Macro-Bushido

Volume 1, Issue 4 The JOURNAL of GEOETHICAL NANOTECHNOLOGY 4th Quarter, 2006

The JOURNAL of

GEOETHICAL

NANOTECHNOLOGY Terasem Movement, Inc.

Volume 1, Issue 4 4th Quarter, 2006

Employing Geoethics to Avoid Negative Nanotechnology Scenarios in Developing Countries Guido David Núñez-Mujica discusses the current trend towards using fewer raw materials in manufacturing and using nanotechnology in recycling. In light of these trends, measures must be taken to ensure the economic, environmental and social welfare of developing countries, as they may be severely affected by a loss of foreign trade. …………………………………….…………………2

Consciousness in Humans and Elsewhere In describing the complex mechanisms by which the Hepatitis B virus is able to survive and transmit itself, Barry S. Blumberg wonders if we can consider the virus as having a consciousness. This question can be applied to other entities and is relevant as we nagivate the future of geoethical nanotechnology. …………………………………….……………………………………9

The Dynamics of C-termini of Microtubules in Dendrites: A Possible Clue for the Role of Neural Cytoskeleton in the Functioning of the Brain Jack Tuszynski showcases the computational complexities of the central nervous system and explains how these dynamic and programmable systems show potential for the idea of building a new nano-universe. …………………………………….……………………………………………………….15

Scope and Resolution in Neural Prosthetics and Special Concerns for the Emulation of a Whole Brain Randal Koene explores the relationships, increasing difficulties and ethical concerns associated with neural prostheses, whole brain emulation, and mind uploading. ………………………………21

Terasem Movement, Inc. Editor-in-Chief: Martine Rothblatt, Ph.D., J.D. 201 Oak Street Managing Editor: Loraine J. Rhodes Melbourne Beach, Fl 32951

Volume 1, Issue 4 The JOURNAL of GEOETHICAL NANOTECHNOLOGY 4th Quarter, 2006

Volume 1, Issue 4 4th Quarter, 2006 Employing Geoethics to Avoid Negative Nanotechnology Scenarios in Developing Countries Guido David Núñez-Mujica

The following article was submitted to the editors of Terasem’s Journal of Geoethical Nanotechnology by Guido David Núñez-Mujica, a humanities and earth-conscious biology student from the Los Andes University in Merida, Venezuela. Núñez-Mujica was Winner of the 2006 World Transhumanist Association’s J.B.S. Haldane Award for Best Undergraduate Transhumanist Paper advancing transhumanist thought, analysis or applications.

Intensifying the current trends of using fewer taken to ensure the economic, environmental raw materials per unit of manufactured and social welfare of affected Third World consumer goods will eventually lead to fewer developing countries, as they will be severely mining extractions and the preservation of affected by a loss of foreign trade. natural resources. Applying nanotechnology to recycling will improve today’s efficiency rates Despite the astounding growth of the world’s and enable the extraction of materials from economy, the physical impact of it has not sources that are currently impossible. This “Replacing heavier and scarce would make an almost perfect recycling system materials in industru with lighter feasible. However, integrating these trends in and more abundantly avalible industrialized Western countries could decrease meterials. . . has lead to an their import needs to almost zero, threatening astonishing saving of resources.” the export markets of developing nations as grown at the same pace. In fact, thanks to new new technologies render junkyards and technologies, new materials, and smaller landfills a good source of raw materials. In components, the volume of manufactured discussing the crucial role of geoethics within goods is steadily shrinking. This trend is called such a scenario, several measures must be dematerialization, and is defined as: “the

absolute or relative reduction in the quantity of the material is available in large amounts in a materials required to serve economic uniform fashion, rather than being mixed with functions” [1]. other materials; and 3) the intrinsic value of the material.[3] Replacing heavier and scarce materials in industry with lighter and more abundantly Dematerialization and recycling are two pillars available materials has been a constant of the potentially sustainable use of resources. practice within industrial research and Given the contemporary state of technology, development, which has lead to an astonishing this remains just a possibility. Yet given certain saving of resources. A heavy, old coaxial cable state of the art developments, it is possible to made of copper carries far less data traffic envision scenarios where this possibility may than a fiber optic cable made of silicon, a far become a reality and provide more efficient cheaper and more ubiquitous material. Plastics recycling and even greater dematerialization. and resins have replaced much of the metal in cars, leading to a decreased net weight. One of the necessary elements for a better and truly sustainable use of resources could be The importance of a given material in the advanced nanotechnology; the ability to economy can be measured by dividing its manipulate matter at the molecular level. As consumption by the Gross Domestic Product. proposed by Eric Drexler of the Foresight Employing this analysis makes it possible to Institute [4], nanoassemblers would make the see the dramatic decrease in materials such as manufacturing of almost every commodity timber, steel, copper, and lead since 1900; “(T)he diminishing need for raw almost in an exponential fashion. This does not materials will create possible means that the net consumption has dropped. threats to developing world On the contrary, it has grown, but not at the economies as raw materials same pace as the economy.[2] The and non-renewable energy incremental consumption of some materials, consumption decreases.” such as lead and steel, is further exacerbated by high recycling rates. feasible (including food, solar panels, clothes and tools, all from raw materials), molecule by To achieve sustainable development, recycling molecule, making an almost perfect recycling has been encouraged and is being pursued as system possible. Even if these nanoassemblers a responsible and environmentally friendly prove impossible to create, nanotechnology practice. Recycling rates have increased over remains promising for incremental the years. For certain items, more than 50% of achievements in dematerialization and the amount used in industry comes from recycling rates. Carbon nanotubes are being recycling. In terms of energy, recycling can be regarded as the fundamental building blocks of more efficient than extracting raw materials new technologies ranging from energy storing when compared to the huge amount of work to microprocessors. When it is possible to and energy needed for mining ores. Waste manufacture and manipulate nanotubes on a management is an equally important factor. commercial scale, the substitution of heavier and scarce materials with nanotube-based The profitability of recycling a given resource materials will boost dematerialization. and its impact on dematerialization depends on Nanotube construction, purported to be three factors: 1) The ease of its isolation incredibly strong and durable, may replace amidst a huge amount of waste; 2) whether many metals.

Image 1 shows a logarithmic graph that plots materials and agriculture as main commerce the use of materials in the United States during activities, will also be affected. the 20th Century.[5] Looking closely at the pattern of the materials’ importance, we Plainly stated, the diminishing need for raw recognize that the logarithmic plot and its materials will create possible threats to apparent lineal trends are in fact exponential, developing world economies as raw materials including the decreasing importance of certain and non-renewable energy consumption materials. decreases. If a developing country has nothing to trade, how will they be able to afford nanotechnology or even the most basic items needed for a modern society?

A developing country with nothing of intrinsic value to trade would result in environmental catastrophes. Image 2 shows Maslow’s Pyramid of priorities [7].

