Research Articles in Interpretation and Translation

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KSU - COLT’s RAIT King Saud University Research Articles In Interpretation and Translation

Issue 1

Spring

2014

- Spring 2014

2 Contents

 To Our Dear 4 Readers…

 Articles in the Field of 6 Translation

RAIT MAGAZINE  Articles in the Field of 171 Interpretation Issue 1, Spring 2014

 Brief APA Guidelines 184

3 TO OUR DEAR READERS...

RAIT is a compilation of research articles in the fields of translation and interpretation. All the articles presented in this magazine are written by a new generation of researchers; students enrolled in the "Research Methodology" course offered at the College of Languages & Translation, KSU.

I am overjoyed to have been part of this wonderful research journey with my fellow research students. Their enthusiasm and dedication was beyond impressive which gives me great hope for a brighter, better-informed generation.

I'm truly proud of my Spring '14's "Research Methodology" students; a huge thanks goes out to them for their great efforts. Also, my deep gratitude to Mrs. Dania and Dr. Shadia for their continued support in such endeavors.

Happy reading! ~ Dina M. Al-Sibai, Course Instructor

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Difficulties in Translating Humor By Fatma El Shafie

ne of the most popular human traits is having a good sense of humor. Whether read, or heard, a good joke is welcomed by most people, since a good hearty laugh can help them O forget about the negative things in their lives. As wonderful as that might be, unfortunately, humor can also be a cause for aggravation, tension, or even conflict if the culture behind it is not understood by the receiver. Therefore, many difficulties face translators when attempting to translate humor.

Maybe a good place to start is by defining humor. Attardo and Raskin define humor as: "An act performed through linguistic or nonlinguistic means by any of the participants. This act is the result of two incongruous scripts. The producer of this act may or may not have had the intention of creating laughter or smile(s)." (as cited in Ziyaeemehr & Kumar, 2014, p. 92). According to this definition, there are two types of humor: linguistic and non-linguistic humor. Although translating non-linguistic humor can be hard, it is not impossible most of the time. However, translating linguistic jokes can cross the line into the realm of untranslatability.

Linguistic humor relies on rhetoric in which the humorous effect comes from the witty use of the language itself (Han, 2011). This witty use of language can have many forms like the use of puns, idioms, homonyms, grammatical structures, prosodic features, etc. (Khair, 2009). A good example of a humorous remark using homophones is: "A: Please put on your clothes. I don’t want to see you in front of me without wearing anything. B: I’m wearing the perfume." (Han, 2011, p. 149). However the linguistic aspects of a sentence is not the only obstacle that faces translators; culture also plays a huge role in making the translators' job harder when translating humor (Vandaele, n.d.).

Indeed, there is a great amount of pressure placed upon the shoulders of translators in translating humor. For instance, Thomas O'Neal stresses that professional translators must be able to identify the factors that contribute, or cause a funny effect in a text, and on top of that they must be able to recreate that effect in the target text (as cited in Tisgam, 2009). An opinion like that poses many problems because the ability to understand a joke, or a humorous remark, is fundamentally different from the ability to reproduce that funny effect, since producing such effect is a pure talent, that cannot be taught, nor learned, not to mention that the appreciation of humor differs from one person to another (Tisgam, 2009).

Tisgam also points to another difficulty that faces translators which is the old dilemma of whether to stay loyal to the source text or stray away from it when needed. When translators are confronted with a bad joke, they might ask themselves; is it their place to change it when translating into a funnier one? Or should they just stay loyal to the source text, and translate the bad joke as it is? This dilemma becomes even worse when some jokes that may seem "bad" are more connected to the source text's culture, which renders them unfunny after translation because the cultural aspect of the joke is missing (2009).

Culture does not pose a problem in translating humor just because it sometimes cannot be transferred, but because this particular culture can be ethically, and/or politically offensive to the target language's culture (Vandaele, n.d.). A joke like this: "Mom and Dad were trying to console Susie, whose dog, Skipper, had recently died. "You know," Mom said, "it's not so bad. Skipper's probably up in Heav- en right now, having a grand old time with God. "Susie stopped crying and asked, "What would God want with a dead dog?"" ("Funny Jokes," n.d.) would at the very least cause a level of uneasiness to Mus- lim translators, as to how they should go about translating such a joke.

Although humor might be loved by most people, translating it surely is not a walk in the park, as some people might think. The process of translating humor involves facing many obstacles, and making many considerations to reach the best possible finished result. Translators who are placed under the pressure of having to reproduce humor, even though they might not have the talent to do so, have to consider the linguistic aspects of both languages, and they have to consider the cultures of both languages.

References Funny Jokes | God's Dead Dog Joke | Comedy Central. (n.d.). Retrieved April 26, 2014, from http:// jokes.cc.com/funny-god-jokes/06xoz6/god-s-dead-dog Han, Q. (2011). On Untranslatability of English Linguistic Humor. Retrieved from ACADEMY PUB- LISHER website: http://ojs.academypublisher.com/index.php/tpls/article/view/0102149152 Khair M. (2009). Translating arabic jokes into english. Retrieved from Yarmouk University website: http://repository.yu.edu.jo/handle/123456789/3263 Tisgam, K. H. (2009). Translating Cultural Humour: Theory and Practice. Wasit journal for humanities, 5 (9), 79-121. Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=search&query=au:%22Khalida% 20Hamid%20Tisgam%20%22&uiLanguage=en Vandaele, J. (n.d.). Humor in translation. Retrieved from University of Oslo website: http://folk.uio.no/ jeroenv/Vandaele%20Humor%20in%20Translation_proofs.pdf Ziyaeemehr, A., & Kumar, V. (2014). The Relationship between Instructor Humor Orientation and Stu- dents' Report on Second Language Learning. International Journal Of Instruction, 7(1), 91-106.

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Translation in Films: Subtitles By Noura S. AL-Dokhayel

uman eyes and ears are useful channels for collecting information from our physical world and transducing it into sensations. Media translation is an extremely difficult pro- H cess which causes translators many problems. Rendering, for example, media into a different language becomes even more complicated when the translator translates film dialogues for the purpose of dubbing or subtitling. Bruździak (2012) stressed that ”translation strategies and techniques applied in the process of humour” (p. 2). The aim here is that its dubbed and subtitled in film. In fact, a deeper look into translation in films is very difficult but it is quite interesting.

There are two major types of film translation: dubbing and subtitling; each of them interferes with the original text to a different extent. On the one hand, dubbing is known to be the method that modifies the source text to a large extent and thus makes it familiar to the target audience through domestication. On the other hand, subtitling, is the form that alters the source text to the least possible extent and enables the target audience to experience the foreign language and be aware of its 'foreignness' at all times (Dries, 1995).

Figure 1. An example of subtitles in movies (“Lost In Translation,” n.d.)

The relationship between image and word and the interplay of the signification systems of audiovisual texts shows itself in terms of cohesion and coherence between the two simultaneous narratives, the visual and verbal, in such a way that the translator finds himself/herself obliged to put into practice translation strategies capable of transmitting not only the information contained in each narrative and each code –as has been noted throughout this work– but the meaning that erupts as a result of this interaction: an added value or an extra meaning that goes beyond the mere sum of both narrations (Rabiger& Cherrier, 2013).

8 The translator that carries out the synchronization of the translation, as well as the translator of subtitles, also represents, within the translation, changes in lighting, in perspective, or in the use of color (i.e. color vs. black and white, intentional use of certain colors, conventional meaning of colors). Changes in lighting can make necessary the different uses of orthotypography in subtitling (italics in dark scenes in which we do not know the identity of the character speaking and the order of the subtitles according to the characters appearance). In these cases, the translator’s solution to this problem will then be necessarily restricted or subor- dinated to this visual code (Connolly, 2002).

Film translation in the era of globalization also needs to be taken into consideration. The issue of power in translation seems to be especially pertinent and applicable to contemporary cinema. As a host of translation scholars have agreed recently, translation does not take place between words but rather between cultures. The text is perceived as an integral part of the world and not as "an isolated specimen of language" (Snell- Hornby 1998, p. 43). Consequently, the process of translation is seen as cross-cultural transfer, which is determined by the degree of prestige the source and target cultures have, as well as by their reciprocal relations (Szarkowska, 2005).

Films can be a tremendously influential and extremely powerful vehicle for transferring values, ideas and information. Different cultures are presented not only verbally but also visually and aurally, as film is a polysemiotic medium that transfers meaning through several channels, such as picture, dialogue and music. Items which used to be culture-specific tend to spread and encroach upon other cultures. The choice of film translation mode largely contributes to the reception of a source language film in a target culture (Szarkowska, 2005).

References

Bruździak,, E. (2012). Translation Strategies and Techniques in Audiovisual Translation of Humour: Analysis of Shrek 2 and Ice Age . Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Connolly, W. E. (2002). Film Technique and Micropolitics , pp. para1,2. Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu/ login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/theory_and_event/v006/6.1connolly.html Dries, J. (1995) Breaking Eastern European Barriers Sequentia, vol. II, No. 4 June/July/August 95, p. 6. Lost in translation: the fallacy of dubbing and subtitling - | movies, TV, videogames, crowd-funding - Shadow- locked: find the future! (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.shadowlocked.com/201103011560/opinion- features/lost-in-translation-the-fallacy-of-dubbing-and-subtitling.html Rabiger, M., & Cherrier, M. H. (2013). Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics . Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa Szarkowska, A. (2005). The Power of Film Translation , 9, para2. Retrieved from http:// context.translationjournal.net/journal/32film.htm Snell-Hornby, M. (1988) Translation Studies. An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

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The Effect of Literal Translation on the Idiomatic Expressions' Meanings By Fayeza M. AlMutairi

eople use languages to communicate with each other and reach their goals by expressing certain words and meanings. Idioms, which are part of every language, are P defined as "sequences of words involving some degrees of semantic idiosyncrasy or non-compositionality." (Neustein & Markowitz, 2013, p. 187). We can specify the importance of idioms in the language as "Idioms share cultural and historical information and broadens people's misunderstanding and manipulation of a language." (Ambrose, n.d., p. 180). Because of the importance of idiomatic expressions in the language, they should be translated correctly and not literally. The term "translation" is defined as transferring the meaning from one language to another. Literal translation is defined by Dickins, Hervey, and Higgins (2013) as the denotative meaning of words which is used in the target language (TL), and TL grammar is respected. As translators, we must transfer the meaning correctly depending on the context. Al-Jabr explained that students usually use e-dictionaries to translate idioms which are either erroneous in meaning or deviant from the target language (TL) structure because the meaning of idioms are related to their culture. Sometimes, we can use literal translation to translate idioms, but not all the time. The difficulty lies in the ambiguity of the use of idioms. As Al-Wahy (2009) explained: The ambiguity of idioms is not only a theoretical assumption, but also an actual fact both across languages and within the same language. For instance, in English, in the dark is ambiguous: it can mean either in secrecy, as in “All his dealings were done in the dark”, or in ignorance, as in “We were all kept in the dark about what was happening in the prison”, for which the corresponding .(para. 2) في الظالم Arabic idiom is Because the wrong translation for idioms lead to irrelevant ideas, we have to find a way to get the most suitable translation. The translator should find an idiom which gives the same meaning in the target language. It is very true that "there is no rule for translating the meanings expressed by this group of idioms except knowing the cultural equivalent of each in the target language regardless of the linguistic forms they take" (Homeidi, 2004, p. 15).

10 هذا الخبر أثلج For example, the idiom 'this news warmed my heart' would be transferred as Arab's nature and weather affect their use of idioms which makes them use the opposite . صدري denotative meaning to mean the same connotative meaning. Beside the cultural background, knowing the context is also important to render the meaning properly in Arabic. For example, “I’d just done my stint as rubber duck, see, and pulled off the grandma lane into the pit stop to drain the radiator” would be translated without knowing the لقد أنهيت مهمتي قائداً للرتل، وخرجت من المسار المخصص لسير العربات والشاحنات الثقيلة / البطيئة ، ألقف context as لقد أنهيت مهمتي ... :The translation with knowing the context would be . في االستراحة لكي أفرغ ال ُم ِشع Homeidi, 2004). So, without knowing the idiomatic use of the) االستراحة لكي أتب َّول ”أذهب للحمام“ phrase to drain the radiator, in the context of truck driving, we would never be able to translate it properly in Arabic. According to Larson (1991), if the translators are proficient in two languages or more, that will make the process of the translation easier than if they know and are proficient in one language because they learn the rules that affect the equivalent forms and leave the rest to their excellent knowledge of the two languages. The process of translation needs previous knowledge about languages and an understanding for the source text, which includes knowing the equivalence for these idioms. In addition, the translators should avoid literal translation as much as they can by searching for good equivalence because that will damage the beautiful sense of having idioms in the text.

References

Al-Wahy, A. (2009). Idiomatic false friends in English and Modern Standard Arabic. Bable, 55 (2), 101-123. doi: 10.1075/babel.55.2.01wah Ambrose, J. (n.d.). Матеріали міжнародної наукової конференції. Retrieved from http:// lib.chdu.edu.ua/pdf/zbirnuku/7/37.pdf Dickins , J., Hervey, S., & Higgins , I. (2013). Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course in Trans- lation Method: Arabic to English. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Homeidi, M. A. (2004). Arabic translation across cultures. Babel, 50(1), 13-27. Larson, M. L. (1991). Translation. Binghamton: John Benjamins Pub. Co. Neustein, A., & Markowitz, J. A. (2013). Where Humans Meet Machines: Innovative Solutions for Knotty Natural-Language Problems. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

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Translation and Globalization By Alaa A. Almukhailed

long time ago people did not know the languages of each other but they thought that they should know how to communicate with each other. Learning a new language requires A learning the culture of this language which leads to openness between cultures; when this happens, a cultural rapprochement will take a place. Here, there will be a focus on the relation between globalization and translation, as there are some reasons for how globalization affects our lives and our culture, and also how globalization has an impact on the translation (Wiersema, 2003). So, it is very clear that translation plays an important role in bringing closer different cultures and contributes to globalization.

Globalization is defined according to Rizer as "an accelerating set of processes involving flows that encompass ever-greater number of the world's spaces and that lead to increasing integration and interconnec- tivity among those spaces" (as cited in Lechner, 2009, p. 1). Translation is not considered as just a simple transfer from one language to a different language or from a source text in a target text, but also as a transi- tion between cultures (Loogus, 2012).

Figure 1. The relationship between globalization and translation (Reis, 2012)

Technology has helped the convergence of cultures which facilitates the translation process. We know the culture of the West, and that makes it easier for us to translate their language into Arabic "For ex- أدفأ هذا الخبر not اثلج هذا الخبر صدري ample, “This news warmed my heart” would be translated into Arabic as Wasfi, 2013, p. 28), so we translated it according to the nature of our culture because they symbolize) صدري comfort through warmth. On the other hand, we have warm weather so we tend to use cold weather symbolism to signify comfort, and we did not know about this until rapprochement of cultures.

12 Globalization leads to more interaction between people and their cultures around the world; this in turn leads to the need for more translators and interpreters (Moore, 2013). The Arabic language has been affected by globalization and there are a lot of new terms from the English language although they have equivalents in Arabic, for example, "the word (computer) is used more than (hassob)" (Kfafy, 2013, p. 91). However, the English language was affected by Arabic in the past, for example, (chemistry) is derived from the Arabic word (kemeia'a). The effect of translation and globalization on culture can’t be denied. In Wiersema’s 2003 article, it is pointed out that "Globalization has always been an important aspect of translation. Translation brings cultures closer. At present, the process of globalization is moveing [sic] faster than ever" (para. 4). There are a lot of things in the English language that do not have equivalence in Arabic, and therefore being affected by them like abbreviations, as the Arabic language does not support abbreviations. Abbreviations started becoming common in Arabic because of globalization and translation and now many companies .)واس( has started using abbreviations, for instance, The official Saudi Press Agency is abbreviated as

In conclusion, language is an essential factor in the cultures, globalization and translation which affected them as we have noted. Globalization has a positive impact on cultures and societies as it helped in rapprochement of cultures and facilitated the process of communication between countries. Translation also have an important role in the globalization process.

References

Kfafy, M. (2013). Mharat alktaba [Writing Skills].

Lechner, F. (2009). globalization:The making of world society. Retrieved from http://books.google.com

Moore, M. (2013, March). Globalization and Translation. Retrieved from http://

blog.onehourtranslation.com/global-translation/globalization-and-translation/

Reis , L. (2012, April 12). Globalization Myth Series – Myth 1: Software Globalization = Internationali-

zation = Localization = Translation. Retrieved from http://blogs.adobe.com/globalization/

globalization-myth-series-myth-1-software-globalization-internationalization-localization-

translation/Loogus, T. (2012). Culture-related decision conflicts in the translation process. Sign

Systems Studies, 40(3/4), 369-384.

Wasfi, N. (2013). 245TRANS - Introduction to Translation.

Wiersema, N. (2003). Globalisation and Translation A discussion of the effect of globalisation on today's translation. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/

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The Challenge of Translating Religious Texts By Madhawi S. Al-Eliwi

or years, I’ve been thinking about the translation of holy names and phrases, especially in movie sub- scenes. I’ve never forgotten my queries about the way the translators should deal with the offensive F thoughts and wrong ideas toward their own beliefs and religion, and whether they will stay translators or not in case they changed those unacceptable thoughts for the target text readers’ sake. After weeks of searching, I found out that translating in the religious field is so sensitive; therefore, a translator should be aware of every step s/he takes; when to choose between literal translation and free translation, and what are the effects, the reasons, and the results behind choosing this word or that, in a specific context. I believe that honesty is an important feature of translators since they reach new audiences all over the world. In translating literature works, we make it similar to our environment since the purpose of those translations is fun; however, religious works or texts may have other purposes such as converting people to a specific religion, and that goal will vanish completely if the translator is changing the terms and the names to fit the other people’s religion. Without a doubt, changing the source text may be a sign of the translator’s weak knowledge about other cultures, especially if some of the target text readers are bilingual, educated and aware of what you’re translating about; hence, they won’t trust your translations anymore. Taha Husain asserted that the translated text has no value if it’s not an accurate copy of the source text (Hasan, 1969(. Centuries ago, when Muslims were struggling to translate the Greek’s works, they got trapped when it came to translating literature works since those arts have many improper thoughts. And just as Taha said, they thought about changing or omitting some words but they couldn’t; due to this, they tended to summarize whatever Muslims wouldn’t be pleased to read, which is called “Gist Translation”. Derini as a Muslim had insisted that “Greek’s arts are full with hundreds of Gods and holly names which distract Muslim readers from the main point of the topic and that’s why I prefer summariz- ing” (AbdulKareem, 2010, p. 15). Translators shouldn’t depend on their knowledge about religions and cultures. They must study the source language they’re translating from very well. An English speaker, who doesn’t know Arabic perfectly may not be aware of the have the sameيخشى العلماء هللا andيخشى هللا العلماء change in the word order in Arabic sentences; e.g., these two sentences meaning, and that meaning is so clear for an Arabic native speaker but not for other speakers if they are not concerned with Arabic syntax; and unfortunately, distinguishing which is an object and which is a subject won’t help you in a situation like that. In fact, mistranslating a sentence like the one above may not just make your translation futile, but also a seed for a new cultural rumor in the future. in Arabic intoهللا Unlike our names, not every religious name should be transliterated phonetically; e.g., we translate ,in Arabic into (Mosa) in English. On the other hand, referring to my brotherموسى Allah) in English; yet, we don’t translate) into (Moses). Asموسى I can translate it into (Mosa); though, referring to the prophet, I should translateموسى, whose name Moses, there are other conventional names, such as Jesus, Cain and Abel. Likewise, we translate the name (Jacob) into to refer to anyone whose name is (Jacob), but if (Jacob) refers to the prophet himself, then we should translate it intoجايكوب .in Arabic. To be sure, check the dictionary since they list names like those unpredictable onesيعقوب

Through the history of translation, some translators tended to replace a specific abstract term, like a religion’s name, in order to make the translated text look less religious or more acceptable to the target text readers, their environment, and their believes, too. In his 2012 article, Chalesworth asserted that it is pointless to talk about a specific religion using a general term, such as replacing the word (Islam) with (a religion). Generalization may not be just futile, but also a terrible mistake. A translator must take into consideration that using a general term, like (a religion) instead of (Islam), is going to carry the meaning of what has been said in the text that is applied to all kinds of religions, which is absolutely not true. One more thing a translator may be challenged with, especially when translating from Arabic, is the lack of words in the target text. In 2010, Al-Amri admitted that the Arabic language is full of words to describe the idea of individuality and singularity of God. In Arabic, there are many synonyms of the word (Oneness) more than any other language; as a result, translating an Arabic text about God’s oneness may lead to either a boring text because of the repetition of the same words describing the idea of (Oneness), or a very short text if the translator omitted many words avoiding the repetition; certainly, neither this one nor that one will be satisfying. Wilss believes that there are many activities involved within the translation process (1996). During translating, the translator is learning more about others’ cultures and languages, and doing his job as well. In fact, for those who live on translation, they should pay more attention to impartiality. Impartiality is one of the best translation features. When translating people’s beliefs, translate them as they are, regardless of your own beliefs; otherwise, get rid of the whole text and find yourself another one that fits your own thoughts, but keep in mind that by doing this, you have ruined the translator’s main goal which is transferring meaning from one language into another, but not changing the meaning. According to Simms, dealing with a text that includes ancient and touchy ethics will be just like having almost 20 centuries of translators staring and gathering around one’s translation (1997). As one can see, the challenges a translator may face can be divided into linguistic and cultural challenges, not mentioning the challenge of understanding the source text writer’s beliefs which the translator may not agree with, and how it would be no less than utterly shameful to change any idea, sense or meaning of his own. Unmistakably, religious texts aren’t that easy and flexible to deal with, so now you can sincerely ask yourself this: Am I up for the challenge? The answer lies in no one’s hands but yours.

References

Abdulkareem, Q. (2010). Amanat almotarjem baina alnadhariah w altatbeeq: Ara’a w mafaheem [The translator’s honesty between theory and application: Opinions and Concepts]. Retrieved from http://www.univ-biskra.dz/fac/ fll1/images/pdf_revue/pdf_revue_07/guetaf%20abdelkarim.pdf Al-Amri, W. (2010). Qur'an translation and commentary: an uncharted relationship?. Islam & Science, Retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Qur'an translation and commentary: an uncharted relationship?-a0248404851 Charlesworth, M. (2012). Translating religious texts. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/ pdfviewer?sid=2def2060-168f-43f7-a054-948e1a9a398a@sessionmgr110&vid=2&hid=110 Hasan, M. (1969). Fan altarjama fi aladab alarabi [Art of translation in Arabic literature]. Egyptian House for Literary Works and Translation. Simms, K. (1997). Translating sensitive texts: Linguistic aspects. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Wilss, W. (1996). Knowledge and skills in translator behavior. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub.

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Media as a Source of Political and Economic Idioms By Tahani H. Alzahrani

edia's role in sharing knowledge is undeniable because of its ability to reach all and each class of people. Learning idioms of a specific language is considered as an essen- M tial step to mastering that language. Therefore, media would be one of the important sources to help in this step. In 1999, Mark stated that “an idiom is a phrase or expression that cannot be understood from the ordinary meanings of the words in it” (p. 1). Also, in 2007, Fisher stated that idioms are used to express an informal interaction. This paper will give a brief view of how media is a wide source of idioms in specific and the term 'media' will be defined and the role of media in language will be highlighted.

Figure 1. Characteristics of Idioms (“Introduction 1: Definition,” n.d.)

First of all, we should know what the term 'media' means. In 2006, Hornby defined media as the main means of massive communication for example, television, radio and newspapers. These means of communication, despite the differences between each type, are used to reach and influence people on a wide scale similarly around the world. In 1999, Orlebar claims that "one of the ways Media Language works is to convey meaning through signs and symbols suggested by the way a scene is set up and filmed." (p. 12). In 2011, Bahrani stated that media plays a significant role in language. After the revolution of technology, media took a big part in many different fields including language studies. Nowadays, media is considered as an alternative open source for introducing new coined words, specific technical words and different expressions to language users. It represents language in all its uses easily and spontaneously through what we read, hear and watch every day. Because of media's accessibility and availability, it has been cho- sen in this paper as a source of data for some language features such as economic and political idioms in specific.

In 2008, Noreau stated that signs and symbols in media texts are polysemic; they have different meanings. This applies also to figurative language (e.g. idioms) used in political and economic environments. Since most of the idioms cannot be understood from the first time regarding their hidden and figurative meaning, that makes idioms a very effective feature of language used in expressing opinions and conveying information in media. In the paper, the researcher collected examples of political and economic idioms. There are numerous idioms used in politics in specific. For example, “Carrot and stick” is an idiom that refers to a policy of offering a combination of rewards and سياسة العصا والجزرة .(is to give up (p. 22 )يرفع الراية البيضاء( ”punishments to induce behavior (p. 22). “Throw in a towel .(is an idiomatic way of describing media, especially in newspapers (p. 22 )السلطة الرابعة( ”Fourth estate“ “Hot air” means an empty, exaggerated, or pretentious talk (p. 23). “Spin doctor”, is a political press agent or publicist employed to promote a favorable interpretation of events to journalists (Stover, 2000, p. 23). Finally, media has become like an open theater for people to present their knowledge to the whole world. People who seek to learn languages would find media as a source to develop their learning process. Also, media would be a great source of learning idioms for many people who are involved in policy and journalism. Even though media is not the only source to gain knowledge; it is still the most accessible one and everyone can benefit from it. References

Bahrani, T. (2011).The Role of Audiovisual Mass Media News in Language Learning. Retrieved Decem- ber 11,2013, from www.ccsenet.org/elt Fischer, F.(2007). Handbook of public policy analysis: Theory, politics, and methods. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Hornby, A. (2006). In Oxford English Dictionary Retrieved from http: // www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com Introduction 1: Definition and Characteristics of Idioms | Christina Ong's Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://christinaongukm.wordpress.com/2010/09/27/introduction-1-definition-and-characteristics/ Mark, R. (1999). Idioms: Don't take them, literally. Retrieved from Http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/ pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid Noreau, E. (2008). The Urban Internet Slang Dictionary. Retrieved from http://webtrends.about.com/ Orlebar, J. (2009). Understanding Media Language. Retrieved from http://media.edusites.co.uk/article/understanding-media-language/ Stover, S. (2000). Phrase Finder Search. Retrieved from http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/

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Challenges of Translating Arabic vs. English Poetry By Afrah T. Al-Onzi

iterary translation is a genre of literary creativity in which a work written in one language is recreated in another. It consists of translating novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc. In L this case, translators may face some obstacles when translating any type of literary work. To be sure, looking into literary translation especially poetry as function, does not mean you only translate the literal meaning of words, but also its figurative notions due to the need to maintain, meaning, mood and rhyme.

Translating poetry is a matter that encounters translators when they translate from one language to another. Cincan (2013) explained that the major challenges in translating poetry are devices and nuances that make poetry what it is (para. 5). Rhyme is one of the issues in translating poetry as the writer pointed out since maintaining the rhyme of a poem often means interpreting it in a different way – but without losing the gist of the original piece (para. 5). Moreover, in Fochi’s opinion (2012), "Rhyme is naturally pleasing to the ears and lends a sense of wholesomeness to words that are strung together" (para. 3). Truly, rhyme plays a crucial thing in translating poetry.

Linguistic problems are one of the matters that face translators. Hariyanto (n.d.), for example, stressed that the term "collocation" of linguistic problems is involved in translation. If there is an accepted collocation in the SL then translators must find its equivalent in the TL. But a translator should pay his attention to the similar forms in SL and TL with different meaning, such as: “I find you in every woods and gardens.” The words woods and garden are collocates, and their equivalents in Arabic language are very similar. Regardless of its similarity, the translator must know first whether the meaning is the same.

There is no human society without some form of culture. According to Ba-jubair, "since Languages are divergent in their poetic style, the translator may encounter many problems such as . . . transferring culture-bound expressions" (para. 1). In this line, “shall I compare thee with a summer's day? “ It goes without saying that "summer" is beautiful for temperate countries. Newmark stressed that there is no equivalent between the SL the TL because "summer's day" is a day when the sun shines brightly and flowers are blossom- ing everywhere in England. Meanwhile, in Arabic countries "summer's day" means that the land is dry and dust scatters everywhere (as cited in Hariyanto, n.d.).

18 It is obvious that some aesthetic problems like poetic structure and metaphorical expressions do effect the translation. As Saleh (n.d.) pointed out that structure meant here is the plan of the poem as a whole, the shape and the balance of individual sentences, or of each line. So, it does not have to relate directly to the sentence structures or grammar of a language, though it very much affects the sentence structure. Thus, maintaining the original structure of the poem may mean maintaining the original structure of each sentence.

Metaphorical expressions, as the second factor, mean any constructions evoking visual, sounds, touch, and taste images. Metaphors directly compare without the words "like' and "as if", and all figurative languages. To illustrate, “in the expression ‘rooting out the faults” the object is 'faults', the image is 'rooting out weeds', the sense is eliminate with tremendous effort, and the metaphor is 'rooting out'" (Vahid, n.d., para. 5).

In brief, translating the works of poems would undoubtedly make translators face more obstacles. As Hossein (n.d.) reports "the translation of literary texts in general, and that of poetry in particular, seems a far-fetched challenge" (para. 8). According to Newmark, "Translation of poetry is an acid test showing the challenging nature of translating" (as cited in Naaman, 2012, p. 337).

References

Ba-jubair, N. (2011, November 30). Translatability of Classical Arabic Poetry into English: Al- Baradduni's From Belqees Land an Example*. Retrieved from http://www.uop.edu.jo/download/ JICOT2/Abstracts2JICOT18.pdf Cincan, A. (2013, August 30). INBOXTRANSLATION. Retrieved from http://http://inboxtranslation.com/ blog/challenges-translating-poetry/ Fochi, A. (2012). The Issue of Rhythm, Metre, Rhyme in Poet-Translators. Intralinea, 12. Retrieved from http://www.intralinea.org Hariyanto, S. (n.d.). translation-directory. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/ article640.htm Naaman, M. (2012). Landscapes of Iraqi Poetry: Reconfiguring the Image of Iraq in the Arabic (and American) Lyric Canon. Journal Of Arabic Literature, 43(2/3), 336-371. doi:10.1163/1570064x- 12341241 Saleh, M. (n.d). Mashakel tarjamat alqaseedah alsharaya [The problems of translating poetry]. Re- trieved from http://www.alimbaratur.com/ Vahid, H. (n.d.). Literary Translation. Translation of Poetry. Retrieved from http://www.bokorlang.com/ journal/30liter.htm

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The Strategies of Translating Idioms: Arabic vs. English By Manal A. Al-Ahmadi

s a non-native speaker of the English language, the term "Idiom" wouldn’t be so clear at first. According to Newmark, idioms are "a group of words whose meaning cannot be A elicited from the meanings of its components" (Newmark, 1998, p. 40). On the other hand, the definition of the term translation in Oxford Learner's Dictionary is "the process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language" ("Translation," n.d., para. 1). Translating idioms is considered as a difficult process, but a translator can use different strategies to translate an idiom from Ara- bic into English and vice versa.

In 1992, Baker explained that there are many strategies a translator may follow while translating idiomatic expressions into another language depending on many factors, and most importantly it depends on the context in which the idiomatic expression occurs. The first strategy is using an idiom of similar meaning and form; this strategy can be used when you can find the same meaning of the idiom in both the source lan- -Abu) في لمح البص guage and the target language. So we can translate the idiom "In the blink of an eye", to Ssaydeh, 2004, p. 118).

The second one is using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form, which means that a translator may use different lexical items to give the same idea (Fernando & Flavell, 1981). For instance, "Warm Abu-Ssaydeh, 2004, p. 119). The third strategy Baker mentioned) اثلج الصدر the heart" would be translated to in her book is the most common way of translating idioms which is translating them by paraphrasing. It can be used when you cannot find a perfect match in the target text (1992). So, if you see this idiom in a text انضم إلى الفريق الرابح Jump on the bandwagon" you can translate by paraphrasing it into Arabic by saying" (Abu-Ssaydeh, 2004, p. 120).

The author added translating by omission, so in this strategy, a translator may omit the idiom in the target text if he/she cannot find a close match in the TL, or its meaning cannot be paraphrased and it can also be for stylistic reasons. Here is an example from A Hero from Zero (p. vi): "It was bitter, but funny, to see that professor Smith had doubled his own salary before the offer from Fayed, and added a pre-dated bonus for good measure. Target text (Arabic): وكان من المؤسف بل ومن المضحك, أن يتمكن البروفسور سميث من مضاعفة راتبه مرتين قبل أن يتقدم بتوصيته لقبول عرض .(Baker, 1992, p. 12) فايد, وأن يضيف إلى ذلك مكافأة يتحدد سلفاً موعد حصوله عليهما."

Balfaqeeh pointed out another way of translating which is to provide a literal translation that, in her point of view, may lose semantic impact (2009). On the other hand, this strategy would be helpful if metaphorical potentials are similar. But, sometimes the translation of the text may give the reader a feeling that it is literal which mostly represents the text as senseless. For example, "Lines in the sand" when Therefore, the sense here is totally different from that .خطوط في الرمال translating it literally would be intended by the idiom user (Abu-Ssaydeh, 2004).

Figure 1. Definition of the idiom (Tremonti, A)

In Abu-Ssaydeh's (2004) article, he concluded by saying "Idioms are complex and culture-specific multi-word units which are translated through a variety of strategies, depending on the idiom, the translator's command of the language and the relationship between the source language and the target language" (p.128). A translator may feel that he/she is stuck whenever they come across an idiomatic expression, but by understanding the idiom in both the TL and the SL and following the strategies mentioned above, the translation process would be easier.

References

Abu-Ssaydeh, A. (2004). Translation of English idioms into Arabic. Babel, 50(2), 6. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com Baker, M. (1992). The Translation Of Idioms: Strategies. In In Other Words (2nd ed., pp. 71-78). Re- trieved from http://ebookbrowsee.net/in-other-words-by-mona-baker-pdf-d179689065 Balfaqeeh, N. (2009). Strategies for Translating Idioms and Culturally-bound Expressions within The Hu- man Development Genre. Retrieved from http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college- artslaw/cels/essays/translationstudiesdiss/NoorBalfaqeeh822875Diss.pdf Fernando, C., & Flavell, R. H. (1981). On Idiom: Critical View and Perspectives (3rd ed.). Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books/about/On_Idiom.html?id=ce8dAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y Newmark, P. (1998). More paragraphs on translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Translation. (n.d.). Oxford Learner's Dictionary. Retrieved from http:// www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/translation Tremonti, A. M. (2013). Line in the sand 2013. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/thecurrent/ lineinthesand2013.html

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The Profession of Translation: A Great Opportunity By Sara W. Al-Saeed

hat do we mean by translation? Who are the translators? We all agree that there are several diverse careers that we can choose from according to our tendency after grad- W uating from the university, and one of them is the profession of translation. A translator is a mixture of a writer and a linguist, a person who takes written material such as newspaper or magazine articles, books or documents in one language and transfers them into another language (Chriss, 2006). Everyone wants to get a high salary when he or she starts work. In fact, the salaries of the translators in the U.S. vary from one translator to another depending on many factors such as skills and languages.

In 2006, Chriss stated that the income in freelance translation differs frequently. A freelance translator can have a low income at the minimal level especially during his or her first year of business. He or she spends more to run his or her business than he or she earns from it. At the upper level which is quite worth it, many persons earn "$150,000" per year with the excess of "$200,000" per year (p. 31). "The American Translators Association" informs us that full time translators can have income as follows: In-house private sector: "$58,147", Independent contractor: "$54,207" and Government translator: "$54,305" (p. 32).

Publishinton (2009) reported that translators and interpreters who work in a particular field such as federal courts have high income. They get "$305" per day (p. 204). In addition, interpreters who work for the deaf earn salary from "$12" to "$40" an hour (p. 204). Interpreters who work in noncommercial organizations have middle annual income of "$47,690", and those who work for international consultations or meetings usually earn between "$300" and "$500" a day from the U.S. government (p. 204). Translators and interpreters who are employed in junior colleges can earn "$45,800", and those who are employed in surgical hospitals can earn "$38,430" (p. 204).

Earnings depend on many factors such as number of languages used and speed; therefore, the faster a freelancer translates, the more money she or he makes (Robinson, 1997; & “United States,” 2006). Kurtz, for instance, explains that perfect translators would earn "$325" to "$390" a day if they translate 2,500 to 3,000 word a day (2013, para. 15). In addition, if the person has more languages and subject-matter fields in

22 which he or she can translate with competence, the better the translator's chances of finding a high salary (Tinsley, 1976).

In the U.S., the freelancers are always paid by the word, so they get "$0.08" to "$0.12" per word at most when they work with European languages and "$0.09" to "$0.15" per word when they work with Asian or other rare languages (p. 33). We can calculate the income for a freelance translator with a simple equation: "income = average word rate x words translated" (p. 34). Freelance translators may make more in salary per year than in-house translators. The rates of freelancers differ by subject area and job schedule; the in-house salaries differ depending on many factors such as education, experience, language proficiency, and subject area (Chriss, 2006).

To put it in a nutshell, the profession of translation in the U.S. is extremely inspiring and difficult at the same time. If you want to earn a high income in this profession, all you have to do is to be fast, to be professional, to use many languages, to practice more, to be fluent, to have a lot of experiences and to read more in the source language and the target language. As in all professions, when you start work, the income tends to be lower than you expect then it gradually reaches to the higher income levels. The numbers of the salaries of this profession in the U.S. are exciting for newcomers to this profession in the future. References

Chriss, R. (2006). Translation as a profession. London: Lulu. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa. Kurtz, A. (2013, October 30). The New American Workplace. The hottest job skill is.., 1. Retrieved from http://www.magatopia.com/ Publishinton, F. (2009). The Top 100: The Fastest-growing Careers for the 21st Century (4th ed.). Re- trieved from http://books.google.com.sa. Robinson, D. (1997). Becoming a translator: An accelerated course. London: Routledge. Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com/ Tinsley, R. r., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics, W. C. (1976). Translation as Career Option for Foreign Language Majors. CAL-ERIC/CLL Series on Languages and Lin- guistics, No. 37. Bulletin Of The Association Of Departments Of Foreign Languages. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/ United States. (2006). Occupational outlook handbook: 2006-2007. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books

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Cultural Effects on Translation By Sara Al-Obaidi

he term "translation" as defined in Oxford Dictionary is "the process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language" (Hornby, 2010, p. 1588). Culture is T also defined in the same dictionary as "the customs and beliefs, art, way of life and social organization of a particular country or group" (Hornby, 2010, p. 367). But one would ask, what is the relationship between culture and translation? Does one of them have an affect on the other? Indeed, culture greatly affects translation in many aspects. The purpose of translation as we know is transferring the meaning which enables the communication between different people and cultures. According to Hoffmann (1996), culture affects the way we use and understand language. He also adds that, "Culture finds its expression in the language and through the language" (p. 153). Thus, translation from one language to another is translation from culture to culture. Therefore, the function of translation is to convey the meaning of words in their culture (Hoffmann, 1996). One aspect of cultural influence on translation can be seen through different environments of the source and the target texts, which in turn can lead to conversion in the translated text to achieve the exact meaning. For example, many texts in the English language include the mention of sunny day as "a nice day" and the raining day as "a bad day or weather". When translating these phrases into Eastern countries languages, we cannot transfer the same phrases because the opposite is what they actually feel according to the nature of their weather. Another aspect of cultural effect on translation is the religious culture, which greatly differs from one group or country to another. This aspect requires a deep understanding of the other culture in order to achieve a fit translation. Any mistranslation of one of the religious texts may cause a big gap between the reader and the text on one hand, and between the reader and the culture on the other hand. For example: the use of word "day” in the Qur'an means the Day of Judgment while it has different meaning in daily use in English (Bashraheel, 2012). Given these aspects, we can prove that culture affects the author himself during the translation process. In their 2013 article, the authors stress that conveying an unfamiliar culture is one of the difficulties that a translator may encounter during the translation process, such as cultural words, proverbs, and idiomatic expressions. They also add that “a cross-cultural translation is called upon, whose accomplishments will depend on the understanding of the translator of the culture he or she is working within.” (Precup & Ale- ksandrova, 2013).

Therefore, for the translation process to convey the exact, correct and complete meaning, the translator has to be an intercultural mediator ; to understand accurately what words and expressions mean in the cultural convention of the target text. In this way, he or she can deal with problems of cross-cultural translation. Loo- gus stresses that, "unawareness may result in internal conflicts, as well as leading to situations where culture- specific aspects are not recognized or cultural differences become cultural barriers" (Loogus, 2012).

Figure 1. What being a intercultural mediator necessitates (“Counselling And Intercultural,” n.d.).

References

Bashraheel, L. (2012, November 16). Translation key to understanding cultural differences, says scholar. Sau- di Gazette, Retrieved from http://www.saudigazette.com.sa. Counselling and intercultural training | MindRoom. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.mindroom.ro/en/ counselling-and-intercultural-training Hoffmann, C. (1996). Language, Culture and Communication in Contemporary Europe. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa Hornby, A. S. (2010). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Loogus, T. (2012). Culture-related decision conflicts in the translation process. Sign Systems Studies, 40(3/4), 369-384. Precup, L., & Aleksandrova, E. (2013). Multiculturalism and Translation. Studii De Ştiintă Şi Cultură, 9(1), 127-130.

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Inter-semiotic Translation: Translating Signs and Symbols By Fawzyah I. Al-Kanaani

he term "inter-semiotic translation" is one of the types of translation distinguished by Jakobson to refer to a translation between two different semiotic systems (Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk & T Thelen, 2010, p. 412); for example, from "the verbal medium" into "the musical medium" (Pereira, 2008, para. 1). And it also refers to the one-way metalingual operation of how creative linguistic signs are transposed or recodified into nonlinguistic codes and other elements (Gorlée, 2008). Because there was no way of communication between people who spoke different languages, signs and symbols became the first type of translation that helped them to understand each other.

So, inter-semiotic translation represents texts in different sign systems and represents a certain text according to the background of the language and its expressions (Petrilli, 2003). In addition, a sign is a conventional or arbitrary mark, object, action, event, or pattern that conveys a meaning (Hornby & Turnbull, 2010). An example of this would be our reaction of being sad or happy when we listen to music (Larsen & Johansen, 2002). According to Perice, "there are four ways to translate or interpret a sign or a text: to (1) a totality of feeling or quality; to (2) an energetic reaction or action; to (3) another text or sign; or finally to (4) habitual behaviour" (as cited in Larsen & Johansen, 2002, p. 144).

