DOCSLIB.ORG

Autonomy of Chinese Judges: Dynamics of People’S Courts, the Ccp and the Public in Contemporary Judicial Reform

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Autonomy of Chinese Judges: Dynamics of People’S Courts, the Ccp and the Public in Contemporary Judicial Reform AUTONOMY OF CHINESE JUDGES: DYNAMICS OF PEOPLE’S COURTS, THE CCP AND THE PUBLIC IN CONTEMPORARY JUDICIAL REFORM by YUE LIU LL.B., Jilin University, 2003 LL.M., Jilin University, 2006 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Law) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) November 2016 © Yue Liu, 2016 Abstract This dissertation is the outcome of author’s observations and empirical research on judicial reform in China from the 1980s to 2015. Focusing on judicial decision making process of judges in Chinese courts, it attempts to answer the following questions: How do the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the public, and the internal administrative power—three factors essential to Chinese judges’ judicial decision making process— influence the adjudication of individual cases in various periods of judicial reform? How do the increasingly professionalized judges respond to these institutionalized challenges? Moreover, how do the dynamics generated from the interactions among courts, the CCP, and the public shape the norms and institutional building of judges and courts, and affect judicial reform policies in China? This dissertation adopts historical analysis, documentary analysis, and qualitative analysis to seek answers to these questions. It finds that, first, direct influence of the CCP and the public to the judicial behaviours of individual judges is less evident than indirect influence through the administrative oversight in courts’ internal bureaucracy. Second, the relationships between courts, the CCP, and the public are more dynamic in fragmented China. The norms of Chinese judges’ autonomy and institutional changes in courts are constantly shaped by the expectations and compromise of powers of the CCP, the public, and courts. Finally, building independent and professional judges in dependent courts without insulation from the external influences is not achievable by current Chinese judicial reform agenda. ii Preface This dissertation is the original, unpublished, independent work of the author, Yue Liu. The interviews conducted for the research of this dissertation have been reviewed and approved by the UBC Behavioural Research Ethics Board (BREB). The project title is Chinese Judicial Reform. The Certificate Approval Number is H14-01068. iii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii Preface ............................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. iv List of Tables .................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures .................................................................................................................... x List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... xii Dedication ........................................................................................................................ xv Chapter I Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 I.1 Historical Context of Chinese Judicial Reform .................................................. 3 I.1.1 Searching for Modern Judiciary (Before 1978) .............................................. 5 I.1.2 Rebuilding of Judiciary (1978-1997) .............................................................. 8 I.1.3 Judicial Reform Led by the SPC (1999-2008) .............................................. 11 I.1.4 Populist Turn (2009-2013) ............................................................................ 14 I.1.5 Tremendous Institutional Innovations (since 2014) ..................................... 16 I.2 Professional Judges: Led by the Party and Responsive to the Public ............ 17 I.2.1 Party Leadership ........................................................................................... 17 I.2.2 Populist Legality ........................................................................................... 19 I.2.3 Judges’ Professionalism ................................................................................ 20 I.3 Review of Literature on Chinese Judiciary and Judicial Reform .................. 21 iv I.3.1 The Party Leadership .................................................................................... 22 I.3.2 Bottom-up Approach .................................................................................... 24 I.3.3 Professionalized Community of Judges ........................................................ 25 I.4 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 28 I.4.1 Models of Judicial Decision Making ............................................................ 28 I.4.2 Theory of Judicial Independence .................................................................. 29 I.4.3 Fragmented Authoritarianism ....................................................................... 32 I.5 Findings ................................................................................................................ 33 I.5.1 Independent Judges in Dependent Courts ..................................................... 34 I.5.2 The Judiciary in Fragmented Authoritarianism ............................................ 37 I.6 Methodologies and Contributions ..................................................................... 39 I.7 Organization of Chapters ................................................................................... 42 Chapter II Political Legal Committee and Courts ....................................................... 44 I.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 44 I.2 The Institutional Change of Political Legal Committee .................................. 51 I.2.1 The CCP’s Think Tank ................................................................................. 52 I.2.2 The CCP’s Substantial Power over Legal Affairs ........................................ 54 I.2.3 Power Expansion .......................................................................................... 58 I.3 Analysis of PLC’s Growing Power .................................................................... 