Image 1: U.S. Materials Intensity of Use

This fact may be due to the exponential growth of other sectors of the economy responsible for the bulk of the growth of the Gross Domestic

Product. Although greater data is necessary to form a more accurate projection, this trend Image 2: Maslow's Pyramid could be analyzed with Kurzweil’s Law of Accelerating Returns [6]. According to this pyramid, people would rape the environment due to a lack of resources, The environmental effects of Nanotechnology because the conservation of the environment is do not stop with greater dematerialization and less important than satisfying their better recycling which leads to less mining. physiological needs. Despite the criticism made New techniques in energy efficient nanosolar to Maslow’s theory, there are surveys showing panels are projected to produce a great energy that in fact the rise of the GDP of a society is savings as they will create less of a related to the improvement of certain dependency on oil and other non-renewable environmental markers and decreasing energy sources, such as coal and natural gas. pollution. If these countries lose their prime This will end the dependence of developed income, primitive agriculture would devastate countries on their energy suppliers, which have the rainforests on a much broader scale than traditionally been developing countries. This currently experienced. change in the pattern of energy consumption will have a great impact upon many countries There will be a need for global regulation of whose main trading good is oil. Many others, nanotechnology if we choose to avoid the who depend heavily on the exportation of raw promise of recycling and conservation and turn to the uprising of poverty and degradation of

nature. Recognizing the necessity for Geoethics and its principles (See Table 1 regulation is not a new issue concerning below) can support an approach for a rational nanotechnology. In fact, almost since the birth regulation of nanotechnology that prevents of the concept, nanotechnology has been environmental disaster from happening due to accompanied by the Foresight Institute the crash of the economies of developing Guidelines which are updated continuously.[8] countries. These guidelines deal with many of the potential risks or misguided applications of Table 1: Principles of Geoethics (Cascio, nanotechnology; mostly with the effects of 2005) awry self-replicators, direct environmental damage, and nanotech-based weapons. They Principle Definition also deal with the ethical aspects of Interconnectedness Planetary systems do not nanotechnology and its use for improving living exist in isolation, and standard in developing countries. “Poverty, changes made to one disease, and natural disasters kill thousands, in system will have some cases millions annually, and the potential implications for other to ameliorate their effects significantly should systems. not be relinquished lightly, particularly by Diversity On balance, a diverse those least affected.”[9] In regards to the ecosystem is more previously stated consequences to the resilient and flexible, biosphere, these guidelines do not explicitly better able to adapt to state actions that could be taken to achieve natural changes. this or an encouragement to do so. Note: At Foresight Consideration of effects the time this paper was written, the former of changes should scenario was not contemplated in any embrace the planetary consulted visions of the risks of pace, not the human nanotechnology. pace. Integration As human societies are According to Jamais Cascio, geoethics is “the part of the Earth's set of guidelines pertaining to human systems, changes made behaviours that can affect larger planetary should take into geophysical systems, including atmospheric, consideration effects on oceanic, geological, and plant/animal human communities, and ecosystems. These guidelines are most the needs of human relevant when the behaviours can result in communities should not long-term, widespread and/or hard-to-reverse be discounted or changes in planetary systems.”[10] This dismissed when definition is based upon the definition given by considering overall Mike Treder: “Geoethical means widely agreed- impacts. upon principles for guiding the application of Expansion of On balance, choices technologies that can have a general Options made should increase the environmental (including people) impact, much number of options and like bioethical principles (autonomy, opportunities for future beneficence, nonfeasance, justice) guide the generations, not reduce application of curative technologies that them. specifically impact one or more patients.” [11]

Reversibility Changes made to safe distribution of nanotechnology and its planetary systems should products is attained worldwide. In the next be done in a way that section, several measures for facing these allows for dilemmas and meeting requirements of safety reconsideration if and welfare will be proposed. unintended and unexpected Suggestions for Nanotech Management consequences arise. The Guidelines of the Foresight Institute offer an excellent approach to nanotechnology Concerning this issue, the principles of regulation, but they are not suited for dealing Integration, Diversity and Interconnectedness with the environmental dangers posed in this have special importance when applied to paper and for avoiding the economic collapse human populations as a key element in the of developing economies. Still, the necessary global processes. Human populations do affect measures for that goal can be contemplated the ecosystems and do no exist in isolation. When given choices to become diverse and “A compelling ethical economic and ecological framework must be technologically proficient and better suited to built to ensure that an orderly, changes, their needs must be fulfilled to rational and safe distribution of achieve a more steady and environmentally nanotechnology and its products is sound state. attended worldwide.”

There are already ethical dilemmas concerning within these guidelines. The measures that can the wealth distribution in the Earth. Some be applied in the case of this scenario figures claim that there is enough food to meet becoming reality must be a trade-off between the world’s needs, but is not well distributed. avoiding a catastrophe in the developing world Other points state that “The three richest and safety, as many of these societies are not people in the world control more wealth than democratic or lack the ability for a proper all 600 million people living in the world's management of nanotechnology (non- poorest countries.” [12] Yet currently the transparent governments, extended corruption allocation of resources is expensive and that could sell nanotechnology to independent resources are scarce. In the future, the actors or use of it as a weapon in inner abundance of such resources, thanks to conflicts). Geoethical principles should be nanoassemblers building them from scratch, considered when designing these measures. will make the current dilemmas even tougher, because resources could be given to the Some of the possible measures that could be neediest people almost for free. Yet for taken are: “security reasons”, a developed nation will not just give away nanotechnology and greater Do not give the technology away motives could be argued for keeping a without the supervision of trained monopoly over this technology and its fruits. personnel from the West to instruct on its use. The training of the local How do we avoid such environmental personnel should be conducted tragedies? How do we deal with rogue or overseas in a Western developed deceitful states? A compelling ethical, country by people from all around the economic and ecological framework must be world. This training would not only built to ensure that an orderly, rational and concern technical, but also ethical

issues. This would expose the people in The forenamed regulatory actions are charge to a Western ethics model of grounded in geoethics and therefore must be world-unity and abundance. discussed with those who will be potentially The use of inherently safe replicators affected to achieve truly agreed-upon effective must be regarded as a priority and measures to cope with the possible remain as one of the main technical environmental disaster. It is a priority to check measures to prevent misuse of the true plausibility of this scenario and discuss nanotechnology.[13] it widely, and to incorporate this scenario into Any rogue states or nations could have the mainstream discussed issues about risks of the products distributed to them, but nanotechnology. We suggest that the not the assembler. Thus, nanofactories measures developed for dealing with the near them would provide the necessary proposed scenario, proposed ones or commodities to the population of these otherwise, be developed by experts in the field states, but distribution would be and incorporated into the main set of measures carefully planned to avoid the proposed to cope with the risk of oppression of ethnic or political factions nanotechnology, such as the Foresight by totalitarian rulers. This distribution Institute Guidelines, et al. could take place in international waters or via a nearby friendly country. Endnotes Giving away assemblers incapable of certain actions and satellites controlled 1. Treder, Mike. About Geoethical Nanotech, by an international organization. If the Center for Reponsible Nanotechnology web link is broken or hacked, the assembler site. August 10, 2006 2:36 P.M. will destroy itself and send signals to the regulatory organizations. 2. Scarlett, L. ―Hacer más con menos. Trading nanoassemblers for improving Desmaterialización, ¿Triunfo ambiental human rights, women’s conditions and desdeñado?‖ Reporte Tierra, la Herencia del democracy could lead to a more sound Siglo XX. McGraw Hill Interamericana, Ciudad global society grounded on western de México 2000. values, therefore lessening the current threats of terrorism and the current 3. Ibid. global dissatisfaction with the governments of developed countries 4. The Foresight Institute is the leading think concerning international help. tank and public interest institute on However, this approach could be used nanotechnology. Founded in 1986, Foresight only with countries with no negotiation was the first organization to educate society capacities, powerful countries with about the benefits and risks of weapons could not be enforced in this nanotechnology. At that time, nanotechnology way despite the situation of its was a little-known concept. population due to the collapse of their http://www.foresight.org/ June 21, 2006 economy. Signing international treaties 4:45PM EST for the destruction of atomic weapons and transcontinental missiles in 5. Wernick et al. ―Materialization and exchange for the products of Dematerialization: Measures and Trends‖ replicators or the replicators Daedalus 125(3):171-198 (Summer 1996) themselves seems a plausible option. June 21, 2006 3:33PM EST

