of Zanzibar staged a strike struction Workers’ Union”. strength of the working class to demonstrate to the colonial This attempt at unifying and was viewed as a threat towards authorities how great was their strengthening trade unions the foreign rulers. As a result, dissatisfaction with the poor and trade union activities con- a number of strategies were working environment and tinued unhindered for quite a worked out that were aimed at wages that in no way tallied long time, and in the process frustrating leaders, weakening with their output. some of the unions became the unions, and workers’ soli- The strikers succeeded in absolute and new ones were darity. This included the getting across a message to the born to take the place of the refusal to register the federa- colonial government that ones that died. tion on the grounds that the organized workers are a force trade unions that formed the to be reckoned with. In the Efforts to intensify trade federation were deemed regis- same year the British colonial union cooperation tered. Despite all those set government established a Up to 1956 Zanzibar had backs, the Federation of Labour Department whose about thirty trade unions. In Zanzibar and Pemba Trade main task was to look after their endeavour to present a Unions (ZPFL) was formed labour activities in Zanzibar. stronger united front, the and discharged its duties and The first trade union to be leaders of these unions met responsibilities with utmost established in Zanzibar was with a view to charting out the efficiency and courage. the Seamen’s Union. This modalities and strategies union opened a new page in needed to form a federation. Trade unions during the the history of trade unionism The leaders agreed in princi- revolutionary period and politics on the Zanzibar ple to form a federation and During the whole of the six- Island. From 1955 a number the Tanganyika Federation of ties, trade unions in Zanzibar of unions for craftsmen were Labour was contacted for were supported by the major-

128 ity of the working population The formation of union activities had ceased in to the extent of organizing a JUWATA and later 1966 and started anew in very successful strike that OTTU/TFTU 1978 when JUWATA was lasted for about six days. Fur- A period of about ten years formed). thermore workers in conjunc- (1968 - 1978) elapsed before tion with the peasants of trade union activities resumed 2. Workers who had witnessed Zanzibar were successful in in Zanzibar. It was because of their unions being dismantled staging the 1964 Revolution. an historic accident that trade without sound reasons by the After the Revolution the Rev- union activities were allowed very government (Zanzibar olutionary Government, in its to continue in Zanzibar. In Revolutionary Government) endeavour to create an envi- 1977 a political decision was that now let them start organ- ronment within which it could taken to merge the ruling izing themselves again, had work efficiently, banned the party in Zanzibar, the ASP, every reason to query the seri- trade unions in Zanzibar. In and the ruling party on the ousness of the move. its stead a supposedly strong mainland, TANU, to form a federation was formed by the single political party Chama The wind of change in the Revolutionary Government cha Mapinduzi (CCM). In international political scene with the name the “Federation the CCM Constitution, Sec had an impact on the labour of Revolutionary Trade 87, it is stipulated that apart scene in the whole United Unions” (FRTU). Trade from the Party there would be Republic of Tanzania. The cry union activities were to be run five Party wings in the form of for democracy was heard and in the spirit of the Revolution. mass organizations which in the end the ruling political In that light, trade unions in included Jumuiya ya party, the Chama Cha Zanzibar were represented in Wafanyakazi Tanzania Mapinduzi (CCM), suc- the higher organs of the ruling (JUWATA) whose responsi- cumbed to the pressure of Afro-Shirazy Party (ASP) bilities apart from those of a workers and allowed workers and had two places in the trade union were to propagate to choose their own system of Revolutionary Council. Again the party’s policy of socialism running the labour movement FRTU fully participated in and self- reliance. As CCM in Tanzania. The movement different national affairs, transcended the territorial felt greatly relieved to hear including the preparation of boundaries, the Zanzibar gov- such news and wholeheartedly the ASP constitution in 1965. ernment had to accept, how- welcomed the move and the In 1966, however, after the ever reluctantly, the formation prospect of more democracy. completion of the work of of JUWATA in order to fulfil The two governments set in preparing the ASP constitu- the constitutional obligation motion the process of democ- tion, FRTU was disbanded by of Chama Cha Mapinduzi ratization in every sector of the government and the new (CCM). As a result trade life. Workers seized the Department of Labour was union activities surfaced again opportunity to reorganize its instituted, directed by the in Zanzibar though in a dif- labour movement. The secto- ASP. The department was ferent form under the rial industrial units had to supposed to look after labour umbrella of CCM. The become autonomous trade matters and the heads of this JUWATA was confronted unions. Such sectorial indus- department were appointed by with the great task of organiz- trial units were set at eleven. the ASP.In 1968 the activities ing workers afresh under very However, in order to trans- of the department were harsh conditions: form the labour movement scrapped and the office was and allow such changes, a con- closed altogether. 1.Trade Unionism was again a stituent congress was held in new phenomenon, (trade September, 1991 and it for-

129 malised the establishment of was, however, far from being nine registered trade unions the Organization of Tanzania achieved. They banked their are: Trade Unions (OTTU). It salvation and hope on their •Zanzibar Local was later backed up for its newly formed unions. Government Workers Union legal existence by an Act of These newly formed (ZALGWU) Parliament known as OTTU unions, however, and the Fed- •Tanzania Union of Act of 1991 which became eration worked under the Government and Health operational in December OTTU ACT and as such Employees (TUGHE - Z) 1991. In the same vein, almost everybody questioned •Communication and OTTU was given legal their legality. In December Transport Workers of strength in Zanzibar by the 1998 the Tanzania Parliament Zanzibar (COTWU (ZNZ) Act of the House of Repre- passed a piece of legislation - • Researchers, Academicians sentatives No. 1 of 1991. the Trade Unions Act, 1998 - and Allied Workers’ Union, OTTU thus became national, that allow, among other Zanzibar (RAAWU(Z)) embracing both Tanzania things, the registration of •Zanzibar Plantation and mainland and Zanzibar. unions and federations. The Agricultural Workers’ Union OTTU was charged with two most interesting thing about (ZPAWU) big responsibilities: this Act is that it prohibits the •Tanzania Seamen’s Union, • to continue with its obliga- lifelong marriage between the Zanzibar (TASU- Z) tion as a trade union to fight workers of Tanzania Main- •Zanzibar Teachers’ Union for the rights of its members land and those of Zanzibar. In (ZATU) • to supervise and spearhead the same vein the Zanzibar •Zanzibar Tourism, Hotel, democratization process House of Representatives sent Conservation Workers’ Union within the trade union move- the Trade Unions Bill to be (ZATHOCODAWU) ment in Tanzania. debated and endorsed as law • The Employers’ in April 2001. The law is Organization in Zanzibar is The latter task was partially called Trade Unions Act No. 4 called Zanzibar Employers’ accomplished in August 1995, of 2001 and it allows the reg- Association (ZANEMA). ■ when eleven fully- fledged istration, running and regula- unions completed their for- tion of employers and workers’ mation and the TFTU, the unions. national apex organization, Up to February 2002 nine was put in place. For the workers’ unions and one workers of Zanzibar and Tan- employers’ union have been zania in general, liberation formed and registered. The

NOTES

130 8.WOMEN AND CHILDREN

MAJOR LAWS RELATING TO WOMEN’S LIVES

By Ms Helen Kijo-Bisimba, Legal and Human Rights Centre

Participants who attended the workshop organised by WLAC on Women and Children Without Inheritance Rights, pos- ing for a group photograph in 2001. Supported by FES.

Women are citizens of the child maintenance and cus- equal before the law, [Article country in their own right and tody, land and employment. 13 (1)]. There should be no they are therefore covered by There are also problems law which is discriminative all of the laws of the land. caused by patriarchal customs [Article 13 (2)] and it is for- There are, however, laws and traditions. bidden to discriminate any which specifically affect person on any ground [(Arti- women. Women are therefore LEGAL STRUCTURES cle 13(4)]. Discrimination is vulnerable, if they do not RELATED TO WOMEN’S defined under Article 13(5) know about these laws. LIVES and among the categories Reports from legal aid 1) The Constitution mentioned is gender. Gender clinics in Dar es Salaam of the Land discrimination is expressly (WLAC, LHRC and Under the Constitution of the forbidden under the United TAWLA) show that the United Republic of Tanzania Republic of Tanzania Consti- realms where women have of 1977 all people are pro- tution. most frequent legal problems tected against discrimination 2) Education are: inheritance, matrimony, as all people are said to be The Education Act of 1978

131 provides for the education of can have his/her own property ciples is “The right of every all children of Tanzania irre- and can enter into contracts woman to acquire, hold, use spective of their gender. etc. and deal with land shall to the Although there is a general • The law prohibits the same extent and subject to the trend, especially in village, not infliction of corporal punish- same restriction be treated as to allow girls to go to school, ment on a spouse. the right of any man”. [Part II this is against the law. The law •Where a man dies before Section 3 (2)]. provides for the punishment his wife, the wife has the right The law recognizes two of parents who do not send to stay in the matrimonial types of land ownership: “per- their children to school or who home. sonal occupancy” and “co- allow their children to drop • The law recognizes “a pre- occupancy”. out of school. The law can sumption of marriage” when a Co-occupancy can be: therefore be used to protect couple have lived together as (a)Occupancy in common girls who are forced to drop wife and husband for more where in the case of the death out of school to get married or than two years and people of one of the co-occupiers for any other reason. around them have recognized his/her shares goes to his/her 3) The Law of Marriage their relationship. They have heirs. Act Number 5 of 1971 all the rights of a married cou- (b)Joint occupancy where in •Two types of marriage are ple. the case of the death of one recognized: monogamous and •Divorce can only be occupier the other party has polygamous. The ceremonies granted by a Court of Law the right of survivorship - can be religious, civil or tradi- and the court must be satisfied meaning the property goes to tional. that the marriage in question him/her. • The age of marriage is 18 has broken down beyond years and above. Girls, how- repair. A couple cannot go to 5) Sexual Offences Special ever, can be married at an age court for divorce before going Provisions Act 1998 of below 18 years but not to a reconciliation board. (SOSPA) below 15 years with the con- Accepted reasons for the This is a law which amends sent of the father and where breakdown of a marriage several written laws and makes there is no father, then the beyond repair are amongst special provisions in those laws mother. Marriage for girls others: adultery, brutality, with regard to sexual and below 15 years, but not below desertion, separation for more other offences, to further safe- 14 years, can be permitted by then 3 years, sodomy, irre- guard the personal integrity, court order. sponsibility, being jailed for dignity, liberty and security of more than 5 years. women and children. Under This has been challenged as It is presumed that a child this law sexual offences against discriminatory towards girls under seven years has to live women and children have and as a violation of the with his/her mother unless been elaborated and sentences Rights of the Child. good reasons are given that have been broadened to pro- this should not to be so. tect women and children. •A husband is obliged to Examples: maintain his family i.e. wife 4) The Land Law of 1999 •Rape has been defined to and children. Where a hus- The Land Act No.4 of cover children below 18 with- band is not able to do so for 1999 and The Village out consent being material in reasons beyond his control Land Act No.5 of 1999 the defense. then a wife is supposed to The new law came into oper- • The offence of trafficking maintain the family. ation on 1 May 2001. One of in women is provided for. • Each party in the marriage the most significant new prin- •Female Genital mutilation

132 has been criminalized where it est of the employee’s health. maintenance of the child from is performed to children under •Post-natal leave of 42 days the putative father. The the age of 18. commencing on the day of amount of maintenance, how- The law provides for com- delivery: ever, needs to be revised as it is pensation in cases of sexual •Maternity leave is with full too little to support a child and offences. pay at the expense of the the burden for maintaining employer. the child is therefore still on 6) The Employment the mother. Ordinance Restrictions can be found in Amongst other things the Section 25 (k) and 25 (b) and 8) The Inheritance Laws Employment Ordinance gives (c). A woman who gets the There are three laws relating women the right to maternity maternity leave forfeits her to inheritance in the country: benefits: annual leave in the year of the Islamic Customary Laws, •Pre-natal maternity leave maternity leave. This is being Customary Inheritance Laws of 42 days to be taken at any challenged as taking away part and the Indian Succession time after the completion of of the maternity leave. Act, which is a civil law. There the seventh month of preg- is a major debate on harmo- nancy and before delivery or 7) The Affiliation nizing these laws in the inter- before the completion of the Ordinance est of women, as most of them seventh month of pregnancy, This is a law that provides for are discriminative towards if a medical officer recom- children born out of wedlock. women. ■ mends that such leave is nec- The mother of the child can essary or desirable in the inter- make an application for the

BASIC GENDER INDICATORS FOR TANZANIA

By Ms Sherbanu Kassim, Women’s Research and Documentation Project

Introduction (1) Poverty (2) Education (3) of affairs -social cultural United Republic of Tanzania, Health (4) Violence (5) norms, values, traditional being a member of the United Armed and Other Conflicts practices and customs, Nation, is a party to the (6) Economic Participation unequal access to decision- Global Platform for Action (7) Power-sharing and Deci- making processes, legal adopted at the Beijing 4th UN sion-making (8) National and inequalities and poverty. The World Conference in 1995. International Machineries (9) Government of Tanzania The GPA reflects the review Human Rights (10) Mass committed itself to eradicate and appraisal of the progress Media (11) Environment and gender inequality. made by women since 1985 in Development (12) The Girl In its development vision terms of the Nairobi Forward- Child 2025, the country aims at Looking Strategies for the In presenting its commit- achieving a high quality liveli- Advancement of Women to ment to the implementation hood for its people, at attain- the Year 2000. of the GPA, the Tanzanian ing good governance through The GPA lists 12 Critical Government noted that gen- the rule of law and developing Areas of Concern identified as der inequality was prevalent a strong and competitive obstacles to the advancement and cited a number of factors economy. In doing so, gender of women. The 12 areas are: that contributed to this state equality and the empower-

133 ment of women in the socio- There is discrimination urban settings women lack economic, political, and cul- against women and this is to property rights and knowl- tural areas is emphasized and be seen in the multiplicity of edge on available credit facili- implemented. laws (customary, religious and ties. Again their low educa- By the year 2000, the popula- statutory) in areas of marital tion level and use of poor tion projection is that the total relationships, inheritance and technology further drowns population is 33.7 million and ownership rights. Another them in poverty. the female population com- area is the discriminatory (3) Women Political prises of 50.4% of the total. application of statutory laws. Empowerment and Thus women form more than There are inadequate and Decision-Making half of the Tanzanian popula- insensitive mechanisms in the Traditionally the position of tion, and hence their contri- legal system to handle cases women in Tanzania has been bution in the socio-economic sensitive to women and chil- low compared to men. development is crucial. dren e.g. involving violence Women were not expected to and defilement. influence the decision-making Tanzania Government (2) Economic Empowerment processes from domestic to Commitment of Women and Poverty national level basically because The Post-Beijing era, has seen Eradication of the patriarchal structures efforts by the Government In Tanzania about 60% of which are in operation. and other stakeholders in the women live in absolute (4) Improve Women’s Access implementation of the GPA poverty. This is a result of the to Education, Training generally and Tanzania’s com- increasing poverty among the and Employment mitment to the implementa- rural and urban population • Education tion of GPA specifically, as generally, the growing gap Women face numerous con- hereunder: between the rich and the poor; straints to access education 1. Enhance Women Legal women and men, women and and training at all levels. The Capacity women. In both rural and problems include the

SOME STATISTICAL GENDER INDICATORS

1990 1995 2000

Population Total (millions) 25.5 29.6 33.7 Females as % of total 50.6 50.5 50.4 Adult illiteracy rate (% of people aged 15+) Male 24.4 20.0 16.1 Female 49.0 41.1 33.5 Labour force participation Total labour force (millions) 13 15 17 Female labour force (% of total) 50 49 49 Education Access & Attainment: Net Enrollment Rate Male 51 47 47 Female 52 48 48 Youth illiteracy rate (% of people aged 15-24) Male 10.7 8.5 6.7 Female 22.7 17.0 12.1

Source: World Bank Gender Statistics for Tanzania, 2002

134 unfriendly pedagogy espe- •Employment Selected References cially in the teaching of math- The major constraints facing Tanzania National Website, ematics, technical and science women in employment are http://www.tanzania.go.tz/gender.html, subjects, which require com- low education, poverty and 2002 petitiveness and some degree lack of required productive UN, The Global Platform for Action, 4th of assertiveness which girls skills. Another hindrance is World Conference on Women, Beijing, often lack. Truancy, preg- that the formal work places 1995. nancy, economic hardships are sometimes gender insensi- ■ URT, The Fourth World Conference on and early marriages constrain tive. Women in Beijing, China, Commitment girls from completing their for the Implementation of the Platform schooling. Existing patriar- for Action, 1995. chal attitudes favour and promote boys’ education and pay World Bank Gender Statistics, less interest in the education http://genderstats.worldbank.org, 2002 of girls.

EDUCATION AND GENDER

By Ms P.Okeyo, Education Office, Kinondoni Municipality

BACKGROUND No.25 of 1978 emphasises studies and work independ- Traditionally women were not that every citizen has the right ently for the service of their expected to go to school. The to receive education to the community. school system of the colonial best of her/his ability. The number of female stu- period allowed few girls to dents who enrol at this level is enrol in schools. The little Current situation less than the number of their education they received was to Primary education male counterparts. Further- confine them to the kitchen or Primary education is compul- more, women tend to concen- to white-collar jobs at shop sory and universal. Enrolment trate on arts subjects, leaving floor level. This created a gen- in primary schools for female science subjects for men. der gap between boys and and male pupils reached parity Higher education girls. The majority of Tanzan- in 1977 after the introduction Female enrolment in higher ian women remain illiterate. of UPE. Primary education institutes of learning is lower After independence, a covers the first seven years of than that of men. Nonetheless number of measures were schooling (Std. I-VII), and the enrolment of women at introduced to improve the usually starts when a child is this level is increasing. educational system. The Edu- seven years old. It aims at giv- cational Ordinance of 1961 ing pupils a permanent ability The effects of Structural was the starting point for in literacy and numeric Adjustment Programs equal opportunities for girls knowledge. (SAPs) and boys, women and men. Secondary education SAPs have had effects on the Major changes came with the Secondary education is termi- quality and availability of edu- Arusha Declaration and the nal and it aims at equipping cation. Enrolment in primary Musoma Resolution on Uni- students with skills, knowl- schools for both sexes has versal Primary Education edge and attitudes that will dropped since 1987. The (UPE). The Education Act enable them to pursue further reduction in public spending

135 on primary education tends to rate for boys was higher than • The construction of class affect girls more adversely that of girls. rooms than boys. Cost sharing in Although the statistics •Teacher engagement and secondary and higher educa- show that the enrolment rate deployment tion has the same impact. for boys and girls is equal, • In service quality This has long-term implica- there are nonetheless dispari- improvement tions since the lack of educa- ties when the gender statistics • The provision of pre- tion is both a cause and effect are analyzed taking the geo- learning materials of women’s low status. graphical locality, school type • The monitoring of and family income group into management The impact of science consideration. Increasing • Improvement of evaluation and technology on enrolment does not ensure systems women’s lives equitable access. Disparities Gender stereotyping in our will not decrease if education The Primary Education society is so strong that the resources are not equality dis- Development Programme is a achievements, aspirations and tributed in accordance with 5 year programme for the interests of girls are condi- gender needs. period 2002 - 2006. PEDP tioned by how society views takes measured enrolment men and women’s activities. The main areas of concern steps so as to achieve Univer- Tanzanian women, irrespec- are: sal Primary Education (UPE) tive of their intellectual apti- •Persistently high dropout gradually. It gives high prior- tude, tend to shy away from rate for both boys and girls ity to an increase in overall science and technology as pupils gross and net enrolment of these fields are seen to be •Inadequate space in class both boys and girls. This will reserved for men. rooms be done by increasing enrol- • Most of the teaching staff ment in all groups of children, Primary education from still has low qualifications using existing teachers and a gender perspective and competency classrooms more effectively Tanzania has gender prob- •A low, and sometimes and by recruiting new teachers lems in the education sector. demoralizing, selection and constructing classrooms. They can be seen in the edu- rate of primary school The PEDP has abolished cation and training policy of leavers for continued the parents’ contribution at 1995. They include a high earning at higher levels. primary education level. dropout rate for girls, 25% at • Inadequate school Instead each pupil gets 10 primary level. The perform- materials USD annually as capitation ance of girls is lower in the grant from the government. final examination than that of Primary Education During the first year of boys. Figures from the Min- Development Program PEDP implementation new istry of Education and Cul- (PEDP) classrooms have already been ture show that out of a total of The Primary Education constructed, textbooks have 5,646,293 children registered Development Programme is been purchased and teachers for Class One in the year an outcome of various sector have been recruited. This any 2000, 50.09% were girls. The reviews and it makes provision citizen can observe. The abol- gross enrolment ratio (GER) for primary education espe- ishment of the parents’ contri- was 78.5 for boys and 76.7 for cially in the areas of concern. butions has boosted the enrol- girls. The net enrolment ratio The priority investments are: ment rate of pupils this year, (NER) was 58.6 for boys and • The expansion of especially for girls. ■ 59.1 for girls. The dropout enrolment

136 GENDER EQUALITY AND THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Extract from the speech made by Hon. Dr A. Migiro (MP), Minister for Community Development, Women Affairs and Chil- dren, 19 November 2001, at the TFTW Alumni Workshop, Karimjee Hall, Dar es Salaam

“Gender equality means the How can gender equality gies and long term policy equal visibility, empowerment be attained? planning issues”. and participation of both There are obviously many sexes in all spheres of public ways but for the purpose of Affirmative action as and private life”. It has now this workshop I wish to talk another way of bringing been empirically proved that about women’s empowerment about gender equality gender equality is a develop- and affirmative action as a The Government of the ment imperative. If develop- means to attaining gender United Republic of Tanzania ment means the improved equality. has so far done well in this. It wellbeing of people and the Generally speaking em- has done so in Parliament as process by which this wellbe- powerment is an element of well as in local government ing is achieved, then gender development. It has been authorities. equality becomes an impor- defined as a process by which Looking at these statistics tant variable of development. people take control and action one can only realize that had The main reason is that in order to overcome obsta- it not been for affirmative development can only be sus- cles. It especially means col- action women’s representation tainable where material bene- lective action by the oppressed in Parliament would be very, fits (of development) are fairly and deprived to overcome the very marginal. Even though distributed, especially to the obstacles of structural we have had affirmative most in need - the disadvan- inequality which have previ- action in various forms either taged and the most vulnera- ously put them in a disadvan- as a specific number or as per- ble. Women fall in one or taged position. centage, that alone has not both of these categories. Women’s empowerment is worked as a catalyst to bring Studies have shown beyond a necessary process to enable women into leadership and doubt that in societies where women to overcome obstacles decision making positions. It there is gender equality devel- which have led to the circum- is a well- known fact that a opment indications have a stances of being disadvan- good number of women MPs better record. taged or marginalized. have been doing well, but that A World Bank study con- Education and training is does not seem to have conducted in 2000 clearly showed one way through which vinced the rest of society that that addressing gender issues women can be empowered. given equal opportunity is an important strategy in The Training Fund for Tan- women have been and can be stimulating development, in zania Women (TFTW) has very good leaders. Thus, even alleviating poverty and been providing education & though we have had affirma- strengthening good gover- training to women so that, tive action for twenty years nance. It is for these reasons once qualified, “they would now, only affirmative action that gender equality is now on occupy decision making posi- has been able to guarantee the agenda in many countries tions in both the private and women’s participation in Par- of the world especially devel- public sectors, in order to liament and local government oping ones. influence development strate- authorities.