In 2013, Aguiar and Queiroz stated that there are three essential types of sign processes: icons (signs that stand for their objects through similarity), indexes (signs that refer to an object due to a direct physical connection between them), and symbols (signs that are related to their object through a determinative relation of law, rule or convention). Also, Hawkins (1973) explained that, anything that refers to something else is a symbol. He added that it is a sign or gesture that has both arbitrary and conventional connection to its referent. There is no specific reason of the association between a particular sign or gesture and a particular object. It has been pointed out that "Symbolism has been a part of human culture" (Allan, n.d., para. 1). Once when I read a book about cultures, I noticed that the meaning of colors can vary depending on cultures and circumstances. Each color has many aspects, as it is a form of non-verbal communication. For example, the color white has been a symbol of joyous celebration, happiness, and purity since early Roman times. The color red, on one hand, represents passion or love in some cultures, but represents anger in others. The color black is a symbol of sadness in some cultures, while it is the symbol of the elegance in others.

Another thing that I have noticed is the meaning of numbers. Every number has a certain power which is expressed both by its symbol to denote its representation and by its connection to universal principles. Numbers have relationships with all things in nature, thus, making them supremely powerful symbolic expressions. For

26 instance, the number “One” reflects new beginnings. It primarily deals with strong will, positivity, and pure energy. Also, the symbolic meaning of number “Two” is kindness, balance, tact, equalization, and duality. It reflects a quiet power of judgment, and the need for planning.

Above all, as Allan (n.d.) clarified the differences between signs and symbols; signs are used to refer to physical things and have to be learned like stop signs and other street signs, while symbols are used to refer to abstract representation like punctuation marks such as the question mark or the exclamation mark. But sometimes the words sign and symbol are used as synonyms. In these cases, the thing referred to is something that "stands in" for something else. For instance, a handshake could be referred to either as sign of peace or a symbol of peace.

In conclusion, inter-semiotic translation (translation of signs and symbols) is important for people who speak different languages to help them understand each other. I have mentioned how people relate signs with their cultures to express the meaning to each other. Obviously, the meaning of inter-semiotic translation is shown when anyone of us has a maid that does not understand your language. In this case, and for many other situations, we all have to resort to inter-semiotic translation.

References

Aguiar, D., & Queiroz, J. (2013). Semiosis and intersemiotic translation. Semiotica, 2013(196), 283-292. doi:10.1515/sem-2013-0060 Allan, D. (n.d.). Symbology - The Study of Signs and Symbols. Retrieved April 25, 2014, from http:// webclipart.about.com Gorlée, D. L. (2008). Jakobson and Peirce: Translational intersemiosis and symbiosis in opera. Sign Systems Studies, 36(2), 341-374. Hawkins, D. I. (1973). Model of Symbolic Communication. Journal Of Advertising Research, 13(3), 33-38. Hornby, A. S., & Turnbull, J. (2010). Oxford advanced learner's dictionary of current English (p. 1380). Ox- ford [England: Oxford University Press. Larsen, S., & Johansen, J. (2002). Signs in Use: An Introduction to Semiotics. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B., & Thelen, M. (2010). Meaning in translation. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa Pereira, N. (2008). Book Illustration as (Intersemiotic) Translation: Pictures Translating Words. Retrieved from http://www.erudit.org Petrilli, S. (2003). Translation, translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

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Translation Strategies By Badreyah A. AL-Shehri

ranslation is a large field and people need a lot of practice to be good translators. Transla- tors always face difficulties and problems when they translate. The worst thing is each T translator faces different problems in different fields and this makes it very tough for scholars to collect all translation problems in a book or in any reference. But scholars have tried to present certain tools to make translation easier for translators, and that is in various translation strategies. In fact, there are many strategies that translators use; four of which will be addressed in this paper.

In the general translation strategy, teachers follow the “assignment assessment” method. The teacher checks the student's translations, identifies their errors and gives them good solutions in their translations. So, the text book is an important thing in this strategy for teachers and students (Kelly, 2005). Won, states that teachers have a good knowledge of how to translate and that "translator competence actually emerges as the result of the collaborative completion of authentic translation work" (p.12). Also, collaborative translation reflects on its readers in a good way (2011). This strategy depends on reading and comprehension by giving translators enough time to translate and analyze texts (Washbourne, 2012).

In addition, we have the free translation strategy. In this strategy, the translator has the responsibility of adding extra information to his/her work. It is the task of the translator to decide what information is necessary to add or omit in the source text (Morin, 2013). There is no equivalence on the levels of grammar or vocabulary. Also, in this strategy the source text message is transferred and the free translation is the opposite of the literal translation (Dickens, 2002). Most translators follow this strategy because they see the meaning will be very clear for their audience.

Literal translation is the next strategy. Here, the literal word doesn’t relate only to the meaning, but relates to the exact word that we use also (Berman, n.d.). In literal translation, the target language grammar and structure is respected. Also, the denotative (i.e. dictionary) meaning of the source text words is taken into consideration (Dickens, 2002). Most translators don’t prefer to use the literal translation strategy because they know it doesn't give the audience the clear and full meaning of the source text.

Idiomizing (i.e. idiomatic translation), which is yet another strategy, according to Worth and Cowie "is one which has the same meaning as the source language but is expressed in the natural form of the recep- tor language" (as cited in Abu-Ssaydeh, 2009, p.1). In this kind of translation, we need to

28 change the order of the words in it, to delete a word from it, to add a word with another and to change its grammatical structure (Ssaydeh, 2004). When we translate, the source text is respected, and our focus becomes on a natural target text and the readability of the target text, even if some of the meaning is lost (Dickens, 2002). Most translators feel that it’s challenging when they translate idioms, but sometimes there’s no way around it.

Figure 1. Definition of idiomatic translation (Said, 2013)

To conclude, scholars have presented these strategies to help translators when they translate and make translation easier for them. These strategies are not all the translation strategies that are out there; there are definitely many others; for example, communicative translation, balanced translation, as well as other levels of strategies such as inter-semiotic translation, intralingual translation, and interlingual translation. Indeed, the more strategies we learn and apply, the better translators we will become.

Reference Abu-Ssaydeh, A. (2004). Translation of English idioms into Arabic. Babel, 50(2), 114-131. Berman, A. (n.d.). Translation and the Trials of the Foreign. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.uj.edu.pl/ documents/ Dickens, J. (n.d.). Thinking Arabic Translation: A course in translation method - Arabic to English. Re- trieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Said, M. (2013, February 27). Translation theory. Retrieved from http://shrdocs.com/presentations/570/ index.html Stewart, D. (n.d.). Translation textbooks: translation into English as a foreign language. Retrieved from http://www.intralinea.org Washbourne, K. (2012). Active, strategic reading for translation trainees: Foundations for transactional methods. Retrieved from http://www.trans-int.org Wong, D. (2011). The "Other" Function of Translation: On Translation and Education in Hong Kong. nnnnnnTranslation Quarterly, (59), 84-100.

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Translating Arabic and English Time Metaphors By Nourah S. Al-Medbal

ranslation of 'metaphors' has been treated as a part of the problem of untranslatability. This builds on the fact that metaphors in general are associated with indirectness. First T of all, we need to discuss exactly what a metaphor is. Aristotle defined metaphors as “the application to one thing of the name of another thing” (Brevik, 2008, para. 1). And according to the dictionary, a metaphor is a figure of speech in which a term or a phrase is applied to something which is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance. Here, some issues related to the transability of time metaphors will be addressed.

There are many kinds of metaphors such as love metaphors, joy metaphors, hate metaphors, etc. But here we are going to discuss time metaphors. For several years people have been using metaphors for ceremonial, spiritual, and religious matters. Metaphors shape human behavior as well as how they react to others. Also, metaphors are created from people's experience. In addition, different cultures may have different ways for creating, generating, and processing metaphors. Using metaphors is a continuous process in everyday expression and comprehension by which concepts and views are created and framed (Al Jumah, 2007).

It has been argued that metaphors can become a translation problem, since transferring them from one language and culture to another one may be hampered by cultural differences (Schäffner, 2004). There are several problems related to translating metaphors, the most obvious being is the fact that “since a metaphor in the SL (source language) cannot be translated literally in the TL (target language) so metaphors in SL can only be translated equivalently using a striking metaphors in TL". The crucial question that arises is thus whether a metaphor can be translated as such or have an alternative metaphor in the TL (Brevik, 2008)?

Well, finding equivalence for the SL in the TL is the answer to that question. For example, when we say in English ''time flied'' we do not mean it literally; instead we mean that time passed quickly, and Raii, 2008, p. 179). People with different cultures and backgrounds) "طار الوقت" its equivalent in Arabic have one thing in common which is the way they perceive time. For that purpose, they will have common metaphors about it that can work as an equivalent in translating. For instance, the metaphor ''time is late'' ,Raii, 2008) "تأخر الوقت" in English has a similar metaphor that works as an equivalent in Arabic which is p. 179).

On the other hand, not every metaphor in the SL will have an equivalent in the TL, such as ''find ,Ridderbos, 2002, p. 120). Due to that) "بحث الوقت" time'' there is no such a thing in Arabic that says there are some metaphors that are untranslatable from one language to another. Thereby, we have to try translating the overall meaning of the metaphor. We also need to take into consideration how the culture of the SL look to that metaphor; if it's in a positive or a negative way. Therefore we can trans- or"نظم وقتك" late the previous example by its meaning, for instance, ''find time'' will be translated as ."نظم حياتك"

In summary, metaphors are the most important part in figures of speech, only because it is the most widespread culturally and because it causes the most difficult translation problems (Dickins, Her- vey, & Higgin, 2002). So, translating metaphors is a time and effort consuming process since you will have to know the cultures concepts, traditions, and the actual meaning of the metaphor. Indeed, we should try to translate by finding an equivalent or by meaning. Thus, these are the most important steps in translating metaphors.

References

Al Jumah , F. H. (2007). A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF METAPHOR IN ARABIC AND ENGLISH GENERAL BUSINESS WRITING WI TH TEACHING IMPLICATIONS. Retrieved from http://dspace.iup.edu/bitstream/handle/2069/39/Fahad%20Al%20Jumah.pdf?sequence=1 Brevik, N. E. (2008). Translation theory with regards to translating metaphors. Retrieved from http:// www.proz.com/translation-articles/articles/1831/1/Translation-theory-with-regards-to- translating-metaphors Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgin, I. (2002). Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Arabic to English. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books Raii, J. (2008). Metaphor in Day-to-Day Arabic Speech: A Conceptual Approach. Retrieved from http://www.mohamedrabeea.com/books/book1_227.pdf Ridderbos, K. (2002). time. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books? id=muoM9H8Z8o8C&pg=PA120&dq=time+metaphors&hl=ar&sa=X&ei=vSwUU7iXDqaNy wPxtICQDg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=time%20metaphors&f=false Schäffner, C. (2004). Metaphor and translation: some implications of a cognitive approach. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article

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The Importance of Medical Translation By Arwa S. Al-shuaibi

nlike most technical fields of translation, medicine has had a very long history of writing. In 2004, Chabner stated that when you want to study the medical terminology, you have U to know that is similar to learning a new language. At the beginning, you may feel that the words sound hard and complicated, although they may stand for commonly known disorders and terms. For example, he explained that CEPHALGIA means ‘’headache’’ and AN OPHTHALMOLOGIST is an “ eye doctor’’ (para. 2). In fact, one of the most common questions asked is how does one go about becoming a medical translator/interpreter, the answer to which is that we should learn the language of medicine.

To achieve dexterity in the field of medical translation, medical translators should be specially trained in their target language, culture, and also in medical terminology and procedure. They should also pass either certification or skills assessment tests before they can begin working. Agency training for medical interpreters should include comprehensive medical terminology, testing, and preparation for the different situations that might be faced with at the clinic or hospital (Lee-Jahnke, 2005).

Figure 1. The importance of training and testing (“Interpreters And Translators,” n.d.)

There is more to medical interpreting than just simply repeating what the physician has said in another language. Medical interpreters must keep their patients feelings in mind as much as their physical problems. Although interpreters are supposed to be just “the voice” of the health care professional, medical interpreters must ask questions for the patient and make sure that they understand everything thing that is being discussed, as Lee-Jahnke, 2005, said "It is equally important that interpreters communicate everything the healthcare professional is saying accurately and impartially without adding in their own feelings or thoughts'' (p. 1).

Language interpreters are often described as invisible language facilitators. According to this percep- tion of invisibility, interpreters are not considered to be parties to the conversation, but rather they are seen as language-switching-operators in line with the canal model of communication. As such, interpreters are expected to pay close attention to the meaning of the message and to transfer the same meaning into the other language, without omissions or additions (Angelelli, 2004).

There are basic formants for the language of medicine, according to Fischbach (1998): The language of medicine weather English or French rests on a fundamentally learned terminology made up of formants (roots, prefixes and suffixes) drawn from Greek and Latin. Hence, it is commonly believed that translator who en- joyed a classical training exacting disciplines of these seminal languages will readily identify and understand any medical term by going back to its etymology. Of course, the fact of knowing that brachy (from brakhys) means short, ectomy (from ektome) excision, phobia (from phobos) etc, may make things easier, but on the whole the little regard shown by the language of medicine for the rules of etymology and the laws of word-building will rather be misleading (p. 49).

If you want to be a good translator specifically in medical translation, you should be aware of all the things that we discussed. Translation is a “risk opportunity”; an opportunity to introduce errors. When something goes wrong with the translation of a medical document, serious consequences may occur. However, good medical translation can be done by both medical professionals and medically knowledgeable linguists, but in both cases a love of language, an ear for style, a willingness to pursue obscure terminology and caring enough to get it exactly right are the keys to true success (Andriesen, 2006).

References

Andriesen, S. (2006). Medical Translation:What Is It, and What Can the Medical Writer Do to Improve Its Quality?. AMWA Journal: American Medical Writers Association Journal, 21(4), 157-159. Retrieved from http://www.medilingua.com Angelelli, C. (2004). Medical interpreting and cross-cultural communication. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press.(p. 1). Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books Chabner, D. -E. (2004). Medical language instant translator. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Fischbach, H. (1998). Translation and medicine. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins.(P. 36). Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books Interpreters and Translators, Inc. (n.d.). Medical interpreter testing and training. Retrieved from http:// www.ititranslates.com/medical-interpreter-testing-and-training Lee-Jahnke, H. (2005). Teaching medical translation: an easy job? Retrieved from http://www.medtrad.org

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Translation of Poems: Challenges of Translating Poetry By Aseel A. Alsaif

iterary translation has always been seen as more confusing than the translation of other texts, such as business and official documents. According to the definition of Frost (2002), “Poetry L is what gets lost in translation” (p. 1). This statement could be considered as a truthful one to a certain extent because there is no one-to-one equivalent when comparing two languages; even if the translators come by deep knowledge in the source language (SL), they would not be able to create a copy of the original text. What should be preserved when translating poetry are the emotions, the invisible message of the poet in order to come by the same effect in the target language (TL) as it is in the source (Frost, 2002, p. 2).

Jones points out that translating poetry is a difficult job; it is one of the most difficult types of translation because it requires special expertise, as the translator rewrites the poem from one language to another language. There are many questions for those translators and the common question is how can they rewrite this poem with the same feeling and emotions from the original poem? (2011). This paper seeks to reveal how to deal with translating poetry.

The translator may face linguistic, literary and social cultural problems in translating poems. The literary problems are related with poetic structure, metaphorical expressions, and sounds. Literary translation is always more difficult than translating other types of text; it is perhaps because literary works have specific values called the aesthetic and expressive values. The aesthetic functions of the work emphasize the beauty of the words (diction). While the expressive functions put forwards the writer's thoughts, emotions, etc. The translator should try his best to transfer these specific values into the target language (TL) (Hariyanto, 2003).

Some possible problems in translating poems could be linguistic problems. It is twofold, the words and meaning on one hand, whereas the flow and rhythm on the other hand. The words and meaning embody certain issues related to the images, similes, metaphors, culture-specific words, phrasal verbs, idioms, enjambment and grammar of both the (TL) text and the (SL) text. In Pound’s definition (1963) "the image is not just a stand in for something else; it is a putting-into-word of the emotional, intellectual and concrete stuff that we experience in any given moment" (p. 4). This is a great challenge for a translator, as he has to put the same sensory effect in the translated form as well.

One other type of problem is literary. Aesthetic values in a poem are conveyed in word order and sounds, as well as in cognitive sense (logic) and these aesthetic values have no independent meaning, but they are correl-

-ative with the various types of meaning in the text. If the translator destroys the word choice, word order, and the sounds, he impairs and distorts the beauty of the original poem, accuracy and kindness. For instance, it will be ruined if the translator provides simple alliterations for the original carefully-composed alliterations. So, the problems in translating poems are how to retain the aesthetic values in the (TL) text (Frawley, 1984).

The final problem which will be addressed here are socio-cultural ones. Such problems exist in the phrases, clauses, or sentences containing words related to the four major cultural categories, namely: ideas, behavior, product, and ecology. Words or expressions that contain culturally-bound words create certain problems. The "ideas" include beliefs, values, and institutions; "behavior" includes customs or habits, "products" includes art, music, and artifacts, and "ecology" includes flora, fauna, plains, winds, and weather (Hariyanto, 2003, para. 30).

In translating culturally-bound expressions, like in other expressions, a translator may apply one or some of the procedures: Literal translation, transference, naturalization, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, description equivalent, classifier, componential analysis, deletion, couplets, note addition, glosses, reduc- tion, and synonymy. In literal translation, a translator does unit-to-unit translation. The translation unit may vary from word to larger units such as a phrase or clause (Hariyanto, 2003).

Finally, it can be concluded that theoretically a text which is embedded in its culture is both possible and impossible to translate into other languages. If practicality is considered first, however, every translation is possible. The degree of its closeness to its source culture and the extent to which the meaning of its source text (ST) to be retained is very much determined by the purpose of the translation. To close, it is suggested that the translator considers the procedures explained above to translate culturally-bound words or expressions.

References Frawley, W. (1984). Translation: literary, linguistic, and philosophical perspectives. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books Frost, R. (2002). The Poetry of Robert Frost: The Collected Poems, Complete and Unabridged. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books Hariyanto, S. (2003). Problems in Translating Poetry. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/ article640.htm Jones, F. R. (2011). Poetry Translating as Expert Action: Processes, Priorities and Networks. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Pound, E. W. (1963). Translations. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books

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Grammatical Problems in Translation: English and Arabic By Thekra M. Al-Owimer

o doubt, English and Arabic grammar are totally different because they belong to two different language families (Almalki, 2011), which leads to some difficulties in translation. N There are many common grammatical problems a beginner translator may face. Indeed, these problems occur when a grammatical category is absent in one of the given languages such as tenses, the verb "be" and "have" in some contexts, or if the same grammatical category exists in both languages but with different rules like adjectives.

The difficulty in translating tenses is that there are twelve tenses in English, indicating three times, which is past, present and future (Wasfi, n.d.), however, there are only two tenses in Arabic. Therefore, translating a verbal English sentence whose tense does not exist in Arabic, into Arabic requires adding some time expressions or words in order to give the exact meaning, and if it is the other way around, a translator needs to delete these words and choose an appropriate tense as in this example, “he has been sleeping for ten . ال يزال نائماً منذ عشر ساعات hours” is translated to

The verb "have" in English can be either a helping verb or a main verb. By contrast, Arabic does not have helping verbs, so "have" in this case will be meaningless, and if it appears as a main verb, it is translated depending on the context. When the verb “have” is a helping verb, it is simply ignored in translation as On the other hand, when it comes as a main verb, it . غادرت in this example, “she has left” is translated into is translated into a different verb (Almalki, 2011). In this case, the correct way is to replace it with another verb from Arabic which has the same meaning in the English sentence (Wasfi, n.d.), as shown in this sen- . تناولت إفطاري tence, “I had my breakfast” is translated into

The verb “Be” as a helping verb in the progressive tense and the passive voice is meaningless and doesn't have an equivalent in Arabic; therefore, it is removed in translation (Qassim, n.d.). However, when it is the main verb in a sentence, it can be either removed -except if it is in the past tense- like I am a student, or is replaced with هذا هو أبي ”which is replaced with a personal pronoun, e.g., “This is my father أنا طالب Wasfi, n.d., p.76). On the other hand, when you translate) "ماهية المنطق؟“ ”?another verb as in "What logic is an Arabic nominal sentence into English, consider that English language does not have a nominal sentence, so you have to add the verb “be”.

36 There are more similarities than differences between English and Arabic adjectives, yet Arabic adjectives are more complicated than English ones due to the fact that English adjectives have a distinct class of part of speech, while Arabic adjectives are considered as a kind of noun. Moreover, English adjectives follow the noun that it modifies, while Arabic adjectives precede it, and it must agree with it in ,In English . هن فتيات جميالت ”number, gender, and definiteness, for example, as in “they are beautiful girls adjective forms can be either an irregular form of participle verbs, or by adding certain suffixes to the root. Arabic adjectives, on the other hand, are derived from verbs and nouns (Hobi, 2011).

According to Gazala, "learners of translation should be warned against their presupposition that English grammar is identical with Arabic grammar and hence they can translate each other in a straight- forward way" (as cited in Qassim, n.d., p.21). Although these differences between English and Arabic's grammar cause some problems in translation, they are easy to avoid if the translator studies them well and knows all the possible solutions for them. Some of these problems are mentioned here, but there are many more grammatical and non-grammatical problems translators have to know.

Figure 1. An exemplification of how hard translating grammar is (“The Quranic Arabic,” n.d.)

References Almalki, B. (2011). Grammatical problems in translation. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/ studentsandteachers/grammatical-problems-in-translation Al-Sudiri, D. (n.d.). Grammatical problems in translation. Retrieved from faculty.ksu.edu.sa/27910/ Documents/Grammatical%20Problems%20in%20Translation.pptx Hobi, E. (2011). A Contrastive Study Of Attributive Adjectives In English And Arabic. Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=52881 Qassim, A. (n.d.). Translation, grammatically viewed. Retrieved from http://www.uobaghdad.edu.iq/ uploads/PDFs/book.pdf The Quranic Arabic Corpus. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://corpus.quran.com/ Wasfi, N. (n.d.). Introduction to Translation.

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Translating Proverbs: Arabic vs. English By Bashayer Y. Al-Yahya

hat is a “Language”? A language is, as many people see it, a way to communicate. There are many ways for people to understand each other, but is it the same? Whether W as humans or animals, you can notice the differences. We can see that animals have different methods. For example, one of the methods used by bees to communicate is through a series of dances. Therefore, humans also have different methods or languages, and that is why translation is needed. Since Arabic and English are so different, a part of the language like proverbs will be different or sometimes similar and we will have some difficulties in translating them.

In 2005, El-Yasin stated that "Proverbs, like other linguistic expressions, have form and meaning." (p. 1). You can notice that in every language there are proverbs. They are related to the culture, the inhabitance, and the language. In their 2014 journal, Kövecses pointed to the fact that some people like to use different methods to convey what they want because of several reasons such as leaving a greater impact or capturing attention (as cited in Zibin & Altakhaineh, 2014) or even just to avoid boring conversations.

Aldebyan reported that "This relation between language and culture is crucial to translation." (p. 95). He adds that the problems a translator faces has nothing to do with words since they can be easily translated, but the problem is in their cultural meaning. In some cultures, what symbolizes happiness may symbolize in another culture sadness or even simply nothing. Also many proverbs are related to historical stories or religious beliefs. But on the other hand, since humans somehow resemble each other, even if they have different languages, they share some proverbs that have the same concept and meaning. In these similar cases, the translation becomes easier.

Dickins, Hervey and Higgins (2013) explain that sometimes when the translator imitates a ST It“ زاد الطين بله Source Language) feature, it will become ungrammatical in the TL (Target Language) as in) increased the clay moistness” (p. 31) and it will be unclear for the native speakers of the TL. While in an- What is past has died” (p. 31), the translator balanced between imitating ST“ الي فات مات ,other example feature and preserving TL grammar.

In other cases, if the proverb is important and we change it, a translation loss will occur, so a translator will need to add “you know the saying” (p. 31). When we add it before the proverb and then write the proverb in quotation marks, the readers will realize that it was actually a proverb in the other language (Dickins, et al., 2013). On the other hand, people are still humans, whether they are Arabian or American, they may share similar experiences or situations and therefore have similar proverbs, since they are made up from experiences.

As Khalid al-Sadaqa said "The similarity of proverbs indicates the unity of human species and the universality of human thinking," (p. 1). He has published a dictionary for English proverbs and apho- risms and their equivalents in Arabic (H., 2010). An example for an Arabic proverb which has a counterpart in English "la yuldagh el mo'men min gohr maratayn (the faithful is not stung twice)" has the same meaning as "fool me once, shame on you; fool me twice, shame on me." (Hegazy, 2013, p. 1).

As I have noted, proverbs are indeed one of the ways we use our language to convey what we really want to say and what we want other people to understand. Even though these proverbs came from past experiences of people from certain places, you can notice that you can find similar ones in other languages which indicate that people have alike thinking.

References

Aldebyan, Q. A. (2008). Strategies for Translating Arabic Cultural Markers Into English: A Foreignizing Approach. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Dickins, J., Hervey, S. G., & Higgins, I. (2013). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method : Arabic to English. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ El-Yasin, M. K., & Al-Shehabat, A. K. (2005). Translating Proverbs. Babel, 51(2), 161-173. H. (2010, September 9). Syrian Researcher Writes English-Arabic Dictionary of Proverbs. SANA. Re- trieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Syrian+Researcher+Writes+English- Arabic+Dictionary+of+Proverbs.-a0236894836 Hegazy, H. (2013, August 26). As the saying goes. Daily News Egypt. Retrieved from http:// www.thefreelibrary.com/As+the+saying+goes.-a0340756899 Zibin, A., & Mitib Altakhaineh, A. (2014). Informativity of Arabic Proverbs in Context: An Insight into Palestinian Discourse. International Journal Of Linguistics. Linguistics (IJL), 6(1), 67-83. doi:10.5296/ijl.v6i1.4857

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Machine Translation Versus Human Translation By Razan M. Al-Mazyad

omputers have increasingly become part of our daily life and translation is not ruled out. In fact, the machine today accompanies the activity of translation "whether it be through C machine translations which need to be revised by human professional or through machine aided human translation." (Lederer & Larché, 2003, p. 179). No doubt, there are many differences and similarities between machine translation and human translation that might be a plus or a drawback.

It is an indisputable fact that machine translation is regarded as a tool for producing quick and a great number of translated texts; nevertheless, the quality of the translation is still much debatable. Machine translation cannot usually provide a specific translation for words that bear different vowelized forms. We can explain that in Arabic language by the Arabic term /sohob/ which means in English clouds. The term confuses many translation programs with the other Arabic term /sahaba/ which means in English the verb "to drag" . On the contrary, when a human translator translates words with different vowelized forms, such mistakes won’t be committed.

Figure 1. This exemplifies how many are against machine translation

Semolini and Nogueira (2010) stated that the machine translation is a literal translation or just as a replacement for word-for-word translation. The reader can easily notice that there is no flexibility in the ma- كانت chine translation. For example, his eyes were full of tears will be translated by machine translation as But in the human translation ,the structure is respected and definitely the translator will .عيناه الكامل من الدموع . اغرورقت عيناه بالدموع translate this sentence as

40 Bass reported that machine translation is faster than human translation. Machine translation can achieve "61.200 words per hour" and translators can achieve "650 words per hour" (para. 11). He adds that machine translation usually seems cheaper than human translation. Also he stated that machine translation is extremely faster than human translation (1999). However human translation ensures the equality of translation more than machine translation. On the other hand, machine translation can increase productivity of human translators by providing a first pass translation that can be quickly edited to human quality.

Jebbar emphasizes that machine translation cannot convey the same effect of the source text to the target text because the machine translation does not differentiate between “different cultural, linguistic and semantic factors contributing to leaving the same effect” (2010, para.11). Human translators use different tools to create the same effect as in the source text. For instance, the translator adds the word into English in order toعائلة extended” to the word family when he\she translates the Arabic term“ communicate the same meaning of the term.

Day after day machine translation is getting better. Gachot, Lange and Yang stress that machine translation becomes an important tool in our daily life because "they ]machines] enable people to have information in many languages, helping to understand it without knowing the language'' (n.d. , para. 21). This won’t mean that they will displace human translation, as Martin emphasizes that it is still considered as tool that just communicates the gist of something (2008). In the long run, translation machine will help translators become more efficient and as a result will help them to translate more texts.

References Bass, S. (1999). human vs. machine translation. advanced language inc. Retrieved from http:// advancedlanguage.com/ Gachot, D. A., Lange, E., & Yang, J. (n.d.). The SYSTRAN NLP Browser An Application of Machine Translation Technology in Multilingual Information Retrieval. Retrieved from http:// paginaspersonales.deusto.es/ Hideliza (2012, February 7). Humans Vs Machines. Retrieved from http://www.getacoder.com/blog/? p=3709 Jebbar, A. (2010). Machine Translation Vs Human Translation. Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/ Lederer, M., & Larché, N. (2003). Translation: The interpretive model. Manchester: St. Jerome Pub. Martin, D. (2008, September 28). Translation Agency | Professional Translation Company in London, UK. Retrieved from http://www.todaytranslations.com/ Semolini, K., & Nogueira, D. (2010, September). Will Human Translators Be Here Tomorrow? Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2242.p

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The Uses of Literal Translation: Should or Shouldn't We? By Haneen A. Al-Humaidy

he translation process has been around since a very long time in history. Without translation, people with different languages would not be able to communicate with one another. Transla- T tion as a branch is divided into many types, but two kinds of translation that were strongly de- bated over the years are literal translation and free translation. Munday says that “the distinction between ‘word- for-word’ (i.e., ‘literal’) and ‘sense-for-sense’ (i.e., ‘free’) translation goes back to Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late fourth century CE)” (2001, p. 19). Most ancient scholars, as Cicero, were inclined towards free translation; however, there are many cases where literal translation can be used and other cases where it and only it can be used.

Indeed, most ancient scholars have followed the methodology of free translation being influenced by Cicero’s distinction between literal translation and free translation (Zakhir, n.d). According to Munday, Cicero tended to translate texts as an orator which means to produce speech that touches the listener or reader’s heart and mind rather than as an interpreter that tends to stick to the words in the source text and look for their equivalents in the target language (2001). The question here is why? Why did most ancient scholars prefer free translation over literal? Well, Englund, Alvstad, Hild, & Tiselius have pointed out that some scholars consider it as a translation that has fault in grammar (2011).

However, they also have stated that “many scholars list literal translation as a possible technique or procedure which a translator can use when the conditions are appropriate” (2011, p. 24). Literal translation is basically a word for word translation that sticks to a similar grammatical pattern of the source text (Larson, 1984). Grassilli has linked the use of literal translation specifically with “languages … [that] share parallel structure and concepts” (2014, p. 13). So this is one usage of literal translation. I believe that literal translation may also be used in some cases with languages that have different grammatical structure. For example, when translat- .we get a correct sentence )هذا ملكي( ,ing (That’s mine) into Arabic using literal translation

Another possible usage of literal translation is when translating legal texts. According to Sacrevic, this usage was followed since before the seventeenth century, and it has been followed “because legal texts are authoritative documents” (p. 147). He also asserted that no matter what the goal of the translation is and in which period it has been translated, all translations of legal texts must be translated either literally or even strict literal translation (as cited in Bastin & Bandia, 2006).

The final usage of literal translation can be used when the purpose of translating a text is language teaching, which is mainly used in descriptive linguistics. However, this form of translation is “an extreme form of the much more common literal translation.” (p. 18), known as interlinear translation. This form is into English using إللي فات مات extremely source language bias; for instance, if we translate the sentence interlinear translation we will get “What passed died” (Dickins, Hervey, & Higgins, 2002). Dickins, et al., have also pointed out that the only difference between this form and the actual literal translation is that it does not respect the target language grammar unlike literal translation which does (2002).

Although many people, including some scholars, think of literal translation as a method of translation that is unreliable, translators who translate specifically from and to similar languages do not only have any problem with using it, but also produce a very coherent and comprehensible text. The opinions of literal, free and other kinds of translation may never stop; therefore it is best for all to stick with what they prefer if the final work will be understandable and acceptable. As Newmark once said “A satisfactory translation is not always possible, but a good translator is never satisfied with it. It can usually be improved.” ("Peter Newmark Quotes,” n.d., para. 1).

References

Bastin, G. L., & Bandia, P. F. (2006). Charting the future of translation history. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa Dickins, J., Hervey, S. G., & Higgins, I. (2002). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method : Arabic to English. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/ThinkingArabicTranslation Englund, D. B., Alvstad, C., Hild, A., & Tiselius, E. (2011). Methods and strategies of process research: Inte- grative approaches in translation studies. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl Grassilli, C. (2014, February 3). Translation Techniques. Retrieved from http:// translatorthoughts.com/2014/02/translation-techniques/ Larson, M. L. (1984). Meaning-based translation: A guide to cross-language equivalence. Lanham, MD: Uni- versity Press of America. Munday, J. (2001). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Retrieved from http:// carynannerisly.wikispaces.com Peter Newmark Quotes (Author of A Textbook of Translation). (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/100583.Peter_Newmark Zakhir, M. (n.d.). The history of translation. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/ article1695.php

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Theory of Translation in the Eighteenth Century By Hatoon Al-Garfan

ranslation is very important anywhere in the world; it helps people with different languages to communicate and understand each other. The meaning of translation is transfer- T ring the meaning of words from one language to another. Many subjects have theories, and the definition of a theory is the study of good principles of any subject. The theories of translation are the studies of proper principles of translation, and we have a lot of theories about translation; many of them are old and others are modern. In fact, the first theories of translation began in the eighteenth century.

The Greek said that a theory is a way of looking at something, a point of view, and contemplations. In 1993, Gentzler stressed that, “translation theory existed only since 1983 as a separate entry in the modern language association international Bibliography it is as old as the tower of babel” (p. 29). At the end of seventeenth century, others thought theories of translation are literary theories in general and derived from classical sources. Theories of translation in general are important to explain what they mean by the idea of translation. There is an argument that states that theories of translation are not literary theories, but social ones.

At beginning of eighteenth century, the early renaissance had no literary theory of translation or any other kind. In 2013, Williams defined as “translation itself not be defined with certainty” (p. 67). The contemporary translation theory is well-rooted in the traditional theory through recent proliferation of theories. Gentzler made five new approaches of translation: the translation workshop, the science of translation, translation studies, poly system theory and deconstruction (1993).

One type of theory that began in the18th century is the “theory of luminous details” by Ezra Pound. His theory centered on the precise version of details of individual words and single images. Pound’s theory was based on a notion of energy in details. Such a resemblance allows for more attitude for an individual translation response, as the translator was as an artist who molds his or her words. Pound’s theoretical writ- ings were divided into two periods: “First, early imagists phase that while departing from traditional forms of logic. Second, late imagist phase that was based entirely on words in action and details” (Gentzler, 1993).

44 In the eighteenth century, there was standard transferring of all classics and many of the modern ones. At that time, the basis of translation was codified and exciting discourse about the art was not expanded (Steiner, 1975). Also Steiner reported that, “the text are the first or earliest standard edition unless otherwise noted, with the exception of changing to modern, ridding texts of long italic passages correcting spilling [sic] errors and similar silent emendation” (p. 2).

Figure 1. A book that addresses 18th century translation theories (Khulusi, n.d.)

In general, many writers of the eighteenth century said that the theory of translation at that time was literary and other writers said it was according to social factors, and after that, many of the theories were studied, and many till now are still being examined. Indeed, we have found a lot of theories about translation that help us to understand and give information we sometimes don’t know. Theory helps to explain the idea of translation and explains how to use the words and how to transfer them from one language to another. References

Fuertes-Olivera, P. A. (2013). The Theory and Practice of Specialised Online Dictionaries for Translation. Lexicographica, 29(1), 69-91. doi:10.1515/lexi-2013-0006 Gentzler, E. (1993). Contemporary translation theories. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ books?id=RTOUcp1YzaAC&dq=definition+of+theories+o Hardin, J. (1992). Translation and translation theory in seventeenth-century Germany. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Khulusi, S. - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safa_Khulusi Steiner, T. R. (1975). English translation theory 1650-1800. Retrieved from Williams, J. (2013). Theories of Translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books?id Williams, J. (2013). Theories of Translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books?id

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Islamic Translation: Issues in the Translation of the Holy Quran By Rawan H. Alghasham

he issue of the translation of the Quran started when non-Arab people accepted Islam. Therefore, Muslim scholars felt that it was necessary to translate the meaning of the Quran T for the benefit of those people in order to let them understand their religion. However, the problem with this translation is related to the fact that the Quran is the word of God revealed in a specific Arabic form and this Arabic form requires more study in order to fully understanding the depths of its meaning (Al-Jabari, 2008). Indeed, since the Quranic script is very sensitive, some of its translators make many mistakes which in turn leads to a misunderstanding of the meanings of the Quran, which needs to be avoided at all costs.

The Quran is the greatest miracle of the prophet Mohammad PBUH for many aspects, and one of them is its linguistic perfection and inimitability ("Some of the Miracles," n.d.). Actually, the Quran is not like any other work and it is not an ordinary text to translate. Some of the Muslim scholars argued that the Quran cannot be translated, while others argued against that. According to Al-Jabari (2008), "no translation could transfer both the meaning and literary style of the Arabic text to the target languages, but this does not mean that it is impossible to transfer the meaning." (p. 26). Thereby, the translators have to understand the meanings of the verses by reading Quranic exegeses and then translate the meanings.

When a translator misunderstands the meanings, his translation will distort the meaning of the Quran. The common example for this misinterpretation is “the word "jihad" according to its actual meaning, which is to strive and put effort into helping others to recognize their own essential reality, so they interpret it as "fight" and thus turn to violence.” (Hulusi, 2008, para. 2). Hence, many readers of this translation will have a bad image about the message of Islam and they think that Islam is a violent religion. In contrast, by translating it correctly, there will be no misperception of our great religion.

,Quran 64:14) "يا أيها الذين أمنوا إن من أزواجكم وأوالدكم عدو لكم فاحذروهم" Another example is in this verse King Fahad glorious Quran printing complex). Some of the translators mistranslate the word “Azwaj” as wives. So, when a reader reads this translation, s/he will only understand that wives are enemies or problematic, not husbands, when in fact the correct translation for this word is the word “spouse” i.e. both men and women (Islam, 2010).

Due to this mistranslation, the readers will think that the Quran does not consider men and women as equals, and this is not fair at all about the Quran.

Since the Quranic verses are so sensitive, the translator must have many qualifications and attrib- utes. I will mention some of them. The first one is s/he must be an expert in Arabic since Arabic is a very rich language; one word can have variety of meanings ("The Islamic Post," n.d.). Another attribute is that s/he must have knowledge of the prophet’s sayings (hadith) since hadith is an explanation of the Quran, and s/he must read the exegesis in order to fully understand the verses. Moreover, s/he must be an expert of the TL and be aware of its culture. And s/he must have a real spiritual feeling for the Quran. By these qualifications, the translator can reach a translation similar to the original (Al-Jabari, 2008).

To be sure, it is normal to have some mistakes in your translation ,but in the translation of the Quran, you must achieve a perfect translation. However, since the Quran is beyond the capacities of a single person, one must have his/her translation reviewed by a team of perfect experts both in translation and in Is- lamic matters to evaluate his/her translation before publishing it. That means we can translate the Quran and, truly, "there are many excellent translations in English that have appeared over the last century" (Ahmed, 2011, p. 1).

References

Ahmed, N. (2011). The Qur'An: An English Translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Al-Jabari, A. (2008). Reasons for the possible incomprehensibility of some verses of three translations of the meaning of the Holy Quran into English. Retrieved from http://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/ eprint/14918 Hulusi, A. (2008, October 25). Decoding The Quran. Retrieved March 20, 2014, from http:// www.ahmedhulusi.org/en/quran/ Islam, J. A. (2010). The Quran and its Message. Retrieved from www.quransmessage.com Some of the Miracles of the Holy Prophet Muhammad. (n.d.). Retrieved April 19, 2014, from http:// sunnah.org/history/miracles_of_Prophet.htm The Islamic Post. (n.d.). Mistranslating the Words of Allah, Most High in Holy Qur’an is a Crime. Re- trieved from http://www.islamicpostonline.com/article/ mistranslating_words_allah_most_high_holy_qur%E2%80%99_crime-631

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The Translation of Patience Idioms From English To Arabic By Sadeem H. Al-Najashi

Al-Shawi and Mahadi (2012) defined idioms as ''a form of speech or an expression that is peculiar to itself” (p.1). Grammatically, it cannot be understood from the individual meanings of its elements, instead it is understood by the story behind it. Culture plays an important role in the course of the idiom interpretation as it gives the actual meaning to it. Idioms are difficult to understand; therefore, to understand its absolute meaning you need to have background knowledge of the source culture.

Idioms can be a single word, a phrase or clause, or they can be a complete sentence or an expression. There are several types of idioms such as, behavior idioms, characteristic idioms, and food idioms. Howev- er, in this research we will be talking about one kind of idioms which is patience idioms. Idioms are an important branch of every language. Understanding a particular idiom depends on which region of a country you are in and on people’s interests and social groups.

Translating idioms is not an easy task and must be translated with great care. The translator must understand the full meaning of the idiom in the source language and then look for an equivalent in the target language. For instance, the English idiom '' to take patience'' it does not mean that patience is a sensible thing to catch, but it has a non-literal meaning. Also, it has a good idiom equivalent in Arabic which is اعتصم بالصبر .However, not all English idioms have an equivalent in Arabic

For that purpose, a lot of Arabic-English translators tried to find similar idioms in both languages which deliver the literal meaning of the idiom, and they found that the literal equivalence between the Eng- lish and Arabic language is very rare. However, they found meaning equivalence in both languages. For Therefore, idioms are lexical items .الصبر مفتاح الفرج or كن صبورا example, "be patient" can be translated as and must be listed in the dictionary (Meryem, 2010, p. 145).

Sometimes it is difficult to translate idioms from one language to another, if not impossible. Having a good knowledge of the culture of the SL and TL backgrounds as well as understanding the context in which the idiom appears will help you to understand the idiom's meaning and translate it more correctly. Indeed, using idioms shows which social group of a society you belong to; in addition, it provides information about specific cultures (Khalil, n.d.).