60 I.4 Evolving Functions of Political Legal Committee ............................................ 64 I.4.1 Judicial Policy Making ................................................................................. 65 I.4.2 Inter-institutional Coordination .................................................................... 72 I.4.3 Law Implementation Supervision ................................................................. 78 v I.5 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 85 I.5.1 PLC’s Influence over Courts ........................................................................ 85 I.5.2 The Rule of Policy ........................................................................................ 87 I.5.3 Dynamic between the Party and Courts ........................................................ 89 Chapter III Media and Courts ...................................................................................... 91 I.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 91 I.1.1 Puzzle in Reality ........................................................................................... 92 I.1.2 The Public, Media, and Courts ..................................................................... 94 I.1.3 Media in China .............................................................................................. 96 I.1.4 Map of Research ......................................................................................... 101 I.2 International Norms of Courts and Media ..................................................... 104 I.2.1 The Rights Discourse .................................................................................. 104 I.2.2 The Functional Approach ........................................................................... 108 I.3 Chinese Norms of Courts and Media .............................................................. 111 I.3.1 Constitutional Law ...................................................................................... 113 I.3.2 Basic Laws .................................................................................................. 116 I.3.3 Judicial Interpretations and Other Norms ................................................... 117 I.3.4 Summary ..................................................................................................... 122 I.4 Media’s Influence of Judges’ Adjudication in China .................................... 122 I.4.1 Top Ten Litigations–Quantitative Analysis ................................................ 123 I.4.2 Case Studies on Media’s Influence of Courts ............................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • China Data Supplement
    China Data Supplement October 2008 J People’s Republic of China J Hong Kong SAR J Macau SAR J Taiwan ISSN 0943-7533 China aktuell Data Supplement – PRC, Hong Kong SAR, Macau SAR, Taiwan 1 Contents The Main National Leadership of the PRC ......................................................................... 2 LIU Jen-Kai The Main Provincial Leadership of the PRC ..................................................................... 29 LIU Jen-Kai Data on Changes in PRC Main Leadership ...................................................................... 36 LIU Jen-Kai PRC Agreements with Foreign Countries ......................................................................... 42 LIU Jen-Kai PRC Laws and Regulations .............................................................................................. 45 LIU Jen-Kai Hong Kong SAR................................................................................................................ 54 LIU Jen-Kai Macau SAR....................................................................................................................... 61 LIU Jen-Kai Taiwan .............................................................................................................................. 66 LIU Jen-Kai ISSN 0943-7533 All information given here is derived from generally accessible sources. Publisher/Distributor: GIGA Institute of Asian Studies Rothenbaumchaussee 32 20148 Hamburg Germany Phone: +49 (0 40) 42 88 74-0 Fax: +49 (040) 4107945 2 October 2008 The Main National Leadership of the
    [Show full text]
  • ONE the SUPREME COURT and the MAKING of PUBLIC POLICY in CONTEMPORARY CHINA Eric C. Ip
    ONE THE SUPREME COURT AND THE MAKING OF PUBLIC POLICY IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA Eric C. Ip Post-Mao China saw profound social, economic and legal changes. This paper analyzes an often neglected aspect of these transformations: the evolution of the Supreme People’s Court (SPC) into an increasingly influential political actor in national law and policy-making. The SPC has self-consciously redefined its mandate to manage state-sponsored legal reforms by performing an expansive range of new functions such as issuing abstract rules, tightening control over lower courts and crafting out a constitutional jurisprudence of its own at the expense of other powerful state actors. It is more assertive than ever its own vision of how law should develop in the contemporary People’s Republic of China (PRC)SPC action can be broadly consistent with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) interests, autonomous and expansive at the same time. However, the SPC’s reform initiatives are inevitably constrained by the vested interests of major bureaucratic players as well as the Party’s insistence on maintaining the Court as an integral administrative agency of its public security system. Eric C. Ip is working towards a doctorate at Oxford University's Centre for Socio- Legal Studies. A student of the political science subfields of comparative constitutional design and judicial politics, he earned his undergraduate degree in Government and Laws from The University of Hong Kong, and an LL.M. (distinction) degree from King's College, University of London. He is an Academic Tutor in Law and Politics at St. John's College, The University of Hong Kong; an Academic Fellow at The Institute of Law, Economics, and Politics; and a member of the American Political Science Association and the British Institute of International and Comparative Law.