6. Ray Kurzweil, author and inventor, is a 10. Cascio, Terraforming Earth, Part III: leading resource on artificial intelligence. He Geoethical Principles. has received twelve honorary Doctorates and honors from three U.S. presidents. He has 11. Foresight Nanotech Institute, Molecular received seven national and international film Nanotechnology Guidelines. awards. His book, The Singularity is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology, was 12. Wikipedia, Poverty. published by Penguin Books, New York, in 2005. Kurzweil Technology web site. June 21, 13. Drexler, K. Engines of Creation. The 2006 5:00PM EST coming era of nanotechnology. Anchor Books, Doubleday, New York, 1986 7. Maslow’s Pyramid of Priorities includes the following "Fulfillment steps", to be read from bottom to top: BIO Self-actualization desires and yearnings. Esteem hankerings. Social yearnings. Guido Núñez-Mujica is an Safety adherence. undergraduate Student of Physiological, steady competence Biology and Computational needs. Physics at the Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida, Maslow called the first four stages deficit Venezuela. In 2001, Núñez- needs, or D-needs. The top two stages are Mujica became the founder being-needs (B-needs) and relate to desires of the AREV, the first and and yearnings for self-actualization. Wikipedia, only skeptical association of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Venezuela, devoted to spreading critical thinking and rationalistic views. Núñez-Mujica 8. Foresight Nanotech Institute, Molecular is an active transhumanist and has become a Nanotechnology Guidelines. speaker about Transhumanism in a course on Bioethics in the Faculty of Sciences at the 9. Ibid. (back to top) Universidad de Los Andes. He is currently trying to create a transhumanist group in Mérida.

Volume 1, Issue 4 4th Quarter, 2006

Consciousness in Humans and Elsewhere

Barry Blumberg, Ph.D.

Baruch Samuel Blumberg, M.D., Ph.D. was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine in 1976 for his contributions in discovering the Hepatitis B vaccine. In this essay, Blumberg describes the complex mechanisms by which the Hepatitus B virus is able to survive, thrive, transmit and replicate itself. These mechanisms are so complex that the virus seems to have a plan, a strategy, tactics and an intentional drive - which are all characteristics of a conscious being. Blumberg poses the question, should we therefore consider HBV to have a consciousness? In other words, just because something behaves as though it has a consciousness, is it indeed conscious?

Introduction apparent simplicity of structure and During the course of the research on the information content, HBV has a complex Hepatitis B virus (HBV) that my colleagues and lifestyle, which has developed to allow it to I have conducted for many years[1], several interact successfully with its primary host, questions have arisen that relate to the subject humans.

“(W)hat is the difference between The issue that relates to the topic of geoethical explaining the actions of an nanotechnology and consciousness is that the organism as exhibiting a plan, and the organism actually having a easiest way to explain HBV’s complex plan.” mechanisms of environmental interactions is to infer that the virus or swarm of viruses has a of consciousness. HBV is a very small virus plan, a strategy, tactics, and an intentional whose genome consists of only 3,200 base drive. The question is; what is the difference pairs and four reading frames that produce between explaining the actions of an organism about 8 proteins. This is the smallest number as exhibiting a plan, and the organism actually of base pairs of any human pathogen with the having a plan? exception of the Hepatitis D virus (HDV)[2], which has only about half the number of base I use the terms strategy and tactics in the pairs as HBV. HDV is a strange virus that can military sense. Strategy refers to the plans only infect people that are already are infected made before engagement with the enemy, with HBV, or by co-infection with its larger such as long range planning, politics, logistics, liver-bound companion virus. Despite the communications, transport to the scene of

battle. Tactics refer to the more direct and short term plans and actions when the enemy is in sight and engaged. Biology, and in particular immunology and infectious disease, frequently uses the terminology of hot and cold war, a heritage from the early days of microbiology, which started as medical microbiology with the concept of a war on infectious agents foreign to the host.

My understanding is that having a plan is a characteristic of consciousness. If an organism is aware that it exists, then there is a Figure 1: Hepatitis B Virus Morphology “motivation” to plan for a somewhat predictable, yet mysterious future. It is a The large particles are the whole virus. The characteristic of sentient life itself. Does that smaller and the elongated particles contain mean that HBV has a consciousness? only the surface antigen[4] of the virus. There are many more surface antigens than the

HBV Plans whole virus. The virus includes the surface Robert Loeb, Professor of Medicine at the antigen (HbsAg), the core antigen (HbcAg) that College of Physicians and Surgeons of surrounds the DNA[5], and the priming Columbia University, has said: “Teleological protein. (SLIDE 5) The genome[6] includes explanations are fraught with danger.” The four reading frames, the S gene that produces Wikipedia encyclopedia defines teleology the HbsAg or S protein, the C gene that (derived from the Greek telos: end, purpose) produces the HBcAg or C protein, the P gene as the philosophical study of design, purpose, that produces the reverse transcriptase[7] and directive principle, or finality in nature or DNA polymerase needed for replication, and human creations. It is obvious that the search the X gene that produces HBxAg or the X for purpose and design in nature hinges on the protein that is needed for replication and other current and ancient debates on the nature of processes. the designer, intelligent design and other aspects of the interaction of science and There are several possible outcomes following religion. infection. The most common response is the development of a protective antibody against

Figure 1 is an electron micrograph[3] of the the surface antigen (anti-HBs). Most people virus. who develop the antibody will not become sick, but some develop acute Hepatitis B, from which they ordinarily recover in weeks or months. Some of these people may go on to develop chronic infection that can lead to chronic liver failure and/or primary cancer of the liver. Some infected individuals, particularly those infected from their mother before or at the time of birth or those infected when young, will become HBV carriers. They can remain acutely infected for decades and

are at a high risk of developing liver failure and transmission of HBV. People infected at and/or primary cancer of the liver. birth or early childhood may remain asymptomatic for decades. It is only after The nature of the response is determined by transmission has had ample time to happen several factors. These include age of infection, that the infected person becomes ill with what gender, the presence of other environmental is often a very deadly disease. The infected factors, and a series of susceptibility genes person is spared from death for a very long that affect whether the person develops anti- time to increase the probability of HBs and is immune to subsequent disease or transmission. becomes a carrier and is at risk for chronic liver disease and/or primary cancer of the HBV is transmitted from person to person by liver. close contact and specifically by the transmission of blood and other body fluids HBV is one of the most common infectious from an infected to an uninfected person. The agents worldwide. Figure 2 shows the global mechanisms of transmission include distribution of chronic HBV infection. transmission from an infected mother to her unborn or just born child, infection of children by their siblings, and venereal transmission. HBV has “selected” methods for transmission that are necessary for the survival of humans; the virus can expect to survive and flourish as long as their human hosts do so.