Figure 1. (“Patience is the key,” 2012)

Figure 2. (“Abeyr,” 2013)

References Abyer. (2013, May). Retrieved from http://3aber.tumblr.com/post/49431586278/thecaminare-jai Alshawi, M., & Mahadi, T. (2012). Strategies for Translating Idioms from Arabic into English and Vice Versa. Retrieved from www.academia.edu/4837784/ Strategies_for_Translating_Idioms_from_Arabic_into_ Eng- lish_and_Vice_Versa_Strategies_for_Translating_Idioms_from_Arabic_ Khalil , G. S. (n.d.). OVERCOMING DIFFICULTIES IN TRANSLATING IDIOMS FROM ENGLISH INTO ARABIC. Retrieved from http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=37106 Meryem , M. (2010). Problems of Idioms in Translation. Retrieved from http://www.umc.edu.dz/buc/ theses/anglais/MEZ1146.pdf Patience is the key. (2012, June). Retrieved from http://muslim-academy.com/learn-patience/

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Difficulties and Strategies in Translating Idioms: Arabic vs. English By Shaden H. AL-Mousa

he purpose of this paper is to highlight the main reasons which make idiomatic expressions such a tricky issue, not only for learners of English, but also for translators. The difficulty T arises from the fact that words of an idiom should not be translated literally; it should be translated with great care. To cope with this difficulty, some strategies are suggested to make it possible for the translator to adapt with such problems during the translation process.

An idiom, according to Newmark (1998) can be defined as ''a hyponym or subordinate term of a 'phrase', is a group of words whose meaning cannot be elicited from the meanings of its components” (p. 40). He also adds that idioms could be confusing and misleading since their meaning is not predictable from the literal meaning as “it’s raining cats and dogs”, while in other idioms the meaning of components are clear such as “see the light at the end of the tunnel”, “looking for a needle in a haystack” (p. 40). Idioms are also defined as extended standard metaphors which may be universal or culturally bounded.

Translating idioms is one of the major difficulties that translation trainees encounter while translation. It has been emphasized by Saeed (2012) that "This difficulty is ascribed to many reasons including the usu- al non-transparency and cultural specificity that idioms embody. More often than not, the component words that make an idiom not always reveal the overall meaning intended by the idiom" (p. 181). Whereas Homeidi argues that the two main problems in idiom translation are the ability to recognize and interpret an idiom correctly, and to convey the various aspects of idiom meanings into the target language (p. 14). Three strategies are suggested to help the translator to overcome such a problem.

1) Using an Idiom of Similar Meaning and Form

Try to find an idiom in the target language which uses the same words, the same structure and has the same exact meaning. The following example illustrates the usage of this method: English idiom " twist his arm" According to . يلوي ذراعه could be translated into Arabic by using an idiom of similar meaning and form as Baker, this strategy seems to offer the ideal solution, but this kind of match cannot be achieved occasionally (1992, p. 76).

2) Using an Idiom of Similar Meaning but Dissimilar Form

Try to find an idiom in your language which uses different words, but has the same structure and the same exact meaning. In this case, it is advised for a translator to have a good cultural background concerning the idiomatic expressions he may face. The following are illustrative examples of ST idioms which have been translated into their TT counterparts which carry the same meaning, but differ in their forms. English idiom . السكوت من ذهب form: "silence is golden.", the meaning of the idiom in Arabic

)3Translation by Paraphrase

Paraphrasing is considered the most common way of translating idioms. Paraphrasing is the process of giving an explanation of the idiomatic expression meaning which is being used in the ST. It has been emphasized by Amir, 2012, that "when a match cannot be found in the target language or when it seems inappropri- ate to use idiomatic language in the target text because of differences in stylistic preferences of the source and target languages." (p. 36). The following are some examples of paraphrasing: English idiom form " The cat . على رأسه ريشة whiskers", could be translated into Arabic by paraphrasing it as

Translation is a complicated process in itself, and translating idioms in particular makes it rather more complicated. Larson (1984) argues "idioms should be translated with great care" (p. 143). Many factors make idioms not an easy matter to cope with, as the difficulty arises from the fact that idioms have non-literal meanings and are culture-specific. Therefore, the translator should work hard to provide his readers with the intended meaning and keep the cultural specificity value by using the suggested three strategies to translate idioms.

References Amir, S. (2012). Translation of Idioms and Fixed Expressions: Strategies and Difficulties , 2. Retrieved from http://connection.ebscohost.com Baker, M. (2006). In other words: A coursebook on translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved fromhttp:// books.google.com.sa Homeidi, M. A. (2004). Arabic translation across cultures. Babel, 50(1), 13-27. Larson, Mildred (1984). Meaning- based Translation: A Guide to Cross – Language Equivalence. Lanham. NewYork. London: University Press of America Newmark, P. (1998). More paragraphs on translation. Retrieved fromhttp://books.google.com.sa Saeed, A. (2012). Difficulties Arab translation trainees encounter when translating high frequency idioms. Babel, 58(2), 181-204.

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The Art of the Impossible: Translation of Poetry By Arwa S. Al-Aqeel

ranslation as what has been said is an art hence the translator must be an artist. Literary translation, especially poetry, is one of the most difficult and problematic tasks. In his 1966 article, Mathews T regards poetry translation as an artistic thing; "One thing seems clear: to translate a poem is to compose another poem" (as cited in Boushaba, p. 67). The translator of poetry struggles to reach the most suitable, coherent and understandable translation. In fact, he has to deal with many aspects of the text, such as, the cultural background of the author, the intended meaning, etc. in order to transfer the same effect to the target language as it is in the source text.

Experts throughout the ages, argue whether poetry is translatable or not since it consists of the form and the structure, not only the meaning alone (Rasaeipoor, 2011). Most of them believed in the impossibility of translating it due to its loss in translation. Some scholars, especially Catford, have stressed the linguistic differences between the Source Language (SL) and the Target Language (TL), besides the cultural variations that are the main reasons for regarding it as the impossible art (1978). For example, in Shakespeare's poem, when he said, "Shall I compare thee to a is not acceptable since summer's days is not a "هل أقارنك بيوم من أيام الصيف؟" ,summer's days?" translating it as compliment in the TL's culture (as cited in Wasfi, 2014, p. 27).

Therefore, in translating poetry there is no such equivalence. Wood (as cited in Landers, 2001) states that translating a poem with absolute loyalty into another language sentences it to its execution. Lots of professional poets and linguists claim that when a poem is translated, it is going to lose its core. The feelings and the imaginations, which have been experienced by the writer of the source text, will not be expressed in a proper way to the target text. Due to the fact that the translator has not been in the same conditions as the original writer, he cannot transfer the same effect to its reader. In 1982, Nida was convinced that if anything can be expressed in one language, then it can be transferred into another, unless the form is crucial to deliver the message.

On the other hand, some do agree on the possibility of translating poetry. Since poetry is the way of expressing thoughts and attitudes of nations toward world affairs, besides communicating with one another, it is not acceptable to abstain from poetry translation (Niknasab & Pishbin, 2011). For this purpose, many specialists insist that all meanings are translatable and only the form gets lost in translation, but still it is possible if one can transfer the style and the content of the source text to the target language. In researchers’ opinions, poetry translators must have some degree of artistic power or be poets themselves.

The translator has to analyze the meanings, the rhythm, etc. to relive the experience of the poet and to dive into his mind in order to reach a perfect translation. Nair (1991) believes that a poem is a poet's emotions, and experiences, therefore; its translation must transfer the poet's ideas and attempt for accuracy. Some emphasis on the importance of the translator to be a poet, as what Wood states, "must be recreated by a poet of like emotional power in

52 the other language, if it is to survive as poetry." (as cited in Landers, 2001, p. 97). However, the translator will produce a magnificent work if s/he has the ability of producing poetic form and has knowledge of figures of speech.

There are a number of methods for poetry translation which were introduced in (1992) by Lefever, namely; phonological translation, literal translation, rhythmic translation, translation into prose, translation into rhymed poetry, translation into poetry without rhyme (blank verse), and interpretive translation. He says some translators translate only the meaning and ignore the structure but sometimes they get help from poets to create new ones. Ac- cording to Rose (1981), "The most successful translators of poetry are frequently those who happen to be bilingual and bicultural and, above all, poets in the target language" (p. 136).

Figure 1. Verses of the Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish, which is called “To My Mother”

Holmes thinks that there might be several translations of the same poem, which are not equal to the original, since it has many interpretations (1970). In that sense, these are verses of the Palestinian poet Mahmoud Dar- wish, which is called “To My Mother”, translated from Arabic into English. In my humble opinion, I think the first translation of Darwish's poem is better than the second one. It shows the nostalgia that Mahmoud is feeling towards his mom and metaphorically to his homeland Palestine by using the very specific word "long for". Also, it clarifies his yearning to his childhood by using the word "memories". In addition, it expresses in a proper way why he should love his life. Unlike the other one, it might come to the readers' mind that he is ashamed of his mother because she is crying over him, and this is not accurate!

53 Figure 2. What goes into translating poetry (Milani, n.d.)

54 In conclusion, there are masterpiece poems which have been translated marvelously. The point is that translating poetry is neither possible nor impossible. It depends on the language itself since every language has its own structure. However, poetry has its own features; therefore, translators have to know how to deal with them. The mission of translators is to do their best to convey the images, to reflect the thoughts, style and feelings, besides the metaphors and the rhythm or rhyme of the original text and the poet's culture. They should get as close as possible to the ST to produce a massive art that is called poetry to the whole world. References Adab.com Arabic Poetry. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.adab.com/en/index.php Boushaba,S. (1988). An Analytical Study of Some Problems of Literary Translation: A Study of Two Arabic Translations of K. Gibran's The Prophet. ( A thesis submitted to The University of Salford Department of Modern Languages For the Degree of Ph.D) Available from http://usir.salford.ac.uk/14668/1/D091136.pdf Catford, J. (1978). A Linguistic Theory of Translation (5th ed.). Retrieved from http:// www.academia.edu/3253821/A_linguistic_theory_of_translation Holmes, J. S. (1970). he nature of translation: Essays on the theory and practice of literary translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books/about/The_nature_of_translation.html?id=DR- FAAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y Landers, C. (2001). Literary Translation: A Practical Guide. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books? id=RnBUh9EQ3eUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=literary+translation&hl=en&sa=X&ei=qn1QU7KKHcbXP aCJgbAH&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=true Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation--history, Culture: A Sourcebook. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ books/about/Translation_history_Culture.html?id=FIwOAAAAQAAJ&redir_esc=y Milani, M. (n.d.). Poetry, publishing and translation studies. Retrieved from https:// readingitaly.wordpress.com/2014/01/28/translation-critics-corner/Nair, K. S. (1991). Translating Poetry: Some Basic Problems. International Journal of Translation, 3(1), 90. Nassar, H. K., & Rahman, N. (2008). Mahmoud Darwish, Exile's Poet: Critical Essays. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books?id=xpih1N2HEJEC&printsec=frontcover&hl=ar#v=onepage&q&f=false Nida, U. A., & Taber, C. R. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation (3rd ed.). Retrieved from http:// books.google.co.uk/books? id=odoUAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=ar&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f= false Niknasab , L., & Pishbin, E. (2011). On the Translation of Poetry: A Look at Sohrab Sepehri's Traveler. Journal of Translation and Interpretation, 5(1), 5. Retrieved from http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTI05/pdf_doc/01.pdf Rasaeipoor, M. (2011). Poetry Translation: a Review on Fitzgerald's Rubaiyat. International Conference on Lan- guages, Literature and Linguistics, 26, 256. Retrieved from http://www.ipedr.com/vol26/52-ICLLL% 202011-L10073.pdf Rose, M. G. (1981). Translation Spectrum: Essays in Theory and Practice. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books/about/Translation_Spectrum.html?id=jp2zORFejDcC&redir_esc=y Wasfi, N. (2014). Introduction to Translation. RD, Saudi Arabia: King Saud University - Department of English Language and Translation.

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Methods of Translating English and Arabic Proverbs By Dana A. Al-Muhaiza

ave you ever faced a problem and you were mystified with it for a long time? It would be easy if you look for a wise saying that will guide you to the perfect solution. Prov- H erbs fulfill the human need to summarize experiences and observations into nuggets of wisdom that provide ready-made comments on personal relationships and social affairs. In 2011, Taggart defined proverbs as “a piece of wisdom or advice, expressed in a short and memorable way” (p. 7). The origin of proverbs is complex and varied, but the basic sources of proverbs are religion, literature and culture (Montanari, 2010). Indeed, a deeper look into English and Arabic proverbs reveals interesting issues surrounding their translation.

Different characteristics are given for proverbs by many scholars which help us to identify the proverbs from other similar items. Dabaghi, Pishbin, and Niknasab realized that, first, proverbs are self- contained. Scholars had argued that proverbs must be self-contained, which means that none of their essential grammatical units may be replaced, for instance, the phrase like "Brown as a berry" (p. 807) is immedi- ately excluded from the class of proverbs because it lacks precisely essential grammatical units, which can thus be substituted at will. Second, proverbs are a full statement that show a complete thought. Third, proverbs are grammatical sentences. Four, proverbs are traditional because they are items of folklore (2010).

Proverbs are very important because they are in the form of short, easily memorable phrases. Dabaghi et al. state that the proverbs contain a great treasure of folk wisdom, and through use of a short proverb, it's often easier to express an idea better and more convincingly than with a long speech. Proverbs have been written to guide people in every walk of life. They will teach you how to be wise and self- controlled and will teach you what to do, and what is honest and fair (2010). Sometimes you can’t understand it if it is in another language, but there are ways to translate the proverbs to be understood and get the benefit of them.

Proverb translating involves two steps but the most important thing that the translator must bear in mind is the fact that s/he should exchange messages not merely words (Badawi, 2008). The first step is find-

56 has "صاحب صنعتين كذاب" ing an equivalent proverb in the target language, for instance, the Arabic proverb- no sense if we translate it literally into ”a man of two professions is a liar” but if we use an existing equivalent, it seems better “a Jack of all trades is a master of none”, as this is acceptable in the target language (Bahameed, 2008, para. 9). When you try to find an equivalent, you will transfer the meaning of the proverb easily without any confusion or additional explanation.

The next step after failing to find an existing equivalent is to translate the proverb literally, word for word and try to approximate the general meaning of the target proverb to the meaning of the source proverb. For example, the proverb “you cannot get blood out of stone”, means you cannot extract what isn't there to begin with (Martin, 1995, para. 3), has no equivalent in Arabic so we will translate it literally as it is. This step is used when you don’t find an appropriate equivalent in the“ال تستطيع إخراج دم من صخره” target language, and that is because of differences in culture, history and literature between both languages. So the solution is when you find such a problem, translate it literally.

Proverbs are the most powerful way to pass on people’s ideas from one generation to another. In 2010, Dabaghi et al. stated that “the reason behind the efficacy of the proverb is that it is an aphorism, a wise saying based upon people’s experience, and is a reflection of the social value and sensibility of the people” (p. 813). So you should try to learn as much as possible about others proverbs to extend and develop your knowledge. Therefore, you need to know how to translate the proverbs from one language to another in an accurate and clear way for the purpose of transferring the exact meaning.

References Badawi, M. F. (2008). Investigating EFL Prospective Teachers' Ability to Translate Culture-Bound Ex- pressions. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED503396.pdf Bahameed, A. S. (2008). Hindrances in Arabic-English Intercultural Translation, 10(1). Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/journal/43culture.htm Dabaghi, A., Pishbin, E., & Niknasab, L. (2010). Proverbs from the Viewpoint of Translation. Journal Of Language Teaching & Research, 1(6), 807-814. doi:10.4304/jltr.1.6.807-814 Martin, G. (1995). You can't get blood out of a stone. Retrieved April 20, 2014, from http:// www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/419000.html Montanari, M. (2010). Cheese, pears, & history: In a proverb. New York: Columbia University Press. Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa/ Taggart, C. (2011). An Apple a Day. Montreal, NY: Reader’s Digest Association.

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A Historical View of Machine Translation By Faredah D. Albogami

achine translation generally started in the 1950s, although work can be found from ear- lier periods. The authors claimed that within three or five years, machine translation M would be a solved problem. In the Soviet Union, similar experiments were performed shortly after. However, the real progress was much slower, and after the ALPAC report in 1966, which found that the ten years of research had failed to fulfill the expectations, and funding was dramatically re- duced. Of great importance is that there are some periods that describe how machine translation is developed, at the beginning, in the 1960, till these days (Homiedan, 1998).

Hutchins reported that "The term 'machine translation' (MT) refers to computerized systems responsible for the production of translations with or without human assistance" (p. 431). He adds that computer programs are producing translations but not perfect ones; it is just translations of technical manuals, scientific documents, commercial prospectuses, administrative memoranda, and medical reports. Thus, machine translation is answering practical needs, and is not primarily an area of abstract intellectual inquiry (Hutchins, 1995).

Figure 1. The development of Arabic machine translation (“Sakhr Software,”, 2014)

58 According to Amine, 2012, the first period was between 1947 and 1960 and that period is called "The beginning". The use of computers for translation was first suggested by Warren Weaver in 1947 in correspondence with Norbert Wiener. The next few years saw the beginning of research in the United States, the Soviet Union, and Western Europe. However, the practical results were disappointing; by the mid-1960s, there were few working translation systems, and the output quality was not good.

The second period was between 1960 and 1966 which is called (Parsing and disillusionment). In this period there are already many parsers developed from different types of grammars, such as grammar and dependency grammar. In the 1964, the creation of the committee Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) with the American government to study the perspectives and the chances of machine translation, but the result of this study was disappointing because it concluded that its works on machine translation is just wasting time and money. This rapport had a negative impact on their search (MT) for a number of years (Amine, 2012; Wilks, 2008).

Amine said that "in 1978, creation of system ATLAS2 by the Japanese firm FUJITSU, this translator was based on rules also he is able to translate from Korean to Japanese and vice versa" (para. 8), so there is a new birth and hope between 1970 and 1980. After that, machine translation developed and many books were published. Kohen also pointed out that the number of machine translators increased year after year. Machine translation has a long history of ambitions and many goals (2010).

Today, machine translation is still seen by most professionals requiring accurate translations as an in- adequate substitution for human translation teams. However, some of the world's largest companies and most recognizable brand names are using machine translation and are applying the technology in their work. In fact, if companies use MT in the right way, quality can actually be improved compared to pure human translation (Goutte, 2009). References

Amine, M. (2012). Theoretical Overview of Machine translation. Retrieved from http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-867/ Paper17.pdf Koehn, P. (2010). Statistical machine translation. Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com Goutte, C. (2009). Learning Machine Translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Homiedan, A. (1998). Machine translation. Retrieved from http://www.translationdictionary.com/ article911.htm Hutchins, J. (1995). MACHINE TRANSLATION: GENERAL OVERVIEW. Retrieved from http:// www.hutchinsweb.me.uk/Mitkov-2003.pdf Sakhr Software - About Sakhr Software. (2014, May). Retrieved from http://www.sakhr.com/index.php/en/ about-sakhr/overview Wilks, Y. (2008). Machine Translation: Its Scope and Limits. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

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Translation of Idioms across Arabic and English By Al-Jazee Al-Jomeaiah

he meaning of the word idiom according to Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary is "a group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the individual T words" (Hornby, 2010, p. 744). We, as translators, know the importance of idioms through our intensive program of translation. And we have encountered idioms in various fields. Each field has its own way of combining words to perform certain actions or to convey certain meanings. What we also have noticed is the great connection between idioms and culture. In 2011, Durdureanu stated that "Translation and culture are so interrelated that translators can no longer ignore cultural elements in a text." (para. 1). This cultural importance in translating idioms creates great challenges for translators.

In 2012, Saeed stated that it is a difficult task to translate idioms especially to people like me and my fellow students who are at the beginning of the path of the translation study. Since translating idioms is greatly connected to the language’s culture, translators in general find it difficult to transfer the meaning correctly. He added that, “More often than not, the component words that make an idiom do not always reveal the overall meaning intended by the idiom” (p. 181). The variations of meanings in Arabic as well as in English do not help translators at all, especially beginners, in achieving a simple correspondence which eventually will lead to loss of meaning.

One common mistake we often commit is translating idioms by the meaning of their individual words which might lead to great confusion. For example, we should let bygones be bygones and move on to more important things. In the example provided here, we translated the idiom/phrase "Let bygones be by- which is "اترك ما سلف يكون سلف" which if we translate it literally would be "اللي فات مات" gones" to Arabic as structurally and meaningfully wrong. "Out of sight, out of mind" is another idiom which is translated into in Arabic which "القلب" which replaced the word "mind" with the word "بعيد عن العين بعيد عن القلب" Arabic .“العقل“ is more suitable in this context than if it is translated to "القلب" might demonstrate that is the word

As we already saw, idioms are not easily predictable and the component words are not helpful in translating the idiom as well. In addition, the language’s diversity is another barrier a translator faces. Each language has its own system and has its own words. With that taken into consideration, certain words do not

60 have equivalences in the opposite language; for example, cup one's hand together (“Cup Hands Togeth- er”, 2002). The verb in this phrase does not have equivalence in the Arabic language, but if we were One verb in English resulted in a . أجمع يديك على شكل كوب أو لتشكل كوب forced to translate it, we can say complete sentence in Arabic which might lead translators to exert extra effort to find the nearest possible word or phrase.

Before moving to the next obstacle in translating idioms, we must define the previous solution for non-opposite equivalent words as paraphrasing which is making the process of translation mush easier for the learner and more understandable for the reader. Of course it would be better to paraphrase the idiom than literally translate it. This would be very odd and does not make sense for the Arabic reader as well as for the English-speaking reader, especially that Arabic idioms “poetic” words that are not easy to translate along with the feature of semantic repetition that can make translating its idioms into English lead to semantic and syntactic loss because a lot of words are omitted.

Mona Baker pointed to the fact that we cannot change the order of an idiom nor can we delete a word from it; and adding a word or replacing a word with another is unacceptable (as cited in Abu- Ssaydeh, 2004), also changing the grammatical structure of an idiom could change the meaning significantly. So what I greatly advise is that we consult native speakers about culturally specific idioms. Be- cause of their knowledge about their language, native speakers are whom we should resort to as the pri- mary source of information about meaning (“An Introduction To,” 2014). Finally, with more practice and more study about the source text's culture, we can be sure that we would not be annoyed by indifferences of idioms.

References

Abu-Ssaydeh, A. (2004). Translation of English idioms into Arabic. Babel, 50(2), 114-131. An Introduction to Semantics and pragmatics 246 NJD. (2014). College of Languages and translation. Cup hands together. (n.d.) McGraw-Hill Dictionary of American Idioms and Phrasal Verbs. (2002). Re- trieved April 22 2014 from http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/cup+hands+together Durdureanu, I. (2011). Translation of Cultural Terms: Possible or Impossible? The Journal of Linguistic and Intercultural Education, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ Faiq, S. (2004). Cultural encounters in translation from Arabic. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com Saeed, A. (2012). Difficulties Arab translation trainees encounter when translating high frequency idioms. Babel, 58(2), 181-204.

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The Importance of Financial Translation By Tarfah A. Alaskar

ranslation started from ancient times as Venuti (1995) said "from the seventeenth century to the present" (p. 1). People were using translation for centuries. There is one field of T translation whose need has increased these days, and this is financial translation. Finan- cial translation is translating documents, reports, and records that revolve around finance. This type of translation is usually found in global companies, and banks. Indeed, the need for financial translation has increased because of its strong impact on global companies.

Over the past few years, Gouadec (2007) mentioned that the need for financial translators accus- tomed to the world stock markets and financial markets has increased. Also, in many countries a lot of financial translator associations are springing up. Therefore, the language translation market and especially the financial translation field has definitely become a great growing opportunity for many translators.

Language translation plays an important role in global companies, and many global companies depend on language translation. According to Pinfaz (2012): International companies rely heavily on language translation (putting one language into another language) to get their information about products, services, transactions, and management methods across cultures to users of the target countries. Without language translation, global business achieves nothing. In this sense, language translation is the basis for global business and an important guarantee for its success (p. 11).

Amrhein (1994) stated that “foreign currency translation became even more important in 1973 when the flexible exchange rate system was established” (para. 2). Therefore, the importance of foreign currency translation (financial translation) is increasing in many U.S. companies and banks due to foreign currency transactions that will produce variant financial results. Also, the result of the disparity between U.S. and foreign Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) is that U.S. accountants have to reconcile foreign financial statements with U.S. GAAP (Amrhien ,1994).

There are many international companies that benefited from financial translation and translation in general. A great example is the American Express company (AMEX) which is an international company for financial services. Its headquarters is in New York City. It is used in more than 100 countries such as

62 France, Singapore, and Saudi Arabia. One of the reasons that made AMEX and many other international companies global is financial translation.

Figure 1. American Express Meetings & Events - Global Presence (“American Express,” n.d.)

The importance of financial translation for companies is increasing day by day, and for some global companies it's a must because financial translation is the key to enter the economy of countries. Selijan (2011) said that the translation market will grow faster than all occupations in 2016, and this was estimat- ed by the Federal Bureau of Labor. So, in a few years, we will see more local companies using financial translation. References American Express (n.d.). Global Business Travel. Retrieved from https:// businesstravel.americanexpress.com/meetings-and-events/ Amrhein, Denise Guithues (Spring 1994). Reporting of Foreign Currency Translation. Multinational Business Review. Retrieved from http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-105874/reporting- of-foreign-currency-translation Gouadec, D. (2007). Translation as a profession. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub. Co. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Pinfan, Z. (2012). Translation problems in global business and their counter-measures. Journal For Glob- al Business Education, 1211-24. Seljan, S. (2011). Translation Technology as Challenge in Education and Business. Informatologia, 44 (4), 279-286. Venuti, L. (1995). The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. London: Routledge. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com.sa/

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Translating Culture vs. Cultural Translation By Dhiya'a B. Bin Bakheet

ranslation is not regarded as just a simple transfer from one language into another, or from a source text into a target text, but also as transfer between cultures. According to Faull T (2004), any translating is obviously an intended action: a translator aims to rewrite a foreign text in another language, reproducing its specificity as much as linguistic and cultural differences per- mit and audiences require. In translation studies, culture became an object of study in the 1970s, when ow- ing to the pragmatic turn, researchers started to pay more attention to the function of verbal expression and correlated linguistic forms with aspects of life (Loogus, 2012).

We know that the meaning of translation is transferring a spoken or a written meaning from one language to another. But the world (culture) has many different meanings. One can think of culture as the way of life of a group of people which includes the behaviors, beliefs, values that are passed along by communication from one generation to the next. Fairchild defined (culture) in his book Dictionary of Sociology and Related Sciences as: A collective name for all behavior patterns socially acquired and transmitted by means of symbols; hence a name for all the distinctive achievements of human groups, including not only such items as language, tool-making, industry, art, science, law, government, morals and religion, but also the material instruments or artifacts in which cultural achievements are embodied and by which intellectual cultural features are given practical effect, such as buildings, tools, machines, communication devices, art objects, etc. (Barqer, 2000, para. 6).

"To speak a language," says Fanon, "is to take on a world, a culture" (p.3). Language cannot be isolated from the "world" or "culture" within which it is embedded and which it, thus, expresses, can be extended to other situations as well. In seeking to transport words from language to another, the translator cannot merely search for equivalent words in the target language to render the meaning of the source. Rather, the translator must attend to the contexts ("a world", “a culture") from which these arise and which they, necessarily, evoke and express (Dingwaney & Maier, 1996).

It seems entirely appropriate that translation theory and practice has, in recent years, turned to both (source) and (target) cultures as something to be studied before the translation of a work can proceed (Dingwaney & Maier, 1996). Translators are permanently faced with the problem of how to treat the cultural aspects implicit in a source text (ST) and of finding the most appropriate technique of successfully conveying these aspects in the target language (TL). These problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the two languages (James, 2002).

Due to the fact that the differences of the languages, it makes it difficult to crack cross- international communication, and translators always find it difficult to choose an almost equal word to replace the original one, thus the problems of misplacement, loss in the translation of words with cultural image come out, which cause difficulties and misunderstandings in intercultural communication. In the process of translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural activity, the cultural image of the original words should be expressed and the cultural meanings should be transmitted as appropriately and completely as possible (Fenfang, Shiyang, & Tian, 2010).

To sum up, Fenfang et al. said that, "translation is not simply the transformation between the languages and the language symbols, it is an activity of cross-language and cross-culture communication in the actual sense" (2010, p. 4). It has become clear that the terms of (translating culture) and (cultural translation) are related concepts. When a translator translates a passage from one language to another, he/ she doesn’t have to convey only the words or phrases that occur; but he/she also has to convey the source culture of the passage to the audiences.

References

Barqer, A. A. (2000). The Meanings of Culture. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture, 3(2). Retrieved from http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0005/meaning.php Dingwaney, A., & Maier, C. (1996). Between Languages and Cultures: Translation and Cross-Cultural Texts. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Faull, K. M. (2004). Translation and Culture. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Fenfang, L., Shiyang, R., & Tian, X. (2010). Translation of Words with Cultural Image. Journal Of Lan- guage Teaching & Research, 1(5), 694-700. doi:10.4304/jltr.1.5.694-700 James, K. (2002). Cultural Implications for Translation. Translation Journal, 6. Retrieved from http:// context.translationjournal.net/journal/22delight.htm Loogus, T. (2012). Culture-related decision conflicts in the translation process. Sign Systems Studies, 40 (3/4), 369-384

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The Impact of the Social Context on Translation By Abeer S. Alabdulkareem

ranslation is a cultural phenomenon that is connected to culture. Translation may be defined as transferring meaning from one language into another, whereas culture is defined according to T McQuilkin as “An integrated system of learned behavior patterns that are characteristic of the members of any given society” (as cited in Aldebyan, 2008, p. 96). Dickins (2013) pointed out that when a translator translates he doesn’t only transfer one language into another but he also transfers from a culture into another. In fact, people’s cultural background, the environment, as well as the ethnicity have a deep impact on the terms and words used in their daily life which affects their way of understanding the meaning of the words, and the context in general. Language and cultural differences have existed for centuries, and connotations of concepts differ from one language to another which can lead to a misunderstanding. James (2005) pointed out that there are some obstacles when translating some texts which involve the readers’ full understanding of the cultural aspects that are mentioned; as has been stated that “The problems when translating such a text are therefore not only of a purely lexical character but also of an equally fundamental nature - the understanding of a social, economic, political and cultural context as well as connotative aspects of a more semantic character.” (para. 23). In addition, foreign readers will most likely not understand the historical, literature, political or cultural references.

Figure 1. The effect social context on language (Sewell, n.d.)

66 It is the translator's job to clear any confusions that a reader may have; it is also his/her job to “bridge the differences between cultures and languages, which are symbols of that specific cultural identity” (Teodorescu, 2010, p. 176). Moreover, the translator may delete any information that is not necessary or even add other information so that the target text reader understands the text; furthermore, the translator must also be aware of any cross cultural differences whether they are in the manners, the language, the verbal and non-verbal communication, the norms and principles to avoid any cross cultural blunders (James, 2005; Payne, 2007). Some good and comical examples of cross cultural blunders that occurred in the translation of some bro- chures, advertisements and signs, is when “Kellogg had to rename its Bran Buds cereal in Sweden when it discovered that the name roughly translated to "burned farmer"” and when “Pepsico advertised Pepsi in Taiwan with the ad "Come Alive With Pepsi" they had no idea that it would be translated into Chinese as "Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead"” and that “Detour sign in Kyushi, Japan, [was read as] Stop--Drive side- ways” (Payne, 2007, p. 2). Moreover, the famous baby food brand in the US Gerber which has a smiling baby as their label, started selling their products in Africa, but after a while, they found out that companies in Africa put the picture of the product on the package since many people are illiterate. In addition, in 2003, DHL’s slogan “We move the world” was banned in Saudi Arabia because it was violating the Islamic beliefs (Ulvydiene, 2013). All these cross-cultural blunders could have been simply avoided if the translator had a full understanding of the target text language and its intended audience. In conclusion, in order to avoid any dilemmas the translator must have a comprehensive knowledge of both the source and the target languages, he/she must also know the target text reader and his/her habits, desires and attitudes. In addition, the translator must also be aware of any cross cultural differences so that he/she avoids any cross-cultural blunders while translating (James, 2005; Payne, 2007; & Ulvydiene, 2013).

References

Aldebyan, Q. A. (2008). Strategies for Translating Arabic Cultural Markers Into English: A Foreignizing Ap- proach. Retrieved from http://books.google.com Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. (2013). Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Arabic to English Thinking Translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com James, K. (2005). Cultural Implications for translation. Retrieved from http://www.proz.com/translation-articles Payne, N. (2007, November 2). Culturosity Article: Cultural Blunders. Retrieved from http:// www.culturosity.com/articles/culturalblunders.htm Sewell, L. (n.d.). Lost for Words: Translating Culture - The Travel Word. Retrieved January 2012, from http:// www.thetravelword.com/2012/01/04/lost-for-words-translating-culture/ Teodorescu, A. (2010). Translation and Cultural Diversity. Petroleum - Gas University Of Ploiesti Bulletin, Phi- lology Series, 62(1), 175-178. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com Ulvydiene, L. (2013). Psychology of Translation in Cross-Cultural Interaction. Retrieved from http://ac.els- cdn.com

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The Translation of Science Books in the Middle Ages By Atheer Al-Saber

“You can know the name of a bird in all the languages of the world, but when you're finished, you'll know absolutely nothing whatever about the bird." (para. 3). Robert's idea was that there's no relationship between knowing the name of something and understanding its meaning. All scientists will see arts and humanities as beneath them, but it does betray a lack of understanding of how science got to where it was today. Go back a thousand years and European science was in the dark ages - an all-time low of scientific innovation. In the mean- time, science in the Middle East was booming (2011). It is a fact that not many people know the huge role that science translation played in the Middle Ages.

Middle Ages or Medieval period is a period of time that made a lot of changes in the world and had its huge role in history. It is the age of discovery and a period of massive social change, burgeoning nationalism, international conflict, terrible natural disasters, rebellion, resistance and renaissance (James, 2011). There is no certain agreement among historians, authors, and educators for the precise dates that mark the beginning and the end of the Middle Ages. The most common time frame is approximately 500-1500 C.E. This imprecision happened because the Middle Ages evolved over centuries of scholarship; once a "Dark Age," then a Romantic era and an "Age of Faith" (Snell, 2006).

The middle ages were divided into three basic periods. First, the early middle ages (5th – 10th ) which were called the Dark Ages, where there was obvious decadence of Western civilization. Scientists in their ignorance, were receptive to rumors as facts. There was the "Fall of Rome" and the birth and expansion of Islam in Spain, where Muslims lived richer culturally and intellectually, and one of the highlights is their movement from Andalusia to the West. Second, the High Middle Ages (11th – 13th) which were considered as the Middle Age’s best era. Europe was at an economic, political, and cultural height. Finally, The Late Middle Ages (13th – 15th) which included awesome events like the Hundred Years War and the Black Death (Snell, 2006).

So, where did the success of this period come from? According to Roberts: The secrets of this success came in the eighth century with Abbasid caliph, Al- Ma'mun, who kicked off what became known as the "Translation Movement" through gathering and translating books from across the world. The work of Indian mathematicians could be combined with the philosophy of the ancient Greeks and the astronomical observations of the Babylonians. This led to a renaissance in phys- ics, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and many other fields, which lasted several centuries and made Baghdad the richest and largest city in the world (2011, para. 4).

A second, lesser-known translation movement began in Toledo, Spain in the 12th century, where the works of Arab scientists were translated into Latin, going on to inspire the forerunners of modern science such as Newton and Galileo. It was an era when Toledo was an effervescent melting pot of three cultures – Mus- lim, Christian, and Jewish. The linguists translated hundreds of Tomes on medicine, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and botany and thus introduced Europeans to vital knowledge from the Semitic world. Even some works of Plato and Aristotle made their entry into Europe here via Arabic, as Mr. Larramendi said (as cited in Simons, 1998).

Indeed, translations by Gerard of Cremona alone drastically altered the course of Western science. Grant observes that seeing the abundance of books in Arabic on every subject, and regretting the poverty of the Greek in these things. He learned the Arabic language in order to be able to translate. He translated sev- enty treatises in many subjects, such as Ptolemy's Almagest, the basic physical works of Aristotle, numerous mathematical works (like the Algebra of al-Khwarizmi), and a large number of medical treatises (including many by Gale, the Avicenna's medical poem and the Liber Continens of Rhazes al-Razi). These works formed the core of medieval medical studies (Abdel-Halim, 2014; Grant, 1996).

In conclusion, it must be clear now the huge role of science translation in the Middle Ages. Europe took the basic sciences from highly bright Arabs in the Middle Ages specially in Toledo which was a melting pot of three cultures -- Christian, Muslim, and Jewish. In 1998, Simons stated that researchers who visited Toledo had access to medieval texts, many of which are kept at the Toledo Cathedral. Without these works, Europe wouldn't be at this greatness nowadays.

References

Abdel-Halim, R. (2014). The role of Ibn Sina (Avicenna)'s medical poem in the transmission of medical knowledge to medieval Europe.Urology Annals, 6(1), 1-12. doi:10.4103/0974-7796.127010 Grant, E. (1996). The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages: Their religious, institutional, and intellectual contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa James, T. (2011, June 17). Overview: The Middle Ages, 1154 - 1485. BBC. Retrieved from http:// www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/overview_middleages_01.shtml Roberts , A. A. (2011, February 10). The Importance of Translation An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era. Scitable. Simons, M. (1998, January 3). Toledo Journal; After 5 Centuries, a Mecca for Translators Again. The New York Times. Snell, M. (2006, December). Defining the Middle Ages. About.com. Retrieved from http:// historymedren.about.com/od/gettingstarted/a/defining.htm

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The Impact of Culture on Translation By Rawan S. Al-rifai

ranslation is a very important process in our life; it seems like the key that we use for understanding other languages. Translation areas are a lot such as: medical, commercial and T humanity, and each area has its own characteristics. Another example of translation is cultural translation, and this is what we are going to discuss in this paper. Cultural translation is a difficult kind of translation that requires from it translators to be educated enough to translate such a texts, and this kind of translation doesn’t have its own area, but it exists in the other areas as a part of them. The impact of culture is obvious on translation, and we have to avoid this impact to produce an excellent translation.

The relationship between translation and culture is like a relationship between two different communities because culture involves a creation of values, linguistics, literary, politics, and also our religion is a part of one’s culture (Faull, 2004). All of these elements indeed affect our translation, so for example, when we translate an Islamic text into English, we have to be aware of the audience who receive the text. For ex- which should be "هللا" ample, if they were American people, we should take notice certain words like translated to "God" instead of "Allah" which exists in the translation from English to Arabic.

"Translation is not just a window opened to another world, or some such pious platitude rather translation is a channel opened" (Lefevere, 2002, p. 7). An opened channel is like the connection between different cultures, but sometimes this connection doesn’t reach to the other community; for example, when we translate (khademalharamyn al sharefayn al mlk Abdullah bin abdulaziz) to the English culture, we don’t translate it as “custodian of the two holy mosques” because in the English culture they don’t know the value of the two holy mosques, so we translate it as “King Abdullah bin Abdul-Aziz”, so they could know the meaning only.

Another example of the impact of culture on translation is our understanding of the other religion; for example, we as Arabs and as Muslims don’t have enough information about Christianity, and that they have more than one pope, so when we translate an Arabic text to the Arabic community, and the text contains for instance, "the pope of the catholic church", it will not make sense if we translated it as "papa al kanesa al katholikya" because as I mentioned above, we as Arabs, don’t know if they have different popes, and as a result, it should be translated as "the pope" only.

70 According to Thriveni, 2002, custom and tradition is a part of culture too, and two important elements in the impact of culture on translation. The question is how could we translate a word like "abaya", "shemagh", and "thobe" to the English culture? In the past, translators used to translate "abaya" as cloak, but they discovered that a cloak doesn’t show the real meaning of the word "abaya" because the target text audience started thinking of "abaya" as a big jacket, and that shows culture’s concern and affection about suitable translations! So nowadays when people in the western culture know the real meaning of "abaya", we started to translate it as "ABAYA" which has the same pronunciation, but in English letters.

Finally, Zuckerman stated that if the translator wants to be a good cultural translator, he should be a person who loves to read, and a well-educated person because you will not know the nature of the culture of some community if you haven’t read about it (as cited in Mayberry, 2010, para. 6) and that is because translators always feel that their job is just to convey the meaning of the source text into the target text, and this is right, but they also have to read about the culture which they translate into to produce a perfect translation.

Figure 1. The importance learning about cultures through translation (Doyle, n.d.)

References Doyle, H. G. (n.d.). Quotes and sayings about culture. Retrieved from http://meetville.com/quotes/tag/ culture/page43 Faull, K. (2004). Translation and culture. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.uk/ Lefevere, A. (Ed.). (2002). Translation/History/Culture: A Sourcebook Translation Studies . Retrieved from http://books.google.co.uk/ Mayberry, J. (2010, July 26). The Need for Cultural Translation with Community Media. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/idealab/2010/07/the-need-for-cultural-translation-with-community-media207/ Thriveni, C. (2002). Cultural elements in translation, 6(1). Retrieved from http:// context.translationjournal.net/journal/19culture.htmJournal

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The Translation of Advertisements: Strategies & Benefits By Rawan A. AlAskar

dvertising is a form, written or orally, used to encourage or persuade an audience to take some action. Advertising used to attract consumers' attention to a particular good and al- A so help them to recognize the function of that good. Advertising messages usually are viewed by different traditional media such as newspapers, magazines and television commercials or the recent media such as websites and text message (Zhang & Li, 2012). The globalization of economies has lead companies to communicate with different languages which are developing advertising translation. Advertis- ing translation has an important role in international economy, so the question is: What is this role and the strategies of this kind of translation?

The Increase of international exchanges involves a growing need for communication and thus of translation. The amount of advertising translations is huge and keeps increasing, but this communication becomes effective abroad only after the message has been translated. If a company is trying to develop an international trading or if a company deals with multinational customers o become a partner of global market and wants to promote their brand product, translation services is the key way to get those customers easily and it can ensure the message will reach them effectively ("The benefits of,” n.d.).

Translation involves increased brand awareness and increase in demand on the market targeted by the translated advertisements. If a company is doing business in foreign markets, or wants to communicate with customers around the world, translating advertisements is the best way. There is a recent survey enti- tled “Translation at Fortune 500 Companies” conducted by the Common Sense Advisory, whereby a market research company was to find out about how Fortune 500 companies benefit from using translation services. The result shows that most of those companies increased their investment in translation services over the course of 2011, and they all experienced a clear return on investment as a result with a growth in revenue ("Benefits of Translation,” n.d.).