    [Show full text]
  • Journal of Current Chinese Affairs
    China Data Supplement March 2008 J People’s Republic of China J Hong Kong SAR J Macau SAR J Taiwan ISSN 0943-7533 China aktuell Data Supplement – PRC, Hong Kong SAR, Macau SAR, Taiwan 1 Contents The Main National Leadership of the PRC ......................................................................... 2 LIU Jen-Kai The Main Provincial Leadership of the PRC ..................................................................... 31 LIU Jen-Kai Data on Changes in PRC Main Leadership ...................................................................... 38 LIU Jen-Kai PRC Agreements with Foreign Countries ......................................................................... 54 LIU Jen-Kai PRC Laws and Regulations .............................................................................................. 56 LIU Jen-Kai Hong Kong SAR ................................................................................................................ 58 LIU Jen-Kai Macau SAR ....................................................................................................................... 65 LIU Jen-Kai Taiwan .............................................................................................................................. 69 LIU Jen-Kai ISSN 0943-7533 All information given here is derived from generally accessible sources. Publisher/Distributor: GIGA Institute of Asian Studies Rothenbaumchaussee 32 20148 Hamburg Germany Phone: +49 (0 40) 42 88 74-0 Fax: +49 (040) 4107945 2 March 2008 The Main National Leadership of the
    [Show full text]
  • Tonatory Patterns in Taizhou Wu Tones
    TONATORY PATTERNS IN TAIZHOU WU TONES Phil Rose Emeritus Faculty, Australian National University [email protected] ABSTRACT 台州 subgroup of Wu to which Huángyán belongs. The issue has significance within descriptive Recordings of speakers of the Táizhou subgroup of tonetics, tonatory typology and historical linguistics. Wu Chinese are used to acoustically document an Wu dialects – at least the conservative varieties – interaction between tone and phonation first attested show a wide range of tonatory behaviour [11]. One in 1928. One or two of their typically seven or eight finds breathy or ventricular phonation in groups of tones are shown to have what sounds like a mid- tones characterising natural tonal classes of Rhyme glottal-stop, thus demonstrating a new importance for phonotactics and Wu’s complex tone pattern in Wu tonatory typology. Possibly reflecting sandhi. One also finds a single tone characterised by gradual loss, larygealisation appears restricted to the a different non-modal phonation type [12]; or even north and north-west, and is absent in Huángyán two different non-modal phonation types in two dialect where it was first described. A perturbatory tones. However, the Huangyan-type tonation seems model of the larygealisation is tested in an to involve a new variation, with the same phonation experiment determining how much of the complete type in two different tones from the same historical tonal F0 contour can be restored from a few tonal category, thus prompting speculation that it centiseconds of modal F0 at Rhyme onset and offset. developed before the tonal split. The results are used both to acoustically quantify laryngealised tonal F0, with its problematic jitter and 2.