137 Now that we know which course recently on parliamen- trained, that alone will not way to go in education and tary procedures and practices. suffice to ensure that gender training, has not the time I think that is one practical inequality is done away with. come to “attack” other struc- way of empowering women That alone is not enough to tures that would give these which shows affirmative ensure that they have equal “trained, education and quali- action as a strategy that has to access to leadership positions fied” women real, and not the- go hand in hand with other or representative bodies like oretical, opportunity to take empowering activities. If I Parliament, councils or village part meaningfully in decision may once again quote the authorities. There is a dire making bodies? Let’s debate National Assembly Clerk, need to “educate” and “train” this point. having a big number of society in general as well as As part of women’s empow- women is desirable, but hav- other authorities that are key erment we might also wish to ing them empowered through in deciding what affirmative focus our attention on those training is even crucial. I have action should be taken, how women who are already in used the Parliament as an and for how long. ■ leadership positions. How do example, but similar steps we give them training which is have to be taken in respect of Source: Ministry of Community Develop- relevant to the positions they women leaders in the village. ment Women’s Affairs and Children, Gender Equality and the Empowerment currently occupy? Women On the other hand, even if of Women through Education and Train- MPs did have a very useful women are educated and ing.

CONSTRAINTS ON GIRLS’ EDUCATION

SOCIO-CULTURAL CONSTRAINTS • School is sometimes seen as an alienating force that under- mines cultural values. • Traditional attitudes towards marriage view investment in girls’ education as “watering another man’s garden” - any benefits will go to another family! • Socialization patterns assume that girls should be docile and passive, while boys are expected to be aggressive, adventurous and outgoing. This is to the disadvantage of girls when they have to share facilities and equipment with boys. Girls are also expected to suppress their brilliance or be subjected to ridicule. Source: Art in Politics, 1st E.A. competition on political caricatures & cartoons, FES • The social status of women 2001 Cartoon by Ali Masoud (Kipanya)

138 in society and negative atti- systems. goals for achieving gender tudes to women as subordi- • Education is of low quality equity. nates influence decision mak- and lacks relevance and practi- • Policies support, or do not ing on investment in girls’ cal application. prevent, inequitable practices education. • A hostile learning environ- in resource allocation. • Traditional practices, e.g. ment is characterized by the • Policies are gender blind in early marriage and initiation lack of sanitary facilities, the the selection and posting of rites, interfere more with the exploitation of girls’ labour teachers. education of girls than that of and sexual harassment. • Policies for monitoring gen- boys. • Female role models are lack- der equity in education are ing. inadequate. ■ SCHOOL CONSTRAINTS • School management prac- Source: Gachukia, Eddah “Accelerating • The inadequacy of facilities tices discriminate against girls. the Education of Girls and Women in in schools hinders access, par- Sub-Saharan Africa”, FAWE News, ticularly in rural areas and arid POLICY CONSTRAINTS Vol.7, No.2, 1999. and semi-arid lands. • Policies exclude pregnant • Gender bias pervades the schoolgirls and adolescent curriculum - teachers, syl- mothers. labuses, textbooks and delivery • Policies do not articulate

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF THE WORST FORMS OF CHILD LABOUR IN TANZANIA

By Dr Rwegoshora Hossea, Institute of Social Work

INTRODUCTION consensus that targeting the the use of children in the drug Today, child labour continues worst forms of child labour is trade and in armed conflict, as to present a serious challenge not only morally right, but well as hazardous work are all to the courage and imagina- also a major step towards defined as Worst Forms of tion of nations and the coop- breaking the vicious circle of Child Labour. In Tanzania, eration of the international poverty and eliminating child the worst forms of child community. The recent Rapid labour in a long run. labour involve activities that Assessment studies made in are invariably detrimental to Tanzania in a few selected sec- THE NATURE AND the children’s physical, social tors1 indicate that there is a EXTENT OF THE WORST and psychological develop- significant number of children FORMS OF CHILD LABOUR ment. The findings of the working in various sectors of IN TANZANIA rapid assessment studies in the economy. It is therefore Unacceptable forms of selected sectors in Tanzania envisaged that, with the exploitation of children at (e.g. mining, commercial agri- increasing level of poverty, the work exist, but they are partic- culture, child prostitution and incidence of the worst forms ularly difficult to research due the informal sector) revealed of child labour is likely to to their hidden, sometimes that the main causes of the increase. Within this context illegal or even criminal nature. worst forms of child labour there has been a growing Slavery, debt bondage, traf- included poverty, food insecu- national and international ficking, sexual exploitation, rity and land shortage in some

139 areas, labour demand, imperfect marketing of agricultural products, social factors and HIV/AIDS. • Poverty The study findings revealed that most of the working children in the informal sector, prostitution, mining and commercial agriculture in Tanzania came from families whose incomes were very low. The majority of the poor depended on agriculture as the main source of income, while in the urban areas the poor depended mainly on their children’s labour in the tations) owned small plots of • Labour demand: The informal sector. In tobacco land. Since the majority of demand for labour was related plantations for example, it was people were unable to produce to the poorly development found out that 84% of the par- enough food for their own labour market and low level of ents of the children came from consumption, most of them, technology generally poor and very poor socio-eco- including children, resorted to employed in production Tan- nomic backgrounds. Their looking for employment in zania. Most of the activities parents were found to earn an the plantations in order to get carried out by children, such average of 87,000/= Tshs. (just money to buy food and other as the preparation of farms, less than 100 US dollars) per necessities. planting seedlings, attending year. In coffee and tea planta- • Imperfect marketing of the farm and picking tea or tions in Karatu and Lushoto agricultural products: A tobacco leaves, were in most districts, children worked to bunch of banana worth cases manual. These tasks support their families and par- 2,000/= Tshs in urban areas, demanded a lot of manpower ents were noted to highly could be sold at 200/= Tshs in in a given period of time. The value their contributions. the rural areas. Fluctuations in findings suggest that as the • Land shortage and food the world prices of commer- plantations were assured a insecurity: The problem of cial crops such as coffee make good supply of labour, chil- land shortage was most preva- the story worse. A sharp dren were preferred because lent in Lushoto and Iringa decline of coffee prices from they were lowly paid as com- Rural Districts. In these dis- 350/= Tshs to 40/= Tshs per pared to adults. In addition, tricts, villagers did not have one kilogram in Kagera region child workers were easier to enough arable land to grow for example, meant that a exploit than adult workers food and cash crops. Most of farmer had to sell 15 kilo- because of their docility and the areas in Lushoto was grams of coffee in order to buy weak bargaining power. mountainous and not fertile, a kilo of sugar. The low • Social factors: Marital while in Iringa Greek farmers income earned from cash separation, home violence, occupied most of the fertile crops and the rising cost of liv- peer influence, children living land, while indigenous people ing is the background for child with either a single parent, (who had migrated from the labour. Children have to earn stepmothers and stepfathers, neighbouring areas to look for money to augment the family and lack of parenting skills employment in tobacco plan- income. were some of the reasons

140 causing children to flee from (STDs). The nature of haz- Worst Forms of Child their families. Children lacked ards and risks by and large Labour love and affection from both emanated from the working Tanzania has taken a number parents. Constraints in finan- environment i.e. the nature of of measures in the global cam- cial resources facing female- surroundings, working condi- paign against child labour. In headed families, where relations, and tools used. Other 1994 the Government of Tan- tives/guardians failed to meet hazards and risks emanated zania signed a memorandum their children’s needs further from the nature of the materi- of understanding with the forced children to join child als used, the constraints and ILO, and started implement- labour activities. abuses, emergency and per- ing a national programme of •The Impact of HIV/ sonal care, and physical and action on child labour with AIDS: The impact of the mental stress. the support of the Interna- AIDS pandemic has affected In the mining sector for tional Programme on the young parents. The death of example, children were Elimination of Child Labour the breadwinner, or their involved in a number of activ- (IPEC). Since then Tanzania inability to work due to illness, ities including the actual min- has made impressive strides in has continued to create severe ing process (i.e. 88.5 percent its efforts to combat child hardship for children. In Tan- boys). Children as young as 10 labour especially its worst zania today we have at least years old were involved in the forms, primarily through the one million HIV/AIDS drilling of rocks, washing of adoption of a multi-pronged orphans. Today, with the dis- rock dust, and collecting and approach that has brought on integration of the traditional carrying pieces of crushed board several key players. social security system, the tra- rocks. Hence children per- General awareness has risen ditional extended family safety formed tasks which were over and there is social mobilisa- nets cannot take care of such a and above their ability let tion to eliminate child labour huge burden. As a result a alone the fact that they in Tanzania. good number of such orphans worked in hazardous condi- Tanzania’s commitment have ended up fending for tions predisposing themselves towards the elimination of themselves through child to a number of health prob- hazardous child labour has labour, including its worst lems. There were also health been amply demonstrated. In forms such as commercial sex, risks, which were subtle and consultation with the social working in the mines and indirect, making the adverse partners and the Labour commercial agricultural activi- effects, which were not imme- Advisory Board, the govern- ties. diately noticeable. This was ment ratified convention No. •Nature of hazards especially true in the case of 138 in November 1998 that The hazards to which work- exposure to mercury. Children set the minimum age for non- ing children are exposed were exposed to mercury in hazardous work at 14 years. include: long working hours, the amalgamation process, Further commitment is with heavy workloads, expo- and mercury was also disposed reflected by the ratification of sure to unfavourable climatic of into rivers thereby contam- Convention 182 in 12 June conditions, exposure to poi- inating water sources. This 2001. In addition the Govern- sonous pesticides and other could have adverse effects not ment has been reviewing leg- agro - chemicals, sexual abuse only on the children, but also islation and policies relevant and high probability of being on other members of the to child labour of which the infected with Acquired community. This was is detri- most promising is the devel- Immunodeficiency Syndrome mental to their normal growth opment of a national child (AIDS/HIV) and other sexu- and development. labour policy. The policy is ally transmitted diseases • Initiatives to Combat the intended to facilitate a coordi-

141 nated effort by various actors the Vingunguti dumpsite and at the Igombe Beach and 25 - 30 at Mwaloni Arusha Municipal garbage sites was 30 - Beach. As far as garage activities are con- in order to harmonize and 70 and 80 - 100 children per day respec- cerned, in the city of Mwanza there were consolidate sectoral policies tively. In quarrying activities at Kunduchi approximately 12 working children in the addressing the problem of quarrying sites in the city of Dar es Salaam Pamba Road key location area and 25 in child labour. ■ the estimate number of children working Mabatini key location area, while in was approximately 200 - 320 per day. Arusha it was estimated that 48 children Working children in fishing and fish pro- were working in the four selected key loca- 1 The number of children estimated to be cessing activities in the city of Mwanza tion areas. working as scavengers in Dar es Salaam at were estimated to number 30 - 40 at

CHILD ABUSE

By Ms Helen Kijo-Bisimba, Legal and Human Rights Centre

The main source of information for this article is a survey of incidents reported in Tanzanian newspapers from January 1996 - June 1997. The types of abuse reported were shocking: defilement, sodomy, rape, dumping, abandonment, child labour and even the stealing of children. Child abuse has been singled out by LHRC since the center started talking about human rights. A child who has not enjoyed human rights cannot be expected as an adult to observe the human rights of others. The incidents reported in the newspaper are those that were reported to the police or the courts. It is significant that very few cases involving genital mutilation, incest and parental cru- elty are reported. Such practices exist, but are widely accepted. For example, there are societies in Arusha, Dodoma and Mara regions that take pride in the practice of genital mutilation and it only becomes an issue when a child dies from bleeding. With regard to such practices what is reported is only the tip of the iceberg. If we really want to talk of a culture based on human rights, then the public must address the issue of child abuse. The protection of human rights must begin with the protection of the rights of our children. Therefore the awareness of the general public must be raised so that ordinary people understand how important it is to report incidents of child abuse whenever they come across them. People must not look away when they see a parent mistreating his or her child. Chil- dren’s matters should be of concern to all. LHRC commends the efforts made by different groups in the area of children’s rights, groups such as KULEANA in Mwanza, The DOGODOGO CENTRE in Dar es Salaam and the UMATI YOUTH CENTRES1. Tanzania has ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. This obliges both the government and the people to look into ways of assuring that children enjoy their rights as described in the convention. LHRC would very much appreciate any information on cases of human rights abuse. Our address is: Legal and Human Rights Centre P. O. Box 75254, Dar es Salaam Tel./Fax: 022 - 2113 177 e-mail: [email protected] Office: Tanzania Ocean Road, Tulyer House, 2nd floor.

1. We add the Kwetu-Mbagala Girls’ Home which opened in December 2000 in Mbagala, Dar es Salaam. This is the first home catering for street girls.

142 MEASURES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT ON CHILD ABUSE

• The Ministry of Community Development, Women's Affairs and Children has established a particular section to deal with child abuse issues. • The Ministry of Labour has established a special unit that deals with the worst forms of child labour. • The Government has issued the Child Development Policy (Sera ya maendeleo ya mtoto) which in principle has a special focus on child abuse. •Various laws have been passed to defend children from abuse: -Sexual Offences Bill of 1999 (which amongst other things is to protect girls and young women from genital mutilation). - Sexual Offences against Minors. - Corporal Punishment Regulations of 1979. - Marriage laws on the issues of forced marriages and the minimum age for marriage. (These are still in the process of being developed.)

Source: Kuleana, Mwanza, November 2001

THE GIRL RAPE IN KILIMANJARO

By Mr R. Lindboe and Ms A. Bertelsen, MS Tanzania

Sometimes there are stories you wonder whether should be told or not. This story is one of that kind: the unspeakable act of a father, afraid of having caught AIDS, molesting his six year old daughter. She screamed. Screamed and called for her mother. Her shouts drifted out of the dark hut and were swallowed up by the banana trees and the palms surrounding the home before they could roll down the slopes of the mountain. But she kept screaming and crying while her father took abuse of her. Only six years of age, Bahati had never experienced a horror like this. Why was her own father causing her this unknown form for pain? Had she misbehaved and had to be punished? Bahati’s mother, buried among the palms just a few days earlier, could do nothing to help her daughter. Tears trickled down her cheeks as her father finished his deed and returned to his bed. The unspeakable act committed against the girl Bahati is not an isolated incident in Tanzania today. No official statistics tell of this terror that the government has done little to stop or even to shed light on. A newspaper survey by the Legal and Human Rights Centre in Dar es Salaam recorded 12 cases of child rape nationwide during a six-month period in 1997. The actual figure is suspected to be much, much higher. The girl, Bahati, was raped by her own father, who heeded the ill advice of the local witch doctor. The father was trying to rid himself of HIV - the disease inflicting, and ultimately killing, more and more Tanzanians. The advice was to have sex with a virgin.

FES thanks MS Tanzania for permission to publish this extract. The full story is in HABARI ZA TANZANIA, MS Tanzania Newsletter, issue No.1/2001

143 THE SITUATION IN THE REMAND HOMES AND THE APPROVED SCHOOL IN TANZANIA

By Mrs M. Njimba and Mr D. Chanila, Social Welfare Department

Definition and Arusha regions. The munity members frequently A Remand Home is a fit process is underway to estab- come to visit the children institution where children lish two more in Mwanza and • The Remand Home has and young persons under the Mtwara. There is only one adequate and relevant staff age of 16 years, who are Approved School in Tanza- • There is a close co-opera- charged with some offences nia. It is in Mbeya and it is for tion with street children and who have been unable to boys only. NGOs and there has been be released on bail, are kept in frequent visits to these insti- care and custody while await- Dar es Salaam Remand tutions in order to exchange ing their verdict in the court Home Pilot Project experience of law. The duration of their Because the provision of serv- •Staff members are very stay depends on how fast or ices at the Dar es Salaam close and they associate with slow the court proceedings are Remand Home was inade- children carried out, and the nature of quate the Social Welfare the offences. Department initiated a pilot Offences An Approved School, on project to improve the situa- Of all offences committed by the other hand, is a legal insti- tion. The project was inaugu- children, stealing and related tution established by the law rated on 1 June 2001 and it offences constitute the high- to care for children who are has brought together local est proportion of the crimes. sentenced by courts to this community members, diplo- For example, of all the 209 institution after being found matic groups, NGOs and cases at the Dar es Salaam guilty in a court of law. Chil- individual persons who wish Remand Home in 1999, 99 dren are sentenced to this to offer their services to the cases were stealing offences. institution for a period of one Dar es Salaam Remand Likewise, at the Mbeya to three years. Home. There have been a Remand Home out of 86 number of achievements so cases in the same year, 62 The management of the far: cases were related to stealing. institutions •A teacher has been The main reason for this is Both institutions are the recruited to teach children poverty at household level. responsibility of the Ministry basic literacy of Labour, Youth Develop- •Volunteer teachers come The National Programme ment and Sports. In practice regularly to teach a variety of Encouraged by the success of it is the Social Welfare subjects the pilot project, a national Department of this Ministry • The nearby Regency Hos- programme is being imple- that runs them. They have as pital offers free medical serv- mented in order to replicate their objective the modifica- ices what has been done at the tion of the behaviour of chil- • The Rotary Club of Dar es Salaam Remand dren who are in conflict with Bahari, Dar es Salaam offers Home at the other Remand the law. funds for medicine Homes and at the Approved There are 5 Remand • Gardening facilities and School. This programme Homes: in Mbeya, Kiliman- activities have been improved. seeks to involve various gov- jaro, Tanga, Dar es Salaam •Parents and various com- ernment departments,

144 NGOs, CBOs, faith organisa- Remand Homes and tions, diplomatic groups and Approved school, i.e. behav- individuals in the promotion iour modification/rehabilita- of child rights and the tion, is met. ■ improvement of services so that the key objective of

WHO IS ANAELI? NOTES

Anaeli has no home Anaeli has no bed Anaeli is alone Anaeli is small Anaeli is hungry Anaeli feels cold Anaeli is scared Anaeli has wounds Anaeli has pain.

Who takes care of Anaeli? Who gives food to Anaeli? Who takes Anaeli to the doctor? Who consoles Anaeli? Who sends Anaeli to school? Who hugs Anaeli?

People say: Street-children are dirty they are little thieves, they stink, and they are lazy they are garbage just useless. You may do with them what you want nobody bothers

Anaeli is alone

Published with the kind permission of the author, Mrs Nasrin Siege.