Markets analysis know what consumers accept and need, and this is an important method for companies to consider before trying to translate their advertisements in order to enter a foreign market. In 2007, Bach stated that "markets analysis is an important instrument in assessing the attractiveness of a particular market since it is utilized to decide to enter a foreign market in terms of international marketing strategy" (p. 1). Market analyses is “section of your business plan should illustrate your industry and market

72 knowledge as well as any of your research findings and conclusions” ("Market Analysis", n.d., para. 1). If the advertisers finish with that step, then they can begin the translation process.

When companies translate advertisements, they should consider the culture, nationality, religion, race and morals of the target market and know that what is suitable for one community may be not that appropriate for another. Every culture is unique and this is the framework that international advertising is built around so they try to make their advertisement language as close as possible to the target community which leads the customers to feel familiar with the advertisement. For example, it is useful to the companies when translating for Arabic target market to use colloquial Arabic rather than standard/classic Ara- bic.

An advertising translator should understanding the culture of the target audience, considering leg- islation of the target countries and must possess the “added-value” which is counted in with the technical knowledge of the cultural nature, for example, adaptation of dates and hours, weights and measures, cur- rencies and addresses that often vary according to countries and languages. They also need to be aware of cultural stereotypes and the social clichés being used in the target societies (i.e. ethnic preferences, religious convictions, national spirit) (Ahmad & Ahmad, 2008).

Finally, nowadays it is important for most, if not all, companies to enter the international market and become a global brand and since the earth is teaming with different languages and cultures, the only way to achieve this goal is through translating their advertisements to different languages according to the target audience. When translating advertisements, an advertiser should take into account the culture, morals and religion of the target market in order for his advertisements to succeed.

References

Ahmad, H., & Ahmad, L. (2008). Strategies and Limitations in Advertising Translation from English into Arabic. Retrieved from https://dspace.aus.edu/xmlui/handle/11073/49 Bach, B. (2007). International marketing entry strategy for the Red//Green Company: Thai market attractiveness determination & strategic implications. München: GRIN Verlag GmbH. Benefits of Translation Services | Translation Services | Dublin City University Language Services. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://dculs.dcu.ie/dcu-language-services-news/benefits- The benefits of translation services. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://professionaltranslation24.webs.com/ Market Analysis | SBA.gov. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.sba.gov/content/market- analysis Zhang, Z., & L, I. (2012). Effects of Cultural Differences on Advertising Translation. Retrieved from www.ier-institute.org/2070-1918/lnit17/v17/354.pdf

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Problems in Translating Collocations By Madawi A. AlShaikh

collocation is the recurrent appearance of words and it acts as a unit lexeme and gives a special rhythm to the sentence and to the paragraph. Collocations are usually the owner- A ship of one language and most will pose problems for the translator (Ribé & González, 1998). Aslam (2013) defined translation as “words that have been changed from one language into another language to convey the same meaning as implied in the source language” (p. 405). In fact, collocations are different from one language to another and that would lead to different problems in translating them. Smadja, Mckeown, and Hatzivassiloglou (1996) explained that collocations usually come as word pairs or phrases. Also, their meanings can’t be translated word for word but you should know their meaning as a whole phrase or pair, then try to find a common equivalence in the target language. In addition, they said that “While collocations are not predictable on the basis of syntactic or semantic rules, they can ob- served in language and thus must be learned through repeated usage” (p. 5). Translators usually face difficulties in translating collocations because of collocational differences between “SL” and “TL”.

Figure 1. Concepts associated with collocations (“Collocations, Phrasal Verbs,” n.d.).

Bahumaid (2006) explained that the collocational range is different from the SL to the TL. For ex- يصطاد سمكة/ يصاب بنزلة برد/ يلحق بالقطار/ تشتعل النار ample, in English catch a fish/ a cold/ a train/ fire; in Arabic Also, he believed that there are some collocations that are language-specific, i.e. entirely used in a .فيه particular language, like, in English: eat one’s soup but in Arabic: drink one’s soup. In addition, he ex- :In Englishعنتر زمانه :plained that some of the collocations may be culture-bound, for example, in Arabic “Hercules of his times” (p. 137).

74 Newmark (1988) has admitted that the problems translators might face are at different levels, so he conceived certain strategies that could help the translator to overcome these problems. Also, he said that “when the translator is involved in the process of translation, he is always trying to solve a thousand small problems in the context of a large one” (as cited in Dweik and Shakra, 2010, p. 8). Finding the appropriate collocations in translation is a “continued struggle” (as cited in Dweik and Shakra, 2010, p. 213). Barnbrook, Mason, and Krishnamurthy (2013) suggested that in order to produce a proper translated equivalents of collocation in the TL, you should fully understand the collocation in both languages. Also, Štefić, Mravak-Stipetić, and Borić (2010) said that “knowledge of collocations is essential for competent use of language: a grammatically correct sentence would stand out as ‘imperfect’ or would sound unnatural or strange if collocational prefaces are violated” (p. 177). Rabeh (2010) stressed that collocations belong to a specific culture and language, and it cannot be easily or fully understood unless you are a native speaker of the source language. Also, he concluded that translators should be more careful and aware while translating collocations because ignoring them would lead to misunderstandings and the target text would lose a part of its meaning. In addition, translators should give the collocations enough importance as any vocabulary elements.

References

Aslam, Z. (2013). Loss of Cultural Element in Translation - A Comparative Study of Premchand's Original Story Kafan and Its Translations. Language In India, 13(12), 405-416. Bahumaid, S. (2006). Collocation in English-Arabic Translation. Babel, 52(2), 133-152 Barnbrook, G., Mason, O., & Krishnamurthy, R. (2013). Collocation: Applications and implications. Re- trieved from http://books.google.com.sa Collocations, Phrasal Verbs and Idioms. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://danienglish.com.br/2012/11/09/ collocations-phrasal-verbs-and-idioms/ Dweik, B. S., & Shakra, M. (2010). Strategies in Translating Collocations in Religious Texts from Arabic into English. Online Submission Rabeh, M. F. (2010). Problems in Translating collocations. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Ribé, R. Q., & González, D. M. (1998). Foundation [sic] of translation =: Fonaments de la traducció. Re- trieved from http://books.google.com.sa Smadja, F. A., Mckeown, K. R., & Hatzivassiloglou (1996).Translating Collocations for Bilingual Lexicons: A Statistical Approach. Computational Linguistics, 22(1). Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/ citation.cfm Štefić, L., Mravak-Stipetić, M., & Borić, V. (2010). Collocations in the Language of Dental Medicine: Exam- ples in Oral Medicine. Acta Stomatologica Croatica, 44(3), 176-187.

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Translating Idioms: Challenges for Translators By Arwa A. Al-Mahmoud

ranslation is transferring meaning from one language to another. A written or spoken SL text will be exchanged by its equivalent written or spoken TL text. In most cases, howev- T er, we as translators cannot find the proper equivalent of some of the SL items. Among the troublesome factors involved in the process of translation is the transference of idiomatic expressions. Idioms vary in different cultures and countries and their meaning is idiosyncratic. Indeed, as translators the difference between the SL and the TL and the variation in their cultures makes the process of translating idioms a real challenge. Before going deep into the discussion, there is a need to define idioms to distinguish them from non-idioms. And it must be stated that there exists no single definition of an idiom. Sera (2004, p. 5) defines idioms as: Informal expressions used in everyday speech. Often referred to as catch phrases, colloquialisms or clichés, they are groups of words that, together, have a special meaning that is different than each of the words alone. They serve as a colorful way to sum up an idea (for example, “mad as a hornet” illustrates a recognized degree of anger in a simple expression).

It's a hard task for translators to achieve equivalence because idioms are not taught in L2 classrooms due to the fact that teachers either do not know many idioms in the L2 or they do not know their origin - they may feel that their origins need to be explained. Also, in a definition given by Larson, an idiom is understood as to mean something quite different from what individual words of the phrase would imply (1984). So the first thing to mention here is that idioms cannot be translated literally because their meaning won’t be predicted from the meaning of their components. According to Baker (1992), one of the problems a translator faces in translating idioms is the lack of equivalence. All languages have idioms, but it is not easy to find an equivalent in the TL that corresponds to the idiom in the SL in both form and meaning. Idioms may contain a culture-bound item and this poses a problem for the translator. It is not the specific items an expression contains but rather the meaning it conveys and its association with cultural contexts which can make it untranslatable or difficult to translate.

76 Let us consider for example the English expression “Achilles heel”. This is culture specific in the sense that it contains a reference to a Greek mythology meaning a man's weakest point (Hornby, 2010, p. 11). Now the general point to be made about idioms is that its meaning cannot be predictable by non-native speak- would be meaningless for Arabic speakers. So, the first thing to be كعب آخيل ers. And if translated literally done in such cases is to minimize the loss in meaning as much as possible by using the translation by paraphrase strategy (BeDuhn, 2003) which is the most common way of translating idioms when a match cannot be found in the target language. It is often possible to find an idiom or fixed expression in the target language which has a meaning similar to that of the source idiom or expression, but which consists of different lexical items. For example, use الصبر مفتاح الفرج the English expression “After black clouds, clear weather” and the Arabic expression different lexical items to express more or less the same idea. In addition, there are many other difficulties involved in the process of idiom translation as mentioned by Davies (2004) and Baker (1992): “An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target language, but its context of use may be different. Recognition Difference between the convention, context and frequency of use in the source and target languages” (p. 193; p. 69) This paper indicated that there are some difficulties regarding the translation of idioms and fixed expressions. Since the use of idioms is a matter of style, attempting to find an idiomatic expression in the TL to translate them will help convey the style of the original in the TT. The translators could learn ways to find appropriate equivalents for idiomatic expressions. Another key concept to be considered is that translators must have a deep knowledge of both SL and TL to understand the connotative meanings of idioms and fixed expressions of the SL and then to recreate their exact counterparts in the TL.

References

Baker, M. (1992).In Other Words, A coursebook on translation. London: Routledge. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/ BeDuhn, J. (2003). Truth in translation: Accuracy and bias in English translations of the new testament. Uni- versity Press of America. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Davies, M. G. (2004). Multiple voices in the translation classroom: Activities, tasks and projects. Amesterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Retrieved from http://scholar.google.com.sa Hornby, A. S. (2010). Oxford, Advanced learners dictionary: International student's edition (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. Larson, M.L. (1984). Meaning Based Translation: A Guide to Cross Language Equivalence. London and New York: University Press of America. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Sera, L. (2004). Boatload of idioms: Over a thousand English expressions. Waterbury, CT, USA: Vocalis, Limited. Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa/

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The Effects of Translating Prophet Mohammed’s PBUH Stories By By Amjaad Alturayri

any people who read the stories of prophet Mohammed PBUH would absolutely reconsider what he was thinking whether about Islam or the prophet Mohammed himself, because M prophet Mohammed's life is a reflection of Islam and what the reality of this religion is due to the fact that some translators take this opportunity to distort the great reality of the prophet Mohammed and Islam. The French thinker Rojae Jarodi converted to Islam on July the 2nd, 1928, when he became certain that Islam is an instinct that Allah created us with (Abdulrahman, 2010).

There are so many impacts of translating the civilization of Islam that is taken from prophet Mohammed's life, such as treating and dealing with women. As we all know, many religions did not treat women as they were supposed to; for example, the Jews’ law was allowing the husband to do anything he wants to his wife and no one could stop him or punish him, and also the wife couldn't request divorce because of her husband’s toughness and also the law was with him. So, after translating the law of Islam and the stories of how prophet Mohammed treated women in his life, the Jews changed the law and gave many rights to the women and allowed them to ask for divorce when her husband offended her (Musaad, 2012).

The impacts of translating Prophet Mohammed's stories aren't only now in this period, but also after he died, when his friends translated everything they got from him including his vast knowledge. Moreover, foreign translators received very good treatment from Prophet Mohammed's friends because they received these qualities like being kind and how to deal well with others to create a great image for Islam and our prophet. Translating Prophet Mohammed's stories is also transferring how Islam and our prophet are merciful and request the Muslims to treat everyone very kindly because Islam is the religion of mercy and kindness because doing that will attract the non-Muslims to Islam and to love and respect prophet Mohammed PBUH (Alnamlah, n.d).

عن عبدهللا بن عمرو بن العاص رضي– هللا عنهما- أن النبي صلى هللا عليه وسلم قال: )من قتل معاهداً لم يرح رائحة الجنه, وإن ريحها ليوجد This story tells us how من مسيرة أربعين عاماً( أخرجه البخاري. والمعاهد هو: من بيننا وبينه قتال و وضعنا بيننا عهد سالم فال يمكننا إذائه. our prophet is so just and fair even for the non-Muslims. If we translate this story it would absolutely attract the non-Muslims to know more about Islam and Prophet Mohammed PBUH (Mohammed, 2009).

Islam is a great religion; it is not only the religion of peace and mercy, it is also the religion that encourages us to learn and to get knowledge. If Allah is encouraging us to learn and read, we need to translate to the non-Muslims how our religion is the base of many sciences and the civilization of Islam was wealthy of knowledge because there was an age called The Golden Ages. It was named like that because that period was full of knowledge introduced by Islam and Muslims, so we need to bring back this great period by translating prophet Mohammed's stories and also how the civilization of Islam was great and many civilizations took the knowledge from Islam (Essa & Ali, 2010).

Figure 1. Further achievements during the Golden Age (“Muslim Civilization,” 2010)

Knowing our greatest prophet by his stories makes us very interested to know him more and read more about his life, and it also makes us love him even more and be so thankful to him for dedicating his whole life to report the message of Islam, likewise this makes us think how to help him spread Islam around the world even after he died. Furthermore, we as Muslims, really want to give the non-Muslims a different image than what they received from the media, and therefore we should encourage them to read and know the beauty of our prophet's soul. Translating prophet Mohammed's stories are going to spread Islam and make much impact on the non-Muslims who do not know Arabic, and because we know the Arabic language and we are Muslims, we knew his stories by reading the Holy Qur'an, so if we don't translate his stories, they won't know him and his many inspiring stories (Omer, 2011). References

Mohammed (2009). Eltamul ma gheyr almuslmeen lilshiekh Abdullah albdulaziz bin Hamada aljabreeen [How to deal with non-Muslims by Abdullah Abdulaziz Bin Hamada AlJabreen]. Retrieved from http:// www.google.com Abdulrahman, A. (2010). altarjama w athareha fee tableegh aldawah alislamiyah [Translation and Its Effect on Islamic Dawaa]. Retrieved from http://www.google.com.sa Alnamlah, A. (n.d.). Durrar alsunia-khawateem alkutub—alnaql w altarjama fee elhadara elislamia [ Sunna and Quran Wisdom and its Translation in Islamic Civilization]. Retrieved from http://dorar.org/lib/ book_end/14488 Eissa, A., & Ali, O. (2010). Studies in Islamic civilization: The Muslim contribution to the Renaissance. Retrieved from www.googlebooks.com Muslim Civilization. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.docstoc.com/docs/50202602/Muslim-Civilization Musaad (2012). The impact of Islamic civilization on the historical development of civilization |. Retrieved from http://musaad.wordpress.com/islam/impact-of-islamic/ Omer, A. (2011). Prophet Muhammed: his life and times. Retrieved from www.googlebooks.com

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The Importance of Translation in Banks By Deema A. Al-Ohaly

owadays, translation in our life is very important especially in banks. It helps us to communicate with people all over the world in any economic field, and also to raise the country’s econ- N omy through our participation in famous banks by using the tool of translation. Dahui stresses that “Translation plays an important role in communication across languages and cultures, and it's a means of communication between peoples by contributing to the promotion of human thought across moved into languages other than his native” (2011, p. 30). There are many aspects to consider to having an excellent translation service in banks. Before you begin to learn how to translate, you must know what rules are required in good translation. The first step in being a good translator is that you must create a complete copy replica of the ideas in the original text, and then you should retain the style and method of writing the same features in the original text and reflect all the elements of ease and clarity in the original text. You must know the requirements that must be met in a good translator; in general, translators need to master full knowledge of all the rules of the target language, including being fully aware of the cultural background of the language and how it should be transferred. Transla- tors need to be aware of the subject in order to adequately interpret it (Alyoseef, 2006). In 2009, Bowker stated that teaching terminology is not only a goal in itself, but also an important part of teaching translation, and terminology tools are essential to teaching terminology effectively. However, electronic tools for translators and terminologists have often been relegated to a small number of courses within translation programs, preventing students from fully and realistically appreciating and evaluating their usefulness. We should have a centralized bank of resources to aid in the teaching of terminology and translation tools. He stressed that, “Teaching terminology is not only a goal in itself, but also an important part of teaching translation, and terminology tools are essential to teaching terminology effectively” (2009, p. 54). The translation in the bank is one of the most important types of translation, especially when translating contracts, documents and letters to send them to all international banks to communicate with them constantly. Also to develop and improve the performance in the bank, we translate their rules into our language in order to be applied by the employee and the customer, and take advantage of them. Each bank has a dictionary specialized in bank and financial terms and here are some of them (Sofer & Ettayebi, 2006, p. 96):

Figure 1. Bank terms

A good translator has to have some characters, despite what “The Importance of a Good Transla- tion” (2011) mentioned : * It should be a true and accurate translation of the source document. * The translator should be a native speaker of the destination language. * The translator should be technically skilled in the relevant technology. * It should take into account any specialist legal language used by patent attorneys in the destination country, including idiomatic translation of special technical or legal words used in the source document. * It should satisfy local formal requirements such as character set, font size, spacing, and margins (p. 79). So when the translator has a lot of distinctive qualities, he/she will be famous and most of the banks will want to employ him/her. To improve your skills in translation, you must practice every day, even if you are a professional (“The Importance Of”, 2011).

At the end, good translators in general are not just who translate in banks, they must expand their knowledge to be able to translate any texts without facing any problems by reading a lot of different types of books, and listening to news. Castellano stresses that “good translators should be good writers too. The important thing is to practice and hone your skills. And always use your brain. That’s what makes a good translator a really good translator" (n.d., p. 87).

References

The importance of a good translation. (2011). Managing Intellectual Property, (207). Retrieved from http:// search.ebscohost.com/ Alyoseef, A. (2006). Ahmya eltrjamah o doraha fi almrhalah alrahenah [The importance of translation and its role in the current days]. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Bowker, L., & Marshman, E. (2009). Better integration for better preparation: Bringing terminology and technology more fully into translator training using the CERTT approach. Termi- nology, 15(1), 60-87. doi:10.1075/term.15.1.04bow Castellano (n.d.). How to Be a Good Translator. Retrieved from http://www.dnalanguage.com/en/resources/ articles-and-tips/93-how-to-be-a-good-translator Dahui, D. (2011). Concepts with the four prefixes 'Trans-' 'Post-' 'Inter-' and 'Cross-' in the context of translation studies: A comparison of Taiwanese and international academic papers. Translation & Interpret- ing, 3(2), 67-83. Sofer, M., & Ettayebi, A. (2006). Arabic business dictionary. Rockville, Md: Schreiber Pub. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

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Financial Translation By Ara I. Al-Omran

Nowadays, there are many fields that require a specific type of translation to communicate information from one language to many other languages and one of these types is financial translation. Financial translation has to be precise, compatible and aligned to local conventions. It is performed by experts who comprehend the unparalleled terminology used in this specialized area. Businesses in the financial services sector often need to show their product portfolio to customers and investors throughout the world ("An In- troduction To," n.d.). In fact, the need of financial translation has increased because of the continuing globalization of business.

Hilpern stated that while running a global network of more than 1,500 linguists, Today Translations has acquired 200 customers in less than three years. From Azerbaijani to Arabic and Kikuyu to Yoruba, translates, interprets, proofreads and edits in over 160 languages and dialects; "It specialises in work for the legal and public sectors" (para. 2). In addition, securing smaller translation companies can double Today Translations' turnover every year (Hilpern, n.d.).

According to Riquier, the market for language services is expanding in tandem with businesses gemi- nate their efforts towards expansion of their global reach. Established service suppliers are generally percip- ient that they bear a high burden of liability for rendering a flawless translation, and also that preserving pri- vacy of the documents entrusted to their auspices is a vital part of their service obligations (Riquier, n.d.).

Qassim stated that we first have to focus on translating the meaning of any text, not its grammar, words, style or sounds. We will get a weak and tedious translation if we translate meaning literally "since it will not convey the exact effect of the language of the original text" (p. 14). Thus, learners of translation should be apprehensive of this point and be very cautious to use a well-formed structure to write sentences that are grammatically as well as semantically proper to keep a true copy of the translated text (Qassim, n.d.).

Being a financial translator requires you to have knowledge in many specialized terminologies. Accord- ing to Pestereva (2009): Make sure you know the difference between price, value and cost as well as the difference between profit and margin. Also be aware of so-called “false friends”. In most cases, margin in Russian is not at all маржа, and a company with a focus on private banking is not at all a private banking company (para. 9).

At the end, the need of financial translation has increased because of globalization. Companies cannot reach globalization without the help of translators due to the fact that they communicate information from one language to another. Financial translators have to be well-read in many specialized terminologies. They have to translate the meaning of a text, not grammar nor words because they will get a weak structure if they translate the meaning literally.

Figure 1. A picture depicting the importance of financial translation in this era (“The 'New Normal,” 2013)

References

An Introduction to Financial Translation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.sure-languages.com/en/articles/an -introduction-to-financial-translation Hilpern, Kate (n.d.). Debt Is Foreign to Me, but How Else Can I Expand' ; BUSINESS ESSENTIALS: Big Lessons for Growing Companies A Translation Company Needs to Raise Money for Acquisitions, Kate Hilpern Finds. Retrieved from http://www.questia.com/library/1P2-1852785/debt-is-foreign-to- me-but-how-else-can-i-expand Pestereva (2009). Financial Translations: Tips for Beginners. Retrieved from http://www.proz.com/translation- articles/articles/2236/1/Financial-Translations%3A-Tips-for-Beginners Qassim (n.d.). Translation, Grammatically Viewed. Retrieved from http://www.uobaghdad.edu.iq/uploads/ PDFs/book.pdf Riquier (n.d.). The Art of Translating Financial Documents. Retrieved from http://www.streetdirectory.com/ travel_guide/106570/languages/the_art_of_translating_financial_documet The 'New Normal': What Will Lead The Next Phase of Globalization? (2013). Retrieved from http:// www.csrwire.com/blog/posts/982-the-new-normal-what-will-lead-the-next-phase-of-globalization

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Difficulties in Translating Idioms By Abeer B. Al-Megren

dioms are defined as a “concatenation of more than one lexeme whose meaning is not derived from the meaning of its constituents and which does not consist of it’s of a verb plus an adver- I bial particle or preposition. The concatenation as such the constitutes a lexeme in its own right and should be entered as such in the lexicon” (Strässler, 1982, p. 79). In addition, translation is the replacement of textual material is one language (SL) [the source language] by equivalent “textual material in another language (TL) [the target language]” (Schjoldager, 2008, p. 17). In fact, idioms are different from one language to another and that would lead to some difficulties in translating them.

The most common difficulty that translators may face is that idioms are different from other words and they are known as a linguistic units, so the meaning can’t be interrupted by the literal meaning of each individual word. Idioms are different from one language to another and sometimes you can’t guess the meaning of it unless you are a native speaker of the source language. Also, the translator should be aware of translating the idiom word for word because it’s a major problem and it cannot provide the meaning (Yen- Ling & Marinellie, 2008).

Figure 1. An example of how idioms are different from one language to another

84 Saeed (2012) explained that the context of idioms is different from one language to another and the culture of the source language plays an important role in their meaning. Translators who are non- native speakers of the source language cannot get the meaning of the idiom easily which can cause misunderstanding the idiom. So, they will not be able to convey the meaning to others as it is in the source language. When a translator knows the cultural differences, it will help him a lot to translate the idiom clearly and correctly.

Raluca (2012) stressed that translation by paraphrasing is the most effective strategy of translating idioms because it provides a clear idea about the idiomatic meaning to the recipients. Also, sometimes an equivalent cannot be found in the target language or it will seem incorrect because of stylistic differences between the languages. I think that each translator should use the most productive strategy to translate the idioms to convey the whole meaning to others.

Therefore, Baker expressed that the main problems of posing translation idiomatic expressions are related to main areas, one of which is the ability to know and explain the idiom clearly and the second are the obstacles involved in providing the different aspects of meaning that an idiom convey to the target language (as cited in Raluca, 2012). So, translators must be careful about the obstacles that they may face and try to avoid them.

To sum up, O'Dell and McCarthy (2010) suggested in their book some tips that would help the translators in translating an idiom. One of them is to avoid translating idioms word for word because it will cause problems in the meaning of the idiom. In addition, before translating an idiom, check out any good dictionary to get the meaning of them. Also, if the translator is restricted to the tips and the strategies, he will achieve a proficient translation of idioms and will convey the whole meaning correctly.

References O'Dell, F., & McCarthy, M. (2010). English idioms in use: Advanced with answers : 60 units of vocabulary reference and practice : self-study and classroom use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. RALUCA, V. (2012). TRANSLATING MARITIME IDIOMS. Analele Universitatii Maritime Constanta, 13 (18), 257-260. Saeed, A. (2012). Difficulties Arab translation trainees encounter when translating high frequency idioms. Ba- bel, 58(2), 181-204. Schjoldager, A. (2008). Understanding translation. Retrieved from http://www.books.google.com Strässler, J. (1982). Idioms in English: A pragmatic analysis. [Teildruck]. Retrieved from http:// www.books.google.com "To Kick The Bucket" | Left-Handed Toons. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.lefthandedtoons.com/704/ Yen-Ling, C., & Marinellie, S. A. (2008). Definitions of Idioms in Preadolescents, Adolescents,and Adults. Journal Of Psycholinguistic Research, 37(1), 1-20

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Translation: The Key to Communication By Norah M. Alharbi

hank you! ¡Gracias Merci! If it were not for translation it would have been hard for us to understand the expression of gratitude of over hundreds of languages surrounding us, including French, T English, Arabic, Spanish and many more. But, how are we supposed to understand each other if there were no translation to these languages. In 2009, Castro stated that people all around us are thinking, speaking, reading and writing in different languages. Chances are that one might be reading this paper who is not an English speaker and actually translating it in order for them to understand and read it. Therefore translation helps to overcome many communication barriers because it does not only translate words but also helps to interpret different perspectives for each language. One might ask what these communication barriers are. Well there are a lot in many fields. First, in the medical field, where a lot of doctors and nurses have problems communicating with their patients who do not speak the same language, thus preventing them from giving accurate checkups and good care of their patients. For example, in emergency situations, caregivers face problems when communicating with people in trouble. They must accurately assess a patient’s need to give proper care (Pressman, Pietrzyk, & Schneider, 2011). But, how can they give proper care when there is a language barrier? Another field is when it comes to business. Communication barriers are found in many areas when it comes to companies. For example, in presentations in a business meeting, a non-native speaker might have a problem in understanding what is being said. Also, a non-native speaker may follow the wrong orders simply because they did not fully understand what their manger asked them to do. There are also other situations when translation is needed - in fact, a translator is always needed when there is a big business deal between two large companies from different countries. In order for each party to understand what is going on during that deal, they must have a translator to be the intermediary between the two companies. For instance, in Japan “yes” can mean just about anything; it could mean “Yes, I agree” or “Yes I am listening to you” or “Yes, I know what you are saying but I don’t agree.” (p. 22). So, a German businessman, a customer negotiating with a Japanese company said: The Japanese negotiator told him “Yes, I understand.” But, he took it as “Yes, I agree.” So, at the end of the negotiation when the Japanese said “We will think it over and get back to you.” the atmosphere became weird (Gundling, 1999, p. 22). This is an example that emphasizes the need of a translator in business deals and meetings. The question is how translation can overcome these barriers? For a start, one might suggest machine-based translations are nice when it comes to daily use. When a non-native speaker finds difficulty understanding a word, they can just translate it using computer translation software. Computer translation software is helpful when custom- izing documents in a certain language. This also may be useful for a non-native speaker employed in a business company when facing difficulty understanding their boss or meetings because these software are valuable when

86 translating sales, memos and literature. However, another approach for companies during business deals is hiring a qualified translator in other situations (Merrier, Logan, & Williams, 2008). A qualified translator is always the best investment any business can have. As for the medical field, hospitals now provide interpreter services that deliver to the patients the best care possible. It has been proven that with the help of a trained medical interpreter, communication services become better, more comforting and improve patients’ adherence. In addition, having interpreters saves a lot of money especially when it comes to emergency room visits (Brown, 2014). In 2012, Bernacka pointed out that a translator can be a mediator between cultures. Translation is not only a linguistic process but also can open doors to unknown cultures. Bernacka also adds that “the translator has the capacity to enhance our understanding of development issues and indigenous cultures by mediating ideas across cultural and national boundaries” (p. 113). For example, when a translator translates descriptions from one language to another, they might not find the same connotations. For instance, in England when resembling someone to a summer’s day, it is known to be beautiful; on the contrary, in the Arab culture because summer to them is not a complimentary concept. It is never safe to say that communication barriers will be solved completely. In fact, a lot of solutions have been found, and translations being one of them, does help a lot to overcome communication problems. When a business deal is about to be sealed, a translator is there to help overcome miscommunications. When providing the best health care, a medical interpreter is there to improve the hospital’s services. In addition, since translation is a linguistic manner, it also helps to know indigenous cultures and helps us to understand different aspects of a language.

References

Bernacka, A (2012) ‘The Importance of Translation Studies for Development Education’, Policy & Practice: A De- velopment Education Review, Vol. 14, Spring, pp. 113-118. Brown, L. (2014, January 24). Language and Healthcare: Why Communication Matters | River Linguistics Inc [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://riverlinguistics.com/language-and-healthcare-why-communication- matters/ Castro, M. (2009, June 21). How the Use of Translations Can Help to Overcome Communication Barriers. Retrieved from http://ezinearticles.com/?How-the-Use-of-Translations-Can-Help-to-Overcome- Communication-Barriers&id=2506743 Gundling, E. (1999). Communicating with Japanese in business. Retrieved from http://www.jetro.go.jp/costarica/ mercadeo/communicationwith.pdf Merrier, K. P., Logan, J., & Williams, K. (2008). Business Communication (7th ed.). Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books? id=Pw3jAn3Ko0kC&pg=PA45&dq=business+and+translation&hl=ar&sa=X&ei=fHVmU5XPLYKm0QX xmYHAAg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=business%20and%20translation&f=false Pressman, H., Pietrzyk, A., & Schneider, J. (2011). Overcoming Communication Barriers in Emergency Situations: Some Basic Tools. Retrieved from http://www.patientprovidercommunication.org/pdf/23.pdf

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Translation As a Means to Link Cultures By Amal S. Al-Mansouri

ranslation is an activity that transfers ideas from one language which is the source into another language which is the target (Eco, 2008). In 2010, Minaabad defines translation as "an activity T whose main concern is to facilitate the communication process" (p. 1), so it is clear that translation has many definitions. On the other hand, culture is how people act in one society, thus, it is clear that translation and culture are linked together which makes it easy for people to understand each other. No doubt, translation plays a huge role in linking different cultures.

Translation makes different cultures share thoughts and experiences by transferring them into other languages because translation is not transferring the words but also the cultures (Turki, 2001). This will make people take advantages from each other’s experiences and learn more about other cultures and communities, and that will make the communication process easier; not only communication but also life in general.

Figure 1. The importance of bridging cultures via translation (“International Translation Day,” 2011)

Furthermore, translation is a communication tool that we use to keep up with cultural developments. In other words, many cultures use translation to improve their situations by taking all they need from other cultures, even if they speak different languages. Karamanian reported that "The sharp outlines that were once distinctive now fade and become blurred" (n.d., para. 4) because people start to take and share everything through translation which improves many societies and removes the borders between them.

Moreover, there is another thing to say about translation which is that it plays an important role in the business field because many foreign companies or establishments try to deal with another foreign one. Here the role of translation is obvious because the need arises to translate documents or to reply to e-mails written in foreign languages. Supporting this idea, Imbaud explains that "to be able to communicate with someone effectively, you need someone that shares their language and culture" (2011, para. 4), so many countries need translation to work successfully together; subsequently, they will link their cultures together.

The world is always changing because of social, historical, and culture factors (Han, 2009). Therefore, translation is essential to help people figure out what is happening around them and recognize what is good for them and what is not, especially if they were in foreign countries where different languages are spoken, may it be for business or tourism. Also, they will know what is new and what is not so new, so without translation, cultures and societies will not be able to produce and develop.

In conclusion, translation is the most important means that we can use to communicate with other cultures and share or exchange knowledge and thoughts. Also, translation has helped different countries to work together and share projects. Indeed, translation has made the distance between people quite shorter because they are able to understand each other even if they do not speak the same language.

References

Eco, U. (2008). Experiences in Translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books? id=0dVYaP9VukIC&dq=translation&hl=ar&source=gbs_navlinks_s Han, B. O. (2009). Translation - tool in the process of cultural globalisation. Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2072.php Imbaud, C. (2011). The importance of translation in global business. Retrieved from http:// www.itcglobaltranslations.com/the_importance_of_translation_in_global_business/ International Translation Day 2011: free greeting card. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.worldaccent.com/ blog/2011/09/international-translation-day-2011-card.html Karamanian , A. P. (n.d.). Translation and Culture. Retrieved from http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/ translation/articles/translation-and-culture.html Minaabad, M. (2010). The Effect of Context on Meaning Representation of Adjectives such as Big and Large in Translation from Different Languages such as Russian, Persian and Azeri to English Language Texts. Journal Of Language Teaching & Research, 1(6), 791-795. doi:10.4304/jltr.1.6.791-795 Turki, F. (2001, April 19). Cross-cultural communication. Arab News.

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The Difficulties Of Literary Translation By Maram F. AlOtaibi

iterary translation is one of the hardest types of translation because it is not only translating the language but also the culture. In 1998, Wechsler explained that literary translation is L an odd art and the reason why it is an odd art is that the translator does exactly the same thing as a writer. In addition, he mentioned that a translator’s work is like a musician’s. They both take someone else’s work and perform it in their own special way. But he stressed that, "the translator's art is the more problematic one, and it is also the more responsible one." (p. 7). In fact, the translator may face many difficulties especially when he/she translates literary texts.

In general, translators have the same problems with translation even if they are translating different types of texts. But most of them agree that the most difficult type of text is the literary one. There are several types of literary translation. They consist of the translation of poetry, plays, literary books, as well as songs, rhymes, literary articles, novels, short stories, poems, collection of jokes, etc. In 2006, Shiya and Lynch stressed that, “understanding a literary work is a prerequisite to translating it.” (p. 264).

The degree of difficulty for each type is different from one another because each one has its own style of translation. For example, in the translation of poetry, there are three main problems the translator may face when translating. First, The linguistic problem and it contains the syntactic structure also the collocations. Second, literary and aesthetic problems and they deal with sounds, metaphorical expression, and poetic formation. Finally, the socio-cultural problems and this appears when translating expressions, ideas, conservations, and actions (Hariyanto, n.d.).

Indeed, the translator of literary texts should know the meaning of the text itself and the author’s concepts. In 1988, Boushaba stressed that, “if the meaning of literary text is conditioned by the author's personal experiences, the translator has then a "reference" to which he can turn to in his interpretation of the author's purpose in the SL text.” (p. 50). Therefore, to produce a perfect translation, the translator must understand the author’s intention.

As we know, each problem has a solution and the problem of translating literary texts has a solution that can help the translator. The translator should follow these principles to avoid the difficulties of translating literary work:

90 1. The source language should be understood well by the translator. 2. A great control of the target language. 3. Consciousness of the subject of the text he/she will translate. 4. The translator should have the knowledge of etymological and idiomatic that connects the source language and the target one (Haque, n.d.).

In conclusion, as we mentioned, literary translation is the most difficult type of translation but a good translator can avoid all these problems. I advise all those who are studying literary translation to focus on the author’s thoughts and concepts before they translate. We agreed how hard and difficult the process of literary translation is but the translators should overcome all these problems and they should be gifted, creative and knowledgeable enough, because the end result really is worth it (Hovhannisyan, 2012).

Figure 1. Wonderful examples of literary translations (“JOLT | Home.,” 2014)

References

Boushaba, S. (1988). An Analytical Study Of Some Problems Of Literary Translation. Retrieved from http://search.edscohost.com/ Haque, Z. (n.d.). Translating Literary Prose: Problems and Solutions. Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2360.php Hariyanto, S. (n.d.). Problems in Translating Poetry. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/ article640.htm Hovhannisyan, M. (2012). The Art of Poetry and its Translation. Retrieved from http:// www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2364.php JOLT | Home. (2014, April). Retrieved from http://www.trinityjolt.com/home.html Shiyab, S., & Lynch, M. (2006). Can Literary Style Be Translated?. Babel, 52(3), 262-275. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/ Wechsler, R. (1998). Performing without a stage: The art of literary translation. North Haven, CT: Cat- bird Press. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa

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Equivalence in Translation By Mona A. AlKaf

here is no one who can deny the importance and the benefits of translation processes in our life and its big role in providing a lot of sciences, knowledge or simply knowing about T others culture. So it requires from the translator to transfer and translate the context or the meaning correctly and accurately, however, we have to know first about a term called ''Equivalence''. In this paper, I will illustrate what equivalence means and its types to not make mistakes causing misunderstanding in the meaning and some theories in translation will be addressed. No doubt, finding a good equivalence in translating is something crucial since it is a standard of the quality of translation.

Equivalence means as Nord, 2005, defined "the greatest possible correspondence between source text and target text" (p. 25). The notion of equivalence seems more vague in translation studies; thus, it takes into consideration whether the translation is close or being faithful (fidelity) or too faithful (servility) on one hand, being free (liberty) or too free (libertinage) on the other. Both servility and libertinage versions cannot be regarded equivalent, therefore they are not considered as a proper translation.

According to Nazzal, 2013, equivalence in translation seems farfetched to fulfill a goal, and accom- plishing that is quite difficult for many various reasons; headmost, the enormous number of remarkable differences between languages from conceptual and associative meaning which is a big task, to recognizable every special distinct feature of linguistics lexemes among them because there is no complete equivalence in forms of linguistics. Aburisha, 2010, points out that sometimes the equivalence is unreachable when the original text deals with cultural codes not understood by the target language readers, or it could deal with text types, if it is expressive, informative and vocative since difference in text types result in different translation strategies.

Eugene Nida, one of the scholars of translation theories, infers that there are two types of equivalence: formal equivalence that actually focuses on content and form (mostly literary) of the message and attempt to achieve equivalence between the source text and translated text. Secondly, dynamic equivalence which means to translate generally similar or closest to, or at least compatible with the original text. The dynamic translation requires a stringent requirement; therefore, it is unlike free translation which demands

92 translation text to be inverted to the original text in a perfect way, in a different structure, while there is no requirement in the free translation (Zoe, 2013).

In 2011, Pérez stated that when the translator wants to translate a text or a sentence, he should understand it entirely by reading it first, and knowing exactly the purpose of the author who it’s translated from; also, provide the main idea in the target language. He stressed that, "the most important characteristic of this technique is translating the message as clearly and natural as possible" (para. 1). Moreover, the translator should have a wide and sufficient knowledge in both source and target language, or it would lead to illogical and insignificance in the translation. The important point is avoiding translating word for word because as a result of that, it will destroy or ruin the beauty of the meaning.

To conclude, focusing on the idea of equivalence is something fundamental for success of any translation and could be an alternative to literary translation. A good translator must exploit the cultural space and linguistic codes to maintain the area of possible translation through the whole process. Drago- mir and Dorobanju stressed that "A total translation is impossible because every translation is a subjective interpretation and it cannot be equivalent to the original on all levels" (2011, p. 76). In short, a perfect translation may be far-reached, thus, many translations could be acceptable considering we cannot have a consensus on one translation.

References

Aburisha, M. (2010, November 16). Nathryt altakafu fi eltarjama [Equivalence theory in translation]. [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://aburisha.wordpress.com Dragomir, I., & Dorobanju, M. (2011). An applied study on equivalence and shift in literary translation. Studii De Ştiintă Şi Cultură, 7(1), 121-126 Nazzal , A. (2013). Vermeer’s Skopos’s Theory: As a paradigm Change. Arab World English Journal. Retrieved from http://awej.org/images/AllIssues/Specialissues/Translation2/16.pdf Nord, C. (2005). Text analysis in translation: Theory, methodology, and didactic application of a model for translation-oriented text analysis. Amsterdam. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa. Pérez, J. (2011). Translation Theory. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com Zoe (2013, May 15). Translation theories – Eugene Nida and dynamic equivalence professional language solutions [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.ccjk.com /translation-theories-eugene-nida- and-dynamic-equivalence/

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Translation and Culture By Razan S. AlRifai

Translation and culture are two terms that are linked to each other and effect each other. All cultures around the world have unique traditions and manners. Culture effects people in a lot of ways, for example, the way they dress, their traditions, and food. Naturally, people will be affected by their culture in the way they translate; the culture will give each country a special way in translating anything even if we translate anything in our daily life, such as the way we see other cultures or the way we translate someone’s manners. Without a doubt, the way of translating texts will change from one culture to another.

Figure 1. The link between traditions and translation (“Traditions Are Imploding ,” n.d.)

Translators face difficulties when they translate from one language to another as "is it our task to focus primarily on the source culture or target culture ?" (Karamanian, 2002, para. 2). We actually do not know how cultures differ from one country to another, for example, not all religions are equal; they are different from region to region. You cannot translate the word "salatalgomaah" to Christian’s "Friday pray"; in fact, you have to explain more. Also, the word "Allah" needs to be translated to "God" because translators deal with different religious circumstances. According to the two examples above, we notice that culture does effect translation.

A fact we can’t deny is that culture and language are associated with each other. People see the world differently from each other, for example, the weather of their country will make them express things using different language shaped by deferent emotions. So for instance, when you give a man in the West good news, he will express and

94 receive it as something that gives him warmness. In contrast, a man in the East sees it as something that has “chilled” his heart – meaning given him relief. So in translation, we have to switch between warm and cold to give both the source text and the target its full meaning and to make the audience understand as well (Wasfi, 2014).

According to Terje, "Translator as members of a certain culture generally that of the target culture base their translation relevant decisions on their own culture" (2012, para. 1). The audience cannot determine the identity of a certain culture because they do not know about it. So as a translator, we have to translate our traditions clearly, for example, the traditional food (Kabsah) is not understandable by others so we have to indicate more details about it like “this kabsah is a Saudi traditional food that consists of meat and rice” This explanation makes the audience understand what we mean.

