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The London School of Economics and Political Science
The London School of Economics and Political Science Mercenaries and the State: How the hybridisation of the armed forces is changing the face of national security Caroline Varin A thesis submitted to the Department of International Relations of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, September 2012 ii Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of <83,157> words. iii Abstract The military has been a symbol of nationhood and state control for the past two hundred years. As representatives of a society’s cultural values and political ambitions, the armed forces have traditionally been held within the confines of the modern state. Today, however, soldiers are expected to operate in the shadows of conflicts, drawing little attention to themselves and to their actions; they are physically and emotionally secluded from a civilian population whose governments, especially in the ‘West’, are proceeding to an unprecedented wave of demilitarisation and military budget cuts. -
Antoine SOHIER 07/06/1885 Li ���Ge - 22/11/1963 Uccle Époux De Cécile GULIKERS Magistrat, Spécialiste Du Droit Coutumier Congolais
Pauvres, mais honnêtes, nous paraissons quand nous pouvons Antoine SOHIER 07/06/1885 Li ���ge - 22/11/1963 Uccle époux de Cécile GULIKERS Magistrat, spécialiste du droit coutumier congolais Partie VVVIVIII CorCorrrrrespondanceespondance Sohier --- Hulstaert Avertissement à nnosos lecteurs La correspondance entre Sohier et Hulstaert a été mise en forme et éditée sur Internet par Honoré Vincke, au centre de recherche « Aequatoriana », à Bamanya (Equateur – RDC). Nous la reprenons ici telle quelle. On remarquera, en la lisant, que beaucoup de lettres se réfèrent à des articles de la revue Aequatoria, créée et dirigée par la R.P. Hulstaert. Et nous ne doutons pas de ce que maint lecteur grincheux nous dira que l’on n’y comprend rien, faute précisément de disposer de ces textes. Cette impression est fausse ! La collection complète d’Aequatoria , y compris le numéro retiré de la vente et traité par Mgr de Heptinne de « pornographique » (pour une revue éditée par les missionnaire, faut le faire !) est en ligne sur www.Congoforum.be , dans la partie « fiches du Congo /Histoire ». Cette nouvelle, nous n’en doutons pas, a rassuré les grincheux et a fait d’eux, à nouveau, des lecteurs joyeux ! Pour la Rédaction de Dialogue Guy De Boeck CORRESPONDANCE SOHIER - HULSTAERT (1933-1960) http://www.aequatoria.be/04frans/030themes/0343sohier.htm correspondance sohier - hulstaert (1933-1960) Société coloniale et droit coutumier Editée par Honoré Vinck Texte revu de: Annales Aequatoria 18(1997)9-238 Notice biographique: Sohier ; Hulstaert les originaux et les copies Les originaux des lettres de Sohier se trouvent dans les Archives-Congo des Missionnaires du Sacré Coeur à Borgerhout (B), à l'exception des lettres 42, 44, 47, 49, 50, 52b, 68 à 75, 82 à 90 dont les originaux sont conservés aux Archives Aequatoria à Bamanya- Mbandaka, R.D. -
African Coups
Annex 2b. Coups d’Etat in Africa, 1946-2004: Successful (1), Attempted (2), Plotted (3), and Alleged (4) Country Month Day Year Success Leaders Deaths Angola 10 27 1974 2 Antonio Navarro (inter alia) 0 Angola 5 27 1977 2 Cdr. Nito Alves, Jose van Dunen 200 Benin 10 28 1963 1 Gen. Christophe Soglo 999 Benin 11 29 1965 1 Congacou 0 Benin 12 17 1967 1 Alley 998 Benin 12 13 1969 1 de Souza 998 Benin 10 26 1972 1 Maj. Mathieu Kerekou 0 Benin 10 18 1975 2 Urbain Nicoue 0 Benin 1 16 1977 2 unspecified 8 Benin 3 26 1988 2 Capt. Hountoundji 0 Benin 5 1992 2 Pascal Tawes 0 Benin 11 15 1995 2 Col. Dankoro, Mr. Chidiac 1 Burkina Faso 1 3 1966 1 Lt. Col. Sangoule Lamizana 0 Burkina Faso 11 25 1980 1 Col. Saye Zerbo 0 Burkina Faso 11 7 1982 1 Maj. Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo 20 Burkina Faso 8 4 1983 1 Capt. Thomas Sankara 13 Burkina Faso 10 15 1987 1 Capt. Blaise Campaore 100 Burkina Faso 10 20 2003 4 Norbert Tiendrebeogo, Capt. Wally Diapagri 0 Burundi 10 18 1965 2 unspecified 500 Burundi 11 29 1966 1 Capt. Micombero 999 Burundi 5 1972 4 unspecified 100000 Burundi 11 1 1976 1 Lt. Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza 0 Burundi 9 3 1987 1 Maj. Pierre Buyoya 0 Burundi 3 4 1992 2 Bagaza? 0 Burundi 7 3 1993 2 officers loyal to Buyoya 0 Burundi 10 21 1993 2 Gen. Bikomagu, Francois Ngeze 150000 Burundi 4 25 1994 2 Tutsi paratroopers 999 Burundi 7 25 1996 1 army 6000 Burundi 4 18 2001 2 Lt. -
05 Hughes Final