145 9. HIV/AIDS

HIV AND AIDS:GOVERNMENT POLICY AND ACTION By Mr M.G.S. Masaure, Tanzania Network of AIDS Service Organization (TANASO)

Introduction infections and AIDS cases determining a policy frame- The actual number of has continued to rise. With work for coordinated meas- HIV/AIDS cases in Tanzania little or no prospect of a cura- ures to combat the pandemic. is not known. All figures tive vaccine in the near future, The Government should take given through annual surveil- many communities in the measures to address lance reports by the NACP country may lose whole gen- HIV/AIDS and sexually and other institutions are erations of their productive transmitted infections (STIs) based on estimates. By the workforce. at policy level with a view to end of 1995 the number of Furthermore, the impact responding effectively. This people carrying the HIV was of HIV/AIDS has been the Government must do by: projected at 2.4 million. worsened by the existing •Supporting and promot- Research indicates that cur- social and economic problems ing broad preventive action in rently the number of already affecting the Tanzania public institutions, the private HIV/AIDS carriers is esti- society. Poverty, food insecu- sector, workers and commu- mated at more than 3 million. rity, inadequate sanitation, nity bodies such as the civil For the last 19 years Tan- subordination of women and society. zania has been a battleground girls and the global structural • Improving the public cum for HIV/AIDS. Today, while adjustment policies, which private co-ordination process, the war still wages on, the deny sufficient resources to e.g. public services/ authori- social and economic impact of the social sector, are some of ties responsible for respond- the epidemic is being felt in the key problems. Under such ing to the pandemic and the every corner of the country. conditions, many people are private sector. Families have been disrupted powerless to protect them- •Reforming legislation and and scattered by AIDS. Vil- selves against infections. support services focusing on lages have been abandoned Inadequate health facilities anti-discriminatory tenden- and there has been a shift and poor nutritional status cies, improving the status of away from labour intensive may further exacerbate the women, children and the mar- crop farming. Families have spread of HIV and accelerate ginalized groups of society. to hire labour because of the the progression from HIV to Policy issues regarding shortage of hands within their full blown AIDS. HIV/AIDS are complex, and own families. Food and may change as the pattern industrial production have Government Policy and the impact of the pan- been seriously affected by the Given the massive social and demic evolves. Policies must, rising mortality in the labour economic implications of therefore, remain responsive force. Rising health care HIV infection and AIDS to the evolving needs. expenditure due to AIDS related deaths, it is evident The Government has have constrained the financial that the Government of Tan- enacted a national policy on resources both at family and at zania has a vital role to play in HIV/ AIDS.The general aim the central government levels. instigating awareness and of the policy is to provide the The number of new HIV prevention programmes and following guidelines:

146 •An integrated and compre- Commission for AIDS - Through its various agen- hensive approach to the pan- TACAIDS and NACP, has cies the Government has demic must be based upon an developed national strategies mounted comprehensive pre- understanding of the way it in response to HIV/AIDS in vention, care and support ini- affects personal, social and the form of national plans. tiatives in the areas mentioned economic development. below: • The policy must encompass Government Action • The ensuring of safe blood and be accepted by all sectors Having a national policy on transfusion. in society, and those affected HIV/AIDS is not enough. It • The adequate management by the pandemic must be must be followed by strategic of STI’s. involved in the policy dialogue. action. A number of actions • The active involvement of • Collaboration and coordi- have been undertaken by the people in their communities’ nation among all stakeholders government. The national practical interventions against is essential for an effective response from the early 1980s HIV/AIDS, including work- national response. consisted of the development place and school interventions. •For a programme to suc- of strategies to prevent, control • Capacity building of Local ceed, it must take into account and mitigate the impact of the Government Councils in the and explore each culture’s abil- pandemic through decentral- management of HIV/AIDS ity to change in response to ization, multi-sectoral re- interventions in their loca- the challenge of the pandemic. sponse and community partic- tions. • The power imbalance in ipation. These initiatives were • The promotion and popu- interpersonal relationships constrained by a number of larization of VCT at all levels. and in society which create factors such as inadequate •The reduction of the risk of women’s subordination must human and financial resources, transmission of HIV among change if women are to be ineffective coordination mech- high risk and vulnerable able to protect themselves anisms and inadequate politi- groups. from HIV/AIDS infection. cal commitment and leader- • The improvement of the •The means of reducing the ship. Some of these constraints quality care and support of risk of HIV/AIDS transmis- have now been addressed. PLHAs. sion must be affordable for Political commitment at • The promotion of an envi- and accessible to everyone. the highest levels makes the ronment for the open discus- •HIV testing must be car- critical difference. There is sion of issues pertaining to ried out with the specific now strong political commit- HIV/AIDS and the fight informed consent of those ment and leadership from the against stigmatization and dis- being tested. Voluntary Coun- highest level. The culture of crimination. selling and Testing (VCT), denial prevents effective action •The reduction of the with pre- and post-coun- and can only be overcome by impact of the epidemic. selling and with guaranteed strong leadership and broad • The prevention of Mother confidentiality. partnership. The leadership to Child Transmission •The rights of people with must strive to bring on board The inadequacy of HIV/AIDS must be respected partnerships, international resources, particularly human and those affected and institutions, public agencies, and financial, and their poor infected must remain an inte- employers, workers organiza- distribution and/or misman- gral part of the community. tions, NGO’s and CBO’s agement are current critical The National AIDS Policy including faith groups to share issues to be addressed, if the has taken into account the specialized knowledge and Government is to provide an above principles.The Govern- skills in addressing the pan- effective national response to ment through the Tanzania demic. HIV and AIDS. ■

147 MAJOR CHALLENGES IN HIV/AIDS PREVENTION AND A LOOK AT THE SITUATION IN SOME SPECIFIC GROUPS by Rev. C. J. Mabina, NGOTAC

General Overview rural communities. Males 50% the beds are occupied by Over two-thirds of all the and females were equally patients with HIV/AIDS people in the world now liv- affected, but the peak number related illnesses. ing with HIV - nearly 21 mil- of AIDS cases in females was lion men, women and chil- at the age 25-29 years while Children dren - live in Africa south of most affected males were in Children make up the most the Sahara, and 83% of the the age group 30-34 years. vulnerable group. The HIV world’s AIDS deaths have Generally, the data indicate infection progresses quickly to been in this region. Since the that females acquire the HIV AIDS in children. Most of start of the epidemic, HIV in infection at an earlier age than the close to 3 million children sub-Saharan Africa has males. Most acquire it during under 15 who have been mostly spread through sex late adolescence. infected since the start of the between men and women. Heterosexual transmission epidemic have developed An even higher proportion accounts for 77.2% of all AIDS and most of these have of the children living with cases. Of all cases diagnosed died. Further, of the 1.5 mil- HIV in the world are in during the year, 44.2% were lion people who died of Africa - an estimated 87%, married people while 24.2% AIDS in 1996, 350,000 were (UNAIDS Report on the were single individuals. [The children under the age of 18. global HIV/AIDS Epidemic remaining cases were: Even more relevant is the of June 1998). divorced (6.6%), separated estimate that by mid-1996, (4.2%), cohabiting (1.9%), about 9 million children Situation in Tanzania widow (1.3%) and marital under 15 had lost their moth- HIV/AIDS is a major devel- status not stated (12.6%).] ers to AIDS, and more than opment crisis that affects peo- Mortality data from several 90% of these children live in ple in all walks of life, particu- regions in the country indi- Sub-Saharan African coun- larly women and men cate that less than 40% of all tries. In Tanzania, the between the ages of 20 and 49 adult deaths occur in hospi- National AIDS Control Pro- years. tals. Some AIDS patients are gramme (NACP) estimated The first AIDS cases were not reported as they die in 1995 that there were reported in 1983. Initially the before the diagnosis is made. 200,000 children orphaned disease was limited to popula- NACP estimates the true by AIDS, with projections for tions living in urban areas and number of cases in Tanzania the year 2000 of 800,000. along highways. By 1986 all to be about 5 times the num- the regions in Tanzania main- ber reported. Some diseases Youth land had reported AIDS such as TB, which had been If HIV/AIDS were capable cases. The NACP previously under control some of standing trial in the Inter- HIV/AIDS/STD surveil- years back, are on the national Criminal Court, it lance report Number 11 of increase. AIDS is now among would be guilty of conspiring 1996 confirmed that the dis- the top 4 killers in many hos- to wipe out youth as a distinct ease was spreading rapidly in pitals. In some hospitals up to social group. No age group

148 These factors have HIV infection. These include compromised commercial sex workers, women’s reproduc- truckers, sailors and constructive freedom and tion workers. The big chal- health and they lenge is the promotion of impinge on the non-discriminating attitudes intervention/ pre- among health care providers vention strategies of in order to encourage such HIV/AIDS. groups to attend clinics for early diagnosis. Refugees When civil war Conclusion broke out in the The impact of HIV/AIDS on spring of 1994, hun- Tanzania is enormous: dreds of thousands • There are increasing of Rwandans fled, number of orphans to be and HIV inevitably taken care of. followed them into • More and more the hastily con- HIV/AIDS victims occupy structed refugee hospital space. camps in Tanzania. • Life expectancy is expected The conditions of to fall from 52 to 47 years refugee life greatly by the year 2010. increase the risk of • Losses in economic exposure to HIV production are and other sexually overwhelming. transmitted diseases (STDs). The HIV/AIDS is a challenge to has suffered more from destruction of families, deteri- every one: politicians, plan- HIV/AIDS than youth. Not oration of social structures and ners, economists, religious only are young people the unravelling of social mores, leaders, businessmen, etc. most sexually active members loss of homes and incomes, The fight against HIV/ of society, but also the most crowding and the commercial AIDS requires the joint energetic and productive. This sex trade within refugee efforts of all stakeholders. ■ is a threat to the very existence camps are just some of the of humanity. factors that lead to increased References risk-taking behaviour and sus- • UNAIDS Report on the global HIV/ Women AIDS epidemic, June 1998 ceptibility. Women and ado- • Gender and HIV/ AIDS: Taking Stock Despite constitutional guar- lescent refugees, vulnerable to of research and Programmes; by antees of equality between violence, rape and coercive UNAIDS sexes and affirmative action in • The Strategic Framework for the Third sex, are at especially high risk. Medium Term plan (MTP III) for Pre- favour of women, the position vention and control of of women has remained Truck Drivers and HIV/AIDS/STDs, 1998-2002 unchanged because of cultural Commercial Sex Workers • NACP HIV/ AIDS/ STI Surveillance beliefs and practices, poor Unprotected sexual behaviour Report, January- December 2000 education, economic disem- among mobile population powerment, polygamy, concu- groups with multiple partners binage and prostitution. makes them vulnerable to

149 10. DEMOCRACY

AGENDA:PARTICIPATION 2000 IN TANZANIA TEN PRINCIPLES FOR A DEMOCRATIC CULTURE

Short on informing and educating The focus is on the experience background to the citizens of Tanzania. It of conflict in the transition to the program includes experiences taken a plural democratic system: The current proj- from policies of the govern- conflict between and within ect arises from the ment and of selected NGO political parties, conflict successful implementation of groups, as well as experiences between the state and civil the project: Agenda Participa- of outstanding public figures, society, gender and social class tion 2000 for Free and Fair opinion leaders and generally based conflict, conflict within Elections. The evaluation of accepted personalities of Tan- generations and conflicts that project spurred the zanian society. between and within religious launching of a similar project The underlying concern of groups. to enhance the realization of the project on a Code of Con- democracy in the country. duct for Democratic Culture is Activities Participation 2000 focuses CONFLICT REDUCTION. The Agenda Participation

Source: Caricatures & Cartoons, E.A. 1st Exhibition, by G. Mwampembwa, Kenya 1999

150 2000 on the Code of Conduct and party activists, potential cation program is undertaken for Democratic Culture will candidates and their support- via a network of groups in be implemented through two ers order to reach a wider audi- mutually reinforcing activities: • Youth leaders, student lead- ence. Such a network includes a set of promotional activities ers from selected schools opinion leaders from political based on the Ten Principles • Leaders of civil society parties, trade unions, journal- and a Civic Education Pro- • Leaders of academic institu- ists, religious institutions and gram. tions other partner NGOs, • Policy makers, researchers (women, human rights, The principles • Public figures youths), on the mainland and • Participation, Consensus, • Grassroots groups on Zanzibar. Transparency, Rule of Law, Human Rights, Truthfulness, The Civic Education NGO framework Culture of Competition, Civic Program includes: The whole program is now competence, Integrity, Equal • Workshops on “Democratic coordinated and carried out Opportunity. Culture and Conflict under the auspices of the Reduction” newly formed NGO: Agenda The public is required to sign • Media initiatives Participation 2000. All activi- a memorandum on Ten Prin- •Expert hearings ties will be conducted in close ciples for a Democratic Cul- •“Theatre for Democracy” collaboration with the ture to demonstrate their con- • Manuals and booklets Friedrich-Ebert Foundation sent, support and commit- and the Swiss Agency for ment to conflict reduction and The civic education activities Development and Co-opera- the realization of a democratic promote political and civic tion. The management of the culture. awareness on the need for NGO is responsible for conflict reduction and the fundraising, management and Major target groups for realization of a democratic implementation of its activi- the promotional activities culture. The dissemination of ties. ■ • Leaders of political parties the contents of the civic edu-

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE AP 2000 ACTIVITIES During the year ending September 2002 a •Erection of billboards number of activities were successfully imple- Billboards bearing the Ten Principles of a mented. These include: Code of Conduct were erected: three in Dar •Production of materials es Salaam, one in Zanzibar town and one in Two manuals on conflict resolution were pro- Chake Chake, Pemba. duced and distributed: •Student competition 1. Coping with conflict A competition for the best essay on “the prin- 2. Conflict in Tanzania ciples for a code of conduct for a democratic •Training of multipliers culture” was organised for secondary school “Training of Trainers” workshops were held in students and the winners will be awarded their Dar es Salaam, Mwanza and Pemba. prizes at a special ceremony in December. Paralegal training was carried out for units •Other promotional activities from Morogoro and Tanga. Besides the above, a number of promotional Democracy clubs on conflict reduction were items were produced and distributed such as launched in Pemba and Unguja. t-shirts, car stickers, banners and khangas.

151 MILESTONES IN THE DEMOCRATISATION PROCESS IN TANZANIA

By Prof. Max Mmuya, University of Dar es Salaam

There have been a number of Mageuzi). This means that on 10 October 2001, underly- developments in the democ- Tanzania now has a total of ing it was the widely recog- ratisation process in the after- 15 fully registered political nised lack of tolerance and math of the 2000 General parties. culture of competition that Elections. There has been had led to conflict between both progress and decline. Decline the party in government and A Reversal to a de facto One the main opposition party in THE YEAR 2001 Party System Zanzibar, CUF. The conflict Following the conclusion of degenerated into a confronta- Progress the 2000 elections, there has tion in an unauthorised rally 10 October 2001 been a general decline of between the police and CUF Following the impasse after interest in and for the opposi- followers on 27 January 2002, the elections in Zanzibar, tion movement and parties. a confrontation that resulted CCM and CUF signed a This has been demonstrated in at least 23 deaths in Zanz- peace accord to end the ani- by, among other things, the ibar and about 2000 Zanz- mosity between their parties. leaders of the opposition par- ibari exiles in Kenya. In contrast to the accord of 10 ties abandoning the parties June 1999 that the Common- they founded to join the THE YEAR 2002 wealth had brokered, the incumbent party. This was October peace accord was naturally followed by massive The year 2002 also saw negotiated by the two parties shifts of their followers from progress and decline. themselves without an exter- their parties to alternative nal mediator. political parties, especially Progress towards the incumbent party, Implementation of the Second November 2001 CCM. Besides this trend, Peace Accord ( Mwafaka 2) Two new political parties with the exception of five of On the positive side of the received permanent registra- the more than 115 district scoreboard, after a slow start tion certificates during the and municipal councils, the and surrounded by an initial second week of November. organs of popular representa- mood of scepticism as to These were CHAUSTA tion at both territorial and whether of not the Mwafaka (Chama cha Ustawi Tanza- district levels are dominated would resolutely be imple- nia), led by James Mapalala, by the incumbent party mented, by October 2002 it the founder and one time CCM, a situation that was pronounced that 90 per- Chairman of the Civic restricts debate in those cent of its provisions had been United Front (CUF), and organs. implemented. The most Chama cha Demokrasia notable ones are: Makini, led by a professor of The waning of a culture of toler- •the release of CUF mem- mathematics and one time ance and competition: the bers who had been charged member of the Executive unauthorised demonstration on politically motivated Committee of the National of 27 January 2001 counts Convention for Constitu- While CCM and CUF • the creation of an inde- tional Reform (NCCR- reached a self brokered accord pendent electoral commis-

152 sion, through amendments 8 the national chairperson and Political Parties of its founder and 9 of the Constitution of the two vice-chairpersons and chairman, John Momose Zanzibar who will serve for a five year Cheyo. But more dramatic • the appointment of a com- term until another election is was the deregistration of two mission to investigate the held. of the very early political par- events of 26 & 27 January in Decline ties. These are the Tanzania Unguja and Pemba The public disillusionment Peoples’ Party (TPP), which • the appointment of a CUF with the new parties contin- was led by Dr Alec member to the Union Parlia- ued as underlined by the con- Humphrey Che-Mponda, ment flicts in the new political par- and the Peoples’ National ties which often had to do Party ( PONA), which was Alongside this process, the with the legitimacy of their founded by the late Wilfred Chama cha Mapinduzi has leaderships. One such crisis Mwakitwange. The number been running elections for took place in the United of formally registered political officials of its various branch Democratic Party (UDP) and parties has stabilised at fif- organs and will conclude in it led to the subsequent non teen. ■ October with the election of recognition by the Registrar

SEPARATION OF POWERS:THE CASE OF TANZANIA

By Prof. M. Mmuya, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of DSM

Up to 1992, before the intro- party leadership code. In sum, spells out the roles of each one duction of the multiparty under the single party system, of them as follows: the gov- democratic system, state there was unification of power ernment’s executive powers; power was wholly integrated under the party. There was no the parliament’s legislative under the overall control of separation of powers. powers; and the judiciary’s the political party, Chama cha Following the introduction adjudicative powers. Mapinduzi. Various regula- of the multi-party system, Thirdly, under the ongoing tions, conventions and politi- Tanzania is on the way to Civil and Judiciary Service cal decisions influenced the adopting the principles of Review Programmes an way individual officers of the separation of powers follow- attempt is being made to cre- three branches of state were ing the British model. ate independent service com- appointed and discharged Firstly, political control of missions that will be responsi- from their duties. The Presi- the bureaucratic affairs of ble for the appointment and dent of the United Republic government has been removal of respective had to be a member of the removed through the consti- branches of government as only party in order to run for tutional amendments that the means of developing the president. After his election provide for the multi-party autonomy of each branch. he went on to form a cabinet system. This provision also Fourthly, the parliamentary from parliamentarians of the removes the monopoly the rules and regulations are being only party or his personal single party had over political amended to give parliament appointees. Members of the processes in the country. more autonomy from the judiciary as well as civil ser- Secondly, the state consti- executive branch and under- vants were required to sign a tution has separated the three line its supremacy over other statement of allegiance to the branches of government and branches of government.

153 Issues in the principle due to the adoption of the enjoyed by their English of separation of powers English model. For example, counterparts. Apart from the fact that the cabinet ministers (members of However, as the reform entire political system in Tan- the executive branch) are process takes its course, there zania is in a process of change, obtained from parliament. is every reason to expect that the direction of that change In addition to that limita- arrangements will be in place on the question of the separation, it is not very likely in the whereby power will no longer tion of powers will generate immediate future that the be monopolised by a single the same issues raised above, members of the judiciary will branch or be subjected to notably that the executive have access to privileges that undue political influence. ■ branch is part of and not sep- give them protection from arate from parliament. This is government interference as

DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION IN ZANZIBAR: ONE YEAR AFTER THE MWAFAKA

By Dr Mohammed Omar Maundi, Centre for Foreign Relations

Following the controversies of ernment. The relations THE 2000 ELECTIONS the 1995 and 2000 elections, it between CCM and CUF fur- The Isles went into their sec- is obvious that Zanzibar’s ther deteriorated during a leg- ond multi-party elections democratic transition had islative by-election in Novem- before the Commonwealth- started on a shaky foundation. ber 1997 when 18 CUF brokered Agreement was fully The outcome of both elec- members were arrested and implemented. Like the 1995 tions was bitterly contested by charged with treason follow- elections, those of 2000 were the major opposition party, ing CUF’s victory in the by- not free of controversy. On the Civic United Front election. There was hope that Election Day, 29 October, six- (CUF). During the 1995 the political deadlock would teen constituencies in Unguja elections CUF accused the abate when the Common- did not vote due to logistical Chama Cha Mapinduzi wealth succeeded in brokering problems. A re-run was (CCM) of rigging the presi- an agreement in June 1999. arranged for a week later. dential election. Subse- The Commonwealth-bro- CUF’s position was that it quently, it rejected the official kered agreement had pro- would take part only if the results that gave the CCM posed the establishment of an electoral process was repeated incumbent presidential candi- Inter-Party Committee (IPC) in all of the Zanzibar Con- date victory with 50.2% of the to work out the modalities of stituencies and not just in the votes. In the legislative elec- implementing the agreement sixteen constituencies. tion CCM won 26 out of the that, among other things, had It threatened not to recog- 50 seats while CUF got 24 provided for constitutional, nize the election results if its seats. judicial and electoral laws demands were not met. The The rejection of the elec- reforms. When the agree- Zanzibar Electoral Commis- tion results forced CUF to ment was signed, CUF’s boy- sion (ZEC) stuck to its guns. boycott the House of Repre- cott of the House of Repre- The re-run was held only in sentatives and refuse to recog- sentatives was finally called the sixteen constituencies. nize the legitimacy of the gov- off. When the results were

154 Signing of the MWAFAKA between CCM Secrectary General, Mr Philip Mangula and CUF Secretary General, Seif Sharrif Hamad. Photo by Selemani Mpochi announced, CCM had once violent in Zanzibar and of the highlights of the recon- more defeated CUF in both Pemba, resulting in more than ciliation accord: the presidential and legislative twenty deaths and the first • Making changes to the elections, this time by a big crop of Tanzania’s political Zanzibar Electoral Commis- margin. refugees to Kenya. sion to ensure that the institu- As expected, and as in tion’s autonomy is in line with 1995, CUF refused to accept standards applicable in other the results and to recognize Efforts towards political Commonwealth countries the government. The political reconciliation •Setting up a permanent impasse reached its climax on The political impasse and the voters’ register and a review of 27 January 2001 when CUF events of January 27 obviously the Zanzibar Constitution decided to demonstrate hurt Tanzania’s pride and tar- and election laws to make peacefully in order to press for nished its image as an island of them conform to multi-party three principal demands: peace. They threatened the democracy firstly, a repeat of the whole country’s political stability and •Reforming the state- general elections in Zanzibar; peace. It was on this back- owned media institutions to secondly, the re-writing of the ground that CCM and CUF end favouritism in their cover- Union and Zanzibar constitu- initiated direct talks in Febru- age of the activities of political tions with a wider participa- ary 2001, aimed at finding a parties tion; thirdly, the reconstitution lasting solution to the political •Reforming the judiciary in of the Tanzania National crisis. The talks culminated in Zanzibar to enhance its free- Electoral Commission a reconciliation agreement, dom, professionalism and its (NEC) and the Zanzibar the Mwafaka that was offi- dignity in the eyes of the soci- Electoral Committee (ZEC) cially signed on 10 October ety. in order to make them inde- 2001 by the two political par- pendent. ties. To ensure the earnest imple- The demonstrations turned The following were some mentation of the accord, the