The effect of culture expanded to include the different effects on a country during history. We see the same country, but it has a different opinion on the way we translate, for example, the scientist Shesherom has a different aspect in translation as he focuses on the beauty of the text rather than on the idea. In contrast, the scientist Gerom focuses on the idea more. So, these two scientists live in the same country but the change of culture during history changed their perspectives (James, 2002).

Finally , as a translator, we have at first to read about the culture we are translating to and this includes what they like, and their beliefs. Second, we have to read the text and pick the odd word then we have to reread it again to select the perfect word to understand it well. Third, we have to avoid the literal translation as much as we can and we have to focus on meaning. The translator must do his/her best to balance between the source text and the target text.

References James, K. (2002). Cultural Implications for Translation, 6(4). Retrieved from http:// context.translationjournal.net/journal/22delight.htmJournal Karamanian, P. (2002). Translation and culture. Retrieved fromhttp://context.translationjournal.net/ journal/19culture2.htm Terje, L. (2012). Culture -related decision conflicts in the translation process. Retrieved from http:// eds.a.ebscohost.com Traditions are imploding and exploding everywhere - everything is coming toge... - Philip Glass at Lifehack Quotes. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://quotes.lifehack.org/quote/philip-glass/traditions-are- imploding-and-exploding-everywhere-/ Wasfi, N. (2014). Introduction to Translation. RD, Saudi Arabia: King Saud University - Department of English Language and Translation.

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The Symbols of Our Language: English Sign Language By Sara A. Bin Dakhel

ign Language is a way of communication used by many people with special needs (disabled) acoustically (deaf) or audio (dumb), which is used movements of hands, facial expressions, lip S movements, body movement. This is generally for self-expression, which varies from one country to another, as there are organizations to develop standards to unify the language in each country and between different countries. Without a doubt, translating English sign language (ASL) has revealed major interesting issues about it ("American Sign Language,” n.d.).

Deaf children’s parents must register their children in a special Kindergarten to learn sign language; not only speaking, but reading and writing, too. The first thing they start to learn is when the teacher moves her/his hand around meaning letters, words, phrases or ideas. For example:

Figure 1. The alphabetic letters of sign language (“ASL American Sign,” n.d.)

They imitate those signs and practice doing them every day even in schools, and "learn to understand spoken English by watching people’s lips as they talk. This is called lip-reading" (p. 10). The family members of the deaf child also learn some basic signs to communicate with the child easily (Kent, 2012).

The world has become more open wide nowadays. Learning has become easier than as it was twenty years ago. Online learning, or as it is known now by E-learning, “'Avenue ASL' e-assessment environment: an integrated, network-based software system to capture, evaluate, and manage ASL learner performances" (para. 1), help deaf people by using special mobile phones that suit their needs such as salient buttons that allow

96 them to access these sites (Miller, Hooper, Rose, & Montalto-Rook, 2008). The most useful inclusive webpage for American Sign Language is http://www.lifeprint.com/ ("ASL American Sign," n.d.).

The child’s actual developmental level is comparable to older deaf children stages and so used behaviour appropriate signs. According to Kyle and Woll, “Schlesinger and Meadow (1972) relate this delay in language development to later speech intelligibility, and other problems referring to an [sic] concept of a "critical period" for language development (McNeil, 1966)” (p. 64). This is an important period that a child must go through from age two to three to acquire the language during this time and that is what deaf children are missing (1988). This is not the only difficulty they face, but also they might be made fun of or get exploited because of the barriers that lead to deaf people having fewer opportunities or rights (in practice).

Deaf people have been involved in the interpreting field since 1991 and succeeded. For the past 10 years in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, all court cases involving deaf persons have been required to have an interpreter in many areas such as courts, hospitals, work-related sites, training programs, conferences, and theatres. In his 2005 article, Marschark pointed to the fact that "You can find them in classrooms in deaf schools and in main-stream programs for deaf children across the country and working with deaf-blind people at international conferences, and at sporting events such as the World Games to translate written or spoken English to American Sign Language (ASL)" (p. 235).

As all languages, the field of ASL has become more wide spread as well as all sign languages around the world. The cultural development of this language and the people of it today is becoming more respectable and obvious to us. This is a sign to know that we are all the same regardless of our ability differences. At this point, I truly hope this simple research paper has satisfied your desire to know about this language and all the aspects concerning it.

References American Sign Language (ASL) definition. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages- layout/asl1.htm ASL American Sign Language. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.lifeprint.com/ Kent, D. (2012). What is sign language?. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers.[ figure1-1]. Kyle, J., & Woll, B. (1988). Sign language: The study of deaf people and their language. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Marschark, M. (2005). Sign language interpreting and interpreter education: Directions for research and practice. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford Univ. Press. Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa Miller, C., Hooper, S., Rose, S., & Montalto-Rook, M. (2008). Transforming E-Assessment in American Sign Language.

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Translation Procedures of Metaphors By Sumaya S. Al-anazi

ollins Dictionary defines a metaphor as "a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action that it does not literally denote in order to imply a resem- C blance, for example he is a lion in battle" (2000, para. 1). In 2012, Ghazla stated that metaphors are different kinds which are: dead metaphors, cliché metaphors, standard metaphors, adapted metaphors, cultural metaphors, recent metaphors, and original metaphors. Therefore, metaphors are sometimes quite problematic for students to translate; however, there are some procedures that make their translation easier.

A metaphor has a figurative meaning; therefore, the first step in metaphor translation is to know the differences between literal and figurative language. Ghazala gave us a simple example that shows the differ- .(p. 145 ,2012) ”هو ثعلب He is a fox )2( هو ماكر ences between these types of language "(1) He is cunning After reading the previous example, we figure out that the literal language (1) has a clear and direct meaning, and we can guess the meaning easily. On other hand, figurative language (2) requires knowledge of metaphorical expressions because they indicate indirect meaning (Bergen, n.d.). If the passage has figurative language, the translator has to move to the next step.

In the second step, the translator has to choose one of the three styles of metaphor translating depending on the source language and target language culture. The first style is the M→M procedure which means "use an exact equivalent of the original metaphor" (Dobrzyńska, 1995, para. 2). Indeed, the translator can use this style only if SL and TL have the same metaphor and it sounds natural in the target language. إن جهودي تذهب عبثاً/ سدى. For example, “my efforts is going down the drain” could be translated exactly as However, it is not the best style because it cannot apply to all metaphors and sometimes it sounds odd.

The second style is the M1→M2 procedure which is considered the most useful style as the cultures have similar experiences. In this style, the translator can use another metaphorical expression in the TL which expresses a similar sense in the SL (Dobrzyńska, 1995). Therefore, the translation of the previous Moreover, the metaphors are notيذهب جهدي أدراج الرياح . metaphor (mentioned in the first style) would be arbitrary; therefore, the translator has to know the aspects that play a significant role in translation such as because Arabs live in highأثلج صدري weather. For instance, for “it warmed my heart”, the best translation is .has a bad meaningالحر ,temperature areas; so

98 The M→P procedure, or meaning transfer, is the third style in which the translator paraphrases a SL metaphor to non-metaphorical expression in the TL (Even-Zohar & Toury, 1981). So, the translator can In some cases, the . استنزف جهدي دون طائل translate this sentence “my efforts are going down the drain” to translator can translate the metaphorical expression literally and write the explanation between parentheses. .(Al-Hasnawi, 2007) إنه دجاجة )جبان( For example, he is a chicken

Nida (1964) describes the best translation as the one that "makes the same resultant impression on the reader as the original does on its reader" (p. 164). Therefore, the translator has the option to choose any style of metaphor translation; M→M procedure, M1→M2 procedure, or M→P procedure as long as he conveys the same original meaning in a good structure. It’s true that people who translate metaphors may feel challenged at some point or another, but once they reach a suitable translation, they are truly overcome with a great sense of satisfaction.

Figure 1. Examples of Metaphors

References

Al-Hasnawi, A. R. (2007). A Cognitive Approach to Translating Metaphors. Translation Journal. Retrieved from http://www.bokorlang.com/journal/41metaphor.htm Bergen, B. (n.d.). Mental simulation in literal and figurative language understanding. Collins English dictionary. (2000). London: HarperCollins. Dobrzyńska, T. (1995). Translating metaphor: Problems of meaning. Journal of Pragmatics. doi:10.1016/0378 -2166(95)00022-K Even-Zohar, I., & Toury, G. (1981). Translation theory and intercultural relations. Tel Aviv: Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics, Tel Aviv University. Ghazala, H. (2012). Translation as problems and solutions (9th ed.). Jeddah, K.S.A: Konooz Al-marifa. Metaphor. Simile.Metonymy. Personification | Сообщество English Stylistics Class 2013 на Your Vision. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://yvision.kz/post/341396 Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a science of translating: With special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating.

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The Importance of Professional Translation in Global Businesses By Aseel A. Al-Darsouni

n 1985, Romc!n and Ferrié both defined translation as, “where the translator gives word for word, the equivalent meaning of the terms in the original” (p. 11). The meaning of a word depends on the word I itself and this type of translation is used mostly in translating syntax and idiom in two different languages. They also mentioned “The function of effective translation is the careful rendering of ideas into another language” (p. 11). By this they mean that knowing only the meaning of a word is not enough; you also have to deliver the exact meaning of the context. Indeed, professional translation must be extremely accurate, especially in global businesses. In 2012, K. Herther stated that over the years, researchers have found a lot of new ways to improve methods of translating information from language to language. This development has been great, but there are still other ways waiting to be developed. The general definition of translation is "Translation: Determining and communicating the meaning of some information into a form understandable by another language or culture. Usually involving text materials, interpretation is the term generally used to refer to non-written communication forms." (para.6). He also defined a translator as a person who is a professional with dealing with texts or other materials to make sure people can have clear communication. In addition, Herther (2012) defined the difference between Machine Translation and Human Translation by stating that "Machine Translation (MT): Also called automated translation, MT involves the application of computers to translate from one natural language to another." (para.10). On the other hand Human Translation is having the ability to use any needed materials to translate professionally any aspect of a language, like grammar and style and most importantly having a high level of linguistic ability in the language itself and to have some background knowledge of the cultural standards (para. 10). A lot of people think automatic translation is acceptable, too, however, in 2011, Pym stated that automatic translation might be useful in translating some general well-known words only to understand the general meaning of the context and that people should not depend on automatic translation in translating complex sentences or thinking that automatic translation is close in accuracy to a professional translation. After that, he mentioned that technology is not going to end even though some societies still refuse to use modern technology by stating, "The technology, for better or for worse, is here to stay. Few societies are able to refuse the use of a technology once acquired (cf. Fromm, 1968)." (para. 2). Cross (2014) stated that according to one translation company, businessmen who are trying to be easily involved in the Chinese market by copying poor translations are committing a crime. Leo Lui argued that using automatic translation not only could cause a misunderstanding with possible customers, it also could be offensive to give Chinese or any other buyers a translation of their native language that they themselves don't understand. Then he explained more by saying, “Unfortunately, computers don't really understand human languages, so your Chinese transla

100 -tion may end up being very inaccurate," (As cited in Cross, 2014, para. 1-6). Martinez (2013) stated an important example of how an improper translation could cause some serious offense. The example was in Canada where Coca-Cola Refreshments made a marketing decision to use the two official languages in Canada, French and English, inside their caps by printing one word in each language. That marketing idea didn't work as they planned. What happened was "One customer opened her cap to find “You Retard.” (Retard means "delay" in French.) Other caps circulating raised eyebrows for including the word “douche,” intended to be interpreted as the French word for “shower.” (para.1-2). In (2010) Krizan, Merrier, and P. Logan all said that computer translation is not useless especially if the soft ware itself was capable of doing an exactable translation. We can use it in translating important documents or letters however, to be sure about what the receiver will be reading you need to make sure it has been read and edited by a professional translator. They also emphasized to a very import example which is "interpreting a written legal agreement prepared in another language would require a competent translator. A computer software translation of an important document should be reviewed by a person from the targeted country to ensure accuracy of meaning. (p. 51). Krizan, et al. (2010) all emphasized the importance of global communication. They said using effective and professional translation requires "flexibility, a desire to learn, sensitivity to culture and traditions in a foreign setting and the ability to apply what you have learned to interactions with others in overseas locations. On [sic] addition, combine professionalism" (p. 51). Also having firmness and the ability to manage your business with grace, respect, and kindness is a plus advantage in having an amazing relationship, friendship with international traders (p. 51). In the end, professional translation is one of the most important qualities that must be applied in the world of global businesses. References

Cross, S. (2014, March 25). Poor translations offend foreign investors. Real Estate Business [Australia]. Re- trieved from http://www.rebonline.com.au/breaking-news/7405-poor-translations-offend-foreign- investors Herther, N. (2012, January). Language Translation in the Internet Age ‘My Hovercraft Is Full of Eels’. Infor- mation Today, 20. Retrieved from http://www.infotoday.com/searcher/jan12/Herther-Language- Translation-in-the-Internet-Age.shtml Krizan, A., Merrier, P., & P. Logan, J. (2010). Business Communication. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books? Martinez, K. (2013, October 9). Lost In Translation: 5 Botched Business Messages.Mentalfloss. Retrieved from http://mentalfloss.com/article/53083/lost-translation-5-botched-business-messages Pym, A. (2011). What technology does to translating. ***Warning*** , 3, 5. Retrieved from http://www.transint.org/index.php/transint/article/view/121/81 Romc!n, C. & Ferrié, F. (1985). Introduction to Business Translation: A Handbook in English-Spanish Con- trastive Linguistics. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/

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Translation and Its Effect on Literature By Haifa A. Al-Rowdhan

iterary translation can be defined as the ability to reproduce the literal text with the same standard and the same artistic power into another language (AlAswany, 2012). Another L definition or explanation of literature translation as Schulte defined is, "In the act of literary translation the soul of another culture becomes transparent, and the translator recreates the refined sensi- bilities of foreign countries and their people through the linguistic, musical, rhythmic, and visual possibili- ties of the new language." (n.d., para. 1). This research is going to talk about the effects on literature texts caused by the translators and the language.

Radovanovic (2011) stated that language reflects on cultural and civilizational differences. A translator must know these differences, so the translation will be as if it’s transferred from English to English. There are errors in almost any translation when the translator makes a clumsy structure or tries to be creative like playing with words, but we can ignore them to some extent. Most often, a translator makes mistakes when he/she misunderstands specific words or produces incongruous constructions. She added a "translator should really “feel” language and understand cultural heritage of its speakers." (para. 4).

Every literary translator must acknowledge that they are invisible transferors that should follow the author's style only. As translators, we don't have the right to improve the original texts nor to force our style on it. Since literary translators not only deal with words but also with ideas and the culture, if the translator manipulates the original text, it may become unacceptable in the source culture and even in the target culture because he/she exceeded the manner's limits of dealing with the source culture (Landers, 2001).

Figure 1. Literature vs. translation (“What Makes Literature,” n.d.)

102 There are particular textual components that are limited to their existence in specific languages; the rewriting in a new language is often identified as loss. This conception of translation leads to a deep- rooted habit of comparing with the originals they aim to reduplicate. Thus, they miss the fact that each translation, even the poor ones, is an achievement, more like a new work of the original text; it gives us a text that did not exist before composed in a language with its own reference and literary techniques (Emmerich & Leontis, 2013). Because of the absence of accessing some of the literary works, many monolingual readers are not able to study and analyze these works (Steemers, 2012). Ricœur mentioned Rosenzweig saying that, "to translate, is to serve two masters: the foreigner with his work, the reader with his desire for appropriation, foreign author, reader dwelling in the same language as the translator." (p. 25), then he pointed out that to break this logic is to bring the reader to the writer of the text and to bring the writer to the reader of the text (2006).

In conclusion, even if the literary translation has a small impact on the original text, we should appreciate the literary translators who allowed us to enjoy other foreign works and the efforts they have made to be as invisible as they could in order to let the authors shine by themselves. Also, we now know that being different in color, religion, and culture does not mean we have different minds or odd ideas; we basically have the same human feelings and even a similar taste as others do (AlAswany, 2012).

References

AlAswany, A. (author) (2012, 4 23). Alaa al aswany on literary translations. big think. [Video podcast]. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/Aic7Eh Emmerich, K., & Leontis, A. (2013). Preface: Greek Literature Gains in Translation. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/Zyw0yV Landers, C. E. (2001). Literary translation: A practical guide. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/Gn4F9U Radovanovic, A. (2011, 5 28). [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/5Fw1Vx Ricœur, P. (2006). On translation. London: Routledge. Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa Schulte, R. (n.d.). ALTA » What is Literary Translation? Retrieved from http://www.utdallas.edu/alta/ about/literary-translation Steemers, V. (2012). The Effect of Translating "Big Words": Anglophone Translation and Reception of Ahmadou Kourouma's Novel Allah n'est pas obligé. Research in African Literatures. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com What makes literature interesting is that it does not survive its translation. The characters in a novel are made out... (n.d.). Retrieved from http://izquotes.com/quote/127475

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Going Around Literality: Translating English Idioms into Arabic By Dania M. Ammar

ave you have ever wondered what the term "idiom" exactly means? Fortunately, New- mark, the prominent linguist, unraveled that to us by defining an idiom as "a word-group H whose meaning cannot be deduced [inferred] from its parts" (1998, p. 105). Thus, prev- alently standing out as tricky - yet expressive - part of the language, English idioms can pose a make-or- break challenge for translators attempting to transfer them into Arabic. Therefore, the comprehensive understanding of the translation techniques of English idioms is a must for every Arabic translator aspiring to proficiency. Shojaei lists finding a parallel expression as the first of these techniques (2012). The rationale behind that is evident; a similar expression would not only retain the meaning, but it would also preserve the idiomatic diction which the original writer chose for his text. So, setting this option as your ideal, you should try to make connections between the idioms existing in both cultures figuratively and semantically. which is commonly used دق الحديد وهو حا ٍم An example of such is "To Strike when the iron is hot" rendered as in Arabic, especially in the northern regions of the Arabian Peninsula. However, seldom do things go as swimmingly as that, especially between languages that are poles apart, like Arabic and English. Therefore, it would be time to lower the bar if you could not find a complete equivalent. That is, try to look for an idiomatic expression that has only the same meaning, irrespective of its figures of speech. This is probably best exemplified in "to add insult to injury", which can be translated as In both of the previous situations, literal translation is not involved because the "different ."يزيد الطين بلة" degrees of syntactic and semantic forzeness [sic]", which Carter has alluded to, still have to be noted (as cited by Abu-Shaydeh, 2004, p. 114). If you are a translator in the making, or even a learned one, your brain will naturally resort to the third almost-foolproof technique, which is paraphrasing. However, a pivotal point to keep in mind while rewording an idiom is to be precise. If you manage to do so, you will get the best of both worlds: preserving the meaning of the source text and making the target text flow smoothly; nevertheless, the only snag of such a technique is that the meaning will have to forfeit any distinct idiomatic tinge, and this is why Alshawi described this method as “opting for neutral terms” (2012, p. 145). If worse gets to worse, an idiom, like some other words, can sometimes be completely taken out without distorting meaning. According to Akbari (2013), there are several reasons for this; if a parallel expression cannot be found, and its existence in the sentence does not really contribute to the meaning, we can

104 omit it. Also, omission is the answer when an idiom is complicated in that paraphrasing it would confuse readers. Most importantly, a stylistic restriction might be the reason to pick this strategy. Actually, I have really noticed that many equivalent Arabic idioms, as you can see in some of the previous examples, are too colloquial that they might sound awkward in a standard-Arabic text. Actually, I've always wondered why all the hassle? Why can't languages just develop a system for enriching their respective idiom reservoirs through translation? It would be interesting if translation could help languages expand their expressive capacity by borrowing new culture-compatible expressions from one another! Fortunately, there is; calques! According to Rowan, "A calque is when an entire phrase is borrowed from another language and translated word-for-word instead of conceptually" (2014, para. 5). Nevertheless, between languages like Arabic and English, only professionals can do that, and only if the expression sounds self-explanatory to the reader of the Arabic text. In conclusion, it is a good idea to organize your priorities once the translation of an idiom is your focus. The way out of any idiomatic dilemma is to scratch your head for an equivalent in form and meaning, or an equivalent in meaning. Then, you might need to reword it or - as a last resort - take it out. If you are an expert, however, you might have the privilege of adding it up to the esthetic of your language. To reassure yourself that you have done your job right, you should check your translated version of the idiom for two qualities. The first of which is that it cannot be misunderstood, and the second is that it’s not too euphuistic that the reader won’t even try to comprehend (Nida & Taber, 2003).

References

Abu-Shaydeh, A. (2004). Translation of English idioms into Arabic. Babel, 50(2), 114-131. Al-Shawi, M. (2012). Strategies for Translating Idioms from Arabic into English and Vice Versa. AMA- RABAC, 146. Retrieved from http://www.amarabac-magazin.com Akbari, M. (2013). Strategies for translating idioms. Retrieved May 5, 2012, from www.academians.org Newmark, P. (1998). More paragraphs on translation. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books Nida, E., & Taber, C. (2003). The theory and practice of translation. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books Rowan, K. (2014). Translation techniques: battling discrepancies between languages. Retrieved May 6, 2014, from https://www.udemy.com/blog/translation-techniques/ Shojaei, A. (2012). Translation of idioms and fixed expressions: Strategies and difficulties. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(6), 1220-1229. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ docview/1330861342?accountid=142908

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The Strategies of Translating Proverbs: Arabic vs. English By Joman F. Al-Otaibi

proverb is an expression which is defined by Meider (1995) as "a short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a meta- A phorical, fixed and memorizable form and which is handed down from generation to generation" (p. 119). Also, Mollanazar has defined the proverb as "a unit of meaning in a specific context through which the speaker and hearer arrives at the same meaning." (as cited in Dabaghi, Pishbin, & Niknasab, 2010, p.2). Indeed, a deeper look into different kinds of proverbs in Arabic and English has revealed some strategies that can be utilized in their translation.

Every proverb carries specific meaning in a specific context of situation. Therefore, when translating a proverb, it should carry the same cultural meaning in the original proverb (Dabaghi et al., 2010). So, there are three basic strategies of translating proverbs a translator should resort to. The first strategy is literal translation. In this strategy, the denotative meaning of words is taken (Dickins, Hervey, & Higgins, 2013). - االتحاد قوة " a day for you, a day against you” (Dickins et al., 2013, p. 31) and - يوم لك ويوم عليك“ :For example union is strength" (Aoudi, 2001, p. 137). Sometimes this strategy is good, but if a proverb carries a cultural he returned with Honian's - رجع بخفي حنين " :meaning, it becomes incomprehensible. For example slipper" (Wasfi, 2014, p. 29).

The translation by paraphrase is the second strategy and it is considered a more adequate strategy than literal translation. It is most commonly used in the process of translating proverbs in cases that the translator cannot find any equivalents for the source proverb. In this strategy, the meaning of the proverb is transferred to the target language, although the formal aspect, including the stylistic effect produced by the "better be married than to be aloneظل رجل وال ظل حيطة - " :proverb, is lost (Bradeanu, 2008). For example .(all good things come to an end" (Wasfi, 2014, p. 53كل شمس لها مغرب - " and

Equivalence is the third and the most effective strategy. According to Vinay and Darbelnet, it is a procedure which "replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different word- ing" (p. 51). It means to have the same meaning of the proverb in the target language. There are two types of equivalence; the first one is total equivalence, when the proverb is found in the two languages with simi- When the"إذا غاب القط العب يا فار - :lar form, vocabulary and meaning (Dabaghi et al., 2010). For example cat’s away, the mice will play" (Bradeanu, 2008, p.182).

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The second type of equivalence is partial equivalence, when the proverb in two languages have إذا فات“ :similar meaning, but dissimilar form and different vocabulary (Dabaghi et al., 2010). For example اللبيب“ :It’s no use crying over spilt milk" (Dodeen, 2008, p. 123) and another example - الفوت ما ينفع الصوت ,paddle your own canoe" (Aldakear - ماحك جلدك مثل ظفرك" A nod is as good as a wink" and - باإلشارة يفهم 1997, p. 770). This type is actually the most frequent case with the translation of proverbs.

Finally, as we have illustrated previously, there are three strategies of translating proverbs: translate the proverb literally, translate the proverb by paraphrase, or find the equivalent proverb in the target language. Furthermore, we know that each proverb conveys a specific meaning in a specific context of situation, thus, the translator is required to read a lot about both languages' cultures. This may seem like a tedious task to some, but if you really want to excel in translating, you need to go that extra mile.

Figure 1. Example of partial equivalence proverb translation

References

Aldakear, A. M. (1997). idioms and proverbs. Riyadh, KSA. Aoudi, A. H. (2001). Nhw tarjama sahehah [toward correct translation]. Tripoli, Lebanon. Arabic Thoughts. (2014). Retrieved from http://myarabicthoughts.tumblr.com/ Bradeanu, L. (2008). Difficulties and strategies of the translation of proverbs. Dabaghi, A., Pishbin, E., & Niknasab, L. (2010). Proverbs from the Viewpoint of Translation. Journal Of Language Teaching & Research, 1(6), 807-814. doi:10.4304/jltr.1.6.807-814 Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgins, L. (2013). Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Arabic to English. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Dodeen, M. S. (2008). daleal almtarjem [the translator's guide]. Jordan. Meider, W. Dundes, A. (1995). The Wisdom of Many: Essays on the Proverb, (Ed). NewYork: Garland. Vinay, M., Darbelnet, C. Dictionary of Translation Studies, St Jerome Publishing, Manchester, 1999. Wasfi, N. (2014). Introduction to Translation booklet.

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Students' Obstacles in Translation By Atheer T. Madouj

Nowadays translation is very important for our world, to exchange knowledge, culture, and to build a stronger relationship around the world. Translation has different aspects and different fields to translate. Translators have to learn how to translate accurately according to the material they deal with. Accord- ing to Grego, "Key to understanding the underlying nature of language is then first and foremost to understand the neurological processes involved in cognition, any form [sic] of it" (2010, p. 32). Nonetheless, they must put huge efforts into it, so the meaning appears more clearly without any mistakes. Undeniably, students may find many difficulties when it comes to translating texts in different fields.

For those students who are specialized in Language and Law translation, they will have a hard time to get the actual meaning and to understand the words, but not only that. They will have a bigger problem which is the lack of legal lexical equivalents between culturally and legally distant languages, such as Chinese and Japanese. Translators who speak or produce documents in a foreign language have to become aware of the different discourse rules, often imposed by English, and the different communicative styles that exist in different legal cultures (Olsen, Lorz, & Stein, 2009).

Furthermore, translation in global business is very important. Without language translation, global business achieves nothing. In this sense, language translation is the basis for global business and an important guarantee for its success. What most translators suffer from is the lack of knowledge of special technical terms used in the professional field. Lack of knowledge of the special terms used in the area may lead to trouble. To illustrate, an American found their negotiation of selling technology to a buyer in China was coming to a halt. The Chinese complained that the cost of the electricity necessary for powering the machinery was too high. The American was perplexed, for they never mentioned power cost in the contract. It later turned out that "The current value of the machinery is US $1 million" was translated as” The electrical current . . . $1 million" (Zhu, 2012).

A very common book translators do translate is the Bible. Among all the books, the Bible or all the holy books in general, are difficult when it comes to translating. Students, who want to translate the Bi- ble due to wanting better job opportunities in the future or to test their skills, may fail in it. Translating the Bible is not an easy task. There are so many problems inherent in the translation of the Bible. For instance, translating modern languages into English is very hard, so you can imagine how hard it would be to translate 3,000-year-old Hebrew and 2,000-year-old Greek books.

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In the Bible, there is one basic problem inherent in its translation, which is that if we do not have the original manuscript of the Bible, but only copies of copies of copies, this causes many problems because translators do not know which of all these copies is correct and which is not, since none of them are identical (Chatzitheodorou, 2001). Also, Astle gives useful advice to students who want to translate the Bible by stating that," Most amateur students of biblical history can start with any credible translation that they can comprehend, as long as they also understand that no translation of the Bible should be used as a sole historical authority" (Astle, n.d., para. 1).

Moreover, in literature translation, poetry is considered as an obstacle for translators. Poets do not use any simple words in their poems; they use metaphors, similes, etc. in order to make their poems livelier and let the reader create an image in his/her mind to know what the poem means and the message behind it. However, translating the emotions and the images into another language is not easy. Liddy illustrates this by stating that "translating poetry is serious business and should [sic] not to be taken light- ly" (2002). The most important thing in translating poems is the aesthetic values. It helps to bring the poem closer in meaning to the SL poem in a beautiful way without ruining the poem.

To sum up, translator students definitely will have some challenges when they translate texts. In order to pass these challenges, they must learn how to be patient. Patience is the key to help them to draw their way to success. In addition, they have to build their skills more by attempting to translate any text that they feel it is interesting to them, so in time, they will have the ability to translate without having so many difficulties.

References Astle, C. (n.d.). Why Are There Problems Choosing Bible Translations. Retrieved from http:// ancienthistory.about.com/ Chatzitheodorou, I. K. (2001). Problems of Bible Translation. Retrieved from http:// www.translationjournal.net/ Grego, K. (2010). Specialized translation. Theoretical issues, operational perspectives. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Hariyanto, S. (n.d.). Problems in Translating Poetry/Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com Liddy, J. (2002). Five Tips on Translating Poetry. Retrieved from http://www.writing-world.com/ Olsen, F. E., Lorz, R. A., & Stein, D. (2009). Translation issues in language and law. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Zhu, P. (2012). TRANSLATION PROBLEMS IN GLOBAL BUSINESS AND THEIR COUNTER-MEASURES. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/

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Difficulties in Translating the Holy Quran Text By Hayat F. AL-dahasi

he Quran is considered as one of the most sensitive texts, so translating the Quranic text is a complex process and not as simple as translating any other text. We all know that Quranic T texts show its beauty and true meanings in its original form which is in Arabic but when we interpreting it into another totally different language such as English, it will lose some of its beauty because the Quran is the words of Allah (Al-Solmi, 2011). Translating a sensitive text such as the Holy Quran text needs a very keen translator who understands the cultural linguistic background. The difficulties in translating the Holy Quran into English lie in the differences in syntax and cultural background in linguistic structure.

The problems in translating the Holy Quran into any other language occur in two main parts that are the lingual form and the meaning. The meaning part is considered as the biggest problem or the biggest challenge; according to Alzubi he reported that "translation of the meaning of noble Quran to other languages is impossible in the same accuracy as Arabic" (para. 1). The translators could interpret the word literally, but it is difficult to interpret the deep meaning of this word (2008). Indeed, the problems are further increased when the task involves religious text such as the Holy Quran text (Simms, 1997).

The first problem lies in the linguistic difficulties. The linguistic difficulties contain many different aspects such as the lexical problems, which is one of the major problems facing the translator of the Quran in interpreting some lexical terms. Some Islamic terms do not exist in other languages such as the English language and that is called the lack of equivalence, and this is when a certain Islamic term does not have a direct counterpart in English. In this case, the translator should use the communicative manner to find a suitable meaning for such terms (Abobaker, Brakhw, Bin Nordin, & Shaik Ismail, 2012). Also they pointed out to examples of these Is- and (ghaib / the ( زكاة - Zakah, alms giving) ,( شرك - lamic terms: "(Shirk - associating other gods with God .(para. 4) “)غيب . . . unseen\unknown

In 2001, Abdul-Raof stated that the translator of Quran does not only need a sound linguistic competence in both Arabic and the other language, but also an advanced knowledge and background in Arabic syntax and rhetoric in order to realize and appreciate the complex linguistic and rhetorical patterns of Quranic structures. In 2012, Abobaker et al. stated that the many differences between Arabic and English cause several syntactic problems when translating the Holy Quran to English. Tense is an obvious syntactic problem that could face translators. They define the tense as "the 'grammatical realisation of location in time' and how location in time can be expressed in language" (para. 5).

There is a shift from past tense to the imperfect tense in the Quran to achieve an effect, which can pose "إِ ْذ َجا ُءو ُكم ِمن َفوقِ ُكم َو ِمن أس َف َل ِمن ُك ْم َو إِ ْذ َزاغت ِ األَب َصا ُر َو بَ َلغ ِت ال ُقلو ُب الحنا ِج َر َو :some problems in translation for example

110 and )وبلغت( ,”grew wild“ زاغت ,”comes against you“ )جاءوكم( Al-Ahzab 33:10). The verbs) تَ ُظ ّنو َن باهللِ ال ُظنونا" think” shifts to the present tense (para. 6). This previous“ )وتظنون( reached” are in the past tense, but the verb“ shifting is for a reason and that is conjuring an important action in our mind as if it were happening in the present. Tenses in Arabic and in the Quran especially cannot be conveyed literally. They sometimes need to shift to convey the intended meaning to the audience. (Abobaker et al., 2012).

Clearly, the linguistic aspect is one of the most difficult aspects that the translators struggle with in translating the Holy Quran verses. In 2012, Alqinani stressed that "It should be noted that, unlike English, Ar- abic uses extended cognitive synonyms and recurrences of polysemous words" (p. 106) and because of that, the translator of Quranic verses must depend on several dictionaries in both the Arabic and English language to determine the specific meaning of the words. In addition, the translation should be evaluated by a number of experts in the language, culture, history and the science of the Quran.

Figure 1. Quranic text translation (Blu-e, n.d.)

References

Abdul-Raouf H. (2001). QURAN TRANSLATION. In Qur'an Translation: Discourse, Texture and Exegesis (p. 10). Psychology Press, 2001. Abobaker, A., Brakhw, M., Bin Nordin, M., & Shaik Ismail, S. (2012). Some Linguistic Difficulties in Trans- lating the Holy Quran from Arabic into English. doi:10.7763/IJSSH.2012.V2.178 Alqinani, J. (2012). Convergence and Divergence in the Interpretation of Quranic Polysemy and Lexical Re- currence, Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com Al-Solmi, Z. (2011, October 26). Translating the Holy Qur’an not an easy task. Saudi Gazette. Retrieved from http://http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/ Alzubi, M. A. (2013). The Role of Using Islamic English in Solving the Difficulties in Translating the Noble Quran Unification off Muslims. Reverted from http://eds.b.ebscohost.coms Blu-e. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.fanpop.com/clubs/holy-quran/images/27764880/title/quran-wallpaper Simms, K. (1997). Translating Sensitive Texts: Linguistic Aspects. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/

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Literary Translation: Poetry Translation Problems By Wejdan S. Alkhanbashi

ranslation is divided into numerous species, and literature translation is one of these kinds, as well as the hardest one. Some scholars insist that literature translation is deemed impossible T especially poetry since there are many obstacles that come along with the poetry translation process which makes it so complicated and not any translator is able to do it. In fact, many of the obstacles in translating poetry are embodied in rhyme, sound and socio-culture problems.

Lander (2000, p. 97) argued that translating poetry is not just hard, but impossible according to most experts. The late John Ciardi referred to translation as "the art of failure" (p. 4) but we keep trying while noting that translation quality may not be that good. Also according to Steiner, (1984) who said that some people insist on the untranslatability of some texts since they believe in the holiness of some texts (as cited in Niknasab & Pish- bin, n.d.).

So what are these problems that face poetry translators? Before answering this question, we must admit that "translating poetry means losing the poetry of the original text" (Rosnewald, 2012, p. 127). Catford, who has elaborated on the concept of untranslatability, mentioned two types of untranslatability: linguistic and cultural. First of all, linguistic untranslatability which occurs when there is no lexical or syntactical exchange in the TL for an SL item. Second of all, "cultural untranslatability is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situa- tional feature for the SL text." (as cited in Niknasab & Pishbin, n.d., p. 4).

Suryawinata, 1982, stated that the aesthetic values and socio-cultural aspects in a poem are considered the most common literature translation problems due to the fact that these aesthetic values such as, word order, sounds, and cognitive sense (logic) work together (i.e. have no independent meaning). So if a translator fails to choose the correct words, and fails to maintain the word order, as well as the sounds in a poem, he diminishes the beauty of the original poem (as cited in Hariyanto, n.d.).

One of the most complicated problems of aesthetic factors is sound, and sound means anything related to it including rhyme, rhythm, assonance, onomatopoeia, etc. Robinson (2010) believes that poetry is restricted by sentence sounds and the sound of sense. On the other hand, Newmark (1981, p. 67) emphasized that "in a significant text, semantic truth is cardinal [meaning is not more or less important, it is important!]” (as cited in Hari- yanto, n.d.. para. 24). Briefly, if a translator faces an obstacle where he may need to sacrifice one of three values; structure, metaphor, or sound, then he should sacrifice the sound, but he should keep trying to retain the beauty of the sound as long as possible (Hariyanto, n.d.).

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The other problem is socio-cultural which is embodied in the phrases, clauses, or sentences. In this case, a translator may apply some of these methods: Literal translation, transference, naturalization, culture equivalence or synonyms (Hariyanto, n.d.). For instance, in Shakespeare's Sonnet 18th, "Shall I compare thee with a summer’s day?" , a translator who is from a desert environment will be confused since a summer in his environment has the image of dry winds and very hot sunbeams! So, he can use the naturalization method, where he either exchanges "summer" with "spring" or he can keep it as it is with being aware that this poem was written by an English man.

In 2012, Yaz stated that literature translation is an art that needs someone who can deal with the translation tone, pace, and cadence between languages expertly, as well as rhyme, meter and general flow, as well as the structure of the word, the length of the line, and the sculpture of the stanza. All of these must be taken into consideration in the literature translation process. However, Yaz said “I can hardly fathom the skill it must take to produce a satisfactory replica of a poem in another tongue” (Yaz, 2012, para. 1).

To conclude, as I mentioned before, many scholars insist that poetry is untranslatable, but there are numerous examples for poetry translation by many translators who worked hard and tried to convey the meaning and sensation of a certain poem and frankly they did well, despite the problems and difficulties. Accord- ing to Nida (1984, p. 104), "Anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message" (as cited in Niknasab & Pishbin, n.d. p. 4). In a nutshell, poetry translation is possible, maybe not in a perfect way, but it is possible since there is nothing that is considered as perfect!

References

Hariyanto, S. (n.d.). Problems in Translating Poetry. Retrieved fromhttp://www.translationdirectory.com/ article640.htm Niknasab, L., &Pishbin, E. (n.d.). On the Translation of Poetry:A Look at SohrabSepehri's Traveler. Retrieved from http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTI05/pdf_doc/01.pdf Robinson, P. (2010). Poetry & translation: The art of the impossible. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books Rosnewald, L. (2012). Imagining a World Where Translation Matters. why Translation Matter, 127. Retrieved from http://www.acknowledge.net/ksu/SearchFramev3.aspx?type=EDS Yaz, L. (2012). Problems in Poetic Translation. How Erin Mouré redefines what it means to work between languages. Retrieved from http://poetry-talk.com/article/problems-poetic-translation

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The Role of Culture in Translation By Malak A. Abo-Hashem

hen we study the language of a society, it is not enough to focus just on the language and the process of communication. In fact, there are other structures that can help us W better to understand a country more than languages such as culture. Generally, language is an expression of culture and individuality of its speakers. It influences the way they see the world. A good translator should be familiar with the culture, customs, and social settings of the source and target language speakers. In fact, the culture of both languages is influential, and plays a very important role in translation (Akbari, 2013).

Eco (2003) believes that translation is interpretation of a text in two different languages; the source language and the target language, not comparing two different languages, thus involving a shift between cultures (as cited in Shiyab, 2006). Wittgenstein once said, “The limits of my language are the limits of my world" (1958, p. 53). Language is a part of culture, and it is at the heart of culture. What people do with language like narrative, poetry, songs, plays, etc. are soft expressions and faces of culture (Akbari, 2013).

Students of translation should improve their knowledge about the source language and the target language because a good translator must have comprehensive knowledge about these two languages. Students can improve their knowledge by reading different genres from different resources such as modern literature, contemporary prose, newspapers, magazines, etc. To have an idea about all these genres is important because “they implicitly transfer culture-specific aspects of a language” (para. 11). Also, specialized readings can be beneficial such as reading recently published articles and journals on different aspects of translation. These articles will give them an idea about which style they can apply when they are translating (Razmjou, 2004).

Figure 1. (“Communicating Interculturally Takes,” n.d.)

114 Culture is not a material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, people, behavior, or emotions. It is rather an organization of these things. As language and culture are complimentary of each other, and the cultural features of every region is different, translators not only should concentrate on how to convey the same meaning, but also attempt to show the dissimilarities between two cultural perspectives (Abbasi, Zadeh, Janfa- za, Assemi, & Dehghan, 2012).

A translator is a cultural mediator, who may move from the source culture to the target culture, to choose as much as he thinks appropriate to serve the aim of the translation. The basic purpose why we translate from the source language to the target language is to enrich linguistically and culturally a target language. Thus, the translator aims at preserving as much as possible the source culture (Al-Hassan, 2013).

Culture should be considered a vital component of translation. Lack of adequate knowledge of culture causes difficulty in comprehending a text full of cultural references (Al-Hassan, 2013). For example; “It is raining cats and dogs”. It is an English idiom which means it is raining very heavily. We cannot translate this ;because it doesn’t exist in the Arabic culture “إنها تمطر قططاً وكالبا ً” :sentence in Arabic word for word as .إنها تمطر بغزارة :however, we can find an appropriate translation for it such as

Finally, it is important to know that it takes much more than a dictionary to be a translator. The translation process should be focused not just on language transfer, but also on cultural transposition (Shiyab, 2006). A translator cannot transfer the complete meaning of the source text without knowing the culture of the source language, and trying to find an appropriate translation of it in the target language. Of course, one should consider to what extent the culture is in the text and to what extent the language is in the culture (Akbari, 2013). References

Abbasi, G., Zadeh, S., Janfaza, E., Assemi, A., & Dehghan, S. (2012). Language, Translation, and Culture. 2012 International Conference on Language, Medias and Culture, 33, 5. Retrieved from http:// www.ipedr.com/vol33/017-ICLMC2012-L00062.pdf. Al-Hassan, A. M. (2013). Should culture be translated? The importance of culture and text types in literary translation, 16. Akbari, M. (2013). The role of culture in tranlstion. Special Issue on Applied Linguistics, 3(8), 9. Retrieved from http://www.academians.org/articles/August2013-2.pdf. Communicating Interculturally Takes More than Speaking English Well | Sherwood Fleming's Intercultural Communication Insights. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://sherwoodfleming.com/communicating- interculturally-takes-more-than-speaking-english-well/ Razmjou, L. (2004) To Be a Good Translator, 8(2), 1.Retrieved from http:\\context.translationjournal.net. Shiyab, S. M. (2006). a Textbook of Translation: Theoretical and Practical Implications . Retrieved from books.goolge.com.sa. Wittgenstein, L. (1958). The blue and brown books. Retrieved from http://www.accionfilosofica.com/ misc/1338420112crs.pdf.

