Informatik-Affine Themen in Der Didaktik Der Mathematik

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Informatik-Affine Themen in Der Didaktik Der Mathematik View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Didaktik der Mathematik (GDM) GDM-M itteilungen 96 2014 Magazin · 7 Informatik-affine Themen in der Didaktik der Mathematik Jochen Ziegenbalg Ähnlich wie es W. Dörfler in seinen „Impressio- 1983: Umstrukturierung in Fachbereiche (FB); nen aus (fast) vier Jahrzehnten Mathematikdidak- FB 7: „Ausbildung und Beruf“ tik“ in [Dörfler, 2013] beschreibt, ist auch dies ein 2002: Umfirmierungen: „FB Informatik und Aus- durch persönliche Erfahrungen und Erinnerungen bildung/Didaktik der Informatik“ (IAD) (an meine knapp 50-jährige Tätigkeit in Wirtschaft 2011: Gründung des GI-Fachausschusses „Infor- und Hochschule) gefärbter Essay – und alle daraus matische Bildung in Schulen“ (FA IBS) resultierenden Dörflerschen „caveats“ treffen sinn- gemäß auch auf diesen Beitrag1 zu. 1.2 Skizze zur Entwicklung von Hard- und Software (einschließlich der Vorgeschichte) Im Fokus dieses Beitrags stehen die jüngsten Ent- 1 Einige historische Skizzen wicklungen in der Didaktik der Mathematik und 1.1 Das Entstehen einschlägiger Informatik in Deutschland (wobei hier aus Grün- Organisationsstrukturen den der umfangsmäßigen Beschränkung auf die Im Kontext dieses Beitrags stehen grundsätzlich Entwicklung in der DDR nicht eingegangen wer- die jeweiligen fachdidaktischen Organisationen den kann). Dies ist aber ohne einen (zumindest (für Didaktik der Mathematik bzw. Didaktik der kurzen) Rückblick auf die jeweilige Vorgeschich- Informatik) im Vordergrund. Diese sind aber ohne te kaum sinnvoll. Die folgende kurze Skizze stellt die entsprechenden „Muttergesellschaften“ (DMV nur den Versuch dar, die Dinge aus der richtigen – Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung, GI – Ge- Perspektive zu betrachten; sie ist kein Ersatz für sellschaft für Informatik) kaum denkbar. Zunächst entsprechende historische Studien. sei ein kurzer, kompakter Abriss der Entstehung Im Folgenden wird (sehr grob) zwischen den und Entwicklung dieser Gesellschaften und ihrer folgenden beiden Epochen unterschieden: fachdidaktischen Unterorganisationen gegeben: Die Ära vor dem Personal Computer (PC): Von den Anfängen bis etwa in die Mitte der 1970er Mathematik und ihre Didaktik Jahre 1890: Gründung der Deutschen Mathematiker- Die Ära mit dem PC Vereinigung (DMV) auf der Versammlung der Die historisch dokumentierte Entwicklung von Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Ärz- Mathematik und Informatik nimmt ihren Lauf mit te in Bremen der Entdeckung und Beschreibung erster Rechen- 1966: Erster Pädagogischer Hochschultag zur Di- verfahren etwa in der Zeit ab 3000 v. Chr. Am An- daktik der Mathematik in Berlin fang standen naturgemäß die Basis-Algorithmen 1967: Erste Jahrestagung zur Didaktik der Mathe- für die Grundrechenarten und erste Elemente des matik in Osnabrück anwendungsbezogenen Rechnens. Im Zeitraum 1975: Gründung der Gesellschaft für Didaktik der 1800–1600 v. Chr. wird als einer der ersten sich Mathematik (GDM) in Saarbrücken nicht nur auf die Grundrechenarten beziehenden 1978: Gründung des GDM-Arbeitskreises „Mathe- Algorithmen das babylonisch-sumerische Verfah- matikunterricht und Informatik“ (AKMUI) auf ren zum Wurzelziehen auf einer Tontafel darge- der GDM-Jahrestagung in Münster stellt (Yale Babylonian Collection YBC 7289). In den folgenden vier Jahrtausenden entwickel- Informatik und ihre Didaktik ten sich Mathematik und Informatik kontinuier- 1969: Gründung der Gesellschaft für Informatik lich weiter – in Abhängigkeit von den jeweiligen (GI) in Bonn Kulturkreisen aber mit enorm unterschiedlicher 1978/80: Gründung von GI-Fachausschüssen Intensität, Geschwindigkeit und inhaltlicher Tie- (FA); FA 9/10: „Ausbildung“ fe. Den entscheidenden Impuls zu dieser Entwick- 1 Ausarbeitung des gleichnamigen Hauptvortrags auf der Tagung des Arbeitskreises „Mathematikunterricht und Informatik“ der Gesellschaft für Didaktik der Mathematik (GDM), Soest, September 2012 Magazin GDM-Mitteilungen 96 2014 8 · lung gaben die herausragenden Mathematiker der griechischen Antike im Zeitraum von etwa 600 v. Chr. bis 400 n. Chr. Auf die mathematisch eher weniger ergiebige Epoche des Mittelalters folgte mit der Renaissance eine zuweilen stürmische Ent- wicklung der Mathematik, die bis zum Auftreten Georg Cantors (1845–1918), der Mengenlehre und insbesondere des Auswahlaxioms durchweg algo- rithmischer Natur war (denn alle Objekte, mit de- nen sie sich beschäftigte, waren explizit konstru- iert). Nicht-konstruktive (und damit auch nicht- algorithmische) Entwicklungen setzten in der Ma- Nachbau des Z1 im deutschen Technik Museum in Berlin thematik erst mit der Verwendung des Auswahl- (Stahlkocher (CC BY-SA 3.0)) axioms ein. Der Mathematikhistoriker