155 two parties had agreed on the responsible for undermining Independent Zanzibar Elec- formation of a Joint Presiden- the accord. The fear of con- toral Commission (ZEC). tial Supervisory Committee demnation would motivate This is a positive develop- (JPC). The JPC was to be both parties to play positive ment towards harmonizing constituted by an Act of Law. roles in implementing the the political situation in After the implementation of accord. Zanzibar because the old the accord, when an atmos- ZEC was accused of partisan- phere of understanding and ONE YEAR AFTER ship. trust was adequately realized, THE MWAFAKA The new Electoral Com- by-elections would be held in Democratic consolidation in mission has been welcomed the un-represented con- Zanzibar depended more on by the major contending par- stituencies in Zanzibar. the implementability of the ties and endorsed by the Mwafaka.One year since the majority of the Zanzibaris. Implementability of signing of the Mwafaka on 10 Actually, there is an air of the Accord October 2001 much ground optimism now in Zanzibar. In the face of the half-hearted has been covered in its imple- The major source of the opti- implementation of the 1999 mentation. Many of the mism is the integrity of the accord, some pessimists agreed instruments and insti- individuals appointed to form doubted whether the second tutions for its implementation the new Commission. accord would be imple- have already been established. The new Electoral Com- mented. There were, how- These include the establish- mission is different from the ever, a number of indicators to ment of the Joint Presidential old in that: suggest that the accord would Supervisory Commission to • Its members are individu- be implemented. The first oversee the implementation als who command respect in was that both parties had rec- of the Mwafaka and the society. ognized that the political establishment of an inde- • Three of its members are impasse was a threat to peace pendent Commission of lawyers. and political stability. Sec- Inquiry to investigate the • It includes two members ondly, they both recognized events of 26 and 27 January from the major opposition that durable peace and politi- 2001. party, CUF. cal stability could only be Other steps taken include • It is supported by all the guaranteed by sustained the release of the CUF mem- Stakeholders, particularly the efforts to resolve their under- bers who were accused of main political parties, CCM lying political differences treason and the nullification and CUF. through peaceful and recon- of the cases and accusations ciliatory politics rather than against those who were The true measure of the inde- through political violence. accused in association with pendence of the new Elec- Thirdly, the accord was nego- the events of 26 and 27 Janu- toral Commission is not in tiated not only in an atmos- ary 2001. the respectability of its mem- phere of confidence, trust and The hallmarks of the steps bers. Neither is it in its understanding, but it was also to implement the Mwafaka national character. Its inde- negotiated without the assis- have been the review of the pendence will be measured by tance of outside intermedi- Zanzibar Constitution and its future behaviour and the aries. Fourthly, unlike the the Electoral Law of 1984 in manner in which it performs 1999 accord, the current order to meet the require- its functions. The challenges accord had legal backing. ments for multi-party democ- facing the new commissioners Lastly, history was likely to racy. The most important has include the following: condemn whoever was been the establishment of an • They have to demonstrate

156 that they are able to organize first quarter of 2003. Sixteen tions will provide indicators free and fair elections. of the seats became vacant fol- for its efficiency, independ- • They have to work without lowing the expulsion of its ence and difference from the succumbing to political pres- CUF members from the old Commission. The Her- sure. House of Representatives for culean test will obviously be • They have to operate in contravening the House regu- the 2005 general elections. such a way that they can serve lations including abstaining The future of democratic the political interests of all the themselves from the House consolidation in Zanzibar lies people of Zanzibar instead of sessions. The 17th seat to a great extent in the hands serving their own individual belonged to Hon. Ali of the new Electoral Com- political interests. Mohammed Shein of CCM, mission. It must draw lessons who has been nominated to from the mistakes of the past The first test of the new the post of Vice-President fol- and chart out a positive course Commission’s credibility will lowing the demise of the late that will put Zanzibar on the be during the forthcoming by- Dr. Omar Juma. track that guarantees demo- elections in the 17 vacant con- How the Commission is cratic consolidation. ■ stituencies in Pemba in the going to supervise the by-elec-

RESOLVING CONFLICTS IN ZANZIBAR by Mr Hassan Mitawi, Television Zanzibar

Zanzibar conflicts have his- tially equalizing the haves and Cha Mapinduzi, (CCM), and torical roots going back to the the have nots. the Civic United Front, colonial era which caused The emergence and for- (CUF). racial, ethnic and regional mation of political parties The re-introduction of divide. came after the peasant upris- multi-partyism in Zanzibar The Isles underwent a ings, commonly known as does not seem to be changing political change from being a Vita vya Ngombe, in 1954. the mentality of party follow- Sultanate in 1932 to being a Almost all political parties ers: they still stick to the past republic in 1964, when the reflected the political her- political structure, which is Zanzibar revolution took itage. -The hatred remained. influenced by political rivalry place. The Zanzibar Nationalist between different ethnic Before the revolution of Party (ZNP) originated from groups and party member- 1964, the landed aristocracy the Arab Association which ship. was regarded as the first social catered for the interests of the group promoting the interests Arabs, while the Afro Shiraz How can the situation be of the colonial master; who Party reflected the interests of resolved especially under the later protected the landed the Africans. Both sides growing globalization and the aristocracy in return. accused one another and prevailing winds of democra- The situation changed called each other names: tization? after the 1964 revolution due “Gozi” meaning ASP, and Those who believe in to a land reform, whereby “Hizb” meaning “ZNP”. This democracy will always find three acres were distributed to sort of behaviour continues democratic elections to be the each family in Zanzibar, par- today between the Chama solution to crisis as elections

157 are considered to be the intolerable and the first political accord, the second one was peaceful means of transform- cal accord between CCM and established without an exter- ing conflicts. Of course elec- CUF was considered to be the nal initiator or specialist. It tions could play that role but is solution, but this was in vain. came into existence on the ini- not at all the only means in Inspite of the mediating tiative of CCM and CUF. developing countries such as effort of the Commonwealth Unfortunately the second in Africa, where elections no compromise was reached. accord recognized the 1995 often end up in post election The lack of confidence election as the source of the conflicts. Some losing parties between the parties, and political crisis in Zanzibar, do not accept the results and between the parties and the ignoring the contribution of the winners defend their vic- mediating team, affected the Zanzibar history. The two tory at any cost and by any impact of the accord. parties have agreed to forget means. The situation became worse the past and work for building Zanzibar has been experi- when foreign countries and a strong democracy thereby encing post election conflicts international donor agencies stimulating the socio-eco- since the sixties starting with boycotted Zanzibar, hindering nomic development. the 1961 general elections, the socio-economic develop- A joint body for the super- independence, in 1963 and ment. At the time the Zanz- vision of the implementation the 1995 and 2000 elections. ibar government budget of of the accord has been estab- Taking the 1995 elections 1998/1999 relied heavily on lished involving five members as an example, the opposition external donors for about 81% from each party. claimed that the elections of the total budget. Different The Zanzibar Electoral were rigged and decided to people interpreted the deci- Commission, (ZEC), has boycott the parliament. The sion differently. Some took it been reformed according to elections reflected the as interference in Zanzibar the demand of the accord, and unchanged balance of political internal affairs. it will later prepare a perma- power since colonial times. Solving Zanzibar conflict nent voters’ register. There was political division requires a socio-economic as While others expect posi- especially between Pemba and well as a political process. It tive results from the imple- Unguja. needs the long term implementation of the accord some While the opposition won mentation of a plan of action go further wishing the agree- all seats in Pemba , the ruling with the participation of the ment not only to include the party enjoyed victory in people concerned, who need two main political parties in Unguja. to win the trust of their coun- Tanzania, but also the remain- The political situation terparts. ing ones, of which there are caused by the election was Contrary to the first politi- thirteen. ■

NOTES

158 COPING WITH CONFLICT IN TANZANIA

By Prof. Max Mmuya, University of Dar es Salaam

The concept of conflict a result of the annual migra- institutionalised. Sporadic or Conflict is a situation of con- tion of youths from the rural occasional conflict is situa- frontation or lack of consensus areas into the city. This puts tional. between two or more sides excessive stress on the city’s Endemic or perennial con- within an organisation or existing resources and the city flicts are more destructive and society. There are two major officials find it difficult to take longer to cure than occa- ways of understanding con- cope. As a result there are sional conflicts even when flict. conflicts around the city every they are not violent. This is The first is to look at con- day: violence, theft, etc. because a conflict that has flict as an evil. More often The first view of conflict been going on for a long than not a conflict turns into a implies that it must be fought period of time deflects the confrontation, which in turn against. The second view sug- organisation or society from leads to destruction, injury or gests that men and women its objectives. It takes an the general rupture of orderli- must always remain alert to equally long time, if not ness, peace and stability. An potential cases of conflict by longer, to reconstitute the example of such a conflict is creating mechanisms within organisation that has had its the one that took place an organisation or society that goals disrupted. between ethnic groups in can absolve conflict before it Mara Region resulting in the takes place. In other words Causes of conflict destruction of property, such society must learn how to Here are some of the causes as houses and cattle. The con- cope with conflict. that have been identified for flict in the National Conven- conflicts in Tanzania: tion for Constitutional Types of conflict • Mistrust amongst the vari- Reform (NCCR-Mageuzi) in There are different types of ous parties in the conflict - a sit- 1996 resulted in the rupture of conflict. There are “violent” uation where one party lacks the party itself. and “non-violent” conflicts. confidence in and may be suspi- The second considers it to Violent, sometimes also cious of the other side be an inherent feature of an referred to as confrontational, • Stratification - a situation organisation or society. This conflicts manifest themselves in which there is segmentation second way of understanding in actual physical encounter in a hierarchical way with those conflict assumes that there are between groups, very probably on top looking down upon the conditions in an organisation resulting in injuries, deaths others in the hierarchy or society that generate ten- and destruction of property. • Exclusion - a situation in sion and lack of consensus. On the other hand, non-vio- which one person, or a group of Such conditions may include lent conflict is mild. It can people, is excluded from partici- factional or group differences, assume mere verbal exchanges pation in the affairs of the society the growth of an organisation and /or go slows and boycotts. or organisation or the adjustment of a goal. Conflicts can also be • Absence of effective mecha- An example of one such con- “endemic or perennial”, “spo- nism for resolution of disputes - flict is taking place in Dar es radic or occasional”. Endemic a situation in which an organi- Salaam and other cities else- or perennial conflict is fre- sation or society lacks regular where. The city of Dar es quent, repetitive or recurring and institutionalised procedures Salaam is growing very fast as to the extent that it can be for consultations and adjudica-

159 tion of cases ble, conflict ridden, and intol- incumbent party and the • Misuse of power - a situa- erant to opposing and com- entire opposition began in the tion in which those in authority peting views from within.The early 1990s when the CCM apply the rules wrongly or for the internal organization of the fought the demand for consti- wrong purpose new parties is based on neo- tutional dispensation that • Lack of transparency and patrimonial relations with a would recognize the latter’s accountability - where decisions personalised and singular role in the governing process. are made behind closed doors leadership that often enjoys An emerging lead and the responsible officials are sweeping discretion in deci- opposition party against not subject to taking responsibil- sion-making on party mat- a competing lead ity for wrongs arising ters. Like any neo-patrimo- opposition party • Inequality based on gender nial regime, the leadership This featured the CUF and - the exclusion from participa- formally subscribes to broad NCCR-Mageuzi in the early tion and especially access to democratic attributes, consti- to mid 1990s. It then featured resources and benefits on the tutionalism and the rule of the CUF and United Demo- basis of being a woman or man law while in practise it cratic Party (UDP) which • Differences on the basis of employs non/and/or extra- formed a coalition Shadow ethnicity,(tribal,racial) and/or constitutional means to Cabinet in the Union Parlia- social class - people can take on a enhance its grip over the ment following the 1995 elec- sense of superiority based on party. This provides the seeds tions. Later it was between their tribal or racial origin, or of conflict within and between CUF and Chama their wealth between the parties. Cha Demokrasia na Maen- • Differences on the basis of There are five types of deleo(Chadema) who religion - people can be excluded inter-party conflicts in Tanza- decided on collaboration or included on the basis of their nia since the reintroduction of efforts up to the 2000 elec- religion competitive multi-party poli- tions. • Scarcity of, competition tics in Tanzania in the early The rest of the opposition over, and unequal access to 1990s. parties against the lead resources - if there are not opposition party enough resources to go around, The incumbent party and This is a new phenomenon. different individuals will fight the lead opposition party The rest of the opposition one another to gain access to Up to 1996 there was conflict parties went against the CUF them. Competition is not evil, if between the CCM and the under the framework of the it follows the rules prescribed for National Convention for 2001 peace accord between it. Competition that generates Constitutional Reform the CUF and CCM. This conflict operates outside the rules. (NCCR-M). Following the was ostensibly due to the per- It is not open and excludes others major crisis in the NCCR-M ception by the rest of the from it. and its demoted leadership opposition parties that CUF position thereafter, the con- had claimed too many of the The case of conflict flict shifted. It is now between gains in what was otherwise a between political parties the Civic United Front common struggle for in Tanzania (CUF) as a new lead opposi- increased political space. The democratisation project tion party and the incumbent One group of opposition in Africa has had varied party CCM. parties against another group results. In the case of Tanza- The incumbent party of opposition parties nia it has led to the emergence against all of the opposi- This has involved the of new feeble political parties tion parties group of parliamentary politi- that are institutionally unsta- The conflict between the cal parties against the non-

160 parliamentary political parties ety is founded on the princi- •Development and over two major issues: ples of a democratic culture, protection of the under- 1. How best a new constitu- then the chances of conflict privileged and minorities tion can be achieved, with the taking place are greatly •Strengthening of multi- non-parliamentary group reduced. These principles are: ethnic structures demanding the prior with- Participation, Consensus, •Sustainable and just socio- drawal from parliament by the Openness, Rule of Law, economic and political parliamentary political parties Respect for Human Rights, development as a symbol of the non recog- Truthfulness, Culture of • Empowerment of nition of the existing constitu- Competition, Civic Compe- disadvantaged groups tion. tence, Integrity, Equal Oppor- •Creation of conflict 2. The basis for the public tunity. management institutions funding of political parties on Once the principles have the basis of party representa- been grounded in the founda- Conclusion tion (number of seats) in the tions of the organisations/ The most meaningful means organs of political representa- society, to prevent conflict of ensuring that a society or tion: Parliament, Councils and from taking place, a system organisation is insulated from House of Representatives. must be put in place whereby conflict is to prevent it from the organisation or society taking place. It is recom- Strategies and methods for monitors its adherence to the mended that all societies and conflict management principles. Such mechanisms organisations are grounded in Conflict Prevention will alert the respective organ- the principles of democracy. To prevent conflict from tak- isation and/or society so that These will assure that a sense ing place within or between preventive measures can be of inclusion, fairness, equal organisations and societies, taken before conflict takes treatment and respect is the relevant organisations and place. Among the strategies accorded to each member of societies must be built on for an early warning system the organisation and of soci- principles that make it are: ety. ■ unlikely that conflict will •Monitoring of good occur. governance practices If an organisation or soci- • Human rights monitoring

NOTES

161 GOOD GOVERNANCE:DEFINITION AND IMPLICATIONS

By Dr Palamagamba John Kabudi, Faculty of Law, University of Dar es Salaam

Good governance as a con- down through the bureau- tion and administrative de- cept has steadily entrenched cracy; centralisation. itself in the political and 3. An open political system of development discourse. It has law which encourages an It encompasses a broad permeated all sectors and active and vigilant civil society agenda that includes effective become part of the common whose interests are repre- government policies and shared principles and virtues sented within accountable administration, respect for the of different countries in the government structures and rule of law, protection of world. It has attained univer- which ensures that public human rights and an effective sality as an indicator of adher- offices are based on law and civil society. However, it is ence to democracy and rule of consent; imperative to point out that it law. 4. An impartial system of law, is not confined only to politi- There is a danger, however, criminal justice and public cal and social issues but also that good governance has order which upholds funda- includes proper management become a catchword and that mental civil and political of the economy as well as few bother to consider its rights, protects personal secu- transparency and fair compe- implications. Good gover- rity and provides a context of tition in business. In this nance is given a broad defini- consistent, transparent rules broad definition of good gov- tion that encompasses an for transactions that are nec- ernance sustainable develop- array of issues in the sociopo- essary to modern economic ment, especially in relation litical and economic order of a and social development; the utilization of natural country. 5. A professionally compe- resources and environmental The United Nations tent, capable and honest pub- management, is also part of it. Committee for Development lic service which operates Good governance, to be Planning in its report issued within an accountable, rule effective and sustainable, must in 1992 entitled “Poverty governed framework and in be anchored in a vigorous Alleviation and Sustainable which the principles of merit working democracy which Development: Goals in Con- and the public interest are respects the rule of law, a free flict?” identified the following paramount; press, energetic civil society as being part of the attributes 6. The capacity to undertake organizations and effective of good governance: sound fiscal planning, expen- and independent public bo- diture and economic manage- dies such as the Commission 1. Territorial and ethno-cul- ment and system of financial for Human Rights and Good tural representation, mecha- accountability and evaluation Governance, Prevention of nisms for conflict resolution of public-sector activities; Corruption Bureau and the and for peaceful regime 7. Attention not only to cen- Fair Trade Commission. The change and institutional tral government institutions Commission is important in renewal; and processes but also to the ensuring the promotion and 2. Checks on executive power, attributes and capacities of protection of human rights, effective and informed legis- sub-national and local gov- but also in ensuring both latures, clear lines of account- ernment authorities and to transparency and accountabil- ability from political leaders the issues of political devolu- ity on the part of the govern-

162 ment. Good governance Today the doctrine should ment to the constitution as it requires transparency and effi- be taken to mean checks and has been repeatedly held that ciency also in different gov- balances based on a constitu- no constitutional amendment ernment agencies. tional scheme. What is can be sustained which vio- At the political level demo- important today is not the lates the basic structure of the cratic practices, including separation of powers strictu Constitution. The structure of transparency in policy making sensu,but checks and balances. the constitution includes sepa- and administration, are It is one of the functions of the ration of powers. important aspects of good Parliament to check the Exec- Another equally important governance. This is signified utive. This is done by various part of good governance is the by a pluralistic political system means, including the authori- promotion and protection of that allows the existence of sation of the budget, the human rights. For this to be diversity in political and ideo- scrutiny of government effective the rights and free- logical opinions. No wonder expenditure and the question- doms must be enshrined in that good governance is said ing of the government in par- the Constitution. This covers to be more easily achieved and liament to account for its political and civil rights and guaranteed in a multi-party actions. It is the duty of the they range from the right to system than in a mono-party Judiciary to protect the consti- life to freedom of expression. system. It also means the tution by seeing to it that the The courts of law should be holding of regular elections laws of the country are not independent to be able to applying the principle of uni- contrary to the constitution. enforce the rights of the indi- versal franchise. In order to The Judiciary stands between vidual vis-à-vis the state. The qualify as democratic, elec- the citizens and the state as a establishment of the Human tions must be free and fair. balance against executive Rights Commission is com- Good governance deals excesses or abuse of power, the mendable and long overdue. with the nature and limits of transgression of constitutional However, there is a need to state power. The doctrine of or legal limitations by the seize the opportunity, despite the separation of powers is Executive as well as the Legis- the inherent problems result- therefore relevant in the estab- lature. This is why the Judi- ing from the Constitution and lishment of whether or not a ciary, as the custodian of the the Act, to advance further the country has a political system constitution, is empowered to protection and promotion of that is responsive to good gov- declare an Act of Parliament human rights in Tanzania. ernance. The doctrine of the as unconstitutional and there- Currently the issue of good separation of powers is based fore null and void. It also has governance is widely regarded on the acceptance that there the power of finding govern- as one of the key ingredients are three main categories of ment action to be an infringe- for poverty reduction and sus- government functions: legisla- ment of the constitution. This tainable development. It can tive, executive, and judicial. has been brought about by the be achieved in an enabling Corresponding to these are incorporation of fundamental economic environment the three main organs of gov- freedoms and rights of the responsive to the basic needs ernment in a state - the Legis- individual popularly known as of the people. It requires lature, the Executive and the the Bill of Rights in the con- sound economic management Judiciary. The doctrine insists stitution. This has resulted in and the sustainable use of that these three powers and the Constitution being resources as well as the pro- functions of government in a supreme to the extent that motion of economic and social free democracy must be kept powers of the judiciary rights. ■ separate and exercised by sep- extends to examining the arate organs of the state. validity of even an amend-

163 CONCEPTUALISING CONFLICT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION By Dr Mohammed Omar Maundi, Centre for Foreign Relations

CONFLICT order to neutralize the others, between the parties in a con- A conflict is a dispute or by separating the parties in flict. An intermediary or a between parties on specific space and time. Conflict third party plays the role of a issues. It arises from differ- management by use of force is bridge between the conflict- ences in outlook, opinions referred to as using the “mili- ing parties to facilitate com- and values with regard to tary track”. munication between them. those specific issues. The CONFLICT RESOLUTION issues themselves can be cul- A conflict is not resolved until THE THIRD PARTY AGENTS tural, social, political or eco- its root causes are eliminated. OR ACTORS nomic. They can be at indi- This cannot be done by force. The intermediary role in vidual, community, national Although force has been used assisting negotiation between or international level. in many conflicts as a means conflicting parties can be of resolving them, the imme- played by: states (like Tanza- CONFLICT PREVENTION diate effect of force has always nia in the Arusha peace talks Popularly known as “preven- been to intensify and escalate on Rwanda); inter-govern- tive diplomacy”, this is a com- the conflicts. mental organizations (like the bination of efforts and actions The only effective way of Commonwealth in the peace directed at containing, man- resolving conflicts is through negotiations between CCM aging and resolving disputes dialogue. This is the applica- and CUF that led to the first before they become violent. tion of negotiation. Negotia- mwafaka in 1999); NGOs The major underlying tion is a peaceful procedure (like the Mwalimu Nyerere assumptions are that early through which the involved Foundation in the Burundi intervention, both political parties in a conflict explicitly peace talks in Arusha); and and humanitarian, can save try to resolve their conflicting eminent personalities (like lives and avoid disaster; and interests. Negotiation can be Mwalimu Nyerere’s and Nel- that if action is taken early done directly by the parties son Mandela ‘s facilitation of enough, human tragedies can themselves (as in the case of the Burundi peace talks in be avoided with little cost or CCM and CUF where nego- Arusha). risk. tiation led to the mwafaka of October 2001), or through a THE MOTIVATION OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT third party or an intermediary THIRD PARTIES This is preventing a dispute (as in the case of the Arusha Playing a third party role is from erupting into a violence peace talks on Burundi). not a simple thing. It needs a crisis or cooling a crisis that While there are various lot of energy, resources, time, has already turned violent by forms of third party negotia- patience and endurance. It is eliminating, neutralizing or tion (such as conciliation and a very frustrating assignment controlling the means of pur- arbitration), the most popular indeed. Why then would a suing the conflict with vio- one is mediation. Mediation state, an inter-governmental lence. This can be done by is actually an assisted negotia- organization, an NGO or an denying the parties the means tion. Often direct negotia- eminent person want to play of combat, or by increasing tions are impossible due to such a role? There are a num- the means of one party in the intensity of the hostilities ber of factors that motivate an