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Translating English and Arabic Grammatical Gender By Samar A. Al-muhanna

efore starting to talk about cultural differences in translating English and Arabic grammatical gender, we need to be more specific. Thus, we need to know what grammatical gender means B in each language. First, in Arabic, as Al-bar (2008) defines it, it means to sort all the nouns ,Also . هذه and feminine: any noun can be referred as she هذا into masculine: any noun can be referred, as he grammatical gender in English as how Scott (2013) explained, means to refer to the nouns by "the third-person pronouns she, he, and it" (2:42-3:48). Without a doubt, each culture has its own way for referring to things and people, thus the Arabic language is different in its grammatical gender from English.

In fact, the contrast between Arabic and English in how they form the grammatical gender is a huge subject but we can say that Arabic has its distinctive way. First, we need to know which are the feminine and masculine nouns and adjectives? (Abū, 2007) answered this question and he pointed out that any noun or adjective ending with "ta marbotah", "fathah+alif+hamza", or "fathah+alif maqsurah" denotes them as feminine, also most of the organs of the body or the names of countries, cities, villages, and towns all are feminine (p. 46-48). For verbs, we can just add the 'noon answah' or ' jama almoanth alsalem' to the abstract form. So the Arabic language has gender in nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

On other hand, English doesn’t have grammatical gender; it used to, but this change has a reason. Ac- cording to ("English Used To,” 2012), the Viking invaded the northern England in 1100s and because of the in- vading of the two languages, the old English and the old Norse mixed, so in order to simplify the communication, the gendered nouns disappeared. But ("English Used To,” 2012; & Scott, 2013) agreed that we have now the gendered pronouns in English: “he”, “she”, and “it” because the gender didn’t disappear entirely. Of course “he” is for human masculine, as in the example “he is a good man”, “she” is for human feminine such as “she is a beautiful wife”, and “it” for non-humans like “it is a nice book”.

As a result of this difference between Arabic and English, a lot of translators fall into many mistakes. Darwish (2003) claimed that many problems appear when translating between "gender sensitive languages" like Arabic and "gender neutral languages" like English (p. 144-145). Even (Sabourin, Stowe, L & de Haan, 2006) added that L2 speakers never reach the proficiency as the native speakers, and one of these obstacles that may face the L2 speakers is the grammatical gender. Also (AL-jarf, 2000) mentioned in her article that there are "22%" of the students had some errors due to the student's difficulty on the grammatical agreement with the gender (para. 50-52).

116 The grammatical gender errors from translator or students always come from the culture and the culture affects languages, hence the language affects our way of thinking. Jackson (2012) questioned if the “grammatical gender” may affect our way of thinking? (para. 1). To answer his question, the author showed several studies carried out in different countries and different languages. Then Jackson (2012) claimed that: ”these studies show, grammatical gender can influence people’s thinking, even when they’re speaking a language with no grammatical gender” (para. 1). And because of that, we associate the things to males and fe- males inside our brains.

As I have noted, the English language and Arabic language are not from the same family language and because of this, many translators face some difficulties in translating the grammatical gender. Also they can't ignore the importance of the grammatical gender. Darwish (2003) confirmed that the grammatical relationships between the words in sentences depend on the grammatical gender to define them. For translators they have to learn each language's grammar and they must not mix them up. They just need to commit to the saying that our brains like computers so, in order to translate perfectly, we need to shift it to the other language.

References

Al-bar, E. M. (2008, July 28). Dahert altathker wa altaneeth ben alarabia wa alnglezea [The phenomenon of masculine and feminine between Arabic and English]. Retrieved from http://www.voiceofarabic.net/ index.php?option=com_content& view=article&id=443:52&catid=147:2008-07-28-14-03- 01&Itemid=438. Al-Jarf, R. (2000). Grammatical agreement errors in L1/L2 translations. IRAL: International Review Of Ap- plied Linguistics In Language Teaching, 38(1), 1. Chachra, F. A. (2007). An essential grammar. Retrieved from http://www.ziyaraat.net/books/ ArabicAnEssentialGrammar.pdf. Darwish, A. (2003). Elements of Translation (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books. English used to have gendered nouns?! Yes! | Dictionary.com Blog. (2012, May 16). Retrieved from http:// blog.dictionary.com/oldenglishgender/. Sabourin, L., Stowe, L. A., & de Haan, G.,J. (2006). Transfer effects in learning a second language grammatical gender system.Second Language Research, 22(1), 1-29. doi:http:// dx.doi.org/10.1191/0267658306sr259oa. Jackson , S. B. (February 21, 1012). Masculine or Feminine? (And Why It Matters) | Psychology Today. Re- trieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/culture-conscious/201209/masculine-or-feminine -and-why-it-matters Scott, T. (2013, July 5). Gender Neutral Pronouns: They're Here, Get Used To Them [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=46ehrFk-gLk.

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Gender Translation: From English into Arabic and Vice Versa By Abrar M. Al-towairqi

obinson-Pant (2005) working at the University of East Anglia in the UK emphasized his purpose in writing a piece about translating gender to share with readers his experience in trans- R lating data from Arabic to English. He did part of his thesis in Education; he used the Arabic language during the interview to make it easy to connect with young Saudi women. He said, “the purpose of the interview was to explore the factors influencing young women’s higher education choice.” (p. 141). In fact, translating gender from English into Arabic reveals how deeply translations are affected.

Figure 1. Arabic has 2 grammatical genders (Palmer, 2011)

As seminal work like Gender in Translation by Sherry Simon (1996) and Translation and Gender by LuiseVon Flotow (1997) testify that in the last twenty years, the interplay between gender and translation studies has been particularly fruitful and has originated manifold approaches and methodologies that have broadened the scope of research in both areas. According to Casagranda, 2011, 'transgendering translation', is a term that brings transgender studies to the fore and tries to put forward an epistemic framework that is the theoretical background to this article (as cited in Rabiger, 2013).

By transgendering translation I mean the translation of texts that subversively question gender as a non- homogenous and non-heteronormative category by showing its instability as a cultural paradigm and a linguistically performed social act. Such 'transgender texts' play with the structures of language, so that the gender opposition, embodied by personal pronouns like she-he in English or elle-il in French, is challenged (Daniela, 2010).

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In other word, "the texts that present non-dichotomous use of linguistic gender may be considered as transgender because they contribute to the subversion of the binary system of the male/female divide" (Casagranda, 2013, as cited in Rabiger, 2013, p. 1). It is the case, for example, of a genderless narrator who speaks in the first-person singular and omits any anaphoric reference to gender-marked pronouns. This is possible, of course, in languages like English that are grammatically neuter (De, Shunnaq, & Heliel, 1994).

When we translate such texts into a grammatically gendered language like Italian, however, we are often forced to assign gender to what has none in the source text because there are no equivalent genderless structures in the target language. Thus we should metaphorically compare these translations to surgical sex reassignments operated on the bodies of hermaphrodites and intersex individuals and claim that such surgical translations "regender language as they regender human bodies and human identities" (Casagranda 2011, as cited in Rabiger, 2013, p.41). From a literary and linguistic point of view, a text may be re-gendered too and made to conform to the hegemonic discourses on gender.

In an essay published in 2003, Ljiljana Markovic finds that differences in professional work and ways of life have by now become as important as difference in sex. She concludes, certainly ahead of her time: “the world of binary opposition is behind us” (as cited in Schabert, 2010, p.72). Priscille Touraille from a socio- anthropological perspective, and Sandra L. from a psychological one, endorse the view that the distinction between male and female should no longer organize most of our cultural practice and thought (as cited in Gan- non, 2011).

References Daniela, P. (2010). Grammatical gender processing in Italian and Spanish bilinguals. Quarterly Journal of Ex- perimental Psychology. De, B. R., Shunnaq, A., &Heliel, M. , (1994). Language, discourse, and translation in the West and Middle East. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. GANNON, S. (2011).Exclusion as Language and the Language of Exclusion: Tracing Regimes of Gender through Linguistic Representations of the "Eunuch". Journal Of The History Of Sexuality, 20(1), 1- 27. Palmer, R. (2011, September). Palmer Language Blog: Grammatical Gender and Gender Equality. Retrieved from http://palmerlanguage.blogspot.com/2011/09/grammatical-gender-and-gender-equality.html Rabiger, M. (2013). Directing Film techniques and aesthetics. 5th, rev. ed. books.google.com.sa/books/about/ Directing.html?id=4H7PapGzIjQC&safe=on&redir_esc=y Robinson-Pant, A. (2005). Cross-cultural perspectives on educational research.Maidenhead (GB: Open Uni- versity Press. Schabert, I. (2010). Translation Trouble: Gender Indeterminacy in English Novels and their French Versions. Translation & Literature, 19(1), 72-92. doi:10.3366/E0968136109000776

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The Arabic Translations of Shakespeare’s Works By Zahra M. Al - Baqqal

ranslation is one of the oldest jobs in the world. Since the beginning of the world, people have needed to translate and translators whose job is to make this connection easier (Thawabteh, T 2008). In fact, the relationship between language and culture is like two sides of one coin; “language cannot be understood without reference to the culture of which it is a part and the social relation which it mediates”, as what Hammerly suggested (as cited in Thawabteh, 1983, p. 516). No doubt, each language has its methods for translation and every translator has particular technical ways for translation, as what Arabs do when they translate Shakespeare’s works.

Arabs use many methods when they translated from one language to another such as: literal translation, free translation, communicative translation, balance translation and idiomzing translation (Dickins, Hervey & Higgins, 2002). We can use any kind of these methods depending on the text and the context. However, the literature texts have different ways to be translated since they consist of a collection of strong words to express emotions like: poems, novel, journals, etc. (Alkhuli, 2001). Of course, the meaning is the most important thing in the translating process. But because of the nature of the literature texts, the translators deal with other things, like what they went through when they translated Shakespeare's works.

When Arabic people translated Shakespeare's poems, novels and plays, they focused on two things beside transferring the meaning which are the culture and the religion of Arab people. Al-Azzam, Al-Quran and Al-Ali (2010) in their study show the possibility to save the cultural effect of Shakespeare's sonnet on the name of his poem by using expressions in Arabic that have the same effect on the readers of the original work. They used Arabic cultural expressions to have these effects which helped them to get more freedom in translation, but such a thing didn’t exist in the Arabic world. Also, they tried to make their translation close to Arabic Islamic beliefs and habits (Needham & Maier, 1995).

In 1998, Ghazoul announced that the first Arabic translation of Shakespeare had been done when the the- atrical movement was taking place and it was dependent on the performance and the audience rather than on the academic aspect of the work. The most known translation of Shakespearean plays and the first one is Othell play translated by Khalil Mutran (1872-1949), a Lebanese poet who immigrated to Egypt. Mutran's version appears to the readers as what (Ghazoul, 1998, p. 3) said: “Arabization (ta'rib), and not as translation (tarjamah)”, and he discussed in one paragraph how Shakespeare seems to reflect the Arab spirit. For that, Mutran didn’t only focus on the protagonist of the play, but also on the author.

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After Khalil Mutran’s translations, the recent translations were done by writers who know the importance of Khalil Mutran’s work. While, Mutran used the educational literary Arabic prose in all his translations, the others mixed between prose and poetry. Amire Bahaeri used the Arabic verses and he gave the Ar- abs the meaning of the play by using omission and alteration to make the original text flexible with his use of classical versification. In other words, he translated the story, plot and characters literally, but he changed the form (Shetywi, 1995).

At the end, translation is not easy work that anyone can do. It requires you to be professional, precise, and has a special sensitivity towards the language. In addition, translators have special methods they follow in their translation. Some of them may use the literal method while others use the free one. In fact, the kind of text plays an important role to determine which kind of methods to use, particularly in the literary texts. Each translator has his own way when he translates Shakespeare's poems or novels. What we can conclude from that is translating is a challenging job for the people who love languages and want to transfer the messages of others with their own words.

References

Al-Azzam, B., Al-Quran, M., & Al-Ali, M. (2010). PRESERVING THE CULTURAL ESSENCE IN TRANSLATING INTO ARABIC THE SHAKESPEARE'S SONNET "SHALL I COMPARE THEE TO A SUMMER'S DAY". Journal Of Language & Literature (20780303), (2), 40-46.Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com Alkhuli, M. A. (2001). Humanities translation: From English into Arabic = Tarjamat al-ʻulūm al-insānīyah min al-lughah al-Injlīzīyah ilá al-lughah al-ʻArabīyah. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com Dickins, J., Hervey, S. G., & Higgins, I. (2002). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method : Arabic to English. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Ghazoul, F. J. (1998). The Arabization of Othello. Comparative Literature, 50(1), 1-31. Retrieved from http:// eds.a.ebscohost.com Needham, A. D., & Maier, C. (1995). Between languages and cultures: Translation and cross-cultural texts. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books Shetywi, M. (1995). The Merchant of Venice in Arabic. Retrieved from http://qspace.qu.edu.qa/ handle/10576/8075. Thawabteh, M. (2008, September). questia trusted online research. Retrieved November 22, from http:// www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-248405554/the-function-of-cultural-reference-within-the- hermeneutic.

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Translating Metaphors between Unrelated Cultures By Afnan M. Al-Qahtani

n fact the term ''metaphor'' was defined by Thomas and Steven as ''a novel or poetic linguistic expression when one or more words for a concept are used outside of its normal conventional mean- I ing to express a similar concept'' (as cited in Ortony, 1993, p. 202). In 1988, Newmark also stated that the point of similarity is usually determined for what it refers to or what its concept is. It is known that the function of the translator is to express a linguistic expression correctly from one language to another by finding the equivalent in the target language.

We all tend to include some linguistic expressions in our speech in order to engage our listeners. There- fore, numerous types of metaphors emerged. According to Lakoff and Johnson (2008), there are three types of metaphors: (a) structural metaphors, (b) orientational metaphors which depend on physical orientation and change the real connotation. For example, "I am feeling up" (p. 15), and (c) the ontological metaphor which gives a feeling that we are talking about something substantial whereas it is actually impalpable., for instance, "brutality of war".

In the translation field, translating metaphors seems to be difficult especially if the two languages are unrelated in culture. Indeed, the level of difficulty lies in the type of the metaphor that will be translated. For example, dead metaphors as Newmark (1988) said "are not difficult to translate, but they often defy literal translation, and therefore offer choices" (p. 106). Newmark (1988) assured that it is unnecessary to translate the metaphor linguistically if a translator can express its correct and precise meaning in terms of its cultural and situation- al context. Rittgen (2008) reported that there is another way to translate metaphors which is translating them into "design patterns" (p. 431).

Figure 1. A depiction of translation bridging the gap between people of unrelated cultural backgrounds (“Translation: How Do,” n.d.)

122 Beylard-Ozeroff, Králová, and Moser (1998) illustrate the case when translating a text and finding a metaphor. Sometimes there is a synonymous metaphor in the source language and its culture, so in this case a translator will not have a problem translating it. However, if there is no an equivalent metaphor in the source language, a translator is bound to translate it literally, and the situation depends on the cultures of the SL and the TL. As evidence, the word “time” in the English culture is conceptualized as “time is money”, while .(Jaber, 2008)“الوقت كالسيف ان لم تقطعه قطعك” time” in Arabic culture represents a different concept“

One important point in translating metaphors is to be talented or have the ability to link between the two languages and their cultures. Some metaphors need direct translation to be comprehensible so the translator also must know how to be creative in the translating process and attempt to create new ways of using language because he/she will not always find the equivalent so he will need to be innovative ("Translation Theory With," 2008).

In conclusion, at the beginning of this paper I referred to the term metaphor in Thomas and Steven's points of view, and types of metaphors have been mentioned by Lakoff and Johnson. It has become obvious that translating metaphors between two unrelated culture is not such a difficult process, but a translator must have the capacity to express the meaning smoothly and perfectly whether he/she uses free translation or literal translation or any kind of translation in order to achieve his/her goal which is to influence the reader's feelings.

References

Beylard-Ozeroff, A., Králová, J., & Moser-Mercer, B. (1998). Translators ́strategies and creativity (27th ed., p. 18). Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Translation: How Do You Say | JonathanStorment.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// jonathanstorment.com/2014/04/translation-how-do-you-say/ Jaber, I. N. (2008, May 6). Translating Metaphoric Expressions: Translating Culture. Retrieved from http:// www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=1954 Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2008). Metaphors We Live By. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books? id=r6nOYYtxzUoC&dq=metaphor+we+live+by&hl=ar&source=gbs_navlinks_s Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation (11th ed.). Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books? id=ABpmAAAAMAAJ&q=a+textbook+of+translation&dq=a+textbook+of+translation&hl=ar&sa= X&ei=aoxWU77aMYrx0gXqsoGYDQ&redir_esc=y Ortony, A. (1993). Metaphor and thought (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Rittgen, P. (2008). Translating Metaphors into Design Patterns. In Advances in Information Systems Develop- ment (p. 431). Retrieved from http://www.springer.com/computer/ information+systems+and+applications/book/978-0-387-30834-0 Translation theory with regards to translating metaphors. (2008, April 25). Retrieved from http:// www.proz.com/translation-articles/articles/1831/1/Translation-theory-with-regards-to-translating- metaphors

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An Overview of Translating Idioms: Arabic vs. English By Shayma A. Al-Zahrani

s Saeed) 2012 (stressed translating idioms is one of the hardest tasks that beginners in the translation field may encounter while they translate. Most of the idioms are related to cul- A ture so Arab translators must be familiar with them in order to produce correct translations. Translators sometimes can recognize the idioms in the text and sometimes they can’t. Without a doubt, translators may face some difficulties while they translate idioms and this job of translating idioms can be a little challenging. Let’s first know what an idiom means. Strässler defined an idiom as a term that comes from the lexeme “idios” (1982, p 13). Richards and Schmidt stressed that it functions as one unit and its meaning cannot be known if we separate some words of it (as cited in Khalil, n.d.). In translating idiomatic expressions according to Newmark, it is hard to match “equivalence of meaning with equivalence of frequency” (as cited in Akbari, 2013, p. 34). Newmark said that the most difficult problem that a translator may encounter is “lexical” (as cited in Akbari, 2013, p. 34). According to Davies, there are varieties of other difficulties such as: 1- when you don’t have similar word in the TL. 2- you don’t recognize idioms in the text (as cited in Akbari, 2013). Other serious problems according to Straksiene in translating idioms is “the lack of equivalence” (p. 35) idioms exist in all languages but it is a hard job to find the exact idiom in the TL that corresponds to the idiom in the ST in both shape and meaning (as cited in Akbari, 2013). Another problem according to Baker that translators may encounter is that they cannot recognize some idioms in the text. Some idioms are easy to spot and recognize some are not. So, to solve this problem, the translator may “resort to literal rendi- tion" (as cited in Khalil, n.d, p. 3) and see if the meaning fits or not If the meaning does not fit, they will know that this is an idiom and they have to know how to deal with it. Al-Shawi and Mahadi (2012) emphasized that knowing about the culture of TL is something very important to produce an accurate translation. Because of the differences between Arabic and English cultures, the interpretation process will be a little challenging. If the translator has background about the culture, they can get the invisible meaning easily. There are social and religious cultural differences that the translator must know. For example, we have Islam, Christianity, and many more religions that the skilful translator must have read about. p. 142). Al-Shawi and Mahadi stressed that) مقطوع من شجرة :Let’s take a look at the idiom here Arabs like to have large family and many children (2012). Having lots of children will support their social which is the opposite, that means their family مقطوع من شجرة rank as they believe. But if someone is

124 is dead. So, they need everyone to feel pity for them, support and help them. If we translate this idiom literally” Cut off from a tree”, an English speaker will not understand it and it will seem funny to them because they don’t share the same social culture.

Another important aspect that the translator must take into consideration is religious culture. Al- Shawi and Mahadi (2012) emphasized that since there are differences in cultures between the Arab world and the English speaking world, it will have an impact on their languages. Consequently, their idioms p. 144) as an example. Al-Shawi)“اسم اهللا عليك” that they use are going to use will be affected. Let’s take and Mahadi (2012) said that this idiom is used when a child falls on the ground, scared of something or cries because of pain. Also, a mother is says this idiom when she is afraid that something may happen to her healthy sweet child. So, she is saying it as a type of protection.

We cannot translate it as “God's name be upon you” (Al-Shawi & Mahadi, 2012, p.144) because if we do so, the head of the reader will be full of questions on what the translation is supposed to mean. He will not be able to understand it and it will be something strange to them. Religious idioms in English or Biblical idioms are not understood to everyone. The authors said that only people who can read the Bible can understand its meaning, and as a result, they can translate its idioms. An idiom like “they knew no quiet in their bellies” means they were “greedy” (p. 145). From this example, you can see that people who speak biblical languages are speaking metaphorically.

In conclusion, we learned that an idiom comes in a set of words and we cannot take apart these words from each other. Translating idioms is not an easy task to do. Only skillful translators can do this job. Most of the translators may encounter difficulties while translating idioms. One major difficulty in not being able to spot the idiom within the context. Another difficulty is that because Arab’s culture differs from Westerns’ culture, they use dissimilar idioms. So, in order to produce an accurate interpretation, a translator must have a good knowledge about the culture of the TL. References Akbari, M. (2013). Strategies for Translating Idioms. Retrieved from http://www.academians.org/articles/ August2013-4.pdf Al-Shawi, M. A., & Mahadi, T. S. (2012). Strategies for Translating Idioms from Arabic into English and Vice Versa. AMARABAC, 3, 139-147. Retrieved from http://www.amarabac-magazin.com/ fileadmin/images/pdfs/AMARABAC_3-6_139- 147.pdf Khalil, G. S. (n.d.). Overcoming Difficulties in Translating Idioms From English into Arabic.Retrieved from Department of Translation College of Arts Al - Mustansiriya University website:http:// www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=37106. Saeed, A. (2012). Difficulties Arab translation trainees encounter when translating high frequency idioms. Babel, 58(2), 181-204. Strässler, J. (1982). Idioms in English: A pragmatic analysis. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa.

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Difficulties in Translation: The Holy Quran By Razan M. Alotaibi

he Holy Quran is the masterpiece of the Arabic language from many stand points such as linguistics and stylistics. The vocabulary style, eloquence, effectiveness, and the rich po- T etic rhythm of this masterpiece, which lead to its linguistic and stylistics uniqueness, are the miracles of Miracle. As Arberry (1982) says, "The Quran is neither poetry nor prose but a unique fusion both." (p. 4). Because of these characteristics, the translation of the Quran from Arabic to other languages, especially to the English language, is accompanied by many linguistic problems.

The basic problem when translating the Quran is found in some lexical items, like lack of equivalence of some Islamic terms. These terms have no direct counterpart in English, compelling the translator to convey them in a communicative manner. Here are some examples of Islamic terms: Kufr (disbelieve ) - The كفر Ttawbah (repentance), and توبة ,(Munkar (wrong منكر ,(Ttaqua (piety تقوى English translations of these Islamic terms, as you can see, give only approximate meanings. They don’t show the full semantic and the liturgy scope of the Quranic Terms (Elimam, 2009, p. 40).

Because of the differences between the English language and the Arabic language, there are many syntactic problems when translating the Quran to English. Tense and verb forms should be guided by the overall context and by stylistic considerations. For instance: إذ جاءوكم من فوقكم ومن أسفل منكم وإذ زاغت األبصار وبلغت القلوب الحناجر وتظنون باهلل الظنونا )االحزاب 01( Behold! They come on you from above…, and behold, the eyes became dime and the hearts gaped up…!” (Ali, 2000, p. 377). think" which shifts to the present tense to“ تظنون These verbs in the verse are in the past tense except verb convey the intended meaning to the target audience. This shift is for the purpose of conjuring an important action in the mind as if it is happening in the present.

The use of metaphor in Quran, along with other rhetorical usages, is a characteristic of Quranic texts. Therefore, translators should not ignore its use when attempting to translate the Quranic text (Almisned, وترى األرض هامدة فإذا أنزلنا عليها الماء اهتزت وربت وأنبتت من كل زوج بهيج :p. 145). Consider this example ,2001 Thou see the earth barren and lifeless, but when we pour down rain on it, it is stirred (to life), it“ )الحج: 5( swells and it puts forth every..." (Ali, 2000, p. 71). The trembling of the earth after a long quiescence is

126 compared to an animal that calms down after moving. In this case, the literal translation cannot convey the exact meaning of the verse to the audience.

AlQinai shows that there are difficulties of translating the Quran that is shown from infringing upon the rapport between sound and meaning which is a hallmark characteristic of the holy text both at the part and whole levels. The author explains why the Quranic translations are often annexed with footnotes and marginal explanations to disambiguate the original meaning and supplement the translation with other possible translations. He says “A pragmatic translation of the meaning of the Quran would give approximate linguistic and rhetorical patterns for the communicative purposes without claiming to be a true.” (2012, p. 83).

Figure 1. An example of footnotes under the Quranic text

What seems obvious about the translation of the Quran is that the message can be conveyed while the form of the message may differ in the source and target language. In addition, the linguistic difficulties will be a challenge for translators who struggle to convey the intended meaning of the Quranic text. So the translation of the Quran should be conducted by experts in the language, culture, history and scholars of the Quran to convey the correct meaning to the target language.

References

Ali, A. Y. (2000). The holy Quran, Wordsworth Classic of Word Literature. Almisned, O. A. (2001). Metaphor in the Quran: an Assessment of Three English Translations of Suurat Al- Hajj., United Kingdom: Durham University. Arberry, A. J. (1982). The Quran, Oxford word's classics: Oxford University Press. AlQinai, J. (2012). Convergence and Divergence in the Interpretation of Quranic Polysemy and Lexical Re- currence. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 16(1), 83-109. Elimin, S. A. A. (2009). Clause-Level Foregrounding in the Translation of the Quran into English: Patterns and Motivations. Manchester University, Manchester. Kitaabu. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://kitaabun.com/shopping3/images/saheeh-inter.jpg

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Idiom Translation Difficulties and its Relation to Culture By Sara A. Al-Ateeq

Why did you let the cat out of the bag?” is a sentence that might not cause any difficulty of understanding to speakers of English, however; for a native speaker, the meaning of the sen- “ tence has a completely different value on the cultural level. Native speakers understand this sentence as "why did you tell this secret that you weren’t supposed to" not by its literal meaning due to it representing an idiom. Al-Shawi and Mahadi define idioms as "an artistic expression of the language, Idio- matic expressions are colorful, dramatic, lively, closer to the way people really feel and near to the local culture" (2012, p.140). Therefore, translating idioms can be difficult due to the great gap between the literal meaning of them and their cultural-based meaning.

Idioms can also be defined in a more technical sense as a group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words (Hornby, Cowie, & Lewis, 1974). Usually, the meaning of an idiom has no relation whatsoever to the meaning of the words forming it, thereby, causing a great deal of confusion to second language learners. Also, idioms do not follow the normal grammatical structure making it even harder for L2 learners to comprehend and properly use, let alone translate (Riggs, n.d.). As a result, it is established that idioms are abstract, metaphorical and culturally specific.

The meanings of idioms are mostly derived from the culture they belong to, and they are an essential aspect of culture as they are of language. According to Giffen and Frank, since all of us have experienced gaps of interpretation and shared meaning even within the same culture, the gap is significantly larger when dealing with intercultural communications (2004), thus, lies the difficulty in translating idioms because literal translation will certainly not provide the accurate meaning due to idioms being culturally specific. So, the pragmatic meaning must be much more valued in the translation process (Dastijerdi & Adelnia, 2011).

Before embarking upon the process of translating idioms, several factors must be taken into consideration. Firstly and most importantly, the translators need to know how to identify an idiom in a sentence which might cause confusion to beginner translators. The solution to this problem as (Riggs, n.d.) suggested is by literally translating the sentence and if it doesn’t make sense, then it's logically an idiom. For example,

128 if encountered with a sentence like "it's raining cats and dogs", one would instantly know that this is not a comprehensive sentence. With that assumption, the translator would evidently start looking for other possible strategies to grasp the exact meaning of that particular idiom.

Another major problem with translating idioms is the lack of background knowledge of the idiom's cultural meaning. In 2012, Al-Shawi and Mahadi stated, "Words which have various connotations in one language may not have the same emotive associations in another. Different languages frequently reflect different connotations and associations of feeling because of the differences in cultural roots.” (p.141). As for idioms, all the words forming it have an irrelative meaning which significantly increases the challenge of intercultural translation. To successfully resolve this problem, (Al-Saidi, 2013) advised that translators must familiarize themselves with the culture of the source language as much as possible because it’s the only way to transfer the original meaning of the idiom to the target language.

In conclusion, the main idea of this research revolves around the basic problems of idiom translation. The most major one is cultural gap and its enormous influence on the translation process since idioms cannot be translated literally nor can the meaning of them be guessed simply by knowing the words forming it. Al-Saidi stated that "since they are basically culture-dependent, it is found that culture bound words, idioms and proverbs and collocations are usually the main source of cultural gaps. Therefore, a translator should not only be a bilingual but also a bicultural." (2013, p.38).

References

Al-Saidi, A. H. (2013). Problem of Translating Cultural Signs with Reference to English and Arabic. Journal of University of Thi-Qor, 8(3), 27-40. Retrieved from www.iasj.net/iasj? func=fulltext&aId=81482 Al-Shawi , M., & Mahadi , T. (2012). Strategies for Translating Idioms from Arabic into English and Vice Versa. Journal of American Arabic Academy for Sciences and Technology, 3(6), 139-147. Retrieved from http://www.amarabacmagazin.com/fileadmin/images/pdfs/AMARABAC_3-6_139 -147.pdf Dastijerdi, H., and Adelnia, A. (2011). Translation of idiom: a hard task for the translator, 2(7), Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.4304/tpls.1.7.879-883 Giffen, & Frank (2004). Idioms and Back Translation. Business Communication Quarterly,67(4), 51. Re- trieved from http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-126198602/idioms-and-back-translation Hornby, A. S., Cowie, A. P., & Lewis, J. W. (1974). Idiom. In Oxford advanced learner's dictionary of current English. London: Oxford University Press. Riggs, K. (n.d.). Idioms in Cross-Linguistic Language Acquisition. In Academia.edu (p. 2). Retrieved April 1, 2014, from http://www.academia.edu/5432077/Idioms_in_Cross- Linguistic_Language_Acquisition

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Medical Translation: Ethics in Medical Translation By Alanoud A. Al-thunayan

ranslation is used to transfer meaning from one language to another. And what I'm about to talk about is medical translation and it ethics and what Chabner, 2009, said is that T "Studying medical terminology is very similar to learning a new language." (p. 3), That means what in 2009, Guelman stated that when we talk about ethics in medical translation, we need to ex- amine two things; the mindset and emotions of the non-English speaking people. No doubt, medical translation must follow several guidelines in order to be translated in an ethical way .

Absolutely, translation is commonly defined as ''the rendering from one language into another'' (p. 4) and as Bermann said, and medical translation needs important training to be good and correct so we should learn the ethics of medical translation so we can know how and when to use words in our translation. The medical translator will have to make use of scientific and medical dictionaries, keeping in mind their limitations so it would be perfect (2005).

In 2009, Guelman stated that we can show mercy if anyone is sick and feels that “it is a sign of respect to a patient’s uniqueness to make an effort to bridge that linguistic divide” (p. 1). So when we go to a physician’s office, we have in our minds what we think, ethics, training and responsibilities on how it should be, and we become so relaxed when we know that the physician has graduated from an excellent medical school. A medical institution should be comfortable because there are laws and other regulations to insure the practice of the medical profession.

Figure 1. Medical translation processes (“Medical Translation,” n.d.)

130 Garcia-Castillo and Fetters, 2007, stated that medical translators should leave documentation about how material was translated, where they faced difficulties, and when arrangements were made. Such documentation can be used to re-evaluate the quality of a translation for improvement and admission errors. This information is important in research for examining documents that seem to perform differently when used in two different languages. When corrections are made, translators can learn from these mistakes and will ensure high quality translations.

Medical translation is a complex process that is more than mechanically converting one language to another. Without quality translations of medical documents in the language of their patients, medical workers cannot provide best quality care, and patients are at risk for receiving poor care, so the doctors should know how to translate the medical information to the patients specially if they were non-English speakers because they would not understand what is going on (Garcia-Castillo & Fetters, 2007) .

Medical translation plays a key role in clinical research. When there is a sponsor or a clinical study in a foreign country, many of the documents generated locally need to be translated back into the original language for the use of the clinical research that managed the study. Like in our country Saudi Arabia, the foreign clinical people write everything in English but the hospitals try to employ some people to translate all the documents into Arabic. (Garcia-Castillo & Fetters, 2007).

Cabiglio, 2006, said that a medical interpreter “is a bridge over a wide gap, present in an unobtru- sive way. Not coming between people,” (p. 1). Medical Translation is a huge deal that not just anyone can do; it is essential in our life, as we all know medicine is a universal science and everyone needs to have the knowledge from it so the one thing that we can do to have all countries’ sciences is to translate the medical inventions. At the end, as a translator, I need to have the right skills to translate in an ethical way. References

Bermann, S., & Wood, M. (2005). Nation, language, and the ethics of translation. Princeton, N.J: Prince- ton University Press. Retrieved from .http://books.google.com.sa/ Cabiglio, J. (2006.). Speaking their language: problem with medical translation. Retrieved from http:// news.newamericamedia.org/ Chabner, D. (2010). Medical Language Instant Translator: Pageburst Retail. W B Saunders Co. Re- trieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ CRIBB, A. (2014). Translational ethics? The theory-practice gap in medical ethics. doi: 10.1136/ jme.2009.029785 Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa/ Garcia-Castillo, D., & Fetters, M. D. (2007). Quality in Medical Translations: A Review. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/220588363?accountid=142908 Medical Translation « The Aktuel Translation Group. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.aktueltranslations.com/medical-translation/

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Basic Concepts and Methods for Translator Training By Maram M. Al-Faraj

hoosing a major needs a lot of skills, and it’s a major taught through training. Do you want to be a doctor? An engineer? If yes, you have to be trained. Translation is one of the first majors C that needs training, and you cannot be a translator without it. Becoming a professional translator requires training in many universities around the world. Without a doubt, becoming a good translator needs efficient training with concepts and rules to be considered.

A translated text must be a work reflecting quality, and quality is connected with the translator taking into consideration that the translation is not just about finding equivalence between two languages. In 1995, Kas- sumaul reported that, "Translation, to put it briefly, is not just an exchange of words and structures, but a communicative process" (p. 1). So translators must take into consideration the situation of the text reader, and the culture, too. Communication in translation can simply be described as the translator’s efforts to find the most appropriate translation methods and equivalents that maintain the meanings in the source text and take into consideration the reader of the translated one (Rabab'ah, 2008).

Fidelity is one of the most discussed issues in the translation field, and that is because of the differences between languages and cultures within every text (Gile, 2009). In 2012, Samuelsson-Brown stated that, "The translator need [sic] to have a feeling for language and fascination with it" (p. 5) which means that a translator can show his creative ability in translation. Creative translation is the use of language in a fine way that cannot be predicted, shifting from one linguistic form in the source text and recreating the meaning into a different linguistic form in the target text. This is surely a creative skill that every translator must possess (Kassumaul, 1995).

The translator must know that there are different ways of translation that he can follow. "Literal translation" is what the translator uses when he translates the words with its "denotative meaning", which means taking the meaning from dictionaries exactly as it is "(that is, out of context)" (p. 16), while paying attention to the grammar of the language he translates too. And there is "Free translation" (p. 16) which simply means that the translator reads the text he wants to translate ,well analyzing and understanding it, then putting it aside and starting to translate the meaning of the text and the ideas without limiting himself with the words of the source text that he is translating from (Dickins, Hervey, & Higgins, 2013).

132

One effective and common way most translators choose to use is a combination of both literal and free translation together, so the translator sticks to the words that are in the text but tries to find the best equivalent to translate so that it expresses the meaning of the text content; and if he does not find any suitable one, then he should translate the meaning without looking at the words or the sentences in the source text that he aims to translate.

From what I have mentioned in this paper, it is clear that the translator –like any other professional- needs tools. The tool translators cannot work without are dictionaries. All kinds of dictionaries are one of the most important parts of the translator’s work; monolingual, bilingual, idioms, etc. Self-confidence is also very important in a translator. In 2012, Youlan stated that self-confidence in translators and students who study translation helps them to think and give them the motivation to use their own brains to solve problems alone and with others. He stressed that "Self-confidence and a positive self-image are very important components of translator performance" (p. 300).

To conclude, this paper mentioned the highlighted concepts and methods for training translators; the meaning and the importance of translation as a process of communication, and the fidelity in translation. Some of the most common ways in translation which are literal translation, free translation, and the way we can combine these two together. Translation is a field that is so broad; there are many books that elaborate on translators’ training and the strategies of translation like Training the Translator by Paul Kussmaul and many other books. Translators are the invisible heroes who open windows between people, cultures, languages, and worlds.

References

Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. (1013). Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Arabic to English. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/ Gile, D. (2009). Basic Concepts and Models for Interpreter and Translator Training. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com/ Kussmaul, P. (1995). Training The Translator. Retrieved from http://sdl.edu.sa/SDLPortal/AR/Publishers.aspx Rabab'ah, G. (2008). Communication strategies in translation. Babel, 54(2), 97-109.doi:10.1075/ babel.54.2.01rab Samuelsson-Brown, G. (2010). A Practical Guide for Translators: Fifth Edition. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com/ Youlan, T. (2012). Towards a constructive model in training professional translators. Babel, 58(3), 289- 308.doi:10.1075/babel.58.3.03tao

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The Importance of Translation By Sarab F. Al-Homaid

very civilization has been involved in some translation activities at the beginning of their developmental periods. Those civilizations are related deeply with translation, which achieved E civilization progress quickly. Tosun and Şimşek (2012) reported that "The Ottoman Empire was not able to succeed translation activities well enough and of course the recent moves were also not sufficient" (p. 1). Besides that, translation plays an important turning point for nations; translation is a way that reveals the goal and direction the nations will carry on their development, thus, we notice that translation has as- sisted in developing the world in different concepts such as communicating between people, education, and sciences. When talking about the history of translation, we have to focus on the people and the theories of translation over time. However, each stage of translation has its own changes in translation, but these changes differ according to the place (Zakhir, 2008). He also stated that "the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories" (p. 4). So what are the main things that changed translation over time, and gave translation an important role in different majors?

Have you ever imagined how others communicate despite of the multitude of languages around the world? Translation made it easy for different nations to communicate with each other, for example, during the time of prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him), he wanted to communicate with non-Arabic speakers such Jews and Romans. He needed to search for translators and encourage learning foreign languages (Zakhir, 2008). One of the most famous translators of the time is Zaid Ibnu Thabet who translated the letters between prophet Mohammad and foreign kings of other countries.

Figure 1. The original Qur'an was copied by a committee, which included Zayd (“Zayd Ibn Thabit,” 2013)

134 There is a lot of knowledge in different languages that create a barrier in front of every foreign learner but translation broke this barrier. For example, Ibin Sina's Canon Medicine book was translated into most of the languages in the world. It remained as an international reference for about 6 centuries. Also it was used as a basis of education in many universities. In 2000, al Naqib stated that "we realize that we have here a thinker whose philosophy was transformed into an educational theory that he himself practiced" (p. 1).

Figure 2. A depiction of Ibn Sina (“The Physician Glories,” n.d.)

In 2014, Bassnett stated that "translation has helped shape our knowledge in the world of the past better equips us to shape our own future" (p. 2) . However during the 8th to 13th centuries, the Arabic-Islamic world was notable for its development; it spread later throughout Europe and extremely influenced both medical practice and education. Hence translators were invited to where scientists and researchers studied the past and created the future (Falagas, Zarkadoulia & Samonis, 2006). Translation is not merely a specialization or job; it's a need to achieve the growth of the world, and it has been an active factor since centuries ago. In fact, “Translation played a crucial role in bringing new learning and wider understanding to rich [sic]” (p. ?). Indeed, it has developed the whole world especially various sciences, education, and has had a huge impact on societies as it has enabled deeper and better communication between cultures. References Al Naqib, A. E. (2000). Avicenna. Retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/ avicenne.pdf Bassnett, S. (2014). Translation Studies. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/BxvQCf Falagas, M., Zarkadoulia, E., & Samonis, G. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.fasebj.org/ content/20/10/1581.full#ref-1 Tosun, M., & Şimşek, F. (2012). The effect of translations, that is done under the control of state, on the social and cultural change from the last period of Ottomans to the first period of Republic of Turkey. (English). International Journal Of Human Sciences, 9(2) "The Physician" glorifies Persian Islamic progressive era - kodoom.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// features.kodoom.com/en/entertainment/the-physician-glorifies-persian-islamic-progressive-era/v/4739/ Zayd ibn Thabit | This-is-Islam.co.uk. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.this-is-islam.co.uk/drpl/men-and- women/zayd-ibn-thabit Zakhir, M. (2008). The history of translation. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/ article1695.php

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Difficulties of Scientific Translation: English to Arabic By Nada I. ALanbar

basic definition of translation would be “Translation is replacement of one name by another or of one named object by another” (Sobhi, 2011, p. 1), which means replacing each A word by another one in another language which represents the same concept of the source word. Translation varies based on the kind of the translation. For example, religious translation, technical translation, human translation, and scientific translation. Scientific translation requires a lot of work to reach the best translation that expresses a certain scientific theory or scientific study. In fact, translators encounter many difficulties while translating scientific texts between different languages.

The first obstacle that stands in the way of a correct translation process is cultural differences. Even if a translator is dealing with science that usually has clear meaning, he still faces the problem of cultural differences. Working on two different contexts, one of the source language and another of the target language, creates a problem for the translator because what is appropriate in one of them may not be appropriate in the other (Awawdeh, 1990). In 2002, Ricarddi stated that, “The translator should view the source text through the glasses of a target culture member” (p. 101). For instance, different countries may explain a certain scientific phenomenon in different ways according to their cultures and beliefs.

Figure 1. (“TRACI: The Trainee,” n.d.)

Another problem is encountering new scientific terms while translating a scientific text. Science always introduces us to new terms or new theories, as Al-hassnawi stressed that, “science does not have its own syntax

136 only, but also its own terminology” (2008, p. 4). Moreover, scientific studies are always updated with new discoveries, and translators sometimes face difficulties while trying to express these terminologies by finding other words in the target language that explain the same idea, and if that doesn’t work then a translator may use transliteration, which means representing the same source word using the target language letters.