The virus can also be transmitted by social practices that are common in many populations. These include tattooing, a ritual common in many non-Western as well as Figure 2: Global Distribution of Chronic HBV contemporary western populations; ritual Infection circumcision; exchange of blood between “blood sisters” or “blood brothers”, and other About two billion people – one third of the exotic practices. Blood is also transferred by world’s population – have been or are infected. the use of “dirty needles” by drug injections, There are about 375 million people who are including recreational drugs, and by the use of currently infected and most are asymptomatic transfused blood and renal dialysis machines HBV carriers. As noted, they are at increased as well as other medical devices. risk of developing serious liver disease later in life. An epidemic of HBV infection was reported in

The overall strategy of HBV can be explained “(T)he virus has also managed to as a drive to maintain relatively high titers[8] adapt to commanon social of virus in the host’s blood stream for as long practices for its transmission” as possible to increase the probability that the virus will be transmitted from an infected host Swedish orienteers. This is an active sport in to another person. It is advantageous to the which contestants race through an outdoor virus that the infected host survive for a long course with a map, compass, and a series of time to increase the likelihood of replication check points through which they may pass.

The virus was transmitted when contestants destroying the infected cells and ridding itself ran through brush and undergrowth. They of the infection. Research over the past could wash off their legs at the check points, decades has increased the understanding of often using the same basin of water which many of these mechanisms that are important could serve as a vehicle of transmission. In for developing new treatments and preventive addition, small amounts of blood remained on methods. The following is a description of a the brush with which successive runners often few of these mechanisms. came into contact. Apparently, these small exchanges of blood were sufficient to transfer HBV enters the liver (and other) cells of its the virus from infected to uninfected persons. host where it can take over the capabilities of the host cell in order to replicate and infect Thus, in addition to the biological functions other cells and enter the blood stream. In associated with procreation, the virus has also time, it may integrate into the host genome, managed to adapt to common social practices including possibly the germ cells, and it can for its transmission. It can even adapt to then be transmitted to subsequent parochial activities. generations. The host cells produce the whole replicating virus and, in addition, large HBV has had a long time to develop these numbers of particles that contain only the adaptations. HBV and related organisms with surface antigen (HBsAg). These can bind to the high homologies (hepadnaviruses) have been antibody produced by the host (anti-HBs) and found in many of the species in which they prevent the host antibody from immobilizing have been sought. It is likely that even more the whole virus that can then go on to replicate species will be found to be infected as the and infect others. This is another example of numbers tested increases. the teleological explanation.

The use of the vaccine that we invented in Another ingenious mechanism is shown by the 1969 and that has been widely used since the protein produced by the C reading frame, 1980s has thwarted most of these means of shown in Figure 3. transmission. Will the virus find other mechanisms for transmission that are not prevented by the vaccine?

The virus has also adapted itself to the immune system of its host in several ingenious ways. As already noted, in order to be transmitted effectively, the virus should remain in the peripheral blood at relatively high titers so that is available to be transmitted by the means discussed above. It remains in the liver and other cells where it can replicate, infect Image 3: Genes and Gene Products of HBV other cells, and enter the blood stream.

The reading frame has two start points. The The virus can modify the immune system of first results in a protein that is larger than the the host so that it does not recognize the protein generated from the second start codon, infected cell as containing foreign elements but they both share much of the antigenicity of and therefore the host is ineffective at

the C protein. The smaller protein can leave devices that know what they are, where they the cell, interact with the host immune system are and how to communicate with their near and “tolerize” the host, that is, make the host neighbors, and thus, with anything in the act as if the C protein is not foreign. As a world. Much of the planetary sensing that is consequence, when the larger C protein is part of the scientific enterprise will be implicit expressed on the surface of the liver cell, the in this new digital Gaia (Mother Earth). The host immune system will not attack it and the Internet will have leaked out, to become infected cell will remain in the host and coincident with Earth. … The ensemble continue to produce HBV. This serves the eventually grows beyond human creativity. To “goal” of the virus to remain in the host, become what? We can’t know until we get producing high titers of it, and increases its there.”[10] probability of transmission to others. The point of this article is to ask an interesting These are what can only be called ingenious question. Consciousness implies self “The question is, again, what is the awareness. Knowing that you exist requires difference between telling a story considering the past, present, and the future. as if the creature has a plan and it Considering the future means that plans must actually having a plan?” be made based on past and present experiences and unfolding events. methods employed by HBV to increase the probability of its survival. I, and probably most In describing the natural history of HBV and its other workers in the field, would not have interactions with humans and other elements thought of these strategies had we not been in its environment, I spoke as if it had a plan “informed” by the study of HBV’s behavior. To that is a characteristic of consciousness. The put this in a more anthropomorphic[1] style, question is, again, what is the difference the virus is smarter than we are. between telling a story as if the creature has a plan and it actually having a plan? In preparing this paper, I have found a few other references to similar questioning in quite different fields, such as information technology. The following example envisions a BIO future internet where questions similar to those that I have posed are raised. This is a quote by Verner Vinge, who is at San Diego State University. Vinge is the author of the Blumberg, Baruch Samuel, novel, Rainbows End, which considers the 1925–, American biochemist, Internet of 2025. b. Brooklyn, N.Y., B.S. Union College, Schenectady, N.Y., “In fifteen years, we are likely to have 1946, M.D. Columbia, 1951, processing power that is 1,000 times greater Ph.D. Oxford, 1957. From than today, and in even larger increase in the 1957 to 1964, he worked at number of network-connected devices (such as the National Institutes of Health. In 1964, he tiny sensors and effectors). Among other became a professor at the Univ. of things, these improvements will add a layer of Pennsylvania, and in 1976 he shared the Nobel networking beneath what we have today, to Prize in Physiology or Medicine with D. Carleton create a world come alive with trillions of tiny Gajdusek. Blumberg won his share for his

discovery of an antigen in the blood of an 5. DNA - A nucleic acid — usually in the form Australian Aborigine that contributed to the of a double helix — that contains the genetic development of a vaccine against hepatitis B. instructions monitoring the biological In 1999, he was named director of NASA's development of all cellular forms of life, and Astrobiology Institute. Barry Blumberg is the many viruses. Wikipedia.com August 24, 2006 President of the American Philosophical 4:18PM EST Society. 6. Genome – A complete haploid set of Endnotes chromosomes with its associated genes. Stedman’s. Medical dic·tion·ar·y, second 1. A paper describing Blumberg's research can edition. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin be found in the Proceedings from the National Company, 2004: 138. Academy of Sciences, USA Vol. 94, pp. 7121- 7125, July 1997. August 24, 2006 2:38PM EST 7. Reverse transcriptase - In biochemistry, a reverse transcriptase, also known as RNA- 2. Hepatitis D - Liver inflammation due to the directed DNA polymerase, is a DNA polymerase hepatitis D virus (HDV), which only causes enzyme that transcribes single-stranded RNA disease in patients who already have the into double-stranded DNA. Normal hepatitis B virus. Transmission is via infected transcription involves the synthesis of RNA blood, needles, or sexual contact with an from DNA; hence reverse transcription is the infected person. Symptoms are identical to reverse of this, as it synthesizes DNA from those of hepatitis B. Chronic infection with HDV RNA. Wikipedia.com August 24, 2006 4:27PM is currently treated with interferon, although it EST is not very successful. HDV infection can be prevented by the hepatitis B vaccine, and by 8. Titer – The concentration of a solution or the avoiding activities that could lead to getting strength of such a solution by titration or the virus. MedicineNet.com August 24, 2006 perform the operation of titration (The process, 3:52PM EST operation or method of determining the concentration of a substance in a solution to 3. Micrograph - A photograph or similar image which the addition of a reagent having a taken through a microscope or similar device known concentration is made in carefully to show a magnified image of an item. measured amounts until a reaction of definite Wikipedia.com August 24, 2006 4:13PM EST and known proportion is completed). Stedman’s. Medical dic·tion·ar·y, second 4. Antigen - Any substance that causes your edition. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin immune system to produce antibodies against Company, 2004: 827. it. An antigen may be a foreign substance from the environment such as chemicals, bacteria, 9. Anthropomorphic - suggesting human viruses, or pollen. An antigen may also be characteristics for animals or inanimate things. formed within the body, as with bacterial Answers.com August 24, 2006 4:47PM EST toxins or tissue cells. MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia August 24, 2006 4:15PM EST 10. Vinge, Vernor, The Creativity Machine, Nature, (2006), 440, 411.