164 intermediary to play that role. indicative of Tanzania’s diplomatic track has been in Among them are self-interest, involvement in conflict man- the resolution of the violent moral convictions and agement through the military conflicts in Rwanda and humanitarian, strategic, socio- track. This was equally true of Burundi. economic and security consid- Tanzania’s war with the dicta- Tanzania played a formal erations. tor Idd Amin Dada of intermediary role (Track One Uganda when he invaded Diplomacy) as the facilitator TANZANIA AS AN AGENT Tanzania in the late 70s. of the Arusha peace negotia- OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION Tanzania’s support of the tions that culminated in a Since its independence Tanza- negotiations that finally peace agreement for Rwanda nia has been active as an agent brought independence to in August 1993. of conflict management and Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia In the Burundi case Tanza- resolution within the South- and ended apartheid in South nia played an informal inter- ern African, East African and Africa was indicative of its mediary role (Track Two Great Lakes regions. This is a participation in conflict reso- Diplomacy) by supporting the reflection of the usefulness of lution through the diplomatic former president, the late the proximity approach in track. Mwalimu Julius Nyerere in his conflict resolution. Tanzania’s most active and efforts in mediating the The support given to the effective participation in con- Arusha peace negotiations for armed liberation struggles was flict resolution through the Burundi. ■

NOTES

165 WOMEN,DEMOCRACY AND POLITICAL LEADERSHIP IN THE 2000 ELECTIONS

By Ms Sherbanu Kassim, Centre for Foreign Relations, Dar es Salaam

Introduction that the governments should Categories of The importance and necessity commit themselves to estab- Representation of women’s participation in lishing gender balance in gov- In Tanzania, members of par- decision-making for sustain- ernmental bodies and com- liament are categorized as fol- able development has been mittees. lows: echoed in many circles. All Under the mono-party sys- a) members elected to repre- the conferences on gender, tem, although women were sent constituencies women and human rights mobilised under UWT (the b) women members not less have time and again deliber- then women’s wing of the than 20% of the elected repre- ated on the matter. One of party), the participation of sentatives from the con- such gatherings was the Bei- women continued to be mini- stituencies jing 4th World Women Con- mal in the constituency seats. c) 5 members elected from the ference which included This prompted the ruling House of Representative women’s participation in deci- party and the government to members sion-making as one among its set aside affirmative seats in d) The Attorney General 12 areas of concern in the the parliament for women. It e) 10 nominated Members of Global Platform for Action was anticipated that this in Parliament by the President (GPA). The GPA pointed addition to the possible elec- The procedure for the election out that without women’s par- tion of women from con- of women Members of Parlia- ticipation in decision-making, stituencies, would increase the ment is provided for by s. 26 of the goals of equality, develop- number of women in the Par- Act No. 4 of 1992: ment and peace could not be liament. For the purposes of the elec- achieved. Thus it proposed tion of women Members of

TOTAL NUMBER OF WOMEN CONTESTANTS IN PARTY FOR THE 1995 ELECTIONS

PARTYWOMEN ELECTED PARTY WOMEN ELECTED CONTESTANTS CONTESTANTS UDP 11 - TLP 5 - PONA 3 - TPP 2 0 NCCR-M 9 - UMD 2 0 TADEA 8 - CCM 8 7 UPDP 1 - CHADEMA 5 0 CUF 8 1 NLD 1 - NRA 4 - - - - TOTAL - - - 67 8

Source: TEMCO, 2000, p.152; Bunge statistics, 2002

166 WOMEN CONTESTANTS IN THE CONSTITUENCIES FOR THE UNION PARLIAMENTARY SEATS: 2000 ELECTIONS

PARTYWOMEN ELECTED PARTY WOMEN ELECTED CONTESTANTS CONTESTANTS UDP 9 0 TLP 9 0 PONA 6 0 TPP 3 0 NCCR-M 5 0 UMD 2 0 TADEA 2 0 CCM 13 12 UPDP 6 0 CHADEMA 5 0 CUF 6 0 NLD 4 - NRA 0 - - - - TOTAL - --70 12

Source:NEC Reports, in The 2000 General Elections in Tanzania, Report of the Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee, TEMCO, p.151.

Parliament mentioned in as is reflected in the table may be the affirmative seats, Article 66(1)(b), political par- above. which may have affected the ties which take part in the It is evident that the num- results of women contestants election shall in accordance ber of women candidates from in the constituencies. The with the procedure laid down the constituencies decreased end result is the maintenance propose to the Electoral in the year 2000 elections. of the status quo i.e. minimal Commission the names of Out of the 70 candidates from female representation in deci- women on the basis of pro- different political parties only sion-making. portional representation 12 women from CCM party Another important devel- among the parties which won were elected. However, in the opment was that two women elections in constituencies and 1995 elections out of 67 from the opposition party secured seats in the National women candidates, only 7 intended to present them- Assembly. were elected - 6 from CCM selves as presidential candi- In the 1995 Elections 13 and 1 from CUF. It is worth dates, one for the Union Pres- political parties participated noting that of the 16 candi- idency and the other for and a total number of 67 dates from CCM who were Zanzibar. Both were disqual- women contestants and the unopposed in the constituen- ified on technicalities. table on page 172 shows the cies, one of them was a It is evident that with the representation by political par- woman - (Lulindi Con- increase in the number of spe- ties. stituency). cial seats for women from 15% In the year 2000 elections The year 2000 results, being to 20%, the number of women the women contestants were those of the second multi- parliamentarians has increased from 11 political parties only. party elections, show the gen- from the previous 37 in 1995 This means that the number eral scenario of the gender to 48. However, the distribu- of political parties that partici- dynamics within the electoral tion is in accordance with the pated is less than in 1995. A process, both within the polit- performance of the party in total of 70 women were con- ical parties and the con- the parliamentary elections. testants from the constituency stituencies. Another factor Thus CCM has 40 special

167 seats and 7 seats have been SPECIAL SEATS/AFFIRMATIVE SEATS: 2000 ELECTIONS distributed to CUF (4), TLP (1), UDP (1) and PARTY UNION HOUSE OFTOTAL CHADEMA (1). One seat PARLIAMENT REP. ZANZIBAR has yet to be allocated. Thus only 47 women have entered the Parliament through the CCM 40 6 46 affirmative seats. CUF 4 3 7 In line with the constitu- TLP 1 1 tional provisions, the Presi- UDP 1 1 dent can nominate 10 people NCCR -M to be Members of Parliament. TPP NRA After the 2000 elections, the CHADEMA 1 1 President has appointed 6 UMD members of Parliament so far, NLP i.e. 4 men and 2 women. UPDP Again amongst the 5 repre- PONA sentatives from the House of TADEA Representatives in the Parlia- ment, 1 is a woman. All TOTAL 47 9 56 these efforts are taken to increase the number of Source: NEC Reports 2000 in ‘The 2000 General Elections in Tanzania, Report of the women in the Parliament, yet Tanzania Election Monitoring Committee”, TEMCO, p.151, Bunge Statistics, Dodoma, 2002. the composition of the Presi- dent’s appointees also depicts the current status quo of low women representation in PARTY MALE FEMALE TOTAL decision-making. CCM 3 2 5 CUF 1 0 1 Composition of TOTAL 4 2 6 Parliament The table below provides an Source: Bunge Statistics, Dodoma, 2002 and TEMCO Report illustration of the current state of affairs:

PARTY NUMBER TOTAL MEN WOMEN CCM 203 55 258 CUF 19 04 23 CHADEMA 04 01 05 TLP 04 01 05 UDP 03 01 04 NCCR 01 00 01 TOTAL 234 62 296

Source: Tanzania National Website, Bunge Statistics, Dodoma, 2002.

168 THE YOUTH LEADERSHIP TRAINING PROGRAMME (YLTP) “Good Leaders are made, not born”

Youth is the future of every bunal for Rwanda in Arusha. The Trainees nation. It is therefore impor- The program’s main objec- Trainees for the program were tant to enhance the capacity tives were: drawn from institutions that and moral standing of youths • Enhancement of the deal with youth affairs. These so that they become capable capacity and moral standing include political parties, gov- and reliable leaders in the among the youths, so that ernment ministries and com- future. they become future capable missions as well as non-gov- The Youth Leadership and reliable leaders; ernmental organizations. The Training Program I (YLTP) •Contribution to the efforts selection procedure consisted run by the FES and its local towards the creation of good of a written exam, an essay by partner organizations, was a governance nationally and each applicant and an inter- pilot project aimed at con- within institutions and view. tributing to the building of a •Creation of a network of The program started with cadre of committed and collaborators among the 17 trainees between 21 and 35 responsible leaders in Tanza- youths and future leaders from years who were nominated by nia. different sectors of society. their institutions from both The YLTP I was launched To realize those objectives, mainland Tanzania and Zanz- in November 2000 and ended the program conducted one ibar. Female applicants were in July 2002 with the final session monthly. The course promoted in order to achieve examination of the trainees. was designed to enhance gender balance and to support The 18 months program was knowledge within a wide and encourage women to made up of 17 regular ses- range of topics in politics, eco- become future leaders. Out of sions, which included excur- nomics and allied social sci- those 17 trainees 12 completed sions to the House of Repre- ences as well as to train partic- the program successfully. sentatives in Zanzibar and to ipants in practical skills related The Trainers the Secretariat of the East to the challenges faced by The program was conducted African Community and the leaders in contemporary by a core team of trainers from International Criminal Tri- times. various institutions of higher learning such as the University of Dar es Salaam, the Center for Foreign Relations, the Economic and Social Research Foundation (ESRF) and the Tanzania School of Journalism. Training Methods The participatory method whereby trainers initiate the process and the trainees bring input from their own experience on the different subjects was fundamental to the pro- YLTP trainees during one of the dicussions in the year 2002 gram. Sessions included pre-

169 sentations by representatives was also important for the • The Working Group con- of civil society, the state, and future of the project that there sisting of the Resident Direc- disciplines like economics, was an ongoing and system- tor of FES, the coordinator of political and social sciences. atic collection of all lessons YLTP and the YLTP secre- Other methods used during learned in the implementation tary. YLTP I were group work, ple- of this first program. • The Team of the Trainers, nary and group discussions, At the end of the program, which will include a core team case studies and presentations the trainees were evaluated of trainers and guest trainers by the trainees, who were according to their perform- and tutors. The tutors are four challenged to take part in the ance in the final exams (both former trainees of YLTP 1 sessions in an active and com- written and oral) and to the who attained distinctions. The mitted way. leadership skills that they had core team will include a polit- This approach was also used put forward during the pro- ical scientist, an economist for setting up of the curricu- gram and they were given cer- and experts from other profes- lum of YLTP I,which was the tificates and awards a gradua- sional fields. result of a participatory devel- tion ceremony in September Responsibilities in the opment process involving the 2002. administration of the program trainers, the FES collabora- A website on the YLTP will be clarified and the filing tors, participating organiza- has been produced and cur- system improved and system- tions and the trainees. rently serves to present infor- atized. The duration of the The focus of the program mation on the program, its program will be reduced from was on three main areas: objectives and its results. The 18 to 12 months. • Basic knowledge on a vari- website is also a forum for the Regarding the curriculum ety of topics: politics, econom- trainees to present themselves new topics will be added, such ics, administration, social sci- and to exchange their ideas as environment and poverty ences, human rights, gender, and experiences. reduction, and other topics etc. The objective was to YLTP II will be extended (more funda- establish a common base from Since the Youth Leadership mentals in economy and more which the trainees could move Program I proved to be a very computer training). Leader- on to address more specific successful pilot project, FES ship as a concept will be more areas. in Germany and in Tanzania thoroughly discussed. •Techniques and instru- decided to have a follow up The methods of training ments for effective leadership program in 2003, the YLTP will be improved by enhanc- including computer training II. Though slightly modified ing the utilization of visual and instruments of manage- regarding the institutional set- support, by including more ment and organization. up, the curriculum, evaluation practical study cases and by • Ethics in leadership where procedures and methods of developing the trainees’ abili- personality and behavioral training, the objectives of the ties to reflect critically and issues fitting of a leader were program stay the same. express themselves. addressed. Trainees dealt with Having taken the findings There will be evaluation different leader profiles and of the evaluation of YLTP I guidelines and indicators in had discussions on a code of into consideration, it was order to systematize evalua- conduct for a good leader. decided to change the institution procedures and more In order to improve the tional set-up so that the roles emphasis will be put on the program, there was an evalua- of the different people trainees’ own ability to evalu- tion at the end of every session involved in YLTP are more ate. YLTP II will gain from both from the side of the clearly defined. There will be the experiences learned during trainees and the trainers. It two main bodies: the first program. ■

170 TANZANIAN CABINET AND PERMANENT SECRETARIES Source: Tanzania Information Services, as of 21st November 2002.

THE PRESIDENT’S Dar es Salaam, Tel. 2124326 Deputy Permanent Secretary OFFICE Deputy Minister Omar Bendera P. O. Box 9120 Hon. M.K.P. Pinda, (MP) Tel. 2110411 Dar es Salaam Dodoma, Tel. 2321606 Tel. 2116900, 2116898/9 Dar es Salaam, Tel. 2120120 PRIME MINISTER’S President Permanent Secretary OFFICE H.E. Benjamin D.M.S. Mmari P. O. Box 3021 William Mkapa Dodoma, Tel. 2321607 Tel. 2117249/55 Chief Secretary Dar es Salaam, Tel. 2128105 Prime Minister Marten Lumbanga Deputy Permanent Secretary Hon. Frederick Tluway Tel. 2116679 Damian Foka Sumaye, (MP) Minister of State Tel. 2128105, Dar es Salaam Tel. 2112847, 2117264 (Good Governance) Minister of State (Policy Hon. Wilson Masilingi, (MP) VICE PRESIDENT’S Issues & Chief Whip) Tel. 2114240 OFFICE Hon. William Lukuvi, (MP) Permanent Secretary, P. O. Box 9120 Tel. 2110365 State House Dar es Salaam Minister of State Abel Mwaisumo Tel. 2110614, Fax 2110614 (Information and Political Tel. 2110932 The Vice President Affairs) Hon. Dr Ali Mohamed Shein Hon. R. Omar Mapuri, (MP) CIVIL SERVICE Tel. 2116919 Tel. 2112849 DEPARTMENT Minister of State Permanent Secretary P. O. Box 2483 (Poverty Alleviation) Rose Lugembe Dar es Salaam Hon. Edga D. Maokola- Tel. 2135076, Fax 2112850 Tel. 2118531/4 Majogo, (MP) Deputy Permanent Minister of State Tel. 2112849, 116964 Secretary (Civil Service) Minister of State Eliseta Kwayu Hon. Mary Nagu, (MP) (Environment) Tel. 2113713 Tel. 2116999, Fax. 113084 Hon. A. Ntangazwa, (MP) Permanent Secretary Permanent Secretary DEFENSE AND J. Rugumyamheto Raphael Mollel NATIONAL SERVICE Tel. 2130122 Tel. 2116995 P. O. Box 9544 Dar es Salaam REGIONAL PLANNING AND Tel. 2151197-9, 2150556-9, ADMINISTRATION PRIVATISATION 2150588, 2150690 & LOCAL P. O. Box 9242 Tlx. 2141721 GOVERNMENT Dar es Salaam Minister P. O. Box 1923 Tel. 2112681/4, Tlx. 2141516 Hon. Prof. P. Sarungi, (MP) Dodoma Minister of State Tel. 2152697 Tel. 2321848 Hon. Dr A. Kigoda, (MP) Permanent Secretary Minister of State Tel. 2112746 Vincent Mrisho Hon. Brig. Gen. Hassan Permanent Secretary Tel. 2152690 Ngwilizi, (MP) Prof. Joshua Doriye Dodoma, Tel. 2321603 Tel. 2116728

171 INDUSTRIES AND LABOUR, YOUTH Hon. Joseph J. Mungai, (MP) COMMERCE DEVELOPMENT & Tel. 2113134 P. O. Box 9503 SPORTS Deputy Minister Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 1422 Hon. Bujiku Sakila, (MP) Tel. 2180049, 2180075 Dar es Salaam Tel. 2127535 Minister Tel. 2112506, 25411-5 Permanent Secretary Hon. Dr. J. Ngasongwa, (MP) Minister Mwantumu Malale Tel. 2181398 Hon. Prof. Juma Kapuya, Tel: 2113139 Deputy Minister (MP) Hon. Rita Mlaki, (MP) Tel. 2112510 SCIENCE, Tel. 2181398 Deputy Minister TECHNOLOGY & Permanent Secretary Hon. Mudhihir M. HIGHER EDUCATION Ahmed Ngemera Mudhihir, (MP) P. O. Box 2645 Tel. 2181397 Tel. 2110876 Dar es Salaam Permanent Secretary Tel. 2117118, 2116531 FOREIGN AFFAIRS & Abu-Bakar Rajabu Minister INTERNATIONAL Tel. 2110877 Hon. Dr P.Y. Ng’wandu, COOPERATION (MP) P. O. Box 9000 FINANCE Tel. 2116531 Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 9111 Deputy Minister Tel. 2111937-41 Dar es Salaam Hon. Zabein M. Mhita, (MP) Fax 2141197 Tel. 2111175-6 Permanent Secretary Minister Minister Ruth Mollel Hon. Jakaya Mrisho Hon. Basil P. Mramba, (MP) Tel. 2116669 Kikwete, (MP) Tel. 2112854 Tel. 2112851 Deputy Minister AGRICULTURE & Deputy Minister Hon. Abdisalaam Issa FOOD SECURITY Hon. Dr A. Shareef, (MP) Khatibu, (MP) P. O. Box 9192 Tel. 2111941, 2112852 Tel. 2112855 Dar es Salaam Permanent Secretary Deputy Minister Tel. 2862480/4 Philemon Luhanjo Hon. Dr Festus Limbu (MP) Minister Tel. 2112853 Tel. 2113804 Hon. Charles Keenja, (MP) Permanent Secretary Tel. 2862065 COMMUNICATION G.S. Mgonja Deputy Minister AND TRANSPORT Tel. 2112856 Hon. Prof. P. Mbawala (MP) P. O. Box 9423 Permanent Secretary Permanent Secretary Dar es Salaam P. L y mo Wilfred Ngira Tel. 2116704 Tel. 2113334 Tel. 2862064 Minister Deputy Permanent Hon. Prof. Mark Secretary NATURAL Mwandosya, (MP) Vacant RESOURCES Tel. 2112857 Tel. 2111025 & TOURISM Deputy Minister P. O. Box 9352 Hon. Dr. Maua Daftari, (MP) EDUCATION & Dar es Salaam, Tel. 2114373 Tel. 2116704 CULTURE Minister Permanent Secretary P. O. Box 9121 Hon. Zakia H. Meghji, (MP) Salum Msoma Dar es Salaam, Tel. 2110146 Tel. 2116681 Tel. 2112858 Minister Permanent Secretary

172 Salmon Odunga Tel. 2112034/9, Tlx. 2412034 Dar es Salaam Tel. 2116682 Minister Tel. 2862480/1 Hon. Mohammed Seif P. O. Box 201, Dodoma WORKS Khatib, (MP) Minister P. O. Box 9423 Tel. 2117108 Hon. Clement George Dar es Salaam, Tel. 2111553 Deputy Minister Kahama (MP) Minister Hon. Capt. J. Chiligati, (MP) Tel. 2862066, 2322148 Hon. John P. Magufuli (MP) Tel. 2113753 (Dodoma) Tel. 2116663 Permanent Secretary Deputy Minister Deputy Minister Benard Mchomvu Hon. Hezekiah Chibulunje Hon. Mwenegoha Hamza Tel. 2119050 (MP) Abdallah, (MP) Tel. 2322149 (Dodoma) Tel. 2117116 COMMUNITY Permanent Secretary Permanent Secretary DEVELOPMENT, Ladislaus Komba John Kijazi WOMEN & Tel. 2322153 (Dodoma) Tel. 2110263 CHILDREN P. O. Box 3448 WATER & LIVESTOCK ENERGY & MINERALS Dar es Salaam DEVELOPMENT P. O. Box 2000 Tel. 213256, 2127159 P. O . B o x 426 Tel. 2126557, 2124170 Minister Dodoma Tlx. 2137138 Hon. Dr. Asha-Rose Migiro, Tel. 026-2322619/620/621 Minister (MP) Minister Hon. Daniel N. Yona, (MP) Tel. 2132057 Hon. Edward Lowassa, (MP) Tel. 2112791 Deputy Minister Tel. 026-2322600 Deputy Minister Hon. Shamim Khan, (MP) Deputy Minister Hon. Dr. I. Msabaha, (MP) Permanent Secretary Hon. Anthony Diallo, (MP) Tel. 2110426 Mary Mushi Tel. 026-2322601 Permanent Secretary Tel. 2115074 Permanent Secretary Patrick Rutabanzibwa Bakari Mahiza Tel. 2112793 LANDS AND HUMAN Tel. 026-2322602 SETTLEMENT Deputy Permanent HEALTH DEVELOPMENT Secretary P. O. Box 9123 P. O. Box 9132 Dr. Charles W. Nyamrunda Dar es Salaam Dar es Salaam Tel. 2120261/4 Tel. 2121241/9 JUSTICE AND Minister Minister CONSTITUTIONAL Hon. Anna Abdallah, (MP) Hon. Gideon A. Cheyo, (MP) AFFAIRS Tel. 2124019, Fax. 2138060 Tel. 2113164 P. O. Box 9050 Deputy Minister Deputy Minister Dar es Salaam, Tel. 2111895 Hon. Dr. H. A. Mwinyi, (MP) Hon. Tatu Ntimizi, (MP) Minister Tel. 2112883 Tel. 2116517 Hon. Bakari Mwapachu (MP) Permanent Secretary Permanent Secretary Tel. 2113234 Mariam Mwaffisi Salome Sijaona Attorney General Tel. 2116684 Tel. 2113165 Andrew Chenge Tel. 2113236 HOME AFFAIRS COOPERATIVES AND Permanent Secretary P. O. Box 9223 MARKETING Kulwa Masaba Dar es Salaam P. O. Box 9192 Tel. 2113243