Scientific translation requires many skills, which take a long time to learn in order to understand and translate efficiently. A scientific translator should have practical experience in translating from similar fields, wide knowledge of the subject of the source text, a discriminatory sense to be able to select the most appropriate equivalents, advanced imagination which allows the translator to picture the process described, cleverness to be able to fill in the missing links in the source text, and the ability to use a language with clarity and accuracy. These skills are not easily acquired, as they need intensive training and patience (AL-hassnawi, 2008).

Another issue is the choice of vocabulary. There are specific vocabularies for every field including the scientific field. Some translators translate specialized scientific expressions by using expressions that are general and do not belong to the scientific field. This problem happens when the translator does not find the correct equivalent for specific vocabulary or terminology (ALmaghary, n.d.). Wrong word choice can affect the whole translation process. In 2013, Mirko stated that, “a word in the source language has many meanings, and so choosing the correct translation can be hard work. In such cases, both the translator and the editor will have to do some research, maybe use glossaries or reference material” (p. 4).

Finally, it is always important to be precise and accurate while translating a scientific text because it is not general translation, but it is specialized translation that requires more hard work. Cultural differences, terminology, word choice, and acquiring certain skills are some difficulties that translators encounter. Moreover, it is not impossible to overcome these difficulties by having intensive training, and by improving ourselves in both languages that we translate from and to.

References

ALhassnawi, A. (2008). Aspects of Scientific Translation. Retrieved from www.faculty.ksu.edu.sa ALmaghary, I. (n.d.). Translation problems amongst Arab translators. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com Awawdeh, A. (1990). Major problems of scientific - technical translation. (p. 3) Retrieved from http://repository.yu.edu.jo Mirko, M. (2013). Choosing the right words. Retrieved from trustedtranslations.com Riccardi, A. (Ed.). (2002). Translation studies. Retrieved from http://books.google.com Sobhi, R. (2011). Translation and interpretation in Ibn Taymiyya's logical definition. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com TRACI : The Trainee Translator’s Card IndexA self-made tool for acquiring and enhancing translation competence. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://cahiersdugepe.fr/index1318.php

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Translation of American Sign Language By Emtenan H. Al-Yami

ign Language (SL) has become well known among communities of deaf people all over the world, and one of these sign languages is American Sign Language (ASL). Each sign language differs from S another depending on how their words are produced and perceived. ASL is expressed by hands, arms and face, and also can be understood within the eyes. Sign languages have evolved through communities of deaf people. Like all languages, ASL has linguistic rules for how words, phrases and discourse are structured. Therefore, all sign languages have a lexicon, grammatical and derivational morphology, phonology, syntax and semantics and syntax that would quite interesting to take a closer look at. Most people tend to misunderstand sign languages; some of them think that sign languages do not have certain grammar when interacting through gestures or pantomime. People commonly think that it is incredible for a hearing person to learn a SL because the hearing person would be able to interact with people anywhere, assuming that sign languages are universal. Therefore, they think that sign languages are understandable worldwide because they lack real language properties, for example, in grammar, they aren’t aware of the fact that each sign language clearly differs from one to another (p. 17). According to Baynton (1996), “Another misconception about sign languages is that they are patterned after the vocally produced languages spoken in the same country. Those with the view in the United States see signers using ASL as attempting to use sign to produce signed sentences that are manual equivalent of spoken English sentences.” (1996, p. 17). For many years, deaf people have been ignored; actually they were considered mentally ill, and there wasn’t any effort to try to contact them. In the 18th century, deaf people started to use SL based on gestures, that can express their thoughts, but it wasn’t enough because deaf people and hearing people wanted contact with each other. Thus, this kind of language needed to develop teaching materials and accessible educational tools. After that, some people created a machine that translates English to SL. According to Othman and Jemni (2011) “Machine translation systems consist of four components: a lexical analyzer, a parser, a transfer module and a generation module.” (2011, p. 66). They all use ASL grammar, including topic-comment structure and non-manual grammatical mor- phemes. ASL is deaf people’s language in the United States of America and some parts of Canada. High schools, colleges, and universities teach this kind of language to hearing people in the United States. It is the fourth most commonly studied language at colleges and universities in the United States and there were nearly 92,000 students signed up for ASL courses during the semester. It appears that teaching of ASL has been informed, in large part, by the linguistic intuitions and cultural beliefs of its instructors, most of whom are members of the deaf community. Some instructors are deaf, some are hearing, but early signers because their parents or siblings were deaf (Wilcox & Wilcox, 1997).

138 According to Quinto-Pozos (2011), there are some differences between sign and spoken languages, and in order to highlight the various points regarding ASL pedagogy, it might be useful to also make some reference to the explicit rules of language, especially those which may affect how it is taught face-to-face in spoken languages. First, ASL structure is heavily influenced by the ability to show meaningful streams of information. In addition, some vocabularies and grammar of ASL and other sign languages have been described as iconic. Generally, iconic forms are those which refer to the form of a lexical referent. It is essential to know that iconicity is much prevalent in sign languages than it is in spoken languages. Second, ASL doesn’t have a widely used written system, although English words, or glosses are sometimes used to represent ASL signs (Quinto-Pozos, 2011). Mayberry (1993) mentions that there are 2 types of deaf people; deaf adults who had contrasting histories of spoken and sign language acquisition, and others who were born deaf and began to acquire ASL as a first language. Some were born with normal hearing, which they lost in late childhood, so they subsequently acquired ASL as a second language “(because they had acquired spoken English as a first language in early childhood)” (p. 56). If deafness appeared before birth its called “Prenatal” or “Congenital deafness” (p. 145). It can be genet- ically acquired, for example, if the mother was infected with rubella when she was pregnant. When a child becomes deaf after birth, for example as a result of sickness or an accident, the child may become deaf before spoken language is acquired (pre-lingually deaf) or after acquiring spoken language (post-lingually deaf) (Baker & Woll, 2009). According to Berent, 2008, ASL borrows heavily from written English in the form of fingerspelling while other European sign languages use this strategy much less. In other deaf communities, sign and spoken languages exist more in parallel, and sign languages have few borrowed words from spoken ones.

References

Baker, A., & Woll, B. (2009). Sign language acquisition. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl docDetail.action?docID=10269367 Baynton, D. C. (1996). Forbidden signs: American culture and the campaign against sign language. (p. 17). Univer sity of Chicago Press. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl//docDetail.action?docID=10456342 Berent, G. P. (2008) Sign Language—Spoken Language Bilingualism: Code Mixing and Mode Mixing by ASL- English Bilinguals, Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1002/9780470756997.ch12 Mayberry, R. I. (1993). First - language acquisition after childhood differs from second - language acquisition: the case of American Sign Language. The Case of American Sign Language, 36. Retrieved from http:// jslhr.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1780041 Othman, A., & Jemni, M. (2011). Statistical Sign Language Machine Translation From English written text to American Sign Language Gloss, (8.2), 65-73. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com Quinto-Pozos, D. (2011). Teaching American Sign Language to hearing adult learners. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. (p. 137). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1017 Wilcox, S., & Wilcox, P. P. (1997). Learning to see: Teaching American sign language as a second language. (p. 9). Gallaudet University Press. Retrieved from: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED332533.pdf

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The Ambiguity of Machine Translation By Mashael AlSarrani

he progress of Machine translation started on 1950s by a number of scholars. “Machine translation (MT) system deal with ambiguity of natural language utterances. This is espe- T cially true for systems with large coverage grammars, where the number of potentially ambiguous descriptions grows dramatically as the number of acceptable syntactic constructions and the number of lexical readings increases” (Emele & Dorna, 1998, p. 59). Translating by the computer keeps improving, and there is no doubt that there is a high demand today for machine translators, but we face some ambiguity between the source and target language when using them.

Figure 1. Machine Translation paradigm (“Machine Translation,” n.d.)

When a word has more than one meaning, it is said to be lexically ambiguous. When a phrase or sentence can have more than one structure, it is said to be structurally ambiguous. Ambiguity is a pervasive phenomenon in human languages. It is very hard to find words that are not at least two ways ambiguous, and sentences that are several ways ambiguous are the rule, not the exception. For example, if we try to translate these two sentences: “A. You must not use abrasive cleaners on the printer casing’s. B. The use of abrasive cleaners on the printer casing is not recommended”. The first sentence, use is a verb, and in the second a noun, that is, we have a case of lexical ambiguity (Arnold, Balkan, Humphreys, Meijer, & Sadler, 1994, p.111).

Another issue is that the syntax structure of the source language could be different from the target is translated to: (Ahmad is eating the apple). As )يأكل أحمد التفاحة( language. For example, the sentence noticed, in the Arabic sentence we have verb + subject + object, while in English subject + verb + object. The machine translator cannot recognize the different between source and target language as human; most (MT) use the source language grammar on translation.

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To enhance the result of machine translators and minimize the ambiguity; evaluation metrics are developed. “Automatic machine translation evaluation metrics were developed due to the high costs, lack of repeatability, subjectivity, and slowness of evaluating machine translation output using human judgments, and the desire to enable automatic tuning of system parameters” (Och, 2003, p. 6). These automatic measures generally judge the quality of machine translation output by comparing the system output, also referred to as candidates or hypotheses, against a set of reference translations of the source data (Dorr, 2010).

These automatic measures generally judge the quality of machine translation output by comparing the system output, also referred to as candidates or hypotheses, against a set of reference translations of the source data (Dorr, 2010). “The quality of these evaluation metrics are usually measured by determining the correla- tion of the scores assigned by the evaluation metrics to scores assigned by a human evaluation metric” (Dorr, 2010, p. 811).

Machine translation is far more difficult to program. Actually, Most of the original translation pro- gramming has complicated dictionaries that can translate each roots of a word and then instructing the computer to decipher it and mimic syntax (Youngblood, para, 8). The cooperation between the computer science researchers and the natural language processing researchers is very important to improve the current tools or to come up with new advanced algorithms for machine translators.

References

Arnold, D., Balkan, L., Humphreys, R. L., Meijer, S., & Sadler, L. (1994). Machine translation: An introduc- tory guide. Dorr, Bonnie J., "Machine Translation Evaluation and Optimization," Part 5, in Joseph Olive, John McCary, and Caitlin Christianson (eds.), Handbook of Natural Language Processing and Machine Translation, 2010. Emele, M. C., & Dorna, M. (1998, August). Ambiguity preserving machine translation using packed representations. In Proceedings of the 17th international conference on Computational linguistics-Volume 1 (pp. 365-371). Association for Computational Linguistics. Machine translation - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2014, from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation Och, F.J. (2003, July) Minimum Error Rate Training in Statistical Machine Translation. Proceedings of the 41st Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics, pages 160–167. Youngblood, R. Y. (2005, March 5). Ambiguities Hinder Translation by Computer : Language vs. Ma- chine. The New York times. Retrieved from http://http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/05/business/ worldbusiness/05iht-itmt.2.t.html

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The Role of Translation in Publishing Different World Cultures By Ashwaq A. Khairani

anguage is an important means in expressing the culture of different regions around the world. By tourism, people tend to have an idea about the different cultures that tourists L show with their way of communication. In order to know a culture of specific country, you have to learn its language to be capable to communicate with its citizens. Nowadays, people have a huge storage of information about various regions around the world by media, especially T.V. Translated movies and series especially helped to reflect others way of living. Without a doubt, translation has played an important role in presenting different cultures of the world.

Loogus (2012) explains that "The word culture can be interpreted in different ways and from different points of view" (p. 13). He claimed that to humans, culture is related to the social order, social changes or identity of societies. So, translation is one of many other useful ways that help to present and mark those social changes (culture) due to the fact that not all people speak the same language. Translators should have an idea about a specific culture before they begin to translate any topic that is related to the region which expresses that culture since it may include some of the ideas that may sound a little bit strange to the listener or reader, or even to the translators themselves.

Some authors have described cultural translation as "sensitive translation" (p. 50) since it reflects in its context different aspects of world cultures. He considered in his research a study that has been done to translations related to Macao, China which has –as he thinks- rich historic cultural legacies and is growing very fast into an international tourist city. Macao was under Portuguese administration for a long period of time which affected different cultures that characterize Macao. He noticed that the original names of some sites and historical stories and buildings may be replaced with a different term or may be considered to be culturally equivalent to the original when translated into another language (Zhang, 2012).

Sun stated that "Without cultural similarities and universals there is no way for people of different cultures to communicate with each other and translation would be impossible." (2011, p. 8). He believed that due to differences between two semantic cultures, we can't have "translationally equivalent" (p. 8) sen-

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-tences from different languages. Cultural differences can sometimes be obvious; in other words, they may reflect two different values attached to the same object. To Chinese culture, for example, "in the Ori- ent dragon suggests good luck and fortune while in the western world, it is a threating animal, symbolic of overwhelming evil power" (p. 9).

Simon (1996) took in consideration Frantz Fanon's point of view about the relation between language and culture. He said "Fanon's general point, that language cannot be isolated from the world or culture within which it is embedded and which it, thus, expresses, can be extended to other situations as well" (p. 3). He believed that while translating, a translator cannot seek for appropriate meaning of different words from one language to another, indeed, he must attend to the culture from which those words arise. "Thus, it seems entirely appropriate that translation theory and practice has … turned to both "source" and "target" cultures as something to be studied before the translation of a work can proceed" (p. 3).

According to Bram (2008), a translator must travel around the world to be able to acquire the knowledge that helps him to have an overall idea about different cultures. Translators are one of the most important means that help to spread cultures around the world since they show in their works the history and the way of living of the region they translate from. In 2005, Barger claimed that "Translators perform an indis- pensable service to their own system; they are mediators who travel outside their own territory and import as- serts that their society can employ and integrate into the fabric of their culture" (p. 7).

References

Berger, S. (2005). Translation between language and culture: Benjamin of Tudela's Travels in Yiddish (Amsterdam 1691) : inaugural lecture as professor of Yiddish language and culture at the Universiteit van Amsterdam on November 2, 2005. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/sdl/docDetail.action Bram, J. (2008). language, socialization and culture. In Language and Society (p. 19). Retrieved from http:// www.questia.com/library/7396411/language-and-society Loogus, T. (2012). Culture-related decision conflicts in the translation process. Sign Systems Studies, 40(3/4), 369-384. Simon, S. (1996). Anuradha Dingwaney and Carol Maier, ed. Between Languages and Cultures. Translation and Cross-cultural Texts. Pittsburgh and London, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995, 359 p. Re- trieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books Sun, H. (2011). On Cultural Differences and Translation Methods. Journal Of Language Teaching And Re- search, 2(1), 160-163. doi:10.4304/jltr.2.1.160-163 Zhang, M. (2012). Reading different cultures through cultural translation: On translation of site names in Ma- cau Historic Centre. Babel, 58(2), 205-219.

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International Translation Associations: Europe, Asia, and the ME By Afnan AlHamad

I n light of the high demand on competent translators and interpreters, international associations for translation and interpretation have been made (Pym, Grin, Sfreddo, & Chan, 2013). Their purpose depends on the association for each one has many diverse goals but they all share common grounds in which they aim to create professional translators and interpreters. These associations have helped in developing strong independent countries with strong translation and interpretation roots. A deeper look into these associations and how they were formed and what have they achieved can further help us to pinpoint major problems and improve our Arabic translation and interpretation associations.

“When you offer a translation to a nation,” says Victore Hugo, “that nation will almost always look on the translation as an act of violence against itself.” (as cited in Lefevere,1992, p. 2). It is not a surprise then to see that nations seek trust worthy translators and interpreters. Quality is not as important as trust. Without trust, translation and interpretation loses its purpose. Translations that have gained the trust of their nation may prove to be more worthy than translations that give the meaning in a totally different context which might lead to it affecting the native culture of the original text. This is one of the main reasons that lead to the creation of associations for translation and interpretation around the world.

The ASAE-The Center for Association Leadership stated that the official definition from the IRS is: “In general, an association is a group of persons banded together for a specific purpose” (n.d., para. 1). The ASAE adds that people voluntarily participate and show interest in associations because they want to bond and work together with people who share similar interests and goals. Associations have the power to trans- form, change and develop societies which is a reason important enough to call for the creation of Associa- tions for Translation and Interpretation.

Figure 1. ASAE logo (“ASAE,” n.d.)

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AUSIT is the national association for the translating and interpreting profession. Members of this association follow a strict Code of Ethics and follow continued professional development. AUSIT provides a forum for exchange, to nourish the development of relationships with other respectable translators and interpreters agencies and governments ("Home | Australian Institute," 1987).

Figure 2. AUSIT logo ("Home | Australian Institute," 1987)

In their 2013 book, the authors pointed out that AUSIT was founded in 1987, and it brought together with it other existing associations and specialist groups. In 2011 it had the total of 586-750 members and is closely connected with the Federation Internationale des Traducteurs. The steps to gain a full regular membership of AUSIT requires “NAATI accreditation or recognition or equivalent qualifications” (p. 63). Members can proceed to “senior practitioner” level after approximately 5 years of active involvement in the T/I industry (Pym, Grin, Sfreddo, & Chan).

Most members of the AUSIT hold accreditation as translators and/or interpreters. When talking about accreditations we need not forget to mention the NAATI, the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters, which was established in 1977. Australia became the first country in the world to have a government-instituted accreditation authority in this specific field. Some might argue that the accreditation is not enough to guarantee the persons performance. The accreditation is an indication of the persons competence and ability to work as a translator in the language and direction of accreditation shown on their accreditation certificate ("Australian Institute of Interpreters& Translators", 1987).

AUSIT mentioned that in order for a candidate to gain accreditation they must have at least either graduated from a NAATI-approved translation and interpretation course at a University or from other ter- tiary institutions. They could have also just passed a NAATI exam at the expected level or presented doc- umentary as evidence of qualification in Translation and/or interpreting at the desired level in another country (1987).

145 AUSIT is governed by the National Council which consists of a five-member National Executive Council, the national president being Annamaria Arnall. Under the Council comes the state branches which are managed by state committees ("Home | Australian Institute of Interpreters & Translators", 1987). They follow a strict Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct which was made for the purpose of reg- ulating the activities and movements of members of AUSIT (AUSIT code of ethics and code of conduct, 2012).

The AUSIT reported that it holds many annual events and training workshops throughout the year in order to provide its members with the best chances to grow and develop as translators and interpreters. Two key events that take place are the AUSIT National Biennial Conference and the AUSIT Excellence Award. The latest events in 2014 were the “workshop for new (and not so new) translators, putting interpreters and translators on their feet and Ethics of the profession” (1987, para. 1).

Figure 3. AUSIT Code of Ethics (“ausit code of,” n.d.)

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It is clear after reading about this association that The AUSIT has a notably strong Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct that is valued greatly among its members. In fact, what shows its importance and value is that it has been used by a number of overseas educational institutions and professional bodies used it as reference and model for their own special codes. Another point that needs to be noted is that this association works closely with NAATI which is responsible for accreditation. Members need to graduate or pass a certain exam at NAAT for them to gain accreditation. I’ve certainly found that this association has clear goals and guidelines that they strictly adhere to which gives off the feeling of a well organized systematic association.

After thoroughly reading the different associations and seeing what they have to offer , I have concluded the following in the light of seeking help to pinpoint major problems and improve our Arabic translation and interpretation associations and for use to create a perfect Saudi model of an Arabic translation and interpretation association: First, the AUSIT has a very strong Code of Ethics and Code of Con- duct. The idea is to use it as a reference or model for our own codes.

Another point to be taken is their association with NAATI in which most of their members have a accreditation from there do to the AUSIT demand for a certified documents that proves that they have accreditation. So this idea of having certifications that certify the translator and proves that he or she is competent seems to be a great idea to implement on our association. So, this concludes this research and I hope that my findings would help in truly implementing these suggestions and creating a strong Saudi Arabic translation association.

References

ASAE - The Center for Association Leadership. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.asaecenter.org ausit code of ethics - DOC. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.docstoc.com/docs/131428883/ausit-code-of -ethics---DOC AUSIT code of ethics and code of conduct. (2012). Australia: AUSIT. Home | Australian Institute of Interpreters & Translators. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2014, from http:// www.ausit.org/ Hung, E. (2005). Translation and cultural change: Studies in history, norms, and image projection. Re- trieved from http://books.google.com Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation--history, culture: A sourcebook. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/ Pym, A., Grin, F., Sfreddo, C., & Chan, A. L. (2013). The status of the translation profession in the Euro- pean Union. Retrieved from http://books.google.com

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What It Takes to Be a Good Translator By Lojain Alshahrani

s the world is becoming smaller because of technology, the need for interaction with people who don’t speak your language is highly probable. Therefore, translation plays a ma- A jor role in our daily lives. Being a translator is a tough job that requires a lot of time and effort. Not only the translator should be fluent in two languages (one of them the translator may haven’t heard of in an early age), but as Kassumual (1995) explained, the translator should be well-informed about as many fields as possible, such as "car-manufacturing", and "the law" (p. 1). In fact, being a good translator necessitates going through a very long process. In the field of translation, the translator should acquire at least two languages (SL and TL) and he should be aware of all the changes that occur in both languages. Acquiring a language is not a piece of cake; the translator should be as fluent as a college student native speaker. According to Criss (2006), the translator mustn’t only be a writer but a linguistic when it comes to "A language or native language" and usually it's the language that the translator translates to, and by saying that the author is not underestimating the power of "B language or non-native language" which is mutually imperative but not in terms of writing (p. 13). When it comes to translation, cultural understanding is as important as acquiring the languages. Wasfi believes that culture constitutes an internal part of language. She added that language doesn’t only express nouns and verbs, but also expresses everything related to that culture (2013). Hence, in order to be a professional translator, one must acknowledge the native speaker's culture, including their habits, their behavior, and their beliefs. Healey (2007) doubted that being fluent in two languages makes one a good translator. It takes more than that. They say practice makes better. Besides the four or five years you spend getting the college degree, as a translator, you should practice every now and then to improve your way of translating. While practicing, you should be faithful to the SL, and patient because of the long process you are required to go through. "The translator needs to have a feeling for language and a fascination with it" (Samuelsson-Brown, 2010, p. 5). Any job could seem boring and sometimes impossible if the person doesn’t love what he is doing. Translators, in particular, need to have a passion for language and everything related to it, due to the fact that they spend most of their day-time translating. Logically speaking, if you hate the thing you are doing, you'll probably quit sooner or later.

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Figure 1. Translators must be sensitive to language to get the best translation possible (“Best Quotes, Famous,” n.d.)

Though translation is a complex field, it's still undervalued by so many people. Besides the time and the effort spent in the college when studying translation, it takes even more time and effort when you start working as a professional translator. The translator should be focused all the time when translating; otherwise, he will make a lot of mistakes which may affect his job and maybe his future.

References

Best Quotes, Famous Quotes, Amazing Quotations, Authors of Quotes pretty, help, beauty, nature, simple, love, inspirational, happiness, money, innovation, life, people, enemies, child, summer, good, friends. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://meetville.com/quotes/tag/pretty/page117 Chriss, R. (Ed.). (2006). Translation as a profession. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Healey, J. (2007). What does it take to be a good translator? Multilingual, 9. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=c3c1d44a-0934-4d35-a1d4 Kussmaul, P. (1995). Training the translator. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Samuelsson-Brown, G. (2010). A Particular Guide for Translators (5th ed.). Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/ Wasfi, N. (2013). Introduction to Translation. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: King Saud University.

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Legal Translation: Using Useful Techniques By Maram S. AlBettie

What is translation? Translation is the process of turning words or texts from one language into another one. It has several varied types, and one example is legal translation. Translation began only after the appearance of written literature. Translators, however, still face a number of obstacles, especially when translating idioms and the usage of a language. Making the slightest mistake in such a field can cause huge misunderstandings and serious problems, particularly in legal translation. In 1995, Morris stated that legal translation language can be very difficult. He said that, “Jury instructions contain language that dates back centuries” (p. 201), but you could avoid making mistakes by following certain techniques.

This is a story that took place in the 1940s in China about an American official delegation visiting China. “A Chinese host about the American ‘Emperor’ to the amazement of the visitors. It turned out that the Chinese host was under the impression that the US was an empire . . . because the word ‘President’ in English had been mistakenly translated into Chinese as ‘Emperor” (p. 53). This is the kind of misunderstanding that the translation of institutional terms can cause (Cao, 2007). Many translators struggle trying not to make such mistakes. Translators pointed out the necessity for a strategy offering innovative techniques to translate legal text and enhance the quality to be more aware of the institutional terms (Pommer, 2008).

There are some strict rules inside courts, and interpreters must be aware and obey them all. Some interpreters are not familiar with the rules. For example, it’s known that interpreters shouldn’t be involved in the relationship between the barrister and the client by having a discussion in a court session without translation (PR Newswire, 2006). Also an intelligent and creative interpreter not only translates the language, but also translates the culture and body language. In 1996, Halliburton stressed that any simple mistake in a court could change everything, therefore, interpreters should be trained very carefully. She added “A political explosion in any part of the world at any time will necessitate more interpreters, because of this, I don’t think I will be ever finished.” (p. 23).

Imagine a court room where a judge tells a defendant “old donkeys come together to scratch each other.” (Villalba & Weinberg, 2006, p. 103). These sort of idiomatic expressions by judges happen in some courts, but the problem is when an interpreter literally translates these expressions. Obviously jury instruct-

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- tions go back to centuries and they are difficult to be translated. In 1995, Morris stated the fact that judges are reading from a prepared text. He stressed that “He or she [the judge] is anxious to get to the next case on the calendar and may race through them [jury instructions] at 180 to 200 words per minute.” (p. 202). Howev- er, the key to be able to handle these situations is to be prepared to be quick and find the exact equivalents whether for words or idioms to accurately convey the meaning of the judges’ words.

The knowledge of the different legal systems plays an important role in legal translation (Freeman & Smith, 2013). Legal translation faces different laws, sometimes even if the two legal translators are from the same legal system, they end up confronting differences, therefore, lawyers consider that some terms are untranslatable. These difficulties that lawyers face are quite right for translators, too. In their 2013 article, the authors point to the fact that the differences between two legal systems of different countries are serious problems in terms of translation, which involves the transfer of the source of one legal system to another (Stroia & Margareta). In my opinion, the only solution to this kind of problem is by an analysis of the law itself, its nature, content and forms.

In conclusion, the legal translation is one of the most difficult fields of translation. Translators con- front several issues regarding legal translation such as mistranslating institutional terms that lead to misunderstandings and there should be some new strategies to translate such terms. There are certain rules inside courts and translators must be trained well to avoid making mistakes. An excellent translation does not only require finding the equivalents for words, but also for idioms, culture and the body language, too. The knowledge of the differences of the legal system is important and translators must keep that in mind. Legal translators face some obstacles in their field, but those obstacles can be avoided by following the above mentioned steps.

References

Cao, D. (2007). Translating Law. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Freeman, M., & Smith, F. (2013). Law and Language: Current Legal Issues (15th ed.). Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/ Halliburton, R. (1996, May 8). Lost in the translation. Independent Print Ltd [London (UK)], p. 23. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ Morris, M. (1995). Translation and the Law. Retrieved from http://sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com/ Pommer, S. E. (2008). No creativity in legal translation?. Babel. PR Newswire (2006, August 10). Translation for International Law Seminar. PR Newswire Association LLC [New York], p. 0. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/ STROIA, O., & Margareta, G. (2013). An Approach to Legal Translation. Studii De Ştiintă Şi Cultură, 9(3) Villalba, C., & Weinberg, M. (2006, December 1). New law helps court overcome translation problems: [Final Edition]. Halifax Media Group [Daytona Beach, Fla.], p. 0. Retrieved fromhttp://search.proquest.com/ docview/

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Translating Idioms: Difficulties in Translation By Noura AlGhraiby

ccording to Knoblock (2008) , there are words that do not have the same meaning of its form and they are called idioms. Idioms are metaphorical. In reality, they do not reflect A their meaning. for example, when we say “ It’s raining cats and dogs”, we do not mean that it’s really raining cats and dogs and they’re falling out of the sky, but it means raining hard. Idioms are groups of words whose meaning you cannot guess by their individual words (Henisz-Dostert, Macdonald, and Zarechnak, 1997). You cannot guess the meaning of the whole idiom by understanding its parts (Jaroslaw, 2000). Idioms are very difficult to understand so if a translator is going to translate idioms, he should follow several steps or strategies that could help him when translating.

Figure 1. Example of an idiom (“Break A Leg ,” 2007)

In 1988, Newmark stated that there are many problems of translating idioms that make translating idioms more difficult than other expressions of language. One of these difficulties is there is no equivalence between the target text and the source text. Every language has its own idioms but it’s hard to achieve the equivalence between languages because each language is different than the other. Second is the idiom that is used in the source text in its idiomatic and literal sense. Also, the difference between the context use in both source and target text.

152 According to Baker (1992) , there are many strategies that could help the translator to translate idioms and I will mention some of them: 1. Using an idiom with the same meaning and form. In this strategy, you will use an idiom in the target language that is similar to the meaning of the idiom in the source language. Also, it has to be the same form. 2. Using an idiom with the same meaning but different form. You will usually find idioms in the target language are equivalent in meaning with idioms in the source language, but they have different lexical items. 3. Translating by paraphrase. This is a common way in translation when there is no match in the target language. 4.Translating by omitting. The translator omits any words, idioms or phrases that are not important or even their meaning cannot be paraphrased.

The translator could use any of the strategies depending on how much the source language and the target language are similar. For example, the English language is so similar to the German language and that will make it much easier for the translator when he translates. The French language is also so similar to the Spanish language and this similarity will make the translation do his or her job smoothly without any difficulty since they are similar in some words that will make translating idioms easier (Jaroslaw, 2000).

The culture also plays an important role when translating idioms. We could easily recognize that the idioms themselves are taken from a certain culture and their meaning is also related to the culture itself. This means that the meaning in one culture could not appear to other culture especially when they are not related to each other and so maybe that meaning could not have something to do in other language. If the translator couldn’t find a relationship between the meaning of an idiom in the source language and the target one, he may find it difficult to bring out the correct exact meaning when translating. So he might translate the idiom about explaining its meaning, not giving the literal translation of it.

Finally, we know that idioms cannot be known by their form because they’re metaphorical; also, the translator will face lots of difficulties when translating them. Actually Idioms might be a bit difficult than translating other things, but if the translator uses the correct method when translating, he could avoid a lot of mistakes. Although they have all these difficulties, they do have many strategies to follow and the good translator can tell which is the correct strategy to use at the right time.

References

Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words, a Course Book on Translation. London: Routledge. Break a Leg - Falling Fifth. (2007, March). Retrieved from http://www.fallingfifth.com/comics/20070304 Henisz-Dostert, B., Macdonald, R. R., & Zarechnak, M. (1979). Machine translation. The Hague: Mouton. Retrieved http://books.google.com.sa Jaroslaw, K. (2000). Verbal Idioms in Focus - towards the Continuum of Idiomatic Expressions. Studia Angli- ca Posnaniensia: international review of English Studies. Retrieved from http://www.questia.com Knoblock, K., Kopp, K., & Rasinski, T. V. (2008). Idioms and other English expressions, grades 4-6. Hun- tington Beach, CA: Shell Education. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall.

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Challenges of Translation: Ambiguous Words By Sara M. Al-Obidan

Unlike many other easy processes, translation demands different efforts. It is defined as the process of transferring the meaning from one language to another. However, the huge differences between languages may result in some problems. One of the difficult problems to deal with is called ambiguity where a single word can have more than one meaning (Prior & Winter, 2009). Ambiguity is a general word that means an unclear, indefinite, or equivocal word. Since each language has its own structure, grammar, and vocabulary, ambiguous words appear while translating as the obvious evidence behind these differences.

Ambiguity can be defined as “openness to different interpretations; or an instance in which some use of language may be understood in diverse ways.” (Rasekh, Bassir, Sadat, Vahid, & Eslami, 2012, p.137). Ambiguity is what remains vague and cannot be communicated (Benjamin 2012). It occurs in translation sometimes for several reasons the most important of which is the lexical and cultural differences. In any translation process, the text that you are translating from is called the source text and the text you are translating into is called the target text.

Ambiguity has many types like lexical, structural, grammatical, cultural, referential, metaphorical and pragmatic ambiguity ( Rasekh, et al., 2012). These types are somehow related to each other but only some of them are common. Lexical ambiguity which is the most common type occurs when a word carries two or more than two possible meanings. Lexical ambiguity has two types; the first is syntactic lexical ambiguity that refers to ambiguity of part of speech, and the other is semantic lexical ambiguity which can be divided into polysemy and homonymy (Tanenhaus, 1988).

The main difference between polysemy and homonymy is how they are listed in dictionaries. Poly- semy is listed within the meaning of a word as another similar meaning while homonymy is listed as a different separate entry. If you look up the word foot in the dictionary, you will find it this way: foot1: the low- est part of leg, foot2: the part of sock, etc. However, the word bank has separate entries for example; it can mean the financial institute and the side of a river, etc. The reason why words are listed together for polysemy is because they have related meanings unlike homonymy (Benjamin, 2012).

154 Another sense of ambiguity is the structural ambiguity that arises when a sentence has two or more possible meanings and it's also called grammatical ambiguity (Gómez, 1996). For example; the sentence I love ice cream more than you carries two possible meanings; the first one is I love ice cream more than you love it and the other one is the literal meaning that I love it more than you. Also, the beautiful lady hit the man with an umbrella. The first meaning is the man had the umbrella and the second meaning is she hit him using it. So, translating these sentences is hard if the translator doesn’t know the intended meaning.

Cultural ambiguity occurs as a result of the differences between cultures. If you are unfamiliar with the culture of the target language, you may fail to translate correctly. For example if we want to translate this but this isn’t an acceptable translation دفأ هذا الخبر صدري sentence "this news warms my heart", we will say because we don’t say it in Arabic this way. Because of the difference of weather in Europe and Arab coun- أثلج هذا الخبر tries, Arabs are longing for rainy days while Europeans hate them. So, the perfect translation is .(Rasekh, et al., 2012 ) .صدري أو قرت عيني بهذا الخبر والقر هو البرد

To conclude, translation is about understanding the domain of the source text since it constitutes the meaning of the context (Hjort-Pedersen, Mette, & Dorrit Faber, 2001). The study of language is called linguistics. It provides a body of knowledge about how languages vary. Although there are many types of translation, we still may face many difficulties, too. Ambiguity doesn’t mean that translation is impossible; any job has its difficulties which are considered a good way of improving our abilities.

Reference

Benjamin, A. (2012). Translation and Ambiguity: Towards a Reformulation. AALITRA Review, (5), 39-46. Gómez, P. C. (1996). Lexical Ambiguity, Dictionaries and Corpora. EDITUM. Hjort-Pedersen, Mette, & Dorrit Faber (2001). Lexical ambiguity and legal translation: A discussion. Multilin- gua, 20(4), 379. PRIOR, A., & WINTNER, S. (2009). Translation ambiguity in and out of context. Retrieved from http:// cs.haifa.ac.il/~shuly/publications/prior-etal-2011.pdf Rasekh, Bassir, Sadat, A., Vahid, H., & Eslami, A. (2012). ON HOMONYMOUS EXPRESSIONS IN THE QUR'AN: A CASE STUDY OF THE ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF THE TERM. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=13c58547-51f3-4450-b59c-6e69b567b9ae% 40sessionmgr111&vid=1&hid=101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d% 3d#db=hgh&AN=78573959 Tanenhaus, M. (1988). Lexical Ambiguity Resolution. G. Adriaens, S. Small , & G. Cottrell (Ed.). Morgan Kaufmann.

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Legal Translation: Challenges Translators Face By Shahd A. Almahboob

While looking for problems the translators face through dealing with legal cases and documents, the search showed many of them which made the process of translation even more complicated than it is. As Shiyab points out, the main reason for those problems is the conceptual differences of the two legal languages translated (as cited by Newmark, 1988). In this paper, obvious difficulties like, achieving equivalence between legal texts and the legal translator challenges in general are presented after defining the sources of difficulty in legal translation.

Legal language is a technical language, thus, it is not a universal language but tied to legal systems, that is reflects the history and culture of that system. Each society has different cultural, social and linguistic structures according to its conditioning. Furthermore, one of the problematic features is interpreting legal concepts which are unclear and unstated anywhere but assumed in such contexts (Cao, n.d.). He added that, there is another source of difficulty and that is "cultural differences" (p. 31) and legal language is used as a social practice of a certain law system, therefore, translators have to overcome cultural differences between the source language and target language societies. So, we cannot simply transfer the elements of the SL into the TL.

One of the difficulties which arise while translating legal texts is achieving equivalence although, it is used as one of the translation processes. According to Garzone, "it is necessary to adopt a specific criterion for the translation of legal texts" (as cited by Paolucci, 2007, p. 4). Achieving equivalence is not limited to the linguistic context but also an examination of functional and systematic contexts (Zaccaria, n.d.). That criterion takes into consideration the characteristics of legal discourse and specially its pragmatic aspects, being directed to the recipient and therefore more aware of the needs of the reader/ listener. However, it cannot be taken as a certified process that deals with all legal contexts.

Legal translators are challenged with time, quality, and contradictions. Sensitive binding documents challenge translators as this challenge involves high-stakes – painful commercial losses or very attractive rewards (Burukina, 2013). A translated legal text is a product which is believed to be of high quality; high enough as the source text and it may differ from the original text in meaning, intentions and effect.

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According to Burukina, "… an otherwise skilled translator who lacks subject matter knowledge or who is unfamiliar with certain socio-cultural aspects may provide an unreliable translation of some points if s/he has no access to relevant resources" (2013, p.3).

Legal translators have to cope with several contradictions while working on texts including time contradiction, systems contradiction and terminology contradiction etc. Time contradictions in legal translations require additional time to identify exactly what the notions in the original text are in certain system since s/he is trying to correspond the terms in the two systems (Burukina, 2013). Another thing is systems contradiction, when referring to that type of contradictions we also mean the two mental and cultural systems between the two languages (Burukina, 2013). Because of terminology changes almost every year it is a bit hard to overcome the terminology contradictions between the two systems.

To conclude, dealing with those challenges in order to achieve a comprehensive, clear and direct translation of law texts is not a piece of cake. As mentioned above, it needs time for a translator to produce the fully understood translation of the source text. Understanding the concepts and figuring what those concepts stand for in the target language shorten the whole process. Also, a translator who is familiar with the "lawyers' language" is more accessible to interpret such related concepts. As Solan points out that, "lawyers training, concepts and content cause them to think about and deal with categories such as trademarks . . . , [and] contracts . . .” (2012, p. 449).

References

Burukina, O. (2013). THE LEGAL TRANSLATOR’S COMPETENCE. Retrieved from http://www.acknowledge.net/ksu/. Cao, D. (n.d.). Translating Law. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Paolucci, S. (2011). The problem of equivalence in translating legal texts. Retrieved from hhhttp:// www.ac-knowledge.net/ksu/ Shiyab, S. M. (2006). A Textbook of Translation: Theoretical and Practical Implications. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Solan, L. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Language and Law. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/ Zaccaria, G. (Ed.). (n.d.). Translation in Law. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/

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Translating Deaf Peoples' Language: American Sign Language By Hanadi M. Alonazi

S tewart (1998) defined American Sign Language as, "the language of the American Deaf community." (p. 2). In 2012, Kent stated that sign languages contain words that are expressed using the hands, face, and the body. They have been used all over the world. In fact each country has its own sign language. Such as, American Sign Language or ASL, which has thousands signs. Indeed, American Sign Language has been developed and used by American deaf people in all their interactions, and translating this it is truly fascinating.

Learning Sign Language is a challenge as Berka (2010) reported that "Learning any new language comes with its challenges." (para. 4). The author also mentioned that American Sign Language is complicated when we learn it as a language. When he was an employee of Gallaudet University in Washington, he was required to take an American Sign Language class. He had a hard time in that class and was suffering from it a lot because it was hard to him to learn grammar of sign language. He tried so many times and his brain was busy thinking. It is actually complex.

Grossberg (n.d.) stated that “Similar to learning other foreign languages, learning American Sign Language can be challenging, and requires a great deal of practice.” (para. 5). The author said Learning sings to communicate basic needs and information would take about a year. In fact, “fingerspelling” or spelling out each letter in the word has been used by people who do not have enough signs. It is necessary for people to use their faces and bodies in communication. But if they did not, their signs will not be absolutely understood.

Of course, translating any foreign language has difficulties as same as translation of sign language. So what are the issues? The authors stress that there are main issues for translating sign language to verbal language. The first point is continuous sign recognition that means the person expresses his ideas continuously there is no pause between words. Next, translating from word sequence to sentences this means auxil- iary verbs, adjective verbs and adjectives don’t appear. So these words should be added in the input words string. Finally, context analysis based on spatial depiction (Abe, Sakou, & Sagawa, 1994).

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Tennant and Brown emphasized that "The American Manual Alphabet has a handshape to represent each letter of the English alphabet (1998, p. 20). The authors also mentioned that to provide a representation that can be seen of English words fingerspelling uses the manual alphabet. In addition, Fingerspelling's role is only applied for titles, brand names and proper names of people and places. It is important to know that fin- gerspelled is called for technical terms only if no sign currently exists. Until a more efficient is done by the deaf a combination is enough to carry the concept.

Figure 1. The following list describes how to fingerspell properly.

In conclusion, sign language helps deaf people to communicate with each other. It also helps them to express their ideas and thoughts. I really admire people who are confident of their abilities and they live their life as any normal person it doesn't matter if they can't speak or hear they do their best to achieve their goals. So speaking and hearing is one of the infinite bounties of Allah that we should be grateful to him (praise be to Allah for everything). As Allah said, "It is He who has produced you and made you for you hearing, vision and hearts; little are you grateful" (Quran 67:23, Saheeh International).

References

Abe, M., Sakou, H., & Sagawa, H. (1994). Sign language translation based on syntactic and semantic analysis. Systems & Computers In Japan, 25(6), 91-103. Berka, J. (2010, November 6). Challenges of learning sign language. about.com. Retrieved from http:// deafness.about.com Grossberg, B. (n.d ). Learning American sign language. Magatopia.com, p. 1. Retrieved from http:// privateschool.about.com Kent, D. (2012). What is it like to be deaf?. Retrieved from http://books.google.com Stewart, D. A. (1998). American sign language the easy way. Retrieved from http://books.google.com Tennant, R. A., & Brown, M. G. (1998). The American sign language handshape dictionary. Retrieved from http://books.google.com

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The Difficulties in Translating the Quran from Arabic into English By Nouf S. Almalki

ranslating the Holy Quran from Arabic into English comes with many problems because there are a lot of differences between these languages, and because there are Islamic terms which do not exist T in English and this makes the translators convey meanings that do not exactly correspond with the basic meanings; although, the history is full of perfect translations. Without a doubt, there are many difficulties which are considered challenges for the translators (Reynolds, 2011).