    [Show full text]
  • Issue 1 2013
    ISSUE 1 · 2013 NPC《中国人大》对外版 CHAIRMAN ZHANG DEJIANG VOWS TO PROMOTE SOCIALIST DEMOCRACY, RULE OF LAW ISSUE 4 · 2012 1 Chairman of the NPC Standing Committee Zhang Dejiang (7th, L) has a group photo with vice-chairpersons Zhang Baowen, Arken Imirbaki, Zhang Ping, Shen Yueyue, Yan Junqi, Wang Shengjun, Li Jianguo, Chen Changzhi, Wang Chen, Ji Bingxuan, Qiangba Puncog, Wan Exiang, Chen Zhu (from left to right). Ma Zengke China’s new leadership takes 6 shape amid high expectations Contents Special Report Speech In–depth 6 18 24 China’s new leadership takes shape President Xi Jinping vows to bring China capable of sustaining economic amid high expectations benefits to people in realizing growth: Premier ‘Chinese dream’ 8 25 Chinese top legislature has younger 19 China rolls out plan to transform leaders Chairman Zhang Dejiang vows government functions to promote socialist democracy, 12 rule of law 27 China unveils new cabinet amid China’s anti-graft efforts to get function reform People institutional impetus 15 20 28 Report on the work of the Standing Chairman Zhang Dejiang: ‘Power China defense budget to grow 10.7 Committee of the National People’s should not be aloof from public percent in 2013 Congress (excerpt) supervision’ 20 Chairman Zhang Dejiang: ‘Power should not be aloof from public supervision’ Doubling income is easy, narrowing 30 regional gap is anything but 34 New age for China’s women deputies ISSUE 1 · 2013 29 37 Rural reform helps China ensure grain Style changes take center stage at security Beijing’s political season 30 Doubling
    [Show full text]
  • Official Colours of Chinese Regimes: a Panchronic Philological Study with Historical Accounts of China
    TRAMES, 2012, 16(66/61), 3, 237–285 OFFICIAL COLOURS OF CHINESE REGIMES: A PANCHRONIC PHILOLOGICAL STUDY WITH HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF CHINA Jingyi Gao Institute of the Estonian Language, University of Tartu, and Tallinn University Abstract. The paper reports a panchronic philological study on the official colours of Chinese regimes. The historical accounts of the Chinese regimes are introduced. The official colours are summarised with philological references of archaic texts. Remarkably, it has been suggested that the official colours of the most ancient regimes should be the three primitive colours: (1) white-yellow, (2) black-grue yellow, and (3) red-yellow, instead of the simple colours. There were inconsistent historical records on the official colours of the most ancient regimes because the composite colour categories had been split. It has solved the historical problem with the linguistic theory of composite colour categories. Besides, it is concluded how the official colours were determined: At first, the official colour might be naturally determined according to the substance of the ruling population. There might be three groups of people in the Far East. (1) The developed hunter gatherers with livestock preferred the white-yellow colour of milk. (2) The farmers preferred the red-yellow colour of sun and fire. (3) The herders preferred the black-grue-yellow colour of water bodies. Later, after the Han-Chinese consolidation, the official colour could be politically determined according to the main property of the five elements in Sino-metaphysics. The red colour has been predominate in China for many reasons. Keywords: colour symbolism, official colours, national colours, five elements, philology, Chinese history, Chinese language, etymology, basic colour terms DOI: 10.3176/tr.2012.3.03 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Journal of Current Chinese Affairs
    China Data Supplement May 2007 J People’s Republic of China J Hong Kong SAR J Macau SAR J Taiwan ISSN 0943-7533 China aktuell Data Supplement – PRC, Hong Kong SAR, Macau SAR, Taiwan 1 Contents The Main National Leadership of the PRC .......................................................................... 2 LIU Jen-Kai The Main Provincial Leadership of the PRC ..................................................................... 30 LIU Jen-Kai Data on Changes in PRC Main Leadership ...................................................................... 37 LIU Jen-Kai PRC Agreements with Foreign Countries ......................................................................... 42 LIU Jen-Kai PRC Laws and Regulations .............................................................................................. 44 LIU Jen-Kai Hong Kong SAR ................................................................................................................ 45 LIU Jen-Kai Macau SAR ....................................................................................................................... 52 LIU Jen-Kai Taiwan .............................................................................................................................. 56 LIU Jen-Kai ISSN 0943-7533 All information given here is derived from generally accessible sources. Publisher/Distributor: GIGA Institute of Asian Studies Rothenbaumchaussee 32 20148 Hamburg Germany Phone: +49 (0 40) 42 88 74-0 Fax: +49 (040) 4107945 2 May 2007 The Main National Leadership of the PRC
    [Show full text]
  • Oujiang Wu Tones and Acoustic Reconstruction
    OUJIANG WU TONES AND ACOUSTIC RECONSTRUCTION PHIL ROSE Linguistics (Arts), Australian National University 1. Introduction We do not expect tones, as phonological phenomena, to vary without limit, but to show similarities, or so-called tonological universals, across varieties (Maddieson 1978). Nevertheless, when one samples tones from different Asian tone languages, or even different dialects, they often show a great variety of pitch shapes. Zhu and Rose (1998) for example demonstrated no less than 25 different tones in four varieties from different sub-groups within the Wu dialects of east central China. (I use the term tone in this paper in a sense analogous to phone, that is, as a constellation of audibly different properties, with pitch predominating but also including length and phonation type, that constitutes observation data for phonological – usually tonemic – analysis.) In exploring the nature of phonological variation in Language, we naturally concentrate on differences. This paper, on the other hand, makes use of how similar tones can be. It looks at variation in tones at seven localities distributed over a fairly small geographical area where the varieties, which belong to the same dialectal sub-group, have been described as homogeneous. Although this study reveals some interesting synchronic linguistic-tonetic variation, the main reason for undertaking it is not typological, but, as befits a festschrift for Harold Koch, historical. As mentioned, the Wu dialects of Chinese are well-known for their tonal complexity. Not only do they exhibit probably the most complex tone sandhi in the world (Rose 1990), but they also show a bewildering variety in their citation tones.