173 SUMMARY LIST OF FULLY REGISTERED POLITICAL PARTIES IN TANZANIA Source: Registrar of Political Parties in Tanzania, September 2002

NAME OF CERTIFICATE OF CHAIRMAN SECRETARY GENERAL LOCATION/POSTAL POLITICAL PARTY FULL REGISTRATION ADDRESS OF HEAD NUMBER AND DATE OFFICE AND TEL. OF ISSUE NUMBER Chama Cha 001/92 of 1/7/92 H.E. B.W. Mkapa Phillip Mangula Kuu Street Mapinduzi (CCM)Box 50, Dodoma Tel: 2180575 Civic United 002/93 of 21/1/93 Prof. Ibrahim H. Seif Sharrif Hamad Box 3637, Zanzibar Front (CUF) Chama Lipumba Tel: 0744 294 609 Cha Wananchi Chama Cha 003/93 of 21/1/93 Bob N. Makani Hon.W. A. Kaborou Ufipa St., Kinondoni Demokrasia na Box 5330, DSM Maendeleo (CHADEMA)Tel: 2668866 The Union for 004/93 of 21/1/93 Salim S. Ally Hassan Y. Hussein Itungi St. Magomeni Multiparty Box 298, DSM Democracy (UMD)Tel: 2170785 National Convention 005/93 of 21/1/93 James F. Mbatia Mwaiseje S. Polisya Kilosa St., No.2 Ilala for Construction Box 72474, DSM & Reform (NCCR-M)Tel: 0744 318812

National League 006/93 of 21/1/93 Dr. Emanuel J. E. Vacant Sinza for Democracy (NLD) Makaidi Box 352, DSM United People’s 008/93 of 4/2/93 Fahmi Nassoro Abdullah Nassoro Box 3121, Zanzibar Democratic Party Dovutwa (UPDP) National 009/93 of 8/2/93 Rashid Mtuta Masoud Ratuu Bububu St.,Tandika Reconstruction Box 45197,DSM Alliance (NRA)Tel: 0744 496724 Tanzania Democratic 011/93 of 5/4/93 John Dastan Lifa Charles Doto Lubala Buguruni Malapa Alliance Party (TADEA) Chipaka Box 482, DSM Tel: 2865244 Tanzania Labour 012/93 of 24/11/93 A. L. Mrema Harold Jaffu Argentina, Manzese Party (TLP) Box 7273, DSM Tel: 2443237 United Democratic 013/94 of 24/3/94 Amani J. Nzugile Mussa Hussein Magomeni, Mkaramo Party (UDP)A.Kwikima St. Plot 109, Block R Box 12356, DSM

Chama cha PJ 2000 Godfrey Hicheka Dominick Lyamchai Kibo Ubungo Demokrasia Makini No. 00000053 Box 75636, DSM (MAKINI) Tel: 0744 295670 Movement for PJ 2000 James K. Mapalala Joseph D. Mkomagu Drive-In, Oysterbay Justice & Prosperity No. 00000053 Box 5450, DSM (CHAUSTA) Tel: 0741 247266 The Forum for 016/02 of 18/1/02 Ramadhani M. Mzee Gideon A. Mjema Rufiji St., Kariakoo Restoration of Box 15587, DSM Democracy (FORD)Tel:0741 292271 Democratic Party 00000057 of 7/6/02 Rev. C. Mtikila Sweetbert Kasala Shariff Shamba (DP) Bado Box 63102, DSM Tel: 0741 430516

174 MAJOR POLICY CONCERNS OF A SELECTED NUMBER OF POLITICAL PARTIES Source: Interviews with political leaders of selected parties, September 2002

POLICY CCM TLP UDP CUF NCCR MAGEUZI

POLITICS • Multiparty •Social democracy •People powered •Accountable •Pluralistic multi- democratic system •Pluralistic multi- democracy system party democratic 1. The political • Promote good party system •Rule of law is system system governance •Believes in the rule essential of law

2. Ideology •Ujamaa and self •Labour oriented •Harmony for all •Enrichment •Social democracy reliance social democracy forever (UTAJIRISHO) •At present self- •Focus is on reliance is the main personal freedoms focus

3. Constitution •Amendment of •Ammend current •A new constitution •Advocates a •A new constitution aspects of current constitution to be constitution that constitution to ‘fit’ more pluralistic gives citizens prevailing political & freedom of choice economic changes & equal rights to the peoples of Tanganyika and Zanzibar

4. Government •Two governments • A three •A federal •Three •Three governments System i.e. Union government government with governments of and division of Government of system sub-state Tanganyika, powers: Tanzania and governments of Zanzibar and the government, Revolutionary Tanganyika and Union. parliament and Government of Zanzibar •Promote popular judiciary Zanzibar local governance.

ECONOMY •Promotion of •Private ownership. •Promotion of •Building of strong •Liberal economic economic economic use of economy which system around empowerment to natural resources will benefit all personal initiatives. the people Land to be owned citizens •Government to •Promote by indigenous participate where modernization people necessary •Encourages •Promote private investors via sector liberalized markets •Reduction of government expenditure

1. Privatization •Continues •Privatization and •Favours indigenous •Privatization in line •Indigenisation of the investment people with national economy activities. Investors •Strategic economic interests •Source funds to to build new ventures to be promote private industries and controlled by the indigenous hotels State enterprises

3. Cooperatives •Reconstruction and •More economic •Peasants should •Privatized •Promotion of regulation of activities to be form and own parastatal private cooperative cooperative carried out under cooperatives organizations to enterprises societies cooperatives be returned to cooperative societies

175 POLICY CCM TLP UDP CUF NCCR MAGEUZI

3. Land and •Land to be owned •Effective use of •Land to be •Focus on food and •Non-citizens to Agriculture by the government natural resources owned by the cash crops own land in •Farmers to •Search for indigenous people production partnership with increase markets and not by the •Use of science citizens production •Prices of products government and technology in •Indigenous land •Farmers to form should relate to •More animal agriculture rights to be agricultural the cost of husbandry and •Government and enhanced cooperatives production source markets financial institutions •Women •Introduce new •Agricultural for animal by to help farmers/ to own land technology on the extension officers products peasants •Remove all taxes use oxen and to be given •Farmers’ produce •To enhance on agricultural tractors training to be paid on the agricultural inputs •Promote spot research agricultural •Reduce tax/duties research on agricultural products

4.Tourism •Tourism services to •Increase tourist •Promote tourist •Develop, publicize •Promote the sector be promoted attraction potential and utilize tourism by creating more •Attraction to •Prevent illegal aggressively as an economic infrastructure tourists should go activities in fishing •Manage tourism resource without •External investors hand in hand with and forestry programmes in affecting the to cooperate with environmental care the national cultures and indigenous people •Tanzanians to interests traditions of the participate in citizens tourism services

5.Taxation •Develop in liaison •Every Tanzanian •More tax •Cancel other taxes •Favorable tax with stakeholders, will pay according collected to be like development regimes for preferable tax to what he earns used for levy indigenous regimes •Remove dvpt levy education, health, •Effective tax businesses and remain with water and roads collection •Tax education for income tax •Cancel school •Local government businessmen & fees and health to search for women contributions other sources of •Lower income tax tax to investors in primary industries

6. Industry & •Enhance and •Need for external •Establish more •Commercial •Invite investors - Commerce promote industrial aid agro-industries competition to be indigenous citizens infrastructure •Emphasis on •Encourage FDIs given first priority to be involved in •Promote research efficient use of aid especially in building industries and development agriculture •Industrial research institutions institute to be introduced •Enhance commerce in and outside the country •Establish steel and iron industries by private and state

SOCIAL •Education will be •Remove •Primary school •Promote •Promote science used creatively corruption in education free for education from and technology 1. Education through the use of education system all primary school to •Universal science and •Increase •Focus on total university where secondary school technology educational education to IT services will be education •Budget will focus budget enable school provided •30% of the national on increasing •Free education leavers to engage •Remove budget to finance partnership with from standard one in economic unnecessary education those who can to form four activities expenditure by •To substantially help like the effectively the government increase the

176 POLICY CCM TLP UDP CUF NCCR MAGEUZI

SOCIAL NGOs •Educate parents •25% of the budget enrolment of •Contribution of on the importance to be used for students in 1. Education education costs by of education for education secondary schools, parents will their children especially in colleges and continue secondary schools universities •Swahili to become the media of learning at all levels •Expand vocational training facilities

2. Health •Promote public •Mother/child •Fight major •Train more health •Promote health health paid by health to be diseases, eg AIDS, experts services private and public spread all over the malaria,TB, more •Construct and •Establish more agencies country aggressively maintain new pharmaceutical •Fight AIDS •Fight AIDS hospitals, health companies centres and •Enhance training of dispensaries specialized •Fight AIDS personnel •Emphasis on •Traditional preventive medicines and measures practices to be promoted

OTHER •Promote progress •Equal rights for •Avail health •Women are a •Promote rights of of women in many men and women promotion major part of the women 1.Women ways such as •No harassment of programmes for society •Women to be regulation of laws women women and •They should be allowed to that segregate children under involved in establish NGOs them the age of 7 education, •Women to •Participate in years free of agriculture, mining, represent 20% of political, charge industry etc leadership, administrative property systems, leadership ownership, senior and emphasis on employment being educated

2. Infrastructure •Maintenance of all •No privatization of •Emphasis on •Build and •Link all regional infrastructure such railway, harbors, infrastructure, administrate centres with as roads, airports, airports, but will particularly roads infrastructure tarmac roads harbors etc allow partnership especially roads, •Develop northern with investors railways, electricity, /western road •Promote infra- water, telephone infrastructure structural services services •Central line rail •Take care of track to be environment modified to meet TAZARA standards •Encourage private investment in air & water transport

Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (FES) is grateful to the following political leaders who provided the synopsis of their party policies:

Mr Singo Kigaila Benson – UDP Mr F. S. Rugaimukamu – CCM Mr Mwaiseje Polisya – NCCR-MAGEUZI Mr Shaibu Akwilombe – CUF Mr Harold Jaffu – TLP

177 Source: Caricatures & Cartoons, E.A. 1st Exhibition, by G. Mwampembwa, Kenya 1999

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION 2000 Total number of people who registered 10,088,484 Number of people who voted 8,517,598 = 84.43% Votes that were spoiled 345,314 = 4.05% Legal votes 8,172,284 = 95.95%

PARTYCANDIDATE NUMBER PERCENTAGE OF VOTES

CCM B.W. Mkapa 5,863,201 71.7 CUF/CHADEMA Ibrahim Lipumba 1,329,077 16.3 TLP A. L. Mrema 637,115 7.8 UDP John M. Cheyo 342,891 4.2

Source: National Electoral Commission, Dar es Salaam, November 2002

178 ELECTION RESULTS FOR THE UNION PARLIAMENT 2000

PARTY NUMBER OF PROPORTION OF NOMI- TOTAL SEATS WON WOMEN SEATS NATED

CCM 202 41 10 243 CUF 17 4 - 21 TLP 4 1 - 5 UDP 3 1 - 4 CHADEMA 4 1 - 5 NCCR-M 1 - 1 TOTAL 231 48 10 279

THE ZANZIBAR PRESIDENCY 2000

Total number of people who registered 446,112 Number of people who voted 366,333 = 82.12% Votes that were spoiled 12,259 = 2.75% Legal votes 354,074 = 79.37%

PARTYCANDIDATE NUMBER OF VOTES PERCENTAGE

CCM Amani A. Karume 248,095 67 CUF Seif Sharrif Hamad 122,000 33

Source: National Electoral Commission, Dar es Salaam, November 2002

• 10 Presidential nominated MPs are not included in the total statistics registered by the National Electoral Commission. • Opposition parties have 14 constituencies in mainland Tanzania and CUF has 15 constituencies in Zanzibar, making a total of 29 seats. •CCM has 87.45 % of the Union Parliament seats and the opposition has 12.55 %. • By-Elections in 17 constituencies in Pemba, May 2003

Source: Report of the National Electoral Commission on the 2000 Presidential, Parliamentary and Councillor Elections

179 BY-ELECTIONS

SOLWA - 22 APRIL 2001

Registrered Voters 51,759 Actual Voters 35,797 Spoilt Votes 1,427

Candidates Political Party Votes % Mr Buzuka Robert Jacob CCM 22,254 62.1 Mr Lugeye Shashu Masselle CUF 12,116 33.8

BUSEGA - 1 APRIL 2001

Registered Voters 47,349 Actual Voters 41,459 Spoilt Votes 903

Candidates Political Party Votes % Mr Chegeni Rapheal Masunga CCM 22,512 54.3 Mr Cheyo John Momose UDP 18,044 43.5

LUDEWA - 6 MAY 2001

Registered voters 26,042 Actual Voters 22,298 Spoilt Votes 210

Candidates Political Party Votes % Mr Stanley H Kolimba CCM 16,815 75.4 Mr Aleck H Chemponda TLP 5,273 23.6

Note: In 2001 the Elections ACT No. 1 of 1985 was amended to allow the nomination of candidates to take place in a period of not less than 24 months and not more than 25 months from the occurrence of the vacancy. Following that amendment Parliamentary by-elections could not be held in 19 constituencies.

Source: National Electoral Commission, November 2002

180 11. BUSINESS

WHAT IS THE PRIVATE SECTOR? By Ms G. Sembuche Shayo, Department of Economic Studies, Kivukoni Academy of Social Sciences

Broadly speaking, the econ- inject capital when there is a which respect exchange rates, omy can be seen as operating crisis.The result is that there is wage rates, trade policy, within two sectors: the public no struggle for survival. The employment policy etc. and the private. The private future of the enterprise and • The government must safe- sector is that part of the econ- the jobs is secure, so there are guard competition through omy that is owned by private few external forces that make anti-monopoly and anti- individuals and private com- efficient production necessary. restrictive practices legislation, panies while the public sector The arguments for a strong the setting up of competitive is government owned. private sector economy have enterprises in the public sec- Whether the economy of a been winning the day tor, trade liberalisation, etc. nation should be driven by throughout the world and this • The government can inter- state run enterprises or by pri- is also the case in Tanzania. vene in processes of price for- vate enterprises in a free mar- They have been strongly pro- mation, production and ket is a question of ideology. moted by The World Bank finance in ways that make The former has been fast los- and market-friendly govern- markets work better for all. ing terrain and recent devel- ment interventions have been • The government has a spe- opments in Tanzania are a made a condition in the grant- cial role to play in case in point. ing of World Bank loans. The -developing human One of the arguments for ideology seems to be that the resources private enterprise is that it is free market is neutral with - improving the national thought to be more efficient regard to the welfare of the infrastructure than public enterprise because people: it neither works for - designing and strengthen- it has to be profitable to sur- good nor for evil. ing institutions (e.g. land vive. Costs are therefore kept reform, credit support etc.) low and competition with A regulated private sector other producers, it is argued, In fact unregulated markets President Benjamin Mkapa of also keeps down prices. Fur- can both be inefficient and Tanzania puts it this way: thermore the struggle for sur- cruel. So under what condi- “Government has with- vival is a strong incentive for tions can markets work effi- drawn from business. The tax innovation. All this leads to ciently and at the same time system has been simplified higher quality products and benefit the people? and strengthen, public spend- better services for the con- There are several ways: ing reorganised, inflation low- sumer. • The government should pro- ered and the exchange rate In a state run economy with vide the legal framework and stabilized... state owned enterprises and maintain law and order, Privatisation is a powerful no free market there is little or including the enforcement of form of partnership. It makes no competition. Bankruptcy is contracts, property rights etc. governments free to govern not seen as a risk because the • The government should pur- and managers free to manage. national treasury is there to sue macro-economic policies Our goal to which we are

181 Tanzania the most investor- ating an environment where friendly country in Africa. ...” the private sector and the The Tanzanian Govern- market can operate efficiently ment is in the process of cre- for the benefit of the people. ■

Source: Hakikazi Catalyst, cartoon by Ali MAsoud (Kipanya) 2001

EDUCATION AND THE DEMANDS OF THE MARKET

By Mr J.R. Kashaija, College of Business Studies, Dar es Salaam

The provision of education in demands of the labour mar- tion with examinations and Tanzania is emerging from an ket; its effectiveness is limited certificates where there are era of total government dom- because of poor funding and bodies for particular trades inance to one where the pri- poor facilities. and professions. vate sector plays an active role The inadequacies of the and costs are shared by the Chief characteristics system is demonstrated by the beneficiaries. For political and Much of the curriculum is fact that several organisations economic reasons the govern- modelled on conventional have set up their own institu- ment has abandoned its long education programmes inher- tions to train people. There practice of guaranteeing ited from the British system. are institutes in the power, employment to secondary Education has been provided cement, sugar and bank sec- and tertiary institution gradu- for its own sake and the out- tors, to name but a few. This ates, leaving them to rely on put and quality has been left shortfall has since been market forces. to the whims of the providers. acknowledged by the Gov- The education provided There has been no coordina- ernment and in 1999 a policy has two major weaknesses: it tion with the private and pub- document was drawn up to has limited relevance to the lic sectors except in connec- make higher education

182 responsive to the needs of the Noteworthy in the endeav- fund that supports vocational new liberalised economy and our to develop partnership training education. to global developments in sci- between the private sector and The College of Business ence and technology. training institutions is the (CBE) in Dar es Salaam hosts establishment of the Voca- the Centre for International Adjustments in the wake of tional Education and Training Business Development Stud- new challenges Authority (VETA). VETA ies (CIBDS) which offers To make training for the pri- was set up in 1994 after a con- training and consultancy serv- vate sector more effective the sultative process that brought ices to local business people to government has introduced together the government, the improve their skills in export cost sharing in training insti- business community, voca- trading and the penetration of tutions and has encouraged tional education providers and markets. private sector participation in other stakeholders to develop Colleges offering business the provision of education. a demand driven vocational subjects are reforming their According to the National training system. By law the curricula to better address the Higher Education Policy of business sector, NGOs, trade needs of business. Education 1999 the government is to unions and other stakeholders now focuses more on market- coordinate higher education must be represented on the ing than on simple trading and improve the enrolment central and regional VETA and distribution. All major ratio for subjects with rele- boards. Employers with a institutions offer evening vance to science and technol- workforce of four or more classes to assist business peo- ogy. must contribute to a special ple improve their skills. ■

NOTES

183 12. ENVIRONMENT

THE ENVIRONMENT:SOME KEY ISSUES,INSTITUTIONS AND REGULATIONS IN TANZANIA

The Tanzanian environmen- environment in the wider laws relating to the environ- tal policy was formalized in sense, and not just the natural ment. December 1997 by the Vice- resources. Thus, an activity President’s Office. In 1999 a which would raise noise levels Agriculture and Livestock process was initiated to near a hospital or school or Key issues 3 develop and finalise legally which can affect the human- • Poor agricultural techniques binding guidelines and the made environment such as (failure to conserve soil and framework for Environmen- archaeological sites, historic water) such as cultivation in tal Impact and Assessment in towns, monuments and arti- marginal and sensitive areas the country. When these facts or relics, may also be like hillsides, hilltops, river- guidelines become legally subjected to environmental banks, roadsides, deserts, wet- binding, as is expected by the impact assessment. Such lands, etc. end of 2001, they will form assessment forms the basis for •Large-scale farming, the pillar for environmental the refusal of permission to employing irrigation, fertil- management in the country. undertake a particular activity ization and fumigation tech- or the granting of permission niques that are environmen- Environmental with conditions necessary to tally unfriendly Impact Assessment minimise the effect on the •Small-scale farms that One of the most effective pol- environment. overuse pesticides, herbicides, icy instruments for the fungicides and fertilizers achievement of sustainable Key Environmental Issues • Livestock ranching development is the require- When the word “environ- impacts on land fertility from ment that environmental ment” is mentioned, often a over-stocking impact assessment (EIA) vision of farmers planting •Urban agriculture with shall be undertaken for all trees comes to mind. How- improper disposal of animal proposed activities that are ever, “environment” has a wastes, over-grazing of public likely to have significant broader meaning. It encom- areas, etc. adverse impact on the envi- passes such diverse issues as Institutions ronment and which are sub- worker health and safety in National Land Use Planning ject to a decision of a compe- factories and appropriate uses Commission tent national authority.1 The of pesticides and export of live Local Governments National Environmental animals. Environment should Ministry of Agriculture Action Plan perceives the be viewed as the whole of the Ministry of Water, Energy objective of EIA as “allowing natural and the human envi- and Minerals maximisation of long-term ronment. What follows is a Tropical Pesticides Research benefits of development while look at key environmental Institute maintaining the natural issues in important sectors of Director of Public resource base.”2 However, the the Tanzanian economy, at Prosecutions objectives of EIA are broader institutions that are responsi- Ministry of Lands as they seek to protect the ble for overseeing them and Ngorongoro Conservation