MATTHEW HUGHES Fighting for White Rule in Africa: The Central African Federation, Katanga, and the Congo Crisis, - of Zimbabwe in , black guerrilla forces fought a long war throughout the s against the white- Bcontrolled government of Rhodesia. Twenty years earlier, in the late s and early s, long before the start of the insurgency that led to the end of white rule, the white settlers of Rhodesia, then part of the Central African Federation, had fought against black rule in the Belgian Congo. The focus of this fight was the Congo’s province of Katanga, which bordered on the Federation to the north. The struggle in the Congo forms part of the story of white Rhodesian resistance to black majority rule that lasted until (and until in South Africa). Even before Belgium decided to pull out of the Congo in , the Federation’s whites were looking to effect a political union with the Belgian settlers in Katanga; and once Belgium withdrew in the summer of , the Federation did all it could to help to preserve white control over the Congo. This article examines the two related issues of the proposed political union between the Federation and Katanga before , and the Federation’s support for white settler interests in Katanga and the Congo from to , when this phase of the Congo crisis ended. It shows that determined white resist- ance began earlier and cast its net more widely than once thought, thus adding to our understanding of the decay of white rule in central and southern Africa after the Second World War. -
The Case for Mercenaries in Africa Mayank S Bubna Mr
IDSA Issue Brief IDSIDSAA IssueIssue BrBriefief 1 The Case for Mercenaries in Africa Mayank S Bubna Mr. Mayank Bubna is Visiting Fellow at the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi. Summary Despite the concerns surrounding the use of mercenaries, they remain an indispensable force on the African continent, so much so that they have been welcomed by governments, and grudgingly even been accepted by NGOs, international organizations and civilians. Private militaries are never going to completely go out of business because of the critical need for such services on the African continent. With the world unwilling to intervene in far-off conflicts, institutionalizing such a private force will almost inevitably become necessary to bring about regional stability. The Case for Mercenaries in Africa 2 In 1998, former UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, stated in a speech that “When we had need of skilled soldiers to separate fighters from refugees in the Rwandan refugee camps in Goma, I even considered the possibility of engaging a private firm. But the world may not be ready to privatize peace.”1 In some ways, he was revisiting an age-old international dilemma over the recruitment of private soldiers to manage deadly conflicts around the globe. Plenty of debate has occurred around the blight of mercenaries – freelance soldiers for hire – especially those operating in Africa. They have been blamed for everything ranging from inciting further conflict and committing human rights violations, to illicit arms sales and neo-imperialism. Like all stereotypes, there is an element of truth in such accusations. Mercenaries in Africa earned themselves particular infamy during the 1960s and 1970s due to the activities of people like “Mad Mike” Hoare, Bob Denard and Jean Schramme who caused mayhem in various parts of the continent like in the Seychelles, Comoros and the Congo, amongst other places. -
Front Matter.P65
Confidential U.S. State Department Central Files CONGO 1960–January 1963 INTERNAL AFFAIRS Decimal Numbers 755A, 770G, 855A, 870G, 955A, and 970G and FOREIGN AFFAIRS Decimal Numbers 655A, 670G, 611.55A, and 611.70G Project Coordinator Robert E. Lester Guide Compiled by Martin Schipper A UPA Collection from 4520 East-West Highway • Bethesda, MD 20814-3389 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Confidential U.S. State Department central files. Congo, 1960–January 1963 [microform] : internal affairs and foreign affairs / [project coordinator, Robert E. Lester]. microfilm reels ; 35 mm. Accompanied by a printed guide, compiled by Martin Schipper, entitled: A guide to the microfilm edition of Confidential U.S. State Department central files. Congo, 1960–January 1963. “The documents reproduced in this publication are among the records of the U.S. Department of State in the custody of the National Archives of the United States.” ISBN 1-55655-809-0 1. Congo (Democratic Republic)—History—Civil War, 1960–1965—Sources. 2. Congo (Democratic Republic)—Politics and government—1960–1997—Sources. 3. Congo (Democratic Republic)—Foreign relations—1960–1997—Sources. 4. United States. Dept. of State—Archives. I. Title: Confidential US State Department central files. Congo, 1960–January 1963. II. Lester, Robert. III. Schipper, Martin Paul. IV. United States. Dept. of State. V. United States. National Archives and Records Administration. VI. University Publications of America (Firm) VII. Title: Guide to the microfilm edition of Confidential U.S. State Department central files. Congo, 1960–January 1963. DT658.22 967.5103’1—dc21 2001045336 CIP The documents reproduced in this publication are among the records of the U.S. -
Chapter One Chapter