According to Ali, Brakhw, Nordin, and ShaikIsmail (2012), lexical problems are one of the main difficulties that face who translate the Holy Quran from Arabic to English, for instance: taqwā- piety, kufr- disbelief, shīrk- associating other gods with God. As we have noted in some translations of the Quran, we find those who translate the original text by writing these lexical words in Arabic-English words. In addition, they must note that with explanations under the page which includes them.

)إذ جاءوكم من فوقكم ومن أسفل منكم وإذ زاغت األبصار :Also, the second problems are syntactic problems, for example Quran, Al-Aḥzāb 33:10). Behold! They came on you from above you and from) وبلغت القلوب الحناجر وتظنون باهلل الظنونا( below you, and behold, the eyes became dim and the hearts gaped up to the throats, and ye imagined various (vain) thoughts about Allah! (Yusuf Ali’s Translation, 1992). We noticed that all verbs are translated and shift to the past tense, even if the verb is in the present tense. So for example: (tadhnoon= imagined), that means we shouldn't transfer some words literary (Ali et al., 2012).

To distinguish between "you" which is singular that refers to the prophet Muhammad peace be upon him like in these words "revealed to you" and the second type of "you" which is plural and refers to all Muslims in general, some translators resort to making the first "you" in Italic font while the second "you" into capitalized. This is a pronoun problem which requires the reader to understand the whole sentence to make correct distinctions (Almenoar, Al -Hasan & Marican, 2010).

The fourth problem is repetition in the Quranic texts. All languages have repetitions and in order to convey the source meaning to the target meaning, you must keep the power of that repetition the same as the original; some- قال تعالى: "اقرأ :times the translator deletes these repetitions and that lessens the emphasis in that repetition. For example Q96:1-2) . The translation: “Created Man of a blood-clot *Read in the name of your) باسم ربك الذي خلق*خلق اإلنسان من علق Lord who created -- that is, He created all things known and unknown, tangible and intangible, visible and invisible” (Ahmed, 2006). The Qur’anic text indicates that the Lord is the creator. This sense is conveyed in äyah 1. The vision of the power of creation is then narrowed, in äyah 2, to one specific item, where we are told what “He created -- indeed, He created mankind”. In Arabic, it is clear that what we have here is a movement in focus between creation in general, and creation in particular" (Ahmed, p. 24).

160 Finally, the translators of the Quran should have historical background in Islam to help them understand then translate. The scholar classified the translation of the Quran under the explanatory translation category and that helps translators a lot when they translate from one language to another when they have big gaps between their cultures. The good translator knows that we can't ever translate texts that correspond 100% to The Holy Quran; however, he tries as much as possible to translate as closely to the text because we all know that correspondence is out of our human ability; regardless we are promised that it will forever remain uncorrupted (Taqiah, 2006).

Figure 1. The Quran will remain uncorrupted throughout all translations

References Ahmed Abdel-fattah, M. (2006). Word Repetition in the Qur’an – Translating Form or Meaning?http:// repository.ksu.edu.sa/jspui/bitstream/123456789/291/1/Word%20Repetitio%20in%20the% 20Quraan%20%E2%80%93%20Translating%20Form%20or%20Meaning%3F.pdf Ali, A., Brakhw, M. A., Nordin, M. Z. F. B., & ShaikIsmail, S. F. (2012). Some linguistic difficulties in translating the holy quran from arabic into english. International Journal of Social Science and Hu- manity, 2(6), 588-n/a. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.7763/IJSSH.2012.V2.178 Almenoar, L., Al-Hasan, I., & Marican, Y. (2010). Learning Literature through Stylistics Using Quranic Verses in English. International Journal Of Learning, 17(7), 1-32 http://eds.b.ebscohost.com IslamiCity.com - Quran Translation Limitations. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.islamicity.com/articles/ Articles.asp?ref=IC1309-5519 Reynolds, G. S. (2011). New perspectives on the Qur'an: The Qur'an in its historical context 2. New York: Routledge. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/ Taqiah, M. H. (2006). Tarjamat elQuran: Altahadeeyat w elhlool [Translating the Quran: Challenges and Solutions. Retrieved from http://www.sid.ir/fa/VEWSSID/J_pdf/67113860202.pdf Yusuf Ali, A. (1992). The meaning of the Holy Quran (4th ed.). Washington: Aman Corporation.

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English Translation Techniques By Ghaida A. Al-Mousa

T ranslation has many challenges, and to find a solution to these difficulties, there are techniques to help in the translation process. So the objectives of this study are to formulate translation techniques (Preciado, 2007). And as I study English translation, I must confess the topic of “Translation Tech- niques” poses somewhat of a challenge; trying to pin down strategies that you use almost intuitively every day of your life becomes a rather difficult task. That is why I decided to outline a widely-accepted list of translation techniques in the hope that the reader may become interested in knowing a little bit more about translation and its nuances.

The term "translation'' was coined by Ordudari. M. in 2007 to define that "translation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL texts to equivalent written or spoken TL texts. In general, the purpose of translation is to reproduce various kinds of texts—including religious, literary, scientific, and philosophical texts—in another language and thus making them available to wider readers." (para. 3).

Translation strategy as a notion belongs to the most mysterious categories of the translation theory. Due to its mysterious character it is ambiguous in its meaning. Many definitions of translation strategy offered by various translation scholars range from the broadest definitions possible to the most specific ones. Some define translation strategy as “the art of translation or a program of the translator’s behavior” while others use the term in the meaning of “a way or method of rendering a certain linguistic unit from one language to another”. In the latter meaning the term is synonymous to “a means of translation” or even “a transformation” (e.g., “strategies of rendering abbreviations”) (Novgorod, 2011).

Nowadays, in a world characterized by global communication, translation plays a key role in ex- changing information between languages. To move along the natural and professional continuum of conveying the meaning from one particular language into another, a translator needs to learn some skills, which are referred to as translation strategies. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions:

162 word-for-word translation vs. sense-for-sense translation, source-oriented translation vs. target-oriented translation, direct translation vs. oblique translation (by Vinay & Darbelnet) (Sun, 2012).

Basically, a translator has two options for translating: Direct or literal translation and Oblique translation. First of all, direct translation techniques are used when structural and conceptual elements of the source language can be transposed into the target language, and it includes many options but these are some of them: Borrowing is the taking of words directly from one language into another without translation, for example, software in the field of technology and funk in culture. Second, a calque or loan translation, is a phrase borrowed from another language and translated literally word-for-word. You often see them in specialized or in- ternationalized fields such as quality assurance, etc. (Matthews & Orrantia, 2007).

Secondly, oblique translation techniques are used when the structural or conceptual elements of the source language cannot be directly translated without altering meaning or upsetting the grammatical and stylistics elements of the target language, and it includes: Transposition, and this is the process where parts of speech change their sequence when they are translated. It is in a sense a shift of word class. Grammatical structures are often different in different languages. Second, Modulation, and it consists of using a phrase that is different in the source and target languages to convey the same idea. Third, Adaptation, and it is a shift in cultural environment (Owji, 2013).

In this study, translation in general, and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives.

References

Matthews, G. G., & Orrantia, D. (2007, May 19). Translation Procedures: The technical Component of the Translation Process. Retrieved from http://http://translatorthoughts.com/ Novgorod, N. (2011). Translation Strategy Revised: the Communicative-Functional Approach.Journal of Sibe- rian Federal University, 17(10), 1-10. Retrieved from http://elib.sfu-kras.ru/ Ordudari , M. (2007). Translation procedures, strategies and methods. translation journal,11(3), 1-3. Retrieved from http://translationjournal.net/ Owji, Z. (2013). Translation Strategies. translation journal, 17(1), 1-3. Retrieved from http:// translationjournal.net/ Preciado, P. A. (2007). English translation techniques . Mexico, Mexico: Ediciones Umbral. Sun, S. (2012). Strategies of Translation. Retrieved from http://http://www.sanjun.org/

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Example-Based Machine Translation By Asma Sadaawy

M achine translation is becoming an increasingly more important instrument to help people in translation. Machine translation has many types and one of these types is example-based machine translation which "refers to a bilingual database of example translation in order to find an adequate combination of previous phrases to produce a new translation (Trujillo, 1999, p. 4). Example-based machine translation (EBMT) has advantages, disadvantages, and methods. In fact, I will review different aspects about Ex- ample-based machine translation.

In 2009, Dietzel stated that in the 1950s, in the United States of America, Machine Translation was presented when translated Russian sentences were translated into English spontaneously. Machine Transla- tion research developed after successful experiments, but until the 1980s, the development was slow. Be- cause the development was slow and computational progress was fast, they invented statistical machine translation. They used corpus-based machine translation like example-based machine translation as a substi- tute to rule-based machine translation, and in fact the author points to that "In 1984 Nagao Makoto published his idea which was realized from 1990s on" (Somers, 2003, p. 4).

The simple idea of example-based machine translation depends on a database that has a variety of example sentences which are previously translated to which it makes simple modifications of similar sentences to translated sentences. For instance, translating from English to German, the sentence would be "I have a small dog." and the database would include "A small dog eats a lot of meat↔Ein kleiner Hund frisst viel Fleisch. I have two ears↔Ich habe zwei Ohren." the translation of the sentence would be "I have a small dog. Ich habe ein kleiner Hund" (Hutchins, 2006, p. 206).

Actually, there are four stages of example-based machine translation. First is acquisition, which is concerned about the way of acquired examples from previous translations. Second, example-base management and it is a very important stage because it is based on storage, retrieval of examples, and modification to support the translation system. Third, example application which is concerned about the way of using existing examples to facilitate translation. This stage has many issues like: (a) determining helpful examples in an input sentence. (b) giving examples that are used in composing the translation and these will be determined se- quentially. Fourth, target sentence synthesis which is the most difficult stage in EBMT because it will combine translated sentences after transferring these sentences to form readable sentences (chan, 2002).

164 In 2011, Vani stated that example-based machine translation has many features like: (1) It depends on the existence of appropriate examples stored in the database. (2) It depends on the reliability of the translation results. (3) It is fast and effective because it depends on the computer and indexing at the same time. (4) It also depends on the expertise of qualified translators. (5) It refers to example sentences not to grammatical rules and semantic markers. These features distinguish example-based machine translation than other types of machine translation.

Figure 1. Stages of EBMT (“Example Based Machine,” n.d.)

Last but not least, now is the age of technology especially in translation. People are using machine translation a lot these days in education, business, and other things. Machine translation has different types, methods, and designs. Example-based machine translation is one of these types that depend on example- stored sentences. This type of machine translation as other types has its own history, how it works, different stages, issues, and features. Machine translation will develop with developing technology and will hopefully be accepted by the new generation.

References

Chan, S. W. (2002). Translation and Information Technology .Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Dietzel, S. (2009). Modeling in-network aggregation in VANETs. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Example Based Machine Translation Seminar Report and PPT in PDF DOC for CSE Students. (n.d.). Re- trieved from http://www.seminarsonly.com/computer%20science/Example-Based-Machine- Translation.php Hutchins, J. (2005). Example-based machine translation: a review and commentary. Machine Translation, 19 (3-4), 197-211. doi:10.1007/s10590-006-90039 Somers, H. (1999). Review Article: Example-based Machine Translation. Machine Translation, 14(2), 113- 157. doi:10.1023/A:1008109312730 Trujillo, A. (1999). Translation Engines: Techniques for Machine Translation: Techniques for Machine Translations. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Vani , K. (2011, June 22). Example Based Machine Translation Retrieved from http: hdl.handle.net/123456789/3623

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Translation Methods from Arabic to English By Asmaa A. Jarrah

n these days, the importance of translation appears in the need of growth of human knowledge throughout history and transfer of the intellectual heritage of nations (Algahtany, 2001). I Translation is a process of mental, intellectual and linguistic complex. A translator must realize both the source language and target language. In fact, a translation from Arabic into English is not as easy as what we think because of differences between them. So, there are many methods translators should follow to make their translations be suitable.

The first thing translators should know it is the structure, thus, S (Subject) + V (Verb) + C (Complements) in English but in Arabic V + S + C. Also, they must know there are some letters in Arabic And the letters P and V in English do not exist .ح,خ,ض,ق,ع that do not exist in the English language such as = خالد a'abayah and = عباية ,in Arabic (Wasfi, n.d.). So, it is hard to translate as a transliteration, for example ”in Arabic as a “kh خ as an “a'a” in English and the letter ع Khalid. Here we translated the letter in Arabic in English.

There are four methods to translate from Arabic into English. The first method is correspondence. It means the word and sentences in Arabic have the same word and sentences in English. For example, these .(Araak, 2010) وزارة الخارجية =and this fragment foreign ministry وردي =pink / شمس =sun / ولد = words boy These words and sentences have the exact content in Arabic and English, but this method does not work for all types of words and sentences because of the differences between the Arabic and English cultures.

into English by using the first method, it will be the االبن سر أبيه If we want to translate this sentence son is the secret of his father. But it does not mean anything in the English culture and it is not acceptable., so we should use another method called equivalence. Equivalence means to find the same meaning and idea it will االبن سر أبيه for the sentences from Arabic to English. Now if we use the equivalence for the sentence be “Like father like son”, and this is accepted and well-known in English culture (Wasfi, n.d.).

If we cannot use the correspondence method and equivalence method, we can use the meaning transfer method to transfer the meaning if there is no equivalence. The meaning transfer method is used because

166 the differences in the rules of grammar and morphology between Arabic and English. To translate this some translators think it will be like this “He returned with Hunain's slipper.” But it عاد بخفي حنين sentence is wrong because this idiom comes from the Arabic culture and it is unknown in the English culture. The greatest translation for this sentence is “He returned empty-handed” (Wasfi, n.d.).

The fourth method is transliteration. Erichsen (n.d.) defined transliteration as "the spelling of words that were originally from a language using a different alphabet" (para. 1). "What is Translitera- tion" (n.d.) mentioned that "transliteration is not the same thing as translation, a process in which words are made meaningful to speakers of other languages" (para. 5). Transliteration is used to translate family names', news papers names', magazines, companies, schools names', hospitals names' and etc. For in- in Arabic does not exist in English so it will be a'abayah. And to make it clear for عباية stance, the word the English readers, a translator should put a small definition for unknown words in margins and brackets.

Finally, translation is not as easy as what some people think, however, it is not that hard when you start to learn it and perform it. The translation from Arabic into English is very important to transfer the Islamic religion. We are charged to the promotion of virtue and prevention of vice. All translators have a goal to be a translator and learn another language and culture. No language and culture are better than others because most translators really study hard both of the languages they chose to translate to and from it.

References

Algahtany, S. (2001, November 4). ahamit al tarjamah fe al lahaag bel tagadom al elmi [mportance of translation in catching scientific progress]. Aljazirah [arriyadh]. Retrieved from http://www.aljazirah.com/ Araak (2010, February 20). oma a'ad tarjamah?![ops translation?!]. Retrieved from http://http:// ricomuha.wordpress.com Erichsen, G. (n.d.). Transliteration. Retrieved from http://http://spanish.about.com/cs/writing/g/ translitgl.htm Wasfi, N. (n.d.). Transliteration. Introduction to translation, 29-30 What is Transliteration. (n.d.). In wisegeek online site. Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is- transliteration.htm

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The Pharaonic Enigma: Hieroglyphs Translation By Bashaeyr M. Laqwar

housands of years ago, a grand civilization started to implant its roots in our world of won- drous history; the civilization of Ancient Egypt. As any other great civilization, it needed T to immortalize the different aspects of its culture, its beliefs, hopes, dreams, and how Egyptians have governed their land and people. In order to do this, they used a very unique type of writing which is known as hieroglyphs, as Wilson has stated in his 2004 book, “the people of Egypt have left behind monuments and objects, many of them are covered in the writing now known as Egyptian hieroglyphs” (p. 1). The great adventure, indeed, was translating these symbols into a language we could understand!

If we take a look at these symbols, we will find out that they are merely drawings of people, animals, plants, and other different objects. What did they mean by these drawings? This question has actually been repeated a lot in the minds of the archeologists around the world since a very long time ago. This fact was mentioned in Robinson's article, 2012, when he stressed that "the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 1820s is an intriguing case" (p. 27). The following shows a figure for hieroglyphic symbols that are drawn on the temple at ancient Ombos, near modern KawmUmbu, Egypt (p. 1):

Figure 1. Hieroglyphs on the temple at ancient Ombos, near modern KawmUmbu, Egypt

To tell the truth, it was not easy to decode hieroglyphics due to the fact that they actually were not a simple phonetic alphabet nor were they written in one direction like any other language, but they were symbols corresponding to individual letters, whole words, and phrases. In the nineteenth century, specifically in 1822, the Frenchman Jean-Francois Champollion really helped in deciphering the vague Egyptian hieroglyphs. He cracked two cartouches containing the names of both the Pharaoh "Ptolemy" and "Cleopatra"

168 selecting the letters that both names had in common "L," "P," "O," and "T" (Reville, 2000, p. 98). The figure that appears below shows the two Rosetta stones cracked by Champollion (p. 98):

Figure 2. The two Rosetta stones that Champollion cracked

Despite the facts that I have mentioned above, many scientists and archeologists around the universe have succeeded in deciphering those hieroglyphic symbols. Some of us might get shocked at what some symbols actually mean because these drawings would never actually indicate their certain meanings once one sees them, e.g., , , meaning a book, and , meaning a boat (Budge, 2010. p. 33). The figure below shows more of these symbols:

Figure 3. More hieroglyphic symbols and their meanings

In contrast, there were symbols that can be called "guessable" for which they contain human drawings. So we can say that the average Joe would anticipate the different meanings of these enigmas. These sorts of symbols usually were used to embody the daily life of people in that civilization, expressing the day-to-day activities and practices that people tend to do at that time, and displayed their religious beliefs. For instance, meaning to eat, to think, to speak, and of whatever is done by the mouth. Another symbol is , which has a religious connotation meaning goddess (Budge, 2010, p. 36). The list below shows more of these symbols:

169

Figure 4. More human drawings representing general thoughts

In closure, Samuel Sharpe in his 1861 book has stated that "the study of hieroglyphics is already suffi- ciently advanced to moderate our expectations as to the reward which is likely to be the result of future progress" (p. 1). According to that, one cannot ignore the importance of studying and analyzing such historical enigmas. They definitely symbolize certain meanings and facts that may somehow help in developing lots of our knowledge and might contribute in future progress as in many other recently discovered civilizations. Alt- hough archeologists have strode along to disassemble these symbols, hieroglyphs, the Pharaonic hieroglyphs is a marvelous enigma, which will remain one of the most mysterious mystiques around the world.

References

Budge, W. (2010). Egyptian Language: Easy Lessons in Egyptian Hieroglyphics with Sign List . Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Hieroglyphic writing. (2014). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/ EBchecked/topic/265021/hieroglyphic-writing Robinson, A. (2007). Thomas Young and the Rosetta Stone. Endeavour, 31(2), 59-64.doi:10.1016/ j.endeavour.2007.05.002 Robinson, A. (2012). Archaeology: A clash of symbols. Nature, 483(7387), 27-28. doi:10.1038/483027a Sharpe, S. (1861). Egyptian hieroglyphics: Being an attempt to explain their nature, origin and meaning : with a vocabulary. London: E. Moxon and Co. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/ Wilson, P. (2004). Hieroglyphs: A Very Short Introduction. Retrieved from http:// sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com/

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Articles in the Field of Interpretation

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Oral Interpretation and Interpreters' Performance By Noura A. Al-mejarri

ومن rom one verse in this universe, Allah made people different in their colors and language Quran 3:22, KSU). So, to coexist, people live) آياته خلق السماوات واألرض واختالف ألسنتكم وألوانكم F together and try to achieve their desires, so this is where the need began to find a translator or interpreter that can connect between them. However, translation differs in many ways, may it be written or oral, but, oral interpretation has an important role in communicating between nations or people, therefore, the need for interpreters has been increasing because of the recent changing situations in the world (Darwish, 2003). Obviously, there is a difference in performance among oral interpreters according to the situation and translators' abilities.

Whenever people meet someone and they have no common language, they need to establish contact by using sign language or find someone that can translate for them, whether the interpreter is asked or offered to interpret (Phelan, 2001). So, the oral interpretation is a communicational process between two sides who are speaking different languages and they don’t understand each other. This process is done by interpreters, so, they transfer their speech (Darwish, 2003).

Oral interpretation is divided into different sorts according to an interpreter's methods and ways in translation. Firstly, simultaneous interpreting is the most effective for large meetings and conferences, also, it is considered as the most difficult and sensitive job. It is “someone who interprets for someone in another language while the speaker speaks without interruption" (Chen, 2010, p. 716). In his article, the author con- firms that "Very few translators (who are used to getting the time to really think about their translations) can do it, and not even all interpreters can do it well" (p. 716). Indeed, it requires a high level of concentration. In addition, Chen (p. 716) clarifies how simultaneous interpreting is done in this diagram.

Figure 1. The process of simultaneous interpreting

172 Every sort of interpreting has a special requirement and skill. For instance, consecutive interpreting doesn’t require as much consideration as simultaneous interpreting because the speaker speaks slowly since the speaker is aware that there is an interpreter who is interpreting and writing down some points like numbers or dates. So, that enables them to interpret faithfully and accurately (Wasfi, 2014, p. 19).

The last common type of oral interpretation is on-sight interpreting. It is needed to translate print- ed documents orally. Jacobsen defined that, "Sight translation is used for interpreting written documents (e.g. indictments, police reports, witness statements, expert reports, previous judgments) read out in court as part of the production of evidence or to support arguments" (p.219). Also, he adds that "The mode re- sembles simultaneous interpreting and involves some of the same mental processes, but when sight translating interpreters have access to the entire text, and they are sometimes able to leave considerable distance between the output of original speakers and their own target text" (2012).

Accordingly, the difference in interpreting requires, of course, different abilities and skills for an interpreter's performance. The interpreters have a variant level in understanding source languages, so, that will affect their translations. In addition, sometimes at conferences, the interpreter doesn’t have a good background about a particular topic which the speakers there are talking about, so, they will face a difficult situation in interpreting. Moreover, confidence, sharp hearing and a clear voice are also most essential requirements for interpreting abilities (Colin, 2001). Finally, to interpret successfully, the interpreters should keep developing their mother tongue and second language.

References

Chen, Z., & Dong, X. (2010). Simultaneous interpreting: Principles and training. Journal of Language Teaching and Research,1(5), 714-716. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ docview/759471553?accountid=142908 Colin, J., & Morris, R. (2001). Interpreters and the legal process. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/ lib/sdl//docDetail.action?docID=10696152 Darwish, A. (2003). The interpreter's guide. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa Jacobsen, B. (2012). The significance of interpreting modes for question–answer dialogues in court interpreting. Interpreting: International Journal Of Research & Practice In Interpreting, 14(2), 217- 241. Phelan, M. (2001). The interpreter's resource. Retrieved from http:// sj9sr8sb5k.search.serialssolutions.com/ Wasfi, N. (2014). Science of Translation. In Introduction to Translation (p. 19).

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The Main Skills Needed For an Interpreter By Asma Y. Al-Qahtani

Interpreting is a kind of translation that is called "oral translation" and it is "the live and immediate con- veyance of oral messages across languages" (p. 3). The interpreter translates in real-time situations what she is hearing without using dictionaries or other supplemental reference materials. So, an interpreter must have an extensive vocabulary in both languages and perfect background knowledge. Also, there are two types of interpreting which are simultaneous and consecutive, each one of which requires specific skills and abilities that must be acquired. In fact, successful interpreters must have excellent language skills in both languages and must possess strong communication skills (Lee & Buzo, 2009). In 2001, Phalen stated that in simultaneous interpreting the interpreter sits in a booth wearing a pair of headphones with microphones, so she translates simultaneously what she hears through the headphones, and the listener hears the interpretation at the same time as the speech is made. An interpreter of this type must think quickly and memorize the words that the source-language speaker is saying because any delay will affect her translation due to losing some words and sentences that the speaker uttered. Phalen adds that the interpreter must use the first person singular "I" when interpreting and she should give a complete sentence with a pleasant voice because she is speaking to an audience. Consecutive interpreting is the second type of interpreting that has its own skills and which is different in some ways from the simultaneous. In fact, the simultaneous interpretation occurs while the source-language speaker continues without stopping; however, the consecutive interpretation requires the source-language speaker to stop while doing the translation. Moreover, Ivars and Calatayud reported that "consecutive interpreting is a typical task-oriented cognitive process which requires both divided attention for the completion of listening to the speech and delivering the interpreted text" (p. 347). So, note-taking is an important skill in this type to record the main important information (2013). Note-taking is an important skill that must be acquired especially in consecutive interpretation; all you have to do is use abbreviations and there are no rules for doing that because it depends on the way the interpreter likes. You have to write down the most important ideas, numbers and proper names. According to Windiari, note-taking is a good means that prevents distraction and it improves concentration; he said that "notes activate the memory of the interpreter with cues or signals that call up the information in the speech" (p. 4). He adds that mind mapping is a very useful way that helps the interpreter to connect the information with each other. So, these two techniques play a crucial role in consecutive interpretation (2011). Interpreter work requires direct contact with both the speaker and the audience; for that reason, there are different abilities and skills that must be acquired. First of all, an interpreter must have a high level of fluency in her native language and in a foreign language, and she should know about the culture and customs in both

174 countries. She should learn to listen effectively and that needs attention and concentration. An interpreter must also anticipate what a speaker will say and be able to talk and listen at the same time; according to Jing, "anticipation is an important means that helps the interpreter to relieve the on-line memory load so that the processing capacity can be preserved for other efforts" (2013, p. 1233). In one article, the author points to the fact that if you want to be an interpreter, you must possess excellent verbal communication skills, have a confidence when rendering in front of an audience, and you have to be advanced in telecommunication technology because your working mainly depends on using a telephone and a microphone ("You Want To," 2010). Besides that, the interpreter should act as a bridge between people and a transfer of their intentions and emotions. Jing also stated that the interpreter should not only master the well-known vocabularies; she must have knowledge in slang and newly adopted words, and in abbreviations. He adds that the interpreter must know about sentence structures and syntax rules (2013). In conclusion, Morin reported that "the interpreter always goes through the three basic steps of the interpreting process: comprehension, conversion and delivery" (para. 1). So, the interpreter needs to understand the meaning of a source language message in a specific context and formulate a message which is equivalent in the target language and target culture. On the other hand, if you want to be an interpreter, you must work hard to develop your skills by practicing. You must enhance your knowledge, your linguistic abilities and your communication skills in order to be a successful interpreter who can work in conferences, business meetings, hospitals, public services, and companies (2011).

References

Ivars, A., & Calatayud, D. (2013).Mindfulness training for interpreting students. LebendeSprachen, 58(2), 341-365. doi:10.1515/les-2013-0020 Jing, M. (2013).A Study of Interpreting Skills from the Perspective of Interpreting Process. Journal Of Language Teaching & Research, 4(6), 1232-1237. doi:10.4304/jltr.4.6.1232-1237 Lee, J., &Buzo, A. (2009). Community Language Interpreting: A Workbook. Retrieved fromhttp:// books.google.com.sa/books Morin, L. (2011). Interpreting the Remarks of World Leaders. The case of the interpreters for the Indone- sian and Mexican Presidents. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/ article2318.php Phelan, M. (2001).The Interpreter's Resource . Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books So you want to be an...interpreter (2010, January 17). The Free Library. (2010). Retrieved fromhttp:// www.thefreelibrary.com/So you want to be an... interpreter.-a0216758752 Windiari, L. (2012). Note Taking and the Power of Mind Mapping in Consecutive Interpreting. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/1478502/NOTE_TAKING

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Problems in Simultaneous Interpretation By Nouf K. Al-Taraifi

imultaneous interpretation (SI) was devised as an improvement of the consecutive and whispering modes. Interpreters in SI translate the text while listening to it. Gaiba mentioned that S it would be less time-consuming than translating continuously; for example, a multi- language seminar could be interpreted at the same speed as a one-language seminar. SI was also more felici- tous than whispering. Interpreters in a meeting would sit in soundproof booths and would not disturb the speaker, and their translation would be carried to all the participants at the meeting through earphones (1998). But, unfortunately, simultaneous interpreters do face more problems than other translators do.

Simultaneous interpreters have a very special reputation since the past due to the importance of their job. They served as a communication tool between two different countries that speak different languages to solve political issues. They also mediated between country rivals of a different language to settle on a peaceful agreement. The importance of the simultaneous interpreter lies in the fact that any mistake he makes will affect his country's position, royals and himself, too. They may face firm punishment for the mess that they have made (Wasfi, n.d., p. 4).

As SI requires a huge amount of practice, beginners may face problems regarding their working memory (WM) and as result, they might translate wrong information. “The SI process taxes WM in that the interpreter must concurrently keep the input in mind until a sufficient amount permits the interpreter to

Figure 1. Interpreters must always look, sound, and act as if everything is going smoothly; otherwise, credibility is lost (“ETI Degree-Option,” 2013)

176 comprehend it, translate it, and produce a response at a quick rate” (Signorelli, 2008, p. 1). He added that most professional simultaneous interpreters (PSI) require years of practice to perform this demanding task fully and successfully. Some researchers claimed that PSI’s have better WM due to their comprehensive training and practice in SI.

Nowadays, because of the multi-language issue, many companies provide jobs for these simultaneous interpreters for different purposes. As the interpreters have to translate in real-time settings, it might result in an unintended mistake and yet false information that might lead to serious outcomes. To exemplify, once a translator’s relative went to a hospital as a non-English speaker patient and asked an interpreter to help her translate what her doctor said. The interpreter was a beginner and gave her wrong information unintentionally, and that wrong information would have caused death to the patient had it not been detected.

Another example in which a simultaneous interpreter caused a problem was in the joint press conference, with the Egyptian vice president for international relations. The interpreter in that conference made a mistake while translating Ashton’s words that changed the meaning of what she meant to say, resulting in a faulty message to the audience, and for which, the high representative for foreign and political affairs of the European Union had to apologize for and had to clear the meaning (Sami, 2013).

In conclusion, SI is an important job that has to be done carefully to avoid faulty messages that can result in serious consequences. In the past, it was difficult for some governors to communicate with other countries that speak different languages to solve political issues. Nowadays, many people are heading towards the specialty of SI, which has helped in improving the communication between people with different languages in different settings. PSIs, without a doubt, need very extensive training, a very good WM, and translating skills to avoid serious outcomes.

References

ETI Degree-Option Introduction. (2013). Retrieved from http://www15.uta.fi/FAST/ENG/eti-hops.html Gaiba, F. (1998). The origins of simultaneous interpretation: The Nuremberg Trial. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/ Sami, A. (2013). The EU issued a statement to correct errors of interpretation of the Conference «Ashton» and «ElBaradei». Retrieved from www.elwatannews.com/news/details/235747 Signorelli, T. M. (2008). Working memory in simultaneous interpreters. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/ Wasfi, N. (n.d.). Introduction to Translation Booklet. College of Languages & Translation

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Interpretation Modes By Abeer M. Al-Nasser

t is well known that translation is considered one of the oldest jobs in the world, as Wasfi (2014) said that if we all think about it, everything in life is about translation. Not only do we translate a I language into another, but we also translate our feelings into actions, and our thoughts into words. But what most people don't know is that translation and interpretation are different skills; the translator translates written texts, and the interpreter works with spoken words. There are four main modes of interpreting: simultaneous, consecutive, whisper, and relay interpreting.

According to Cheung (2013), simultaneous interpretation is the most common kind in conferences, where the delegate wears headphones and the interpreter(s) -usually more than one- translates the speaker's words orally and almost simultaneously. "The [simultaneous] translator is isolated in a sound-proof booth and speaks in the microphone while the speaker does not stop" (Kriston, 2012, p. 79). Allen (2007) says that the delegate has to be seen by the interpreter so that the interpreter will be ready whenever the delegate speaks.

However, unlike the simultaneous interpreter, Allen (2007) points out that consecutive interpreter doesn't speak until the speaker allows him the time to do so. Since most people can't memorize a long talk in one hearing without missing out details, note-taking is a skill that consecutive interpreters do to render the translation pro- ficiently, and according to Albl-Mikasa (2008), "note-taking is seen mainly as a memory-supporting technique" (p. 1).

When no equipment -booth, headphones, and microphones- is available, whispering interpreting or "chuchotage" is used. Neil Payne said that "you have the interpreter sit down with someone or a couple of people and as someone is speaking, they'll be whispering into the ear or ears of the ppl needing the translation of what is being said" (as cited in Kwintessentialvids, 2013, 1:14-1:24). We usually see this mode in small group meetings. The only disadvantage of this mode is that the constant whispering sound can be very annoying and dis- tracting.

Mikkelson (1999) says, "If no interpreter is available in a given language combination, relay interpreting may provide a solution" (p. 1). Relay interpreting is also known as "indirect interpreting" because the interpreter listens to the delegate and then translates what is being said into a language that the other interpreters know, and these interpreters will translate what the first interpreter has said into their target language groups.

178 Finally, we have learned that interpretation has different modes. The simultaneous mode, which requires special equipment, the consecutive mode, which is easier than the simultaneous because of the note-taking, the whisper interpreting mode which is the most informal kind, and the relay mode. Also, we need to know that interpretation is not an easy job, and that the interpreter must have background knowledge on the cultures of the source and the target languages.

Figure 1. Further distinctions (F., 2014)

References

Albl-Mikasa, M. (2008). (Non-)Sense in note-taking for consecutive interpreting. Interpreting: Interna- tional Journal Of Research & Practice In Interpreting, 10(2), 197-231. doi:10.1075/intp.10.2.03alb Allen, K. (2007). Interpretation modes require multiple skill sets. Multilingual, 18(2), 65-66. Cheung, A. F. (2013). Non-native accents and simultaneous interpreting quality perceptions. Interpreting: International Journal Of Research & Practice In Interpreting, 15(1), 25-47. doi:10.1075/ intp.15.1.02che F. (2014). consecutive vs simultaneous interpreting | Blog Pak Fay. Retrieved from http:// faizal.staff.stainsalatiga.ac.id/consecutive-vs-simultaneous-interpreting/ Kriston, A. (2012). The Importance Of Memory Training In Interpretation. PCTS Proceedings (Professional Communication & Translation Studies), 5(1/2), 79-86. Kwintessentialvids (2013, March 7). Modes of Interpreting - Simultaneous vs. Consecutive. Re- trieved April 21, 2014, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IB98OFLnE0E Mikkelson, H. (1999). Course Profile: Relay Interpreting: A Solution for Languages of Limited Diffu- sion? The Translator, 5(2). Retrieved from https://www.acebo.com/papers/relay.htm Wasfi, N. (2014). Introduction to Translation Booklet. Riyadh, SA.

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A Matter of Life and Death: Medical Interpreters By Latefah M. Al-Nashwan

eine (2011) guarantees that "being a patient in an emergency room can be scary enough. Not being able to communicate with doctors can only increase the anxiety. That's why H medical providers say good interpreters are an important part of a treatment team" (para. 1). Without a doubt, the effect of healthcare communications makes the difference between life and death, which means that medical interpreters need to try to overcome the many challenges that they may face.

The services of a professional interpreter should be used when the patient has limited English because of many reasons; first of all, communication that is common during medical encounters. Professional interpreters have specialized training in medical interpretation to handle it. Second, even if the family members are bilingual, they may not understand the medical language. Finally, if a family member is performing the interpreting to avoid revealing sensitive personal information to a family member, the patient may hold the information (Veach & Heller, 2008).

In 2008, Veach and Heller also stated that the interpreter's chair should be next to the patient's chair and angle the chairs so that they just slightly face each other - the doctor's chair centered between the interpreter and the patient. He has to use simple phrases and avoid long sentences. Also, the slang or medical words are prohibited. The translator must listen to the question, process it and translate the question from English to the language of the patient.

In 1993, the authors point to the fact that medicine is unquestionably one of the oldest fields of knowledge because of the science of medicine and its language is so universal, so it has great attraction as a subject of translation, even more than the others (Wright & Wright). Viezzi (2002) reported that "the task of interpreting between patient and health care provider is difficult, not just because specialized terminology involved and the already complex nature of the patient-provider relationship but also because of the linguistic and culture barriers that must be bridged" (p. 159).

According to Carr et al., 1995, when interpreters are in situations where there are cultural differences, there will be a lack of the interpreter's role and responsibility. One school of thought thinks that the interpreter's role is interpreting and under no circumstances the interpreter should translate the meaning. In contrast, others feel that the interpreter can play an important role in bridging cultural gaps. There is a great difficulty in translation culture as it is hard to predict how closely a client adheres to translation values.

180 Doctors must interact with other healthcare providers, clarifying orders and verifying medical necessi- ties, so a medical interpreter needs to know not only the specific term for a diagnosis, but needs to know how to express that meaning in terms the patient will understand. A medical interpreter is not just like a translator who converts one language to another, but a medical interpreter must provide a broader understanding (Stanaszek et al., 1995).

Hadziabdic et al., 2014, believe that for effective communication, we need to provide quality care and confidentiality between patients and interpreters. Trust in the interpreter is associated with language skill in medical terminology, education, sharing the same dialect, showing respect and objectivity, and keeping the code of confidentiality. The qualities of interpreters are the interpreter’s skill in both languages, the interpreter’s religion, the interpreter wearing neutral clothes and being able to follow the interpreter’s body language are indeed important factors for feeling confidence during the process.

No doubt, the importance of medical interpreters is avoiding potentially deadly misunderstandings. However, communication between doctors and patients from different cultures is the biggest difficulty that medical interpreters face. Also, translation of medical terminology is one of the difficulties so interpreters should graduate with a degree in this field. Understanding the material that is being presented is even more important in the specialized field of medical interpretation (Atlas, 2011).

References Carr, S. E., Roberts, R., Dufour, A., Steyn, D., & International Conference on Interpreting in Legal, H. (1995). The critical link: Interpreters in the community. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Heine, G. R. (2011, January 9). Communication challenges: Interpreters key to medical teams. Gazettextra . Retrieved from http://www.gazettextra.com/news Heller, M., & Veach, L. (2008). Clinical Medical Assisting: A Professional, Field Smart Approach to the Workplace. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books? Hadziabdic, E., Albin, B., & Hjelm, K. (2014). Arabic-speaking migrants' attitudes, opinions, preferences and past experiences concerning the use of interpreters in healthcare: a postal cross-sectional survey. BMC Research Notes, 7(1), 1-16. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-7-71 Stanaszek, W. F., Stanaszek, M. J., & Holt, R. J. (1998). Understanding Medical Terms: A Guide for Pharma- cy Practice, Second Edition Understanding Medical Terms: A Guide for Pharmacy Practice (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://books.google.com.sa/books? The Importance of Medical Interpreters - - Atlas Language Services [Web log post]. (2011, January 3). Re- trieved from http://atlasls.com/blog/?p=65 Viezzi, M. (2002). Interpreting in the 21st century: Challenges and opportunities : selected papers from the 1st Forlì Conference on Interpreting Studies, 9-11 November 2000. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa/books? Wright, S. E., & Wright, L. D. (1993). Scientific and technical translation. Retrieved from http:// books.google.com.sa

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The Skills Required to Be a Good Interpreter By Ruba B Al-Zahrani

earning new languages is a key way to communicate with one another, as it also opens a number of closed doors in our faces. And when people don’t share the same languages, L they tend to translate or interpret. This being an established fact, interpreting has become an important profession that requires certain skills and qualifications to perfect. In 2013, Ma stated that “interpreting as a modern profession has established its status in the international communities. Interpreters help people overcome language barriers, dispel their suspicion and serve as a bridge in intercultural communities” (p. 3). So, to be a good, successful interpreter, certain skills are required.

A person would think that translation and interpreting are basically the same thing, but that is not the case. Translation requires specific skills and interpreting requires others. According to Dollerup and Lodde- gaard (1992), translators are not only obligated to have enough knowledge about the source language as well as the target language, they also have access to sources of information that helps them be more efficient at their jobs. Interpreters, on the other hand, do not have any of that luxury. Interpreters are expected to have the ability to work under pressure while translators can have plenty of time to work if they have good time management skills.

After clearing out the main differences between translation and interpreting, it is time to know more about interpreting. In 2005, Tennent said that interpreting is an activity that people perform on a daily basis; professional interpreters have played a major role in different aspects of our lives. Clearly, interpreting is a growing profession that requires certain skills and training. Gonzlez (2007) believes that it is crucial for interpreters to receive training and certification. They also have to master both languages. And just because people are bilingual, that does not make them interpreters as certain skills must be developed.

What makes a person a successful interpreter? Who is a successful interpreter? What skills must interpreters have? Kornakov (2000) suggests that those skills are to listen in L1, understand in L1, memorize the information in L1, mentally translate, compress and edit the message from L1 into L2, and finally to verbalize the message in L2. To take it one at a time, listening in L1 is meant to be selective listening which is when the interpreter tries to listen and paraphrase in his/her head. Understanding in L1 requires language guessing and predicting skills, and in this stage speed is very important.

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Kornakov (2000) states that the next stage is moving on to memorizing the information in L1, which requires skills such as instant, short, and long term memory. Then comes mentally translating, compressing and editing the message from L1 into L2, which requires important skills such as the ability to compose edited texts based on certain key-words or good "editing" and text compression. Such skills need special training using the key-words methodology. And finally we need to verbalize the message in L2, which is the goal of the whole process. And it can be tricky especially when the interpreter has to speak while listening; so in that case, to be quick-witted is an important skill.

In conclusion, it is a given that in order to be successful at something, you need to be good at it. So, applying the skills above is very important, and other general skills, too, as Taflaj (2009) states, you need to always be prepared, be on time, and assess who you are interpreting for. Assessing who you are interpreting for means to know their cultural backgrounds, and what level of language to use. Is it formal or informal? Simple or sophisticated? And doing all of that doesn’t just make you a good interpreter, it also gives you the satisfaction of being a helping hand to others.

References

Dollerup, C., & Loddegaard, A. (1992). Teaching Translation and Interpreting: Training Talent and Expe- rience. Papers from the First Language International Conference, Elsinore, Denmark, 1991. Re- trieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com Gonzlez, E. (2007, Feb 24). A skill much in demand -- certified interpreters needed. Retrieved from http:// search.proquest.com/docview/371868717?accountid=142908 Kornakov, P. (2000). Five Principles and Five Skills for Training Interpreters. Retrieved from http:// www.bradford.ac.uk/staff/pkkornakov/META.htm Ma, J. (2013). A study of interpreting skills from the perspective of interpreting process. Journal of Lan- guage Teaching and Research, 4(6), 1232-1237. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ docview/1461705989?accountