CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by University of Huddersfield Repository 1 English Political Propaganda, 1377–1485. Sarah K. Gaunt A thesis submitted to the University of Huddersfield in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. April 2018. 2 Copyright statement The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns any copyright in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Huddersfield the right to use such copyright for any administrative, promotional, educational and/or teaching purposes. i. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts, may be made only in accordance with the regulations of the University Library. Details of these regulations may be obtained from the Librarian. This page must form part of any such copies made. ii. The ownership of any patents, designs, trademarks and any and all other intellectual property rights except for the Copyright (the “Intellectual Property Rights”) and any reproductions of copyright works, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property Rights and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property Rights and/or Reproductions 3 Abstract. Previous historiography on propaganda has focussed on particular themes or time periods; this thesis provides a comprehensive and inclusive analysis drawing on a multidisciplinary approach to encompass the period c.1377-1485. The main conclusion is that propaganda was more prevalent and involved a larger proportion of the polity than previously thought. A conceptual framework based upon certain criteria used in Jacques Ellul’s, Propaganda the Formation of Men’s Attitudes, has been adopted to help define and identify propaganda. One of the dominant themes is the prerequisite of communication to enable the propagandist to reach his audience and the opportunities available to do so. An examination of the various methods available, from official sources to rebel manifestoes, together with the physical communication network required demonstrates that there existed a nationwide environment where this was possible. The literary media used for propaganda include proclamations, poetry, letters, and bills. The political audience was broad in terms of understanding of literary and visual forms of communication and their ability to use the available mechanisms to convey their opinions. Whether it was a disgruntled magnate, merchant or yeoman farmer, there was a method of communication suited to their circumstances. Visual propaganda was particularly important in politically influencing an audience, particularly for a largely illiterate population. This is an area that is often overlooked in terms of political influence until the Tudor period. The use of the human body will be a particular focus along with the more traditional aspects of art, such as heraldry. The thesis considers the relationship between kings’ personality, policy and propaganda. What emerges is that the personality of the monarch was essentially more influential than the use of propaganda. Finally, incorporating the analysis of the previous chapters, the North, is examined as a regional example of the presence and impact of propaganda. The North was a subject of propaganda itself and there was a two-way flow of communication and propaganda between the North and Westminster revealing the political consciousness of the region and its role as an audience. The overall argument of the thesis is that communication within the late medieval polity was essential and extensive. Propaganda was frequently used through a variety of media that could reach the whole polity, whether literate or not and not only in times of crisis. 4 Contents. Page: Acknowledgements: 5 Abbreviations: 6-7 Introduction: 8 Chapter I: Theory: Methods and Opportunities. 22 Chapter II: Visual Propaganda: Uses and Interpretation. 57 Chapter III: Personality or Propaganda: The Greater Persuader? 107 Chapter IV: The North as a Producer and Receiver of propaganda. 153 Conclusion: 193 Bibliography: 201 Word count: 89842 5 Acknowledgements. I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my supervisor Tim Thornton who has provided endless encouragement and patience over many years. I should also like to credit Keith Dockray for first introducing me to this period of history whilst studying my masters. Naturally, family endure the brunt of living in a research environment and my love and thanks go to William and Jack for being so patient and supportive. Finally, this is dedicated to my late parents who were always there. 