184 Area Authority • loss of critical coral reef Ordinance Laws and Subsidiary habitat and shoreline protec- Water Laws Legislation tion Local Government • water pollution with impact Wildlife Utilization (District Authorities) Act on human health and the Key issues Tropical Pesticides Research environment • Over-hunting and non-sus- Institute Act Institutions tainable hunting methods not Town and Country Planning Ministry of Tourism and based on reliable data regard- Ordinance Natural Resources ing reproduction or over-all National Land Use Planning Divisions of Forestry, survival of species Commission Act Fisheries and Wildlife • Over-capture and non-sus- Water Laws Ministry of Lands tainable capture of live ani- Penal Code District or Local mals for export Range Development Government • Poor export conditions in Management Act Ministry of Energy and holding companies or with Cattle Grazing Ordinance Minerals intermediate traders Grass Fires Control Tropical Pesticides • Illegal hunting Ordinance Research Institute Institutions Land Ordinance Ministry of Foreign Affairs Tanzania Wildlife Ngorongoro Conservation Director of Public Corporation (TAWICO) Area Ordinance Prosecutions Ministry of Tourism, Natural Ngorongoro Conservation Resources and Environment, Forestry and Marine/ Area Authority Division of Wildlife Fisheries Resources TANAPA TANAPA Key issues Ministry of Water Ngorongoro Conservation Forests sector Laws and Subsidiary Area Authority 1. Over or mis-exploitation Legislation Laws and Subsidiary of forests resulting in: Forests Ordinance Legislation • degradation of water sources National Parks Ordinance Wildlife Conservation Act with impacts on human Ngorongoro Conservation National Parks Ordinance health, wildlife and fisheries, Area Ordinance Ngorongoro Conservation water supply to towns, etc. Wildlife Conservation Act Area Ordinance • degradation of wildlife Protected Places and Areas Marine Parks Act habitat Act • depletion of fuel wood and Public Land (Preserved Industry other forest produce supplies Areas) Ordinance Key issues with resulting consequences Local Government Acts • Water pollution from indus- for rural, wood-dependent Mining Act trial processes Tanzanians Land Ordinance • Hazardous and toxic waste • effects of global warming Fisheries Act from industrial processes • loss of biodiversity Business Licensing Act • Land degradation and pol- 2. Over or mis-exploitation Explosives Act lution from industrial of fisheries and marine Tropical Pesticides Research processes resources resulting in: Institute Act • Waste by-products from use • loss of fish and fisheries Penal Code of industrial products products for fisheries- Territorial Sea and Exclusive Institutions dependent Tanzanians Economic Zone Act Commercial Law, • loss of biodiversity Town and Country Planning Registration and Industrial

185 Licensing Department, dards Act The National Environ- Ministry of Trade and Factories Ordinance mental Management Council Industries Investment Promotion Act has a library open to the pub- Tropical Pesticides Pharmaceuticals and Poisons lic Monday - Friday 8.00- Research Institute Act 16.00. Tel. 022 - 2127817, e- Ministry of Water, Tropical Pesticides Research mail: [email protected] Energy and Minerals Institute Act Tanzania Bureau of Penal Code (offensive trades, NGOs dealing with Standards fouling of water and air, pre- environmental issues Local Governments (District vention of common nuisance, Lawyers Environment and Municipal Authorities) negligent spreading of dis- Association of National Urban ease) Tanzania (LEAT) Water Authority Fair Trade Practices Act Journalist Environment Investment Promotion Cen- Land Ordinance Association of Tanzania tre, President’s Office Food Control of Quality Act (JET) Factories Inspectorate, Dairy Industry Act Wildlife Conservation Ministry of Labour Petroleum Conservation Act Society (TWCS) Principal Water Officer (For detailed information about other sec- Frontiers (T) Ltd. or Regional Water Engineer tors and about the laws and legal require- WWF Tanzania ments, see: Environmental Law Hand- Pharmacy Board book for Businesses, LEAT Publications: INFORBRIDGE National Land Use Planning www.leat.or.tz.) Capacity Building for Commission Environmental Management Director of Public Public Participation of Lake Victoria Prosecutions Recognition that public par- Tanzania Gender Network National Food Control ticipation is necessary for any Programme (TGNP) Commission environmental protection Jane Goodall Institute Dairy Board strategy to succeed is increas- (JGI - TACARE) Laws and Subsidiary ing. Both the Rio Declara- Tanzania Women in Legislation tion4 and the Tanzanian Agriculture and Environment Local Government (District National Environmental 4H Clubs of Tanga and Urban Authorities) Acts Action Plan5 admit that envi- Leadership for Environment Town and Country Planning ronmental issues are best han- and Development (T) Ordinance dled with the participation of (LEAD) National Land Use Planning all citizens. Abantu Film (Environment) Commission Act Public participation in Producers Water Utilization government decision making Sources: (Control and Regulation) Act pertaining to environment Article by Anne Maembe, National Envi- Waterworks Ordinance requires access by the people ronment Management Council in FES National Urban Water Handbook 2001; to all relevant information Environmental Law Handbook for Busi- Supply Act and the institution of a nesses, LEAT Publications Public Health (Sewerage and process of notification on pro- Drainage) Ordinance posed activities, option to 1 See Principle 17 of the Rio Declaration National Industries (Licens- 2 NEAP, p. 3, para 8(a). comment, representation in 3 From National Conservation Strategy ing and Registration) Act the relevant decision making for Sustainable Development, GoT,1995, Protection from Radiation bodies, and effective access to and National Environmental Action Act Plan, GoT, 1994. judicial bodies as well as 4 Rio Declaration on Environment and Explosives Act administrative disputes settle- Development. Tanzania Bureau of Stan- ment bodies. 5 See paragraph 8(3), relevant level.

186 THE CONSEQUENCES OF URBANISATION

Adapted from an article by Ms P.Okeyo, Kinondoni Municipality

The migration of people from ple, illegal settlements have having adequate provisions for the rural to urban areas is a been put up in hazardous areas its collection and final treat- global phenomenon. In ideal where rock and landslides are ment. The City Council By- circumstances authorities can regular occurrences. In Dar es laws of 1993 allow for the pri- cope with urban growth by Salaam, in the Msimbazi val- vatization of the refuse collec- good planning and the strin- ley and keko, there have been tion service and today there gent administration of good massive encroachments by are a number of contractors environmental legislation. In settlers on the river valleys, the who clean and collect waste in reality this, however, is rarely river catchments area, the various areas of the city in col- the case. springs and forest area. There laboration with the municipal In Tanzania urban areas are are no provisions for liquid councils. growing very fast. The esti- and solid waste disposal in Kinondoni Municipality is mated total population these areas and the untreated estimated to generate 1000 growth rate for 2001 is waste pollutes the very envi- tons of solid waste per day, 2.61%1. The growth rate of ronment that the settlements while the average for Temeke the urban population was are built on, which in turn Municipality is 500-600 tons. 5.1% in 1998-1999.2 In 2000 makes them even more Only about 30% of the total the urban population was unhealthy and dangerous to amount generated in Dar es 32.9% of the total population live in. Salaam is collected and dis- which is estimated to be 33.7 posed of at an approved refuse million.3 Waste management dump. In Kinondoni Munici- In urban areas various Waste management is a prior- pality it was only 12.5% in stakeholders compete for land. ity issue for all Tanzanian 2000!4 ■ Land is needed for a multi- municipalities whether the tude of purposes: housing, waste is from legal or illegal 1 CIA - The World Factbook - Tanza- industry, commerce, institu- sources. In principle it is the nia:www.odci.gov/cia/publicatoins/factbook/geos/tz.html, Dec. 2001 tions, social activities, recre- local authorities that are 2 The World Bank Group. Compare this ational activities, infrastruc- responsible for its disposal. rate with the rate for all developing coun- ture, services, to name some of The Local Government tries which is 2.6% in same period. 3 The World Bank Group: World Devel- them. Available urban land is Urban Authorities Act of opment Indicators database, July 2001 becoming scarce and this is 1982 states that it is the 4 Source: Kinondoni MWMO-Novem- leading to chaotic develop- responsibility of urban author- ber 2001, Temeke MWMO-November ment with land speculation ities “to remove refuse and 2001 and the illegal occupation of filth from public or private Source: Kinondoni MWMO-November marginal and ecologically places”. 2001, Temeke MWMO-November 2001 fragile land. The result is fur- In practice most residents 5 In tons ther environmental degrada- discharge their waste onto the tion which in turn aggravates streets, open spaces and into the unhealthy living condi- the drains. The city of Dar es tions of economically vulnera- Salaam has been confronted ble groups. with growing volumes of solid In Mwanza city, for exam- waste for many years without

187 NOTES

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN TEACHING SCIENCE

Dr C. J. Sawio, Department of Geography, University of Dar es Salaam

Why bother about Environmental Education? Environmental Education (EE) is now recognized in the Tanzanian school system. But why should we bother about EE? The reasons are numerous. • It is a response to new developments in science, technology and communication. • There is a need to increase the understanding of environmental issues and the risks resulting from misuse of the environment. • There is an increasing global emphasis on teaching about the care of natural resources and environmental conservation practices. • There is a need to educate Tanzanians about ecological, social, commercial and economic importance of sound environmental resource use. • There is a need to impart to all children at all levels of learning, basic environmental knowledge for them to use as stewards of the planet earth. • There is a need to solve development problems effectively through applied EE.

Concept of Environmental Education “Environmental Education (EE) is a process aimed at developing a population that is aware of, and concerned about the total environment and its associated problems, and which has the knowledge, skills, motivation and commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems and the prevention of new ones” (Belgrade/ Tbilisi).

Incorporation of EE in School Curricula World educational systems have acted differently in incorporating EE in their school curricula. EE can be about learning to understand the environment and developing attitudes (Osaki, 1999).

188 There are three spheres of environmental education: (a) Formal, designed for a specific target group with definite purposes and executed through the formal education system (b) Non-formal, designed for specific target groups with definite purposes but executed outside the formal educational system through extension services, NGOs and CBOs programs and religious activities (c) Informal, usually acquired through advertising, the media, conversations, friends, peer groups, traditional indigenous knowledge experiences and personal observations.

The Teaching of EE in Tanzania EE is now an essential component incorporated in primary, secondary and tertiary curricula in Tanzania. After a serious review during 1996-97, the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) over- hauled the syllabi at all levels: pre-primary, primary, secondary (O & A Levels), Teacher Training Colleges and Vocational Training and ensured that EE was incorporated. Today several courses and training seminars and workshops are carried out among educators to exchange knowledge and experiences in EE within the formal education sector. EE is being implemented as a multidisciplinary (Fig. 1) subject.

BIOLOGY PHYSICS RELIGION

AGRICULTURE GEOGRAPHY

CHEMISTRY ENVIRO. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION HISTORY

HOME ARCHAEOLOGY ECONOMICS MATHEMATICS ENGLISH & KISWAHILI

Fig. 1: The Multidisciplinary Approach in EE (Adapted from Mwinuka, S.M, 1999)

Subjects such as chemistry, biology and physics have been incorporated to form a “unified science”. History, geography and civics now include EE. The 1995 Education and Training Policy (ETP, 1995) stipulates that EE must be incorporated into the science syllabi, the goal being to enable the rational use, management and conservation of our environment.

189 Teaching EE in Science in Tanzania The teaching of EE in Science in Tanzania takes place from primary school level through secondary to the tertiary level. Here we will look at EE components in science at the primary level, (Standards V to VII) and at the secondary, (O-level (Forms I-IV) and A-level (Forms V-VI)) with emphasis on geography. For the teaching of science in primary school, St. V-VII, see Table 1.

TABLE 1: SELECTED EE COMPONENTS IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE SYLLABUS (1996)

STD EE TOPIC OBJECTIVE:THE TEACHER PUPILS SHOULD BE SHOULD GUIDE PUPILS ABLE TO: TO:

VOur environment: • Explain how living • Discuss how living things Balance of nature things depend on the depend on the Changes in living environment environment things • Relate changes in • Discuss the reasons living things to the for adaptation in plants environment

VI Appropriate living • Explain qualities of a • Discuss qualities of a environment good place to build place, the school, qualities a house of a good house that Environmental • Explain how sources promotes health and safety conservation of water are conserved; • Discuss how sources of e.g. water how to conserve fertility water can be conserved land of land, and how to • Use of modern agriculture forests conserve plants and methods which conserve forests at school and in soil fertility the community • Practise conserving plants and forests at school and in the community

VII Our environment: • Explain changes taking • Arrange a study tour for natural resources place with regard to pupils to observe and find natural resources out the effects of • Describe positive and environmental degradation negative changes in by human beings, animals natural resources and natural forests • Discuss positive and negative changes in those areas and suggest remedies

The EE components shown above in the primary science syllabus set teachers the task of study- ing their school and community environments and selecting creatively practical examples for demonstration in their lessons with regard to EE. Local communities also contribute in substantial ways as evidenced in the following section.

190 Support from Local Communities: Example of ABCP: Individuals and local communities support the teaching of EE at primary school level. One good example is the African Blackwood Conservation Project (ABCP), established in 1996 by James Har- ris, a woodworker from Texas USA, and Sebastian Chuwa, a botanist from Kibosho, Moshi, Tan- zania. The aim of the project is to replenish the population of the African Blackwood (mpingo). Mpingo is extensively used in carving, instrument making and the woodworking trades. Because it is such a precious tree and seems to have been harvested almost to extinction, the project aims at conserving the wood, and multiplying it by creating many tree nurseries to produce seedlings for local communities and schools. Mr Sebastian Chuwa has worked hard with local leaders, teachers and government officials in Kilimanjaro, Tanga and Arusha Regions to build up a network of EE community support. He has held in training sessions to instruct teachers to include conservation studies in their curriculum. Mr Chuwa’s strategy is very inspiring. He has used his knowledge and influence to inspire thousands of children and adults to take initiatives to protect the delicate resources of Tanzania. How has he done it? •Since 1996 he has organized government officials to hold World Environment Day celebrations in village areas. • He has encouraged people to plant trees and care for the environment • He organizes grass-root conservation efforts with local gardeners by getting them to volunteer space to grow and tend mpingo seedlings • He has founded 48 conservation groups called Malihai (Wealth Alive) Clubs in school areas. These clubs average 300 members a piece and each has a tree nursery where various native trees are nurtured. The clubs have a dual function: they are sports clubs as well as conservation clubs. •Mr Chuwa’s primary focus is on children and their environmental conservation education. The individual and local enthusiasm he has planted has produced an example of a lively and promising EE at the primary school level.

Environment Education in Secondary Schools (O-Level). Environmental Education components have been incorporated into science subjects in secondary schools at ordinary and advanced levels. We present here selected EE contents in science subjects, i.e. physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology and also in geography and agriculture (Table 2):

TABLE 2: EE SELECTED RELATED COMPONENTS TAUGHT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS FORMS 1-1V.

SUBJECT TOPIC / THEME EE RELATED COMPONENTS

Physics Energy and Power • Natural sources of energy from waves, wind, water, solar, biogas and geysers • Promotion of renewable energy • Law of energy conservation from rural energy sources • Use efficient and inefficient energy stoves: energy waste and conservation • Alternative sources of energy Frequency, wave & motion • Energy crisis and dam construction • Concept of noise pollution

191 SUBJECT TOPIC / THEME EE RELATED COMPONENTS

Degrading Environment • Effect of noise pollution and control • Pollution, radiation, dynamites users (stone blasting) warfare and discarded machinery Heat & Thermodynamics • Concept of radiation and environmental spectra • Ozone layer depletion & effects • Global warming & greenhouse effects with examples from Tanzania

Chemistry Soil Chemistry • Origin, composition, acidity, alka- linity, trace elements Pollution • Pollutants of soil (industrial and nuclear waste, smog, dust, and oil spill on soil, acidification of soil, use of fertilizer pesticides, insecticides & fungicides • Acid rain, global warming, green house effect, air pollution

Biology Energy flow and nutrient • Concept of food contamination, food Circulation in ecosystems webs/ chains; national parks, lake reserves and biomass consumption • Irreversibility of food chains Population growth & control • Loss of biodiversity • Habitat niche (national parks, lakes, marine parks) • Impact of pollution • The halophytes, xerophytes, environ mental quantity, growth & distribution and extinction of plants due to use of irrigation and chemicals • Aquatic, forest and wildlife resources • Differences between living and non- living things Natural Resources • Extinction of plants and animals (poaching and environmental degradation)

Maths Handling data, ratios, function • Resources as linked to population of numbers and interpretation • Loss of bio-diversity and what it means over time to the environment

192 Maths • Explanations and predictions of what is taking place now on the environment • Interpreting environmental statistics • Learning how to solve problems using environmental examples • Estimating environmental projections and probabilities in various events

Geography The Atmosphere • The damage of the atmospheric quality - air pollution, acid rain, global warming and green house effects • Destruction of the ozone layer Economic activities • Their impacts on the environment (degradation, pollution, loss of bio- logical diversity etc) • Use of solar energy and conservation of the environment • Conserving underground water sources; understanding sources of water pollution, their effects and ways recycling waster waters • Forests and problems of exploitation of forest resources and solutions • Effects of mining on the environment • Industrial pollution etc

The foregoing shows the efforts that have been made to incorporate Environmental Education themes in the formal science syllabus in secondary schools. The teaching methodologies vary con- siderably. They encompass: discussions, experiments, field trips/tours and projects. All, however, capitalize on certain environmental issues. Teachers use practical examples to deliver EE messages.

N.B. Further source of information is the Vice-President’s Office - Minister of State, Hon. Arcado Ntagazwa (MP).

193 Environmental Education in A-Level: The Case of Geography EE components in the geography syllabus at A-level are incorporated in numerous areas. In Table 3 we only highlight a few that bring the EE message up-front.

TABLE 3: SELECTED EE COMPONENTS IN A-LEVEL GEOGRAPHY

FORM VTOPIC / THEME EE COMPONENTS

External geomorphic and • Weathering and erosion earth shaping processes • Types of weathering and erosion, factors for erosion human activities • Agents of erosion and other processes e.g. running water, wind, ice, wave, human beings • Involved processes: e.g. mass wasting, river action, wind action, wave action etc. • Significance of erosion for human beings

Fieldwork, surveying and • Actual conducting of fieldwork to understand mapping of environmental environmental resources: soil, water, forests, etc. processes • Using scientific instruments to carry out surveys and identify and map spatial environmental phenomena • Using maps and aerial photos to identify and describe environmental processes and resources as well as human activities on landscapes and environments

FORM VI Water masses • Features of surface and ground water • Drainage basins and their development and use by human beings and their impacts • Marine and coastal processes: coral reefs and the formation, and exploitation by humans. • Water pollution & water conservation practices

Soils •Nature and formation of soils, constituents and factors leading to soil formation • Soil profiles as studied in the field, soil classification • Soil fertility • Soil degradation • Soil conservation processes/ practices

Environmental conservation • Identification of common environmental problems facing different countries in the world • Specific attention to: deforestation, desertification, global warning, greenhouse effect, acid rain and global climatic change • Water pollution, air and soil pollution and abatement strategies • World illegal trade in fish and wildlife, etc.

194 As at O-level, the inclusion of EE components in A-level subjects as discussed here in geography aims at demonstrating the impact of human beings on nature, the consequences and what should be done to redress any negative impacts that threaten the sustainable use of natural resources.

Environmental Education in Other Higher Learning Institutions EE is inculcated in Teacher Training Institutions, Vocational Training Centres and in Higher Institutions of Learning including Colleges and Universities. Although there are few university level EE programmes, nonetheless EE has been introduced in the University of Dar es Salaam in the MSc in Environmental Studies in the Faculty of Science. It is featured in the Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences full time GEM, MA (Geography and Environ- mental Management, Masters of Arts) programme. EE is offered through Civil Engineering in the School of Engineering and the Built Environment. In the Faculty of Science much of Envi- ronmental Physics is incorporated in its courses. The University College of Lands and Architec- tural Studies (UCLAS) features components of EE in its courses in the Faculty of Lands and Environmental Engineering especially in the Department of Environmental Engineering. The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) offers an undergraduate course in EE. Most of the materials have been modified from those inherited from the University of Nairobi.

Conclusion Environmental Education in Tanzania has been incorporated into the national syllabi at primary, secondary and the tertiary levels. EE is not an independent subject. Themes or topics of environmental education significance are integrated and taught practically where teachers and learners carry out various activities. There is observation, recording and experimenting and discussions. It is encouraging to observe that there is a greater degree of awareness now on developing skills and strategies for inculcating environmental education in the entire Tanzania school system.

References

Bakobi, B.L.M. et al. (eds).1995. Proceedings of Environmental Education Policy (EEP) Workshop. Morogoro 13-15 December 1995 (NEMC & WWF). Bude, Udo. (ed) 1991. Culture and Environment in Primary Education. DSE, Bonn. 1997. The Jiko in the School Yard: Teacher Training and Environmental Education in Africa. ZED Texts. Green COM- USAID. 2000.The Environment Education & Communication Project- Teachers’ Environmental Education Handbook. Maembe, A.T. (ed). 1999. Proceedings of Tanzania Environmental Education Workshop 6-11 December 1999, Morogoro Tanesco Training Centre. Mwinuka, S.M.M. 1999. The State of the Art of the Teaching of Environmental Education with Special Focus on the Ordinary Level Secondary Schools in Tanzania”. In Maembe A.T. (ed). (op.cit., pp. 45-90). Mwinuka, S.M.M. and Bakobi B.L.M. 1998. Project on Environmental Education for Primary Schools in East Africa (PEEPSEA). Internal Evaluation Report for the Project Implementation, Tanzania Component (195-97). Osaki, K. M. & Wandi D.M. 1994. Environmental Education in the Formal and Non-formal System in Tanzania: A Paper prepared for the Research Issues on Environmental Education Workshop Nairobi 28/9/1994-2/9/1994. Osaki, K.M. 1991. Factors influencing the use of the environment in Science Teaching: A Study of Biology Teaching in Tanzania. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Alberta. Rajabu, A.R.M.S. 1994. A review of the Status of Environmental Education in Formal Education Sector in Tanzania. A Paper for Workshop on Research in Environmental Education in Eastern and Southern Africa, Nairobi, 1994. SebastianChuwa: 5-Year Community Nursery and Environmental Education Program (ABCP). http://www.backwoodconservation.org/5-year-program.html URT-MoEC. 1996. Science Syllabus for Primary Schools, Std 1-V11 URT –MoEC 1997. Geography Syllabus for Secondary Schools Forms V& VI

195 13. USEFUL TOOLS

HOLDING A WORKSHOP,SEMINAR OR CONFERENCE

Planning and Budgeting Record all expenditure, • Discuss subject,objectives 1. Develop the idea remembering to keep receipts and duration of their input Identify: for each item • Explain how these fit in • The main objectives with the overall objectives • The target group Organising and program for the • The intended outcome 1. A checklist workshop Write the outline. • Book the venue & accom • Discuss the desired modation method of presentation 2. Develop the program • Hold preparatory meetings • Give information about Decide: • Prepare PR (public rela- the venue and the facili- • Which topics tions) activities if relevant ties/equipment provided • The time frame • Make agreements with for the workshop • The organisational style resource persons • Request a written paper (conference, lectures, • Prepare the invitations and or hand-outs if they working groups) -State the objectives clearly are considered necessary • How much time is needed -Give information about • State the terms of payment for the various elements, the program, venue, dates, for the persons services not forgetting recreation resource persons and par- Try to hold preparatory meet- • Who will act as resource ticipants ings with resource persons. persons -If participants have to do • Whether or not to seek homework beforehand, Implementing media coverage of the make this clear 1. Arrival event -Explain financial and Organisers should be in place other conditions clearly well before the participants Try to involve participants in • Make the necessary travel • Check the venue and the developing the program. arrangements technical facilities needed • Hold a joint session with • Give resource persons a 3. Calculate the budget all resource persons final briefing • Preparatory meetings • Prepare the necessary • Prepare for the registration • Hall charges materials, forms, of participants • Catering documents • Display the program and • Refreshments during -Stationery other documents, if relevant sessions -Registration forms • Accommodation -Claims forms for 2. Registration • Travel allowances • Stationery -Printed program 3. Welcome • Secretariat/organising team -Papers and teaching Explain: • Reception (if necessary) materials • Subject of the meeting -Workshop documentation • Who are the organisers 4. Income and expenditure and sponsors Record all income - dona- 2. Terms of reference for • Objectives tions, participants’ fees etc. resource persons • Logic and timing of

196 programme • Methodological approach • Expected outcome

4. Holding the sessions • Handle transport claims etc. during tea breaks only

5. Departure Collect all that is necessary before people leave • Signed registration forms/list of participants • Signed allowance claims • Original detailed invoices and receipts for venue, food, drinks, accommodation, travel, stationery, etc.