Volume 1, Issue 4 4th Quarter, 2006

The Dynamics of C-termini of Microtubules in Dendrites: A Possible Clue for the Role of Neural Cytoskeleton in the Functioning of the Brain

Jack Tuszynski, Ph.D.

In this article, Tuszynski explains the complexity of the computational capabilities of the brain and neurons. He demonstrates that these systems are dynamic and programmable, and extrapolates this potential to the idea of building a new nano-universe.

As a humble physicist, I will try to address intricate structures that perform very complex some simple questions related to functions and processes. computational capabilities within the brain and inside neurons. Let’s narrow down our inquiry to the neuron “I would like to risk the The system and compare it to the world. I would statement that the human brain is as complex as cytoskeleton is like to risk a statement that the human brain is the universe…” the main as complex as the universe because it has objective of many areas responsible for different activities this article, but and roughly ten billion members. This is I will start from a more general perspective by roughly the size of the planet and the number looking at the complexity and diversity of living of people on this planet is about the same as systems, which are sources of awe to me as a the number of neurons. Yet neurons interact physicist. with hundreds of thousands of other neurons on a routine basis. The level of complexity is When you look at the number of different quite immense. On a daily basis, we humans types of cells in the body and how they interact only with maybe a dozen to one cooperate and organize their activities, it is hundred people a day. just amazing. There are about two hundred types of cells in the body and ten to the Speaking of the size and dimensions, I also fourteenth cells altogether. They are organized want to raise the issue of the level of by having about 100,000 different kinds of understanding that is required at the different proteins. They make copies and assemble into levels of living systems. At the largest level, we use thermodynamics - basically classical

concepts - and the lower on the scale you go, The protein we will consider in this article is the more advanced a theory you must use. tubulin. Tubulin is composed of 450 amino There is a pattern. Thus, the complications acids, with twenty choices in each position. The arise at the intermediate level, cell, and below. sequence of a protein of that magnitude is beyond immense. The possible number of Take a cytoskeleton, where the dimensions nerve cells is also an example of an immense and the time scale of processes overlap set. I sometimes jokingly worry about the between the types of classical and quantum number of tunes that people can compose, regimes. Nanotechnology is very much which is another example of an immense set. implicated here. This is indeed a regime where We will never run out of music, which is good classical meets quantum. news. Thus, there are the different types of morphologies. The mathematician and physicist, Walter M. Elsasser[1], coined a very significant number, Next, I will take you on a tour inside a neuron. which is ten to the power of 110. Some of us To some degree, I think it is an amazing tour are very ambitious in saying that, by using this because you are looking into components of number, we can understand the universe and cells, down to individual atoms, and this is can predict the future of the universe or made available only because of computational evolution of the species. capabilities.

This number is a humbling wake up call, because there are some inherent limitations in our computational capabilities. This is one of them. It is the product of the size of the universe measured in proton masses times the age of the universe in picoseconds. The meaning is this: If the entire universe was one big computer operating for the age of the universe (fifteen billion years), making transitions on picoseconds times scale which is basic quantum transition, this number would result.

Ten to the power of 110; what does it mean? It means that if you had a set consisting of that many members, you could never even inspect a set. This is an absolute limit. Thus, it is very, very large. Image 1: Microtubules in Neurons

I will discuss some numbers that are actually a The microtubules are the most important common place for several objects with that structures doing work in the cells. Image 1 many members. For example, the number of shows a nerve cell with microtubules inside the possible DNA sequences in the nuclear DNA is axon. Microtubules also exist in the soma and several billion base pairs, which is enormous. dendrites. Not only do they provide the mechanical stability of the cell, but they also interact with many other substructures

including the membrane ion channels and This is another most dramatic representation. motor proteins. They are actually indispensable The solid bars are microtubules that are for all traffic going on in the cell. interconnected by microtubule-associated proteins. Keep in mind that this is not static. One thing that I want to mention as a side There is a lot of dynamic motion. remark is that, in my opinion, there is no precise definition of life. Yet one criterion that This is the scheme of the tour that I offer to is very important for living systems is you. From the level of the neurons, we go intentionality of motion. If you can make an inside and see microtubules interconnected by intentional motion, then I would say you are other protein structures. We then go inside probably alive. What is the substrate of microtubules to see the building blocks, the intentional motion? I think it is microtubules tubulins, and we go inside tubulins and see and motor proteins. These are the most every atom. important proteins that define living systems. This is an amazing journey that we can I will take you on a guided tour through the actually simulate it in the computer. We moving components of the cell. I will not spend believe that simulations give us a glimpse into too much time on quantum mechanics of what may be happening at the scale of microtubules a la Hammeroff and Penrose [2] picoseconds to nanoseconds. Microtubules are orchestrated objective reduction theory, very important; they can self-assemble. That is although it is interesting and it does bring also a very interesting feature. Even in vitro in physics into the picture. I will try to the lab, you can self-assemble them and demonstrate that even within the classical create hybrid structures. realm, there is more than enough computational power inside the neuron to On the surface, motor proteins, kinesis, and amaze. dyneins are walking on microtubules, in effect, being guided. If you disrupt these Image 2 shows a dendritic structure with microtubules, all traffic stops. It is not just synaptic connections and microtubules inside incidental; it is absolutely necessary and the dendrites and tubuli in dimers, which are essential for transport within the cells. One the building blocks of microtubules. important transport element is mRNA going to synapses and building a neuro-transmitter. The neuro-transmitter is absolutely essential for cognitive functions.

In Image 3, we are zooming in. There is a microtubule taken by transmission electron microscopy computer, and this is a reconstructed surface of a microtubule. On the right, from the component tubulin protein, to give you dimensions, the last inside panel has a 25-nanometer diameter and a length of about 10 microns on average, 10 micrometers. The right hand side panel shows you a protein that is about 8 by 5 by 4 1⁄2 nanometers. Image 2: Cytoskeletal Structures in Dendtrites

Individual ribbons may have dimensions of We know quite a bit about what tubulins are several angstroms. composed of and I want to draw your attention to two aspects. The most successful chemotherapy drug on the market: Paclitaxel, with two billion dollars a year in revenue. We know exactly where and how it binds, and we know exactly what to do to make it bind better and more specifically.

Another structure I want to bring to your attention is the protrusion called c-termini. These tails are composed of about twelve to sixteen amino acids and we believe that they are actually essential to the health of neurons. They interact with a lot of things, including kinesins and MAPs[3] and other proteins as is Image 3: Zooming In shown in the microscopic rendition of the surface of the microtubules. They are Very briefly, microtubules are composed of negatively charged and have their own polarity tubulin and are very dynamic, so this is so the two ends are different, functionally and actually a mathematical simulation. We spent physically. As I mentioned, c-termini are some time trying to simulate observations in dynamic. the lab, which showed that microtubules grow and shrink in a kind of stochastic unpredictable We are examining a hidden part of the brain manner. This is regulated inside the cells where a lot of things are happening that are especially during cell division and dividing cells. important for our mental cognitive functions. Microtubules grow on demand. When they This simulation shows how these MAPs may connect to chromosomes, they stop growing rearrange themselves in the process of and start shrinking, segregating the acquiring experience. Image 4 shows how c- chromosomes. This does not happen to termini and MAPs actually connect the neurons, of course, because neurons are not microtubules with the c-termini. dividing. Yet during neuron growth, microtubules do grow to form the structure.