    [Show full text]
  • Lesson Plan Chien-Shiung Wu, Chinese Nuclear Physicist
    Lesson Plan Chien-Shiung Wu, Chinese Nuclear Physicist Chien-Shiung Wu assembling an electro-static generator at Smith College Physics Laboratory. Photo courtesy of AIP Emilio Segre Visual Archives. Grade Level(s): 9-12 Subject(s): History, Physics In-Class Time: 50-65 minutes Prep Time: 10-15 minutes Materials • A/V equipment • Copies of Chien-Shiung Wu excerpt from The New Dictionary of Scientific Biography (found in the Supplemental Materials) • Copies of Discussion Questions (found in the Supplemental Materials) Prepared by the Center for the History of Physics at AIP 1 Objective In this lesson, students will learn about the life of experimental nuclear physicist Chien-Shiung Wu. Born in China, she became a hugely influential subatomic physicist after immigrating to America in the 1930s. Rather than focusing on her scientific accomplishments (which are discussed in more detail in the AIP Teacher’s Guides “Fair or Unfair: Should These Women Have Won Nobel Prizes” and “Outcasts and Opportunities: The Effects of World War II on the Careers of Female Physicists”), this lesson has students read about Chien-Shiung Wu’s early life, education, and unlikely activism. Introduction Chien-Shiung Wu (C.S. Wu) was born near Shanghai, China on May 31, 1912. She attended the Ming De School in her youth, which her father founded as one of the earliest Chinese schools to admit girls. Ultimately in 1930, she enrolled in the National Central University in Nanjing, where four years later she earned her Bachelor of Science degree in physics at the top of her class. 1 Wu’s time at Nanjing coincided with Japan’s invasion of the northern Chinese province Manchuria and subsequent attempts to destabilize the Chinese government.
    [Show full text]
  • Title Verbal Aspects and Verbal Classifier Structures in Hui Chinese
    Title Verbal aspects and verbal classifier structures in Hui Chinese Author(s) Liu, Boyang Proceedings of the 51st International Conference on Sino- Citation Tibetan Languages and Linguistics (2018) Issue Date 2018-09 URL http://hdl.handle.net/2433/235293 Right Type Conference Paper Textversion author Kyoto University Verbal Aspects and Verbal Classifier Structures in Hui Chinese LIU Boyang (EHESS-CRLAO) CONTENT • PART I: Research Purpose • PART II: The definition and classification of VCLs in Sinitic languages – 1. An introduction to Hui Chinese – 2. Previous work on VCLs in Mandarin – 3. A provisional definition and classification of VCLs in Sinitic languages – 4. Lexical aspects indicated by the verb phrase [VERB-VCLP] in Sinitic languages – 5. Relationships between grammatical aspects and the verb phrase [VERB-VCLP- OBJECT] • PART III: Grammatical aspects indicated by special auto-verbal classifier (Auto-VCL) structures in Hui Chinese – 6. The perfective aspect – 7. The imperfective aspect • PART IV: Conclusion PART I: RESEARCH PURPOSE Research Purpose: • Verbal classifiers (VCLs) have been much less studied from a typological perspective than the category of nominal classifiers (NCLs), and even less in the non-Mandarin branches of Sinitic languages, such as the Hui dialects; • In this study, I will introduce relationships between lexical aspects, grammatical aspects and verbal classifier phrases (VCLPs) in Hui Chinese, analyzing the similarities and differences with Standard Mandarin. • Verbal classifier structures in the Hui dialects display a transitional feature compared with Xiang, Gan and Wu, taking auto-verbal classifier (Auto-VCL) structures as examples (auto-VCLs derive from verb reduplicants in the verb phrase [VERB- (‘one’)-VERB]): – Auto-VCLs in the verb phrase [VERB-AUTO VCL] can code the perfective or imperfective aspect in different types of complex sentences in Hui Chinese; – More variety of auto-VCL structures is found in Hui Chinese compared with Xiang and Gan dialects.
    [Show full text]
  • THE MEDIA's INFLUENCE on SUCCESS and FAILURE of DIALECTS: the CASE of CANTONESE and SHAAN'xi DIALECTS Yuhan Mao a Thesis Su
    THE MEDIA’S INFLUENCE ON SUCCESS AND FAILURE OF DIALECTS: THE CASE OF CANTONESE AND SHAAN’XI DIALECTS Yuhan Mao A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Language and Communication) School of Language and Communication National Institute of Development Administration 2013 ABSTRACT Title of Thesis The Media’s Influence on Success and Failure of Dialects: The Case of Cantonese and Shaan’xi Dialects Author Miss Yuhan Mao Degree Master of Arts in Language and Communication Year 2013 In this thesis the researcher addresses an important set of issues - how language maintenance (LM) between dominant and vernacular varieties of speech (also known as dialects) - are conditioned by increasingly globalized mass media industries. In particular, how the television and film industries (as an outgrowth of the mass media) related to social dialectology help maintain and promote one regional variety of speech over others is examined. These issues and data addressed in the current study have the potential to make a contribution to the current understanding of social dialectology literature - a sub-branch of sociolinguistics - particularly with respect to LM literature. The researcher adopts a multi-method approach (literature review, interviews and observations) to collect and analyze data. The researcher found support to confirm two positive correlations: the correlative relationship between the number of productions of dialectal television series (and films) and the distribution of the dialect in question, as well as the number of dialectal speakers and the maintenance of the dialect under investigation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to express sincere thanks to my advisors and all the people who gave me invaluable suggestions and help.
    [Show full text]
  • The CCP Central Committee's Leading Small Groups Alice Miller
    Miller, China Leadership Monitor, No. 26 The CCP Central Committee’s Leading Small Groups Alice Miller For several decades, the Chinese leadership has used informal bodies called “leading small groups” to advise the Party Politburo on policy and to coordinate implementation of policy decisions made by the Politburo and supervised by the Secretariat. Because these groups deal with sensitive leadership processes, PRC media refer to them very rarely, and almost never publicize lists of their members on a current basis. Even the limited accessible view of these groups and their evolution, however, offers insight into the structure of power and working relationships of the top Party leadership under Hu Jintao. A listing of the Central Committee “leading groups” (lingdao xiaozu 领导小组), or just “small groups” (xiaozu 小组), that are directly subordinate to the Party Secretariat and report to the Politburo and its Standing Committee and their members is appended to this article. First created in 1958, these groups are never incorporated into publicly available charts or explanations of Party institutions on a current basis. PRC media occasionally refer to them in the course of reporting on leadership policy processes, and they sometimes mention a leader’s membership in one of them. The only instance in the entire post-Mao era in which PRC media listed the current members of any of these groups was on 2003, when the PRC-controlled Hong Kong newspaper Wen Wei Po publicized a membership list of the Central Committee Taiwan Work Leading Small Group. (Wen Wei Po, 26 December 2003) This has meant that even basic insight into these groups’ current roles and their membership requires painstaking compilation of the occasional references to them in PRC media.
    [Show full text]