6. After the event As soon as possible take care of • Accounting • Report writing • Any other follow-ups Source: Bridging the Gap: A Guide to Monitoring and Evaluating Development Projects needed by Bernard Broughton & Jonathan Hampshire

8 TIPS ON HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY CHAIR A CONFERENCE

1 It is the conference chairperson’s responsibility to see that the atmosphere during the discussion is always friendly, communicative and fair. 2 The conference chairperson introduces the topic in an objective and informative way. He/she formulates the discussion goals for each item on the agenda. During a discussion, he/she must not initially express his/her own opinion or assessment as this would bias the discussion. 3 The chairperson speaks as little as possible in order to give maximum time to the conference participants. Conference chairmanship principally entails raising questions and giving the floor to different speakers.

197 4 Questions from the chairperson should always be designed to stimulate dialogue and consequently should never be answered by the chairperson himself/herself. 5 Preference should be given to open questions (W-questions: who, why, where, when, etc.) and information questions. Closed questions (which can only be answered with a “yes” or “no”) can be fatal to a discussion. 6 Should a discussion peter out it is up to the chairperson to get it moving again by means of (open) questions, thought-provoking remarks and a summary of the proceedings so far. 7 The chairperson should make interim summaries to emphasize the thread of the discussion. At the close, the chairperson gives a general summary and his/her evaluation as to which of the goals formulated at the outset have or have not been achieved. 8 At the end of the conference, it is also up to the chairperson to formulate and delegate tasks to individual participants. Nobody ought to leave the conference without precisely knowing: a. what has been achieved in today’s discussion, b. what is my specific assignment until the next conference/meeting, c. where and when is the next conference/meeting?

Source: Schulte, Carla (1997) Talking Politics (and being understood), Kampala: Fountain Publishers.

HOLDING EFFECTIVE INTERNAL MEETINGS AND PLANNING SESSIONS

Starting the meeting Remember the issues that (if necessary). After that ask 1. Who is chairing the meet- might have cropped up at the which issue should be dealt ing? (It is best to have agreed previous meeting. with first, second, third and so on this in advance.) on. This should not take more 4. In collaboration with the than five minutes! 2. Who is going to write the participants decide how much minutes? time it will take to discuss During the meeting each issue. Confirm at what 1. Follow the agreed agenda, 3. If the agenda has not been time the meeting has to close. discussing the issues in turn. prepared in advance, then the Ask if anyone has to leave The chairperson or moderator chairperson, (you), should col- early. must see to it that the agreed lect the issues that need to be time frame is adhered to. If discussed from the partici- 5. Then ask participants this proves difficult, then the pants. They should be written which issues they wish to con- group must be asked to decide up on a board or a flipchart, so centrate on at the meeting and whether to continue the dis- that everyone can see them. which ones can be postponed cussion of the issue in ques-

198 tion and therefore extend the meeting, or whether to stop the discussion and continue it at an agreed time.

2. Never move on to the next issue before making a decision on the one being discussed.

Closing the meeting 1. Quickly repeat the decisions that have been made.

2. Decide when and how the minutes will be distributed.

3. Decide who will chair the next meeting.

4. Close the meeting at the Source: Bridging the Gap: A Guide to Monitoring and Evaluating agreed time. Development Projectsby Bernard Broughton & Jonathan Hampshire

NOTES

199 PROJECT OUTLINES by Meike Meyer

Should be short, Explain briefly aims, clear and promising. general objectives, TITLE OF THE PROJECT former projects! Those who really • Name of Convince the reader know what they proposing agency of the need for this want can usually do • Address and with 2-3 objectives. contact person project! Be as concrete as • Short presentation Explain the idea of possible. of your NGO the project and how • Objectives you want to fulfill Who takes interest • Justification for the objectives, in this project? choosing the project describe the impact! Who shall be • Target group involved? • Know-how from Do you need to con- Who profits from outside needed? tact other persons to the project and how? • Budget fulfill your objec- • Schedule/program tives? Specify their Detailed list of • Feasibility capacities or know- expected expendi- • Sustainability how! tures (personnel • Intended follow-ups material, travel, etc.). • More info about your Be precise about the NGOs background, venue, duration Do you foresee any work done so far etc. methodology! prohibitive difficul- (optional) ties or problems? Which further impact does it have? Any workshops about maintenance By whom? List and organisation of names. the project?

✓ Practical advice • use white, clean sheets of A4 - paper • present your project in a typewritten version if possible • write on one side of the paper • make sure you have a clear structure • attach a covering letter

200 QUALITIES OF A MODERATOR

THE MODERATOR document the steps of the HOW TO PREPARE A discussion process and its MODERATION Moderation techniques can immediate results best be used in groups of up to • ask the right questions • The issue, the main 15 participants. How to be a and break deadlocks objective, and the quality good moderator is not of the intended results something to be learned have to be very clear quickly and easily, but is a Usually two people can ful- • Be aware of the matter of guided experiences, fill these tasks easier than participants’ composition, self reflection and continuous one... background, knowledge, learning. A moderator’s tasks interests and potential are to: conflicts • help the group to know THE IDEAL MODERATOR •Determine the duration of and appreciate their own IS A PERSON WHO IS... the process, the facilities knowledge and strengths available and their • help the discussion process •regarded as neutral by all limitations to be coherent and result- participants • Identify clear-cut oriented • therefore an outsider to the objectives and goals for • be expert at guidance as far discussion group and every session, what as the “how” of the • able to use visualisation methods to use and the discussion process is techniques, such as amount of time needed concerned, and not the pinboards, flipcharts and • Make sure that sufficient “what” blackboards visualisation materials are • visualise and thus available

NOTES

201 THE MODERATION METHOD

The typical steps in moderating a discussion

1. OPENING - Warm-up with participants (explain your role, make them get to know each other). - Discuss and agree on time-frame and organisational matters. - Collect the expectations of participants. - Discuss and agree on expectations that shall/can be objectives for the workshop. - Agree on methodology. - How will minutes be taken? 2. COLLECT ISSUES/SUBJECTS - Phrase the guiding question carefully and in a very focused manner and visualise it! - Collect all answers/ideas of participants, without discussing them first! - Visualise answers/ideas as they come. - Group them into clusters and give a name/title to each cluster. 3. SELECT ISSUES/SUBJECTS - Phrase a guiding question carefully and write it down visibly. - Allow participants to prioritise clusters according to their individual preferences. - The agenda will then be determined by the number of “votes” per cluster, going through as many clusters as time or workshop-concept allows. - In doing this, every participant gets the same number of “votes” which he can use on the clusters as he wishes. (One way of doing this is to hand out little markers of some sort to every participant so that they can all jot down their preferences at the same time.) If possible avoid “voting” by raised hands. 4. WORK ON THE ISSUE AND FIND A WAY TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM - Find a method of how to discuss or “solve” the prioritised subject/s. - The method has to depend on the kind of issue at hand and the intended results. 5. PLAN ACTION/DETERMINE THE FOLLOW-UPS - Visualise the activities regarded necessary by the group. - Write down who will be in charge and by when different tasks need to be done. 6. CLOSING - Find out, whether participants’ expectations have been fulfilled, - Whether they are satisfied with the process and the result.

Always come up with a result! Always pin down which task is assigned to whom! Always ascertain if you have addressed the needs and expectations of the participants!

202 THE STRUCTURE OF YOUR SPEECH

The aim of a discursive is to OPENING REMARKS •Present your own convince the listeners of the (max. 3 minutes) evaluation. correctness of the speaker’s • Begin with a provocative •Prove the accuracy of your opinion on the subject in proposition, a rhetorical assessment. question. Such speeches question, a current event, SUBJECT-RELATED should not last longer than 30 etc. CONCLUSION minutes. PREVIEW THE MAIN (max. 4 minutes) POINTS OF YOUR •Summarise the main How do you most SPEECH argument in a maximum effectively structure such a (max. 1 minute) of three points. speech? MAIN BODY AUDIENCE RELATED AUDIENCE RELATED (max. 20 minutes) CONCLUSION INTRODUCTION • Discuss the current (max. 1 minute) (max. 1 minute) situation/the facts/the • Close your speech by, for •Create the right problem. instance, thanking the atmosphere for the speech • Discuss a variety of audience for their attention. by referring to the audience, possible solutions. Source: H. Hess: Party Work in Social the venue, the occasion, etc. •Discuss the pros and cons Democratic Parties SUBJECT-RELATED of these solutions.

ARGUMENTATION TECHNIQUES

Good argumentation techniques are always beneficial. Your chances to win others over are higher if you can: •present effective arguments and •refute your opponent’s arguments.

PRACTICAL TIPS •Try to understand the position of your counterpart first, then react to it. • If your counterpart’s argumentation is weak, repeat your own good arguments. • If you are interrupted, insist on the right to finish what you were saying. •Anticipate your counterpart’s arguments by including them in your own argumentation. •Use the persuasive power of examples. Ask your counterpart to provide concrete examples of how to apply his theories. • Expose generalisation and inaccuracies. •Stick to the facts of the issue. Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere during an • If somebody evades the issue, return to the subject. interview with the German magazine “Der Überblick” in Hamburg in April 1999. Source: C. Schulte, 1997, Talking Politics (and being understood): Kampala, Fountain Publishers

203 HOW TO USE BLACKBOARDS AND FLIPCHARTS

Blackboard Useful in gatherings of up to 25 people. + It is easy to write information & easy to correct it. -Information is wiped off, it disappears and it is hard for participants to retrieve. TIP If the chalk squeaks - this always makes participants uncomfortable - break the chalk and continue writing using the broken end.

Flipchart Useful in gatherings of up to 35 people. +Sheets can be prepared in advance. Information can be displayed for a long period by removing sheets from the flipchart and posting them on the wall. TIPUseful for a wide range of information e.g. displaying the day’s agenda, important overviews, central statements, flowcharts, participants’ contributions.

General rules • Do not write down too much: concentrate on key issues only. • Give the audience time to copy the contents of the presentation OR give it to them as a hand out afterwards. If you intend to distribute a hand-out, tell the participants so. Otherwise it is likely that they will spend time making unnecessary notes. • Do not talk with your back turned to participants (e.g. while writing on the blackboard or flipchart). • Do not stand in front of your presentation - the participants will get irritated at not being able to read what is written.

NOTES

204 THE CHECK LIST FOR GOOD IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITIES

1. Important: plan step by step. What should be done first?

2. Consider all improbabilities and plan alternatives.

3. Fix deadlines for you and for your partner.

4. Follow-up the results before the deadline.

5. Keep an eye on the indicators to be achieved.

6. Hire assistants, delegate, mobilize people.

7. For seminars & workshops, check everything in advance on loco.

8. Take care of the documentation (dates of receipts, use of materials, tasks of people involved ...)

9. Support partners in the learning process. Sell the idea “on-the-job learning”.

10. Take care of the financial settlement and reporting as soon as possible.

11. Evaluate with the partners the achievement of objectives and indicators. Write recommendations. File documents. Release important papers. Inform other related institutions.

12. Write a reminder for following-up the results sometime later. Document it.

13. Keep your colleagues informed and updated.

Source: Workshop Report Management Skills for Source: Bridging the Gap: A Guide to Monitoring and Decision-Makers - August 1999 Evaluating Development Projects, by Bernard Broughton & Jonathan Hampshire

205 TIME MANAGEMENT - SELF MANAGEMENT

Participants in one of the seminars supported by FES, discussing issues of “Time Management” in 2001

Most people bristle at the idea of becoming a slave to time: “The Swiss have clocks, but we have time”, said a wise old man in Bhutan. A certain degree of time and self- management is nonetheless necessary if you wish to be effective and to achieve your goals. Many people rely on their memory as their management tool, but most find that at some point their memory lets them down. “Sorry, I forgot” is not an uncommon statement. This is not necessarily a catastrophe, but in some instances forgetting can have unfortunate consequences. You might lose an important contract, you might lose your job, you might even lose your husband/wife to-be!

RULE 1: Write things down - use a diary and a calendar, (e.g. the FES diary/calendar). • Keep a “things to do” list. • Enter all your appointments and deadlines, putting in a reminder maybe a week before the deadline falls. • Review your appointments and deadlines regularly, informing those involved in good time if you want to change them. • Plan your week: Make the “things to do” list, get an overview over your appointments and deadlines. • Plan your day. •At the end of each day and at the end of each week make a review. Did you do all that you had planned to do? Did you meet your deadlines? Did you attend the scheduled meetings? Were you late? Why?

RULE 2: Be realistic about what you can manage to do • Do not get overloaded: you have to be realistic about what you can overcome in the given amount of time. • Prioritise: decide what are the most important issues. • Say no, if the task is beyond what you are capable of doing. • Remember to make time for your private life - family, friends, hobbies and your own relaxation. This is where you renew your energy.

206 TWELVE STEPS TOWARDS CONFLICT RESOLUTION

By Dr M. O. Maundi, Centre for Foreign Relations

1. Understanding the conflict • its type • its sources • its intensity • its impact

2. Identifying the parties to the conflict • whether bilateral or multilateral conflict

3. Identifying the issues involved

4. Determining the method of resolution • Conflict prevention: Preventive diplomacy • Conflict resolution: Negotiation - Direct negotiation between the conflicting parties - Assisted negotiation: Use of a third party Mediation/Facilitation Conciliation Good offices Arbitration

5. Determining the mechanism of resolution • The actors/agents -States - NGOs - Individuals: Eminent personalities - Inter-governmental organizations

6. Determining the venue and dates for negotiation

7. Negotiating rules of procedure

8. Setting the agenda

9. Launching the substantive negotiations

10. Reaching a compromise agreement

11. Implementing the negotiated settlement

12. Guaranteeing and monitoring the implementation of the agreement

207 14. MISCELLANEOUS

SOME HIGHLIGHTS FROM THE ACCOUNTING RULES OF FRIEDRICH EBERT STIFTUNG FOR SEMINARS AND TRAINING COURSES

When financially dealing A proper receipt must Allowances with FES, certain rules have include: Allowances (imprests, per to be followed in order to •Name and address of payee diem) for participants and ensure the individually agreed • Date seminar staff have to be paid refund for activities. The basic •Name and address of payer on a daily basis only. A proper facts are listed here for easy •Amount paid allowance form has to show: reference. • Reason for payment •Event title, date & •Signature of payee location The Budget •Name of payee Expenditures for any activity Transport charges should be •Address of payee have to be in line with the accounted for through the •Amount paid per person budget agreed upon in writ- presentation of original bus •Signature of payee ing. Any overspending can only tickets, airline tickets or like- •Total amount paid be accepted by prior consent so wise. In the normal case, the •Signature of organiser you should check your corre- original ticket will be kept for spondence carefully prior to the FES-files and you have to Honorarium the activity. If you have add the name of the person(s) For the payment of honorar- already received advances, travelling on the front side. If ium to the seminar staff, FES make sure they are in line only a copy can be taken, the provides a form. The seminar with and part of the budget reason for this change of pro- staff can only receive honorar- mentioned. cedure has to be given in writ- ium for one single function at ing. In case a motor vehicle is the seminar, either coordina- Receipts used, the petrol bills can be tor or lecturer, typist etc. in Any payment whatsoever can presented if and as far as agreed case of combined functions, only be done against proper upon beforehand. decide for one. The honorar- receipt whose wordings ium form has to include: should be legible and no For proper accounting, the •Title of the activity, date white-out or Tipp-Ex should petrol bill has to show: and venue be used on it. •Purpose of the trip •Proper address of recipient Receipts have to be issued by •Name of the traveller(s) •Amount due and currency the person/company which •Name/address of petrol • Signature of recipient delivers the service or goods e.g. station for stationery from the shop- • Date of filling keeper, a hotel or restaurant Other documents required • Distance travelled for lodging, rental or seminar for proper accounting • Car’s owner and facilities, meals etc. and •Complete list of registration number should be written in or trans- participants • Amount paid/litres lated into English. •Complete list of seminar staff

208 •Program of the seminar event • Handouts during/after the •Number of participants seminar •Short summary on the •Seminar report of the course of events organiser •Important results •Resume of the organiser as How to write a seminar to success of the event report •Outlook of future A proper seminar report has to activities/follow-up contain: •Title, date, venue of the

WRITING A PROPOSAL TO FES FOR A CONTRIBUTION TO AN ACTIVITY

The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung contributes to partner organization’s activities after receiving and going through a written/detailed proposals from them.

Before writing your proposal, please crosscheck whether the activity you wish to organize falls within our objectives or not. If it fits in, then your proposal should include the following: 1. Give a brief introduction to your organization (including organizational objectives). 2. State the objectives of the planned event. 3. State the expected outcome/indicators. 4. Indicate the topics to be covered or the theme of an activity. 5. Specify the target group/beneficiaries. 6. State the tentative dates and venue for an activity to take place. 7. Give a rough idea about the programme. 8. Indicate the budget in details.

N.B. Please always remember to make a follow-up on your request either by telephone or an e-mail message.

Ahsante! !

NOTES

209 LIST OF FES PUBLICATIONS IN TANZANIA

TITLE AUTHOR/EDITOR YEAR

The New EU-ACP Partnership: Francis Matambalya 2001 Consequences for Eastern and Southern Africa Art in Politics: 1st East African Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001 Caricatures Competition

Gender and Land Laws in Tanzania Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001

Code of Ethics for Media Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001 Professionals

FES Activities Report 2000/2001 Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001

Political Handbook & NGO Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001 Calendar 2002

HIV/AIDS A Challenge for All Nations Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2001

Tuwape Haki Watoto na Tuwajibike Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2002 (Children’s Rights) Ten Principles for Democratic Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2002 Culture (Agenda Participation 2000) Coping with Conflict Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2002 (Agenda Participation 2000) Sheria za Ardhi na Jinsia Tanzania Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2002 (Gender and Land Laws) Participate in Democracy Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2002 Diwani na Maendeleo Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2002 (Local Government Handbook) Ujue Mkataba wa Jumuiya ya Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2002 Afrika Mashariki (Short version EAC Treaty) Who is Who Friedrich Ebert Stiftung 2002

For the list of publications before 2001, please consult our website: www.tanzania.fes-international.de or the FES offices ([email protected])

210 EDITORIAL

PUBLISHED BY Friedrich Ebert Stiftung P. O. Box 4472 Kawawa Road Plot No. 397 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Telephone: 255-22 2668575/2668786 Fax: 255-22 2668669 Mobile: 0742 783 153/0741 324 924 E-mail: [email protected]

EDITORS Peter Häussler Angela K. Ishengoma Kate Girvan Alphonce Siarra

LAYOUT Petra’s Maridadi Limited

TYPESETTING/DESIGN Petra’s Maridadi Limited

PRINT Tanzania Printers Ltd.

NB: Articles which carry an author’s name do not necessarily reflect the view of FES. All facts and figures presented in this NGO Calender are correct to the best of our knowledge. However, FES bears no responsibility for oversights, mistakes or omissions.

211 The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung,1 or FES, was founded in 1925 as a political legacy of Germany’s first democratically elected President, Friedrich Ebert, who died in that year. Ebert, a Social Democrat of humble origins, had risen to hold the highest office in his country despite considerable opposition from his political adversaries. He assumed the burden of the presidency in a country which was crisis ridden following its defeat in World War 1. His own personal experience led him to propose the establishment of a foundation with a threefold aim: • to further a democratic, pluralistic political culture by means of political education for all classes of society. • to facilitate access to higher education for gifted young people by providing scholarships. • to contribute to international understanding and co-operation in order to avert a fresh outbreak of war and violent conflicts wherever possible. Today, the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung is a political non-profit making, public-interest institution committed to the principles and basic values of social democracy in its educational and policy- oriented work. Development Co-operation In the Foundations offices in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania approximately 80 German staff and 600 local nationals are involved in projects in the fields of economic and social development, social-political education and information, the media and communication and in providing advisory services. The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung sees its activities in the developing countries as a contribution to: • the improvement of political and social framework conditions • the democratisation of social structure •the empowerment of women and the promotion of gender •the strengthening of free trade unions • the improvement of communication and media structures • regional and international media co-operation • regional co-operation between states and interest groups • the resolution of the North-South conflict This calendar is intended to provide not only an individual tool for purposes of time planning but also a day-to-day handbook for quick reference on issues that may be of interest to people in NGOs and to other politically active Tanzanians.

1 Stiftung is the German word for “foundation”

North-South Dialogue: Julius Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Nyerere, former President of P. O. B o x 4472 the United Republic of Kawawa Road, Plot No. 397 Tanzania and Willy Brandt, Dar es Salaam,Tanzania former Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany Tel: 255-22 2668575/2668786 Fax: 00255-22 2668669 Mobile: 0742 783 153/0741 324 924 WILLY BRANDT: E-mail: [email protected] “International co-operation is far www.tanzania.fes-international.de too important to be left to governments alone.” ISBN 9987-22-047-9

212