Microtubules do rearrange in the lifetime of a neuron. Thus it is not once and for all. The tubulin is being replenished and rearranged. I think this has to do with some possible malfunctions. One potential negative effect is when they lose binding ability with microtubule-associated proteins, you may end up with a neurological disorder such as Alzheimer’s. Microtubules are involved directly in Alzheimer’s and other neurological diseases.

Image 4: MAPs Connecting Microtubules

Next, we looked more closely at c-termini by computation. There are four c-termini states simulating it with simplified models. Recently, per dimer because we have two states per we completed a major computational analysis monomer. with atomic detail. We discovered existing c- termini in at least two other states -- There could be at least four states per electron functional or computational. One state is up, inside the tubulin dimer, as they hop between straight up. This is a natural state because two locations. There could be at least two they are negatively charged and they want to computational changes due to the GTP get away from the surface. We found positive hydrolysis. Thus there are 4 x 4 x 2, which is charges on the surface of microtubules. They 32 states per dimer; thirteen dimers per ring; can actually bend over and bind to the positive and 1,250 rings per midsize microtubule. charges and create the second state, which is a down state. This is the first component in the If you do the math, the result is about 100 computational capability. kilobytes per microtubule. Calculating the number of microtubules per neuron, you get Microtubules also have two states indirectly -- one gigabyte of processing power per neuron. a high energy state and a low energy state -- There are ten billion neurons. You have ten to driven by the energy-giving molecules, the 19th bytes per brain and they oscillate or guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Some of you make transitions in this state on the order of may have heard of ATP, which is a basic unit of nanoseconds, and ten to the 28th flops per biochemical energy in living systems. GTP is its brain. analog. Microtubules eat GTP. Motor proteins, such as kinesis, eat ATP. This is conservative, to be sure. That is the computational capability within the brain at the Thus we have two states in terms of energy, scale of dendrites and inside the cytoskeleton. two states in terms of the c-termini, and then possible different electronic states. When you I will finish this up with a brief foray into the combine these, the result is a lot of states that future. I have discussed what Mother Nature can be transforming on picosecond to has already constructed for us. What can we nanosecond scales. The c-termini transitions do with this to operate it or make hybrids? I are on a nanosecond scale. call it a bionano-factory. We can easily construct nanowires from microtubules and For these two states, we have devised a microfilaments – such as nanocables, simulation that shows how they oscillate and nanoswitches, nanosensors, nanostorage eventually collapse, and how they couple to devices and nanorobots. You saw some of the ionic states. We have discovered through characteristics of motor proteins. All of this can simulation that states of c-termini may either be assembled and self-assembled and possibly be triggered or coupled to ions along the directed to some degree. length of microtubules. All of this is now being integrated with signal transduction and with Microtubules can be decorated with action potential. nanoparticles and metallic, magnetic nanoparticles. Thus we are capable today of Action potentials involve movement of many making structures that self-assemble and that ions across the membranes. These may trigger have conductive properties that range from state changes in microtubules as well. Putting insulating to perfect conductors. We can coat it all together, I did a back end of the envelope them with gold, silver palladium platinum and

magnetic beads, which have unique Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, conductive, magnetic and chemically reactive 2004. states.

A microtubule network can be created where the microtubules go to with metallic particle BIO beads. We can construct this surface now and hook them up to micro-electrodes that have Professor Jack sensors or microchips. This would be an Tuszynski received architecture that you could control with input his M.Sc. with and output devices with microtubules of a distinction in Physics billion possible shapes and sizes and from the University conductive electronic properties. When you add of Poznan (Poland) in to it these nanorobots -- kinesins and dyneins 1980. He received -- that walk at different speeds and different his Ph.D. in directions, then suddenly you are creating a Condensed Matter new nano-universe. Physics from the University of Calgary in 1983. He joined the University of Alberta Physics Endnotes Department in 1993. He is on the editorial board of the Journal of Biological Physics. 1. Hameroff & Penrose - Orch OR (―Orchestrated Objective Reduction‖) is a theory of consciousness put forth in the mid- 1990s by British theoretical physicist Sir Roger Penrose and American anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff. Whereas some theories assume consciousness emerges from the brain, and among these some assume that mind emerges from complex computation at the level of synapses among brain neurons, Orch OR involves a specific form of quantum computation that underlies these neuronal synaptic activities. The proposed quantum computations occur in structures inside the brain’s neurons called microtubules. Wikipedia.com Nov. 7, 2006 12:09 PM EST

2. Dr. Walter Elsasser (1904-1991) was a physicist and is considered "father" of the geodynamo theory. Wikipedia.com Nov. 7, 2006 11:52AM EST

3. MAP – To locate a gene or DNA sequence in a specific region of a chromosome in relation to known genes or DNA sequences. Stedman’s. The American Heritage Medical dic·tion·ar·y.

Volume 1, Issue 4 4th Quarter, 2006

Scope and Resolution in Neural Prosthetics and Special Concerns for the Emulation of a Whole Brain

Randal Koene, Ph.D.

This article was adapted from a lecture given by Randal Koene, Ph.D. at Terasem Movement, Inc.’s 2nd Annual Workshop on Geoethical Nanotechnology in Lincoln, VT on July 20, 2006.

In this article, Dr. Koene explores the relationships, increasing difficulties and ethical concerns associated with three concepts in applied neuroscience: Neural prostheses, whole brain emulation, and mind uploading.

"To know the brain ... is equivalent to ascertaining the material course of thought and will, to discovering the intimate history of life with its perpetual duel with external forces." - Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-1906, 1906 Nobel Laureate)

The three concepts of neural prostheses, whole During the time of the scientific revolution, brain emulation, and mind uploading are Count Alessandro Volta experimented on related. In this order, they are of increasing himself by attaching two metal rods to difficulty. Neuro-prosthetics is about the batteries of his own design and completing a replacement of component functions of the 50-volt circuit by placing the two rods in his central nervous system. Patients today have ear.[1] As you might expect, he felt an been implanted with some examples of sensory uncomfortable jolt. He also reported hearing a prosthetics. One example is cochlear implants, sound reminiscent of bubbling or boiling. which alleviate hearing impairment.

Cochlear implants are an example of a prosthetic with a mature development history.

In the 1950’s, two French physicians, Djourno stimulation, which is a kind of brain and Eyries, performed experiments in hearing pacemaker. This was pioneered by another augmentation with electrical attachments to pair of French researchers, Benabid and Pollak. the exposed auditory nerve.[2] Then, in 1961, We use deep brain stimulation to treat Doctor William House began the era of movement disorders. cochlear implants in earnest by implanting the first patient with a wearable prosthetic.[3] Right now, deep brain stimulation is approved or being tested for a variety of conditions, By now, about 100,000 patients have received including the treatment of Parkinson’s tremors, cochlear implants. The newer implants include primary dystonia (a devastating moving processors that reduce background noise and disorder characterized by involuntary muscle emphasize speech. contractions), depression, and even Tourette’s Syndrome.[4] Cochlear implants also are an example of how ethical disputes can arise with prosthetic If you look to the near future, neural applications. For instance, many in the signing prosthetics will become more complex, deaf community actually rigorously oppose the replacing functions of entire specialized brain implantation of congenitally deaf children. They regions. Theodore Berger’s lab at the emphasize the unique development of deaf University of Southern California is working on culture and they oppose the classification of a prosthetic hippocampus, for instance.[5] congenital deafness as a disability. Berger’s stated near-term goal is to replace the whole circuit brain dynamics of sub-region CA3 A second example of sensory prosthetics are of the hippocampal formation. The CA3 region retinal prostheses, which are in the advanced is considered central to episodic sequence stages of testing in several places, such as at learning. the Boston Retinal Implant Project. They involve a combination of external and An array of electrodes is placed on each side of implanted hardware. a damaged portion of the region CA3, one to record and one to stimulate. A dedicated processor is designed to mimic the electrical input-output relationship recorded in CA3 and applies the necessary computations to signals received from the recording electrodes. It provides useful output to the stimulating electrodes.