Notes Chapter One 1. This narrative of events is taken from the official government report, as reported in the Ugandan newspaper The Monitor (18 January 2002, 13). 2. For good discussions of Kabila’s life and his early career as a rebel leader, see Kennes 1999 and Wilungula 1997. 3. Hall also notes that: “Precisely because identities are constructed within, not outside, discourse, we need to understand them as produced in specific historical and institutional sites within specific discursive formations and practices, by enunciative strategies. Moreover, they emerge within the play of specific modalities of power” (Hall 1996, 4). 4. My use of discourse and discourse analysis is drawn from the works of Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Ernesto Laclau, and Chantal Mouffe, who accept that a discourse is a relational totality of signifying sequences that together constitute a more or less coherent framework for what can be said and done. 5. Enunciating this Gramscian interpretation, Stuart Hall argues: “It becomes the horizon of the taken-for-granted: what the world is and how it works, for all practical purposes. Ruling ideas may dominate other conceptions of the social world by setting the limit to what will appear as rational, reasonable, credible, indeed sayable or thinkable, within the given vocabularies of motive and action available to us” (Hall 1988, 44). Chapter Two 1. Mehmed Emin Pasha, a German explorer, was the governor of an Egyptian province in the Sudan, but had been cut off from contact with Europe by a Mahdist revolt. Stanley left from Zanzibar with over eight hundred men and, after months of forced march and hunger, found Emin Pasha. -
1 the Congo Crisis, 1960-1961
The Congo Crisis, 1960-1961: A Critical Oral History Conference Organized by: The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars’ Cold War International History Project and Africa Program Sponsored by: The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars September 23-24, 2004 Opening of Conference – September 23, 2004 CHRISTIAN OSTERMANN: Ladies and gentlemen I think we’ll get started even though we’re still expecting a few colleagues who haven’t arrived yet, but I think we should get started because we have quite an agenda for this meeting. Welcome all of you to the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; my name is Christian Ostermann. I direct one of the programs here at the Woodrow Wilson Center, the Cold War International History Project. The Center is the United States’ official memorial to President Woodrow Wilson and it celebrates, commemorates Woodrow Wilson through a living memorial, that is, we bring scholars from around the world, about 150 each year to the Wilson center to do research and to write. In addition to hosting fellowship programs, the Center hosts 450 meetings each year on a broad array of topics related to international affairs. One of these meetings is taking place today, and it is a very special meeting, as I will explain in a few moments. This meeting is co-sponsored by the Center’s Cold War International History project and 1 the Center’s Africa Program, directed by former Congressman Howard Wolpe. He’s in Burundi as we speak here, but some of his staff will be joining us during the course of the day. -
Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee
Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee N° Notice : 2018.262 Review investigation of the information available to the intelligence services regarding the death of Dag Hammarskjöld – Final Report. -1- Contents I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................3 I.1. Mandate........................................................................................................................ 3 I.2. Methodology and activities............................................................................................. 4 I.2.1. INVESTIGATION PROPOSAL AND DECISION ............................................................4 I.2.2. DESCRIPTION OF METHODOLOGY AND ACTIVITIES .................................................6 II. INDEX OF RELEVANT INFORMATION ....................................................................................9 III. FINDINGS ..................................................................................................................... 21 IV. CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................. 27 -2- I. INTRODUCTION I.1. MANDATE In compliance with resolution A/RES/72/252 of 24 December 2017 of the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN), the federal government of Belgium – by means of the Ministers of Justice and of Defence -, in April 2018, requested Mr. Guy Rapaille, Chairman of the Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee (Standing -
Democratic Republic of Congo: the War from the Perspective of the Congolese People