H. M. Ed- wards formulierte prägnant in einem Artikel über Leopold Kronecker (1823–1891): “For him, the al- Schon immer seit es mathematische Algorithmen gorithm was needed to give meaning to his ma- gab, war man bestrebt, Maschinen zur Ausfüh- thematics, and he was following in the footsteps of rung dieser Algorithmen zu konstruieren. Wohlbe- many other – one might say all other – great ma- kannte Beispiele sind: der Abakus, der Suan Pan, thematical thinkers who preceded him”. die Rechenmaschinen von Schickard, Pascal, Leib- Die Mathematik jener Zeitepochen war zwar al- niz, Braun, Hahn, astronomische Uhren, Jacquards gorithmischer Natur; es schien aber intuitiv klar zu Lochkarten-gesteuerter Webstuhl, Babbages Diffe- sein, was mit dem Begriff „Algorithmus“ gemeint rence Engine, Holleriths Registriermaschine. Dies sei und es bestand kein Bedürfnis, diesen Begriff waren alles dedizierte Maschinen, also Maschinen, näher zu definieren. Erst ab etwa den 1930er Jah- die geeignet waren, relativ eng umrissene Proble- ren setzte im Zusammenhang mit der Reflexion me aus einer bestimmten Problemklasse zu lösen. der Grundlagen der Mathematik eine erhebliche In der zweiten Hälfte der 1930er Jahre entstanden Vertiefung der Frage ein: „Was ist ein Algorith- die ersten Universalcomputer: Konrad Zuse kon- mus?“ bzw. „Was soll es heißen, dass eine Funk- struierte mit der Z1 (1938) den ersten (noch rein tion berechenbar ist?“ Die Frage wurde von ver- mechanisch funktionierenden) Universalcomputer schiedenen Mathematikern höchst unterschiedlich überhaupt. In den 1940er/50er/60er/70er Jahren beantwortet. folgte die stürmische Entwicklung hin zu den Ge- Alan Turing formulierte das gedankliche Kon- räten, die man heute als „Computer“ bezeich- strukt einer abstrakten, extrem primitiven Maschi- net. Entscheidend für die bis dahin ungeahnten ne, die ihm zu Ehren heute als „Turing Maschi- Möglichkeiten der Miniaturisierung war die Erfin- ne“ bezeichnet wird. Kurt Gödel, Andrej A. Markoff dung des Transistors (Shockley 1947, Nobelpreis jr. (und andere) begründeten den Begriff der Bere- 1956) und in der Folge die Entwicklung integrier- chenbarkeit (d. h. des Algorithmus) auf dem Kon- ter Schaltkreise (Kilby 1958, Nobelpreis 2000). zept der rekursiven Funktionen. Alonzo Church Einsatzbereiche für diese bis in die 70er Jahre (und andere) entwarfen den „Lambda-Kalkül“, auf trotz Miniaturisierung immer noch recht klobigen dem sie den Begriff des Algorithmus aufbauten. Computer waren vorrangig das Militärwesen, der Der Lambda-Kalkül ist heute zugleich ein wesent- Hochschulbereich, später die Wirtschaft, jedoch licher Bestandteil der Programmiersprachen der kaum der Bildungsbereich – abgesehen von ers- Lisp-Familie. ten Versuchen zum sogenannten „Programmierten In der zweiten Hälfte der 1930er Jahre konnte Unterricht“, worunter man den Einsatz des Com- die Gleichwertigkeit dieser Konzepte nachgewie- puters als „Tutor“ verstand. Die Bildung stand da- sen werden. Dies gab Anlass zur Formulierung der mals nicht im Zentrum der Computernutzung. Churchsch’schen These: Jedes der drei oben beschrie- Mit den ersten programmierbaren elektronischen benen Konzepte stellt eine angemessene Beschrei- Taschenrechnern zeichnete sich zu Beginn der bung des Begriffs des Algorithmus (bzw. der Be- 1970er Jahre die Ära des Personal Computers (PC) rechenbarkeit) dar. Da „angemessen“ kein mathe- am Horizont ab. Der Durchbruch kam 1976/77 mit matischer Begriff ist, entzieht sich die These von marktfähigen Mikrocomputern wie Apple I (1976), Church einem formalen mathematischen Beweis. Commodore PET (1977), TRS-80 (1977), Apple II, Aufgrund der Gleichwertigkeit der unterschiedli- Sinclair ZX80,C64, Atari, Commodore Amiga und chen Konzepte für die Berechenbarkeit ist sie aber anderen. Dies war ein Quantensprung weg von als hochgradig plausibel und vernünftig anzuse- der bis dahin vorherrschenden Stapelverarbeitung hen. und hin zur interaktiven, personalisierten Compu- GDM-M itteilungen 96 2014 Magazin · 9 ternutzung. Natürlich hatten diese Computer jede Menge Kinderkrankheiten, aber es war das erste Mal, dass sich Privatleute einen eigenen, praktisch voll funktionsfähigen Computer leisten konnten. Einige typische Eigenheiten dieser Computer wa- ren: Jedes dieser Computerfabrikate hatte sein ei- genes, isoliertes Betriebssystem. Die Betriebs- systeme waren meist mit einem BASIC-Dialekt „verschmolzen“. Als externe Datenträger verwendete man Audio-Kassetten, später Disketten. Die Auf- zeichnungsformate der verschiedenen Herstel- ler waren untereinander total inkompatibel. Anwendersoftware gab es keine; nicht ein- VisiCalc auf dem Apple IIe (© Computer History Museum) mal Textverarbeitung. Was auch immer man mit Hilfe eines solchen PC tun wollte, muss- te auf der Basis von (meist selbstgeschrie- Nach dem Aufkommen der
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