According to Berger, human trials of the hippocampal prosthetic are slated to begin as early as 2010. The implementation of neural prostheses is possible both in dedicated hardware and through software. Obviously, Image 1: Neural Prosthetics medical applications can benefit specifically from the speed and portability of hardware, There are also different types of present day where as in research it is often useful to be neural interfaces, such as the implantation of flexible, which is more easily achieved in electrodes into the brain for deep brain software applications.

As neural prostheses are gradually able to take over the function of all the different regions of the brain, we reach the next objective - whole brain emulation. This refers to the emulation of the complete brain function on a different and quite possibly, non-biological substrate. Image 3: Whole Brain Emulation: The Blue Brain Project

On the left, the forest of dendritic and axonal fibers is emphasized, and on the right, the cell bodies. The left-hand image shows three parameter neurons superimposed on an infrared image of the microcircuit. On the right, you see the inhibitory fibers of interneurons indicated in blue, wrapping around the excitatory fibers in red of pyramidal neurons. Their inhibitory activity can then control activity in the system, preventing Image 2: Whole Brain Emulation epilepsy.

To illustrate the complexity of the biological While there is a common structure, the details substrate, Dr. Henry Markram of the IBM- of these complex circuits differ from column to sponsored Blue Brain Project in Switzerland column within an individual and between “…because science governs individual brains. This brings us to the subtle nature and the brain, it is possible yet important difference between emulation to make it’s detaild workings and simulation. comprehensible.” was kind enough to provide several images of I generated a simulation that simulates the dye injected neurons in the neocortical development of the morphology of neural fiber microcircuit.[6] The neo cortex consists of vast based on growth models for a project in the numbers of similarly interconnected columnar Netherlands that investigates the emergence of neural structures, also known as mini columns. characteristic stages of spatial temporal Each column contains up to 10,000 neurons patterns of activity as neural networks and has a width of about 500 microns. develop. The simulation rotated to show how the fibers in two layers of the main column Image 3 shows two different stains of the develop and grow toward each other in the parameter cells of the microcircuit. first seven days of development. Generally, simulations in neuroscience attempt to explore constrained sets of effects and interactions that resemble a subset observed in biology. When I say emulation, I specifically mean the intention to achieve function equal to that of the original and individual brain.

That brings us to the third related objective, In general, the ability to directly manipulate mind uploading. Mind uploading is the such technology will accelerate the increase of transition of information expressing functions intelligent capabilities previously enhanced and experiences of a specific human mind to solely through natural selection. This may lead whole brain emulation in another substrate. to a significant change of the human How is whole brain emulation a predictable perspective, as well as the social order with outcome of neuroscience? regards to the standing and long-term prospects of Homo sapiens. First of all, note that science, neuroscience and whole brain emulation are based on the same In fact, this possibility has in some way or fundamental premise. That premise is that the other been predicted since the scientific scientific study of nature, including the human revolution in the Renaissance. As an example brain, is useful. In science, we can make of such thinking, we have the robot sketches models of reality by creating theorems and by Leonardo Da Vinci and we have such laws often expressed through applicable oddities as the hoax by von Kempelen, called equations. In other words, because science the Turk.[7, 8] While a human operator was governs nature and the brain, it is possible to responsible for the chess playing feats of von make its detailed workings comprehensible. Kempelen’s supposed automaton, note that the hoax itself required the belief by both the The utility of the scientific approach has been perpetrator and the audience that such a feat vindicated in prior pursuits. As an example, I was possible. could pick the application of Sir Isaac Newton’s Law of Gravity in the design of space probes, Within this applied neuroscience, what is such as Voyager One. There are some distinctive about whole brain emulation? Whole predictable outcomes of applied neuroscience. brain emulation specifically initializes evolving As neuroscience enables us to understand how intelligence in another substrate with the the human brain produces intelligence, it will recognizably individual minds of human beings. inevitably be possible to create artificial Whether 1,000 years of development will show implementations that exhibit intelligence at a significant difference between a society to least equal to our intelligence. which were added only entirely artificial descendants “Any medical procedure created by that leads to whole brain human emulation will have to minds, or address the subjective which include experience: How whole is descendants the prosthetic in terms of of human personal identity and self- awareness?” minds, is an open question. Whatever that answer may be, a belief in the utility of the scientific method automatically qualifies whole brain emulation for the same consideration. Image 4: A Goal of Neuroscience The main difference between the expressed sentiments of individual scientists is their

estimate of the time spans required to reach the neo cortical memory representations of these milestones of understanding. Now I your grandchildren. would like to contrast general function and subject specific prostheses. Here I mention Eric Kandel, because he so clearly demonstrated the significant processes of memory formation that change not only the active state, but also the physical morphology of our brain as a result of experience.[9] As a medical procedure, moving into brain emulation in health care, whole brain emulation need not be the result of a whole series of separate neural prosthetic replacements. Instead, here are some examples of ideal or wholesale approaches.

Image 5: General vs. Subject Specific Prosthese

Both cochlear implants and retinal prostheses in their current form are largely general function prosthetics. You can think of a wooden leg that is supplied only in a standard length. For examples of current subject specific prostheses, consider instead modern prosthetic legs or wigs and dental implants. Image 6: Brain Emulation in Health Care Dental implants actually have been around for quite a long time. Ancient Egyptians used The procedure that probably involves the shells to make dental implants that were fewest advances in instrumentation is to forced into the jaw bone, presumably without remove and fixate, then section in a modern anesthetics. The subject specific microtome, followed by systemic microscopy aspect appears rather quickly when you deal and then three-dimensional and functional with neural prostheses. For instance, the reconstruction, in a computer for instance. This comparison of brains of musicians and non- procedure is being actively developed as a musicians has clearly shown the plasticity and research tool. The lab of Bruce McCormick at adaptation of the brain to experience. Texas A&M University developed knife edge scanning and is acquiring multi-terabyte data Thus the prosthetic corpus callosum and motor sets of mouse brain for reconstruction efforts cortex of a musician, to be satisfactory, would in the Blue Brain Project.[10] have to be more than a general function prosthetic. This is important for every patient In a slightly different approach, the lab of who receives a neural prosthetic. Imagine the David Kleinfeld at UCSD is acquiring similar prosthetic substrate that is needed to preserve data using an all optical approach involving two- photon microscopy and the sequential ablation of layers of the fixated brain using