6 Abbreviations. BIHR Bulletin of Historical Research CCR Calendar of Close Rolls, 22 vols. (London: HMSO, 1914-54) Cely Letters The Cely Letters, 1472-1488, ed. Alison Hanham, EETS, 273 (London: Oxford University Press, 1975). Chronicles of London Chronicles of London, ed. C. L. Kingsford (Dursley: Alan Sutton, 1977) Chronicles of the Revolution Chronicles of the Revolution, 1397-1400: The Reign of Richard II, trans. and ed. Chris Given-Wilson (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993) Coventry Leet Book Coventry Leet Book, or, Mayor’s Register, Containing the Records of the City Court Leet or View of Frankpledge, A. D. 1422-1555, with Divers Other Matters, ed. Mary Dormer Harriss, 2 vols., EETS, original series, 134-5, 138 & 146 (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co. Ltd, 1907-1913) CPR Calendar of Patent Rolls, 21 vols. (London: HMSO, 1895-1911) Crowland The Crowland Chronicle Continuations: 1459-1486, ed. Nicholas Pronay & John Cox (London: Alan Sutton for Richard III & Yorkist History Trust, 1986) CS Camden Society EETS Early English Text Society EHR English Historical Review Ellul Jacques Ellul, Propaganda the Formation of Men’s Attitudes, trans. Kellen, Konrad and Lerner, Jean (New York: Vintage Books, 1973) English Chronicle An English Chronicle,1377-1461: Edited from Aberystwyth, National Library of Wales MS 21068 and Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Lyell 34, ed. William Marx (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2003) Gesta Henrici Quinti Gesta Henrici Quinti: The Deeds of Henry the Fifth, trans. Frank Taylor & John S. Roskell (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975) Great Chronicle The Great Chronicle of London, ed. A. H. Thomas & I. D. Thornley (London: G.W. Jones at the sign of the Dolphin, 1938) Historical Collections The Historical Collections of a Citizen of London in the Fifteenth Century, ed. James Gairdner, Camden Society, new series, 17 (1876) 7 Historie Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV in England and the Finall Recoverye of his Kingdomes from Henry VI, ed. John Bruce, Camden Society, old series, 1 (1838) HMSO Her/His Majesty’s Stationery Office HR Historical Research John Vale’s Book The Politics of Fifteenth-Century England: John Vale’s Book, ed. Margaret Lucille Kekewich, Colin Richmond, Anne F. Sutton, Livia Visser-Fuchs, John L. Watts (Stroud: Alan Sutton for Richard III & Yorkist History Trust, 1995) JMH Journal of Medieval History The Library The Library: Transactions of the Bibliographical Society Mancini Dominic Mancini, The Usurpation of Richard the Third: Dominicus Mancinus ad Angelum Catonem de occupatione Regni Anglie per Riccardum Tercium libellus, trans. C. A. J. Armstrong (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1984) NH Northern History PL The Paston Letters A.D. 1422-1509, 6 vols., ed. James Gairdner (London: Chatto and Windus, 1904) Plumpton The Plumpton Letters and Papers, ed. Joan Kirby, CS, fifth series, 8 (1996) St. Albans The St. Albans Chronicle:The Chronica Maiora of Thomas Walsingham, 1376-1422, 2 vols., ed. John Taylor, Wendy R. Childs & Leslie Watkiss (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2003-2010) Stonor Kingsford’s Stonor Letters and Papers 1290-1483, ed. Christine Carpenter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) TRHS Transactions of the Royal Historical Society Usk The Chronicle of Adam Usk, 1377-1421, ed. and trans. C. Given-Wilson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997) Warkworth J. Warkworth, A Chronicle of the First Thirteen Years of the Reign of King Edward the Fourth, ed. James Orchard Halliwell, Camden Society, old series, X (1839) Westminster Westminster Chronicle: 1381-1394, ed. & trans. L. C. Hector & B. F. Harvey (Oxford: Oxford Medieval Texts, 1982) York House Books The York House Books 1461-1490, 2 vols, ed. Lorraine C. Attreed (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1991) 8 Introduction. The intention of this thesis is to expand on existing work on propaganda during the late medieval period, by adopting a multidisciplinary approach in order to encompass areas that have not been incorporated into the discussion. The aim will be to show that conditions existed in which propaganda could be produced, communicated, interpreted and cause a reaction. In turn this will allow a wider insight into the political community of the later medieval period, in terms of its members’ ability to understand messages and act upon them and to show that politics was no longer the reserve of the elite. Mark Ormrod refers to this awareness of the political state by the majority of the population as ‘political consciousness’ and it is with this in mind that the thesis will be developed.1 It is also important to remember that the production of propaganda was not limited to just the government, as the evidence will show that anybody with a message or complaint had the means and methods