UNHCR Emergency & Security Service WRITENET Paper No. 13 / 2001 DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO: THE WAR FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE CONGOLESE PEOPLE... By Charles Djungu-Simba K. Congolese journalist & writer Translated from the French by Carolyn Norris April 2002 WriteNet is a Network of Researchers and Writers on Human Rights, Forced Migration, Ethnic and Political Conflict WriteNet is a Subsidiary of Practical Management (UK) E-mail: [email protected] THIS PAPER WAS PREPARED MAINLY ON THE BASIS OF PUBLICLY AVAILABLE INFORMATION, ANALYSIS AND COMMENT. ALL SOURCES ARE CITED. THE PAPER IS NOT, AND DOES NOT PURPORT TO BE, EITHER EXHAUSTIVE WITH REGARD TO CONDITIONS IN THE COUNTRY SURVEYED, OR CONCLUSIVE AS TO THE MERITS OF ANY PARTICULAR CLAIM TO REFUGEE STATUS OR ASYLUM. THE VIEWS EXPRESSED IN THE PAPER ARE THOSE OF THE AUTHOR AND ARE NOT NECESSARILY THOSE OF WRITENET OR UNHCR. ISSN 1020-8429 2 Table of Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................................1 2. African Solidarity: An Unfortunate Precedent! ......................................................2 3. The International Community: Guilty and Complicit? .............................................3 4. The Congolese and the War..............................................................................5 4.1 General Issues.....................................................................................................5 4.2 Those Living in Areas under Rebel Control............................................................6 -
The Congo Crisis, 1960
The Congo Crisis, 1960 CRISIS BACKGROUND GUIDE Vancouver Model United Nations The Twentieth Annual Session | January 29–31, 2021 Dear Delegates, William Tsai Secretary-General My name is Annushka Agarwal, and I am delighted to be directing the Historical Crisis Committee at this year’s iteration of VMUN, alongside your chair, Alec Yang, and crisis staff, Logan Higgins. For some context on me, I am currently in Grade 11 at West Point Grey Academy, and my interests include reading Russian literature, finding good math Vivian Gu puns, and contemplating the possibility of socialist utopia. Director-General This year, the HCC will be tackling the Congo Crisis of 1960, a period of post- Derek Wu independence conflict in the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo. Prior to Chief of Staff 1960, the Congo was subject to the brutal repression of Belgian colonial rule, and consequently, continues to suffer from numerous sociocultural and economic divisions. Tyler Rosenzweig Independence was undoubtedly a necessity for the Congolese nation, but it also requires Director of Logistics politicians to navigate the uncharted territory of state building and decolonization in a way that is hindered by rampant instability and a lack of legitimacy around government institutions. While the Congo’s history is perhaps not the most well-known, it is in essence composed of the same story as every other postcolonial state: victimization, Joyce Chen emancipation, and hopefully, political reincarnation. USG General Assemblies Given that this is an advanced committee with a relatively complex topic, delegates will Ethan Jasny benefit from ensuring they have a reasonable knowledge of the political landscape of this USG Specialized Agencies time period, both from reading this backgrounder and ideally from consulting external sources as well. -
Treatment of the Bodies of Those Killed in French Mercenary Operations
i i i Treatment of the bodies of those i killed in French mercenary operations between 1960 and HUMAN 1989 REMAINS & VIOLENCE Walter Bruyère-Ostells Sciences Po Aix (CHERPA) [email protected] Abstract Mercenaries are ghters who operate under special conditions. Their presence, as shadow combatants, oen tends to exacerbate the violence of their enemies. That’s why the analysis focuses on the singularity of the relationship to death and ‘proce- dures’ concerning the corpses of their fallen comrades. As a ghter identied and engaged in landlocked areas, the mercenary’s corpse is treated according to mate- rial constraints pertaining in the 1960s. Aer violence on their body, and evolution towards the secret war, mercenaries favour the repatriation of the body or its disap- pearance. These new, painful conditions for comrades and families give birth to a collective memory fostered by commemorations. Key words: mercenaries, violence, treatment of corpses, Africa, secret war As of 1960, a widespread process of decolonisation began on the African conti- nent. The increased numbers of attempts at secession and intrastate conicts can be explained, in part, by the ineptitude of the new states. These confrontations oen involved quite unsophisticated military means, which nonetheless resulted in a rel- atively high level of violence. The injuries suered by ghters and civilians were sometimes extreme (rape, dismemberment, etc.). In this context, the former colo- nial powers, including France, were considering a new geostrategy. They hoped to maintain a strong inuence in their African sphere of ‘privileged interests’.1 Their approach was part of the broader Cold War context.