short pulses of a laser.[11] A more nature of memory, its presence in all loci complicated procedure that’s popular for its affected by experience. We may even consider gradual, potentially less disruptive approach is a memory external when our actions change to infuse the brain in vivo with a large number the environment, such as when we write in a of nanoscale machines; nanobots that can journal. Of course, the question of scope here either record brain morphology and active usually refers to the human body. states or themselves take over neural functions. And on the other side, just as the development of prosthetic hands seeks fine motor control Any medical procedure that leads to whole and the development of retinal prostheses brain emulation will have to address the seeks resolution, resolution is the other subjective experience: How whole is the objective of neural prosthetics. Characteristics prosthetic in terms of personal identity and self of behavior need to be retained and neither the awareness? That can include a range of ability to retrieve, nor the resolution of specific personal characteristics and sensations; memories should be affected. And, the quality characteristics such as specific faculties and of the experience in the new substrate cannot behavior, sensations such as the perceived be a washed-out copy. In other words, the continuity of physical and mental existence. granularity of the totality of reproduction must Consequently, experimental emulation of be such that its embodiment of personal invertebrates and animal brains can test identity remains strong and clear. technologies, but neither can provide adequate feedback about this subjective experience. There is another dimension to all of this, as the work of Bruce McCormick and Henry Markram The question is - is it even possible for a clearly shows. Whole brain emulation is a tool human who receives neural prosthetics that for exploration in neuroscience as much as it is amount to whole brain emulation to tell us if a potential medical procedure. As an optimal personal identity is preserved? And the larger model of the human brain with complete question remains: Is it imperative that the access to all its parts, whole brain emulation subjective experience is unaltered? can greatly facilitate exploration of intelligence, psychology and humanity.

At this point, there are obvious ethical questions that need to be resolved, since a conscious emulated mind might rightfully be considered sentient, to a large degree the equivalent of an aware human being. Nevertheless, careful exploration may well fall within the realm of our current scientific procedures, since a plethora of regulations already exists that govern work with human subjects.

Image 7: Preservation of Personal Identity Now I am moving on to the topic of resolution, which is really all about expected function. The medical procedure for whole brain emulation needs to deal with the distributed

The biological implementation of brain Thus, a trade-off between the consequences of functions depends on biophysical mechanisms, decoding and replicating is made at every level such as the precise location of synapses of “If the period between between axonal and dendritic fiber, the delays modeling becoming deceased and of signal propagating between neurons, revived is increased to and specific synapse type, and the strength of a several hours, as in prosthetics connection as expressed by receptor field proposed suspended . Even the sizes. animations, what happens to decision of personal identity?” how much Despite this, implemented function does not of a depend critically on the performance of any substrate should be emulated can have one individual element. It is group activity that consequences. For instance, can you replace is paramount. Implementations in a neural biological neurons with any other substrate as network are strong, self-correcting, redundant, long as you maintain input/output and homeostatic. A large number of unreliable relationships? How about the replication of the components are linked in a very precise effects of temperature, oxygen and other manner that utilizes surprising detail of chemicals on function? biophysical properties to establish robust function. What we can do is choose a set of functions that we consider desirable or healthy. Of My first hypothesis is that group effects are course, that raises the ethical issue that when relevant. There’s an acceptable range of you make those choices, it implies a possible responses, or variance, that is due to difference between the original and prosthetic differences in elemental responses at different version of a patient’s mind. Still, when the occasions. My second hypothesis is that as alternative is disability or death, even a long as any changes in the elemental details procedure that involves difficult choices may responsible for group function keep the group be better than no procedure at all. effect within the acceptable range of responses, those changes are inconsequential. In any case, the development of procedures will have to take into consideration the As we must know the group function and its precision of replication and patient preference. range of responses, we may try to decode Let us consider the issue of scope. When we those effects directly during analysis of the think of scope, we often wonder if it is subject. Alternatively, we can replicate the necessary only to emulate the higher functions element performance as rigorously as possible, of the brain or if the autonomic nervous thereby seeking to incorporate any effects, system must be taken into account; or do we even those that we do not know how to elicit need to emulate the peripheral as well as the and measure. central nervous system?

A problem for the second approach is that, This is actually probably a lesser issue. The unlike physics, where increasing the number of greater issue is the quality of the interface with particles simplifies predicting the behaviors of the system. The reason for this is if we already the group; in biology, an increase in the have a technical procedure that can handle number of components increases the data acquisition and emulation at the scale of theoretical complexity of their group behavior. the human brain, then changes on the order of magnitude that are involved in the inclusion or

exclusion of the autonomic and peripheral nervous system are actually not that great. The quality of interaction may be the significant determinant.

Concluding Ethical Questions Is personal identity an illusion? Is it an emergent quality of the human brain? Does continuity play a role? Does it matter at all if one is dead and alive again after a delay? Today, patients are frequently revived after a few minutes of being clinically dead. As a Image 8: A Final Thought society, we hardly ever ask the question if the personal identity of such patients is preserved. We may decide that there are objectives or socially responsible answers to those If the period between becoming deceased and questions, or we may find that these issues revived is increased to several hours, as in amount to personal choice. proposed suspended animation, what happens to personal identity and what happens if the Endnotes interval was years and the original body is lost? 1. Count Allessandro Volta – [An] Italian physicist, Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio If we do assume for a moment that personal Anastasio Volta was the inventor of the voltaic identity is an emergent phenomenon of the pile, the first electric battery. In 1775, he mind, does that mean that it is alright to use invented the electrophorus, a device that, once destructive procedures to achieve whole brain electrically charged by having been rubbed, emulation? What about a discontinuous could transfer charge to other objects. procedure, such as when a person dies and the http://www.corrosion- brain is fixated prior to data acquisition and doctors.org/Biographies/VoltaBio.htm whole brain emulation? Note that a destructive October, 25, 2006 2:15PM EST process does not necessarily imply a continuous one, such as when individual 2. Djourno and Eyries, History of Cochlear components are replaced one by one using Implants. October 25, 2006 2:23PM EST nanotechnology. And if any revived personal identity implies preservation of the former 3. House, William F., D.D.S., M.D. Cochlear personal identity, is it then okay to do that Implants: My Perspective, Chapter IV, Auditory multiple times and to allow many revived Success. October 25, 2006, 2:30PM EST copies to live simultaneously?

4. Benabid, A.L., & Pollak, P., Deep Brain Stimulation - Subthalamic nucleus stimulation and dysarthria in Parkinson’s disease: a PET study. October 25, 2006 3:00PM EST

5. Biography of Theodore William Berger from USC website. October 25, 2006 3:04PM EST

6. The Blue Brain Project is a joint venture between IBM and The Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), which will work together using the huge computational capacity of IBM’s eServer Blue Gene Dr. Koene is with the Center for Memory and supercomputer to create a detailed model of Brain at Boston University. His research has the circuitry in the neocortex – the largest and focused on the short-, intermediate- and long- most complex part of the human brain. By term memory (STM, ITM and LTM) processes expanding the project to model other areas of of the cortico-hippocampal loop. the brain, scientists hope to eventually build an accurate, computer-based model of the entire brain. October 29, 2006 3:19PM EST

7. Leonardo Da Vinci’s Robot Sketches on Wikipedia. October 25, 2006 3:27PM EST

8. Von Kempelen’s hoax (Turk) on Wikipedia. October 25, 2006 3:32PM EST

9.The Eric Kandel Research laboratory has focused on developing reductionist approaches to learning designed to explore the molecular mechanisms of memory storage and to uncover new aspects of neuronal signaling. October 25, 2006 3:40PM EST

10. Biography of Bruce H. McCormick, Texas A&M University. October 29, 2006 4:14PM EST

11. Biography of David Kleinfeld, Ph.D., UCSD. October 29, 2006 4:17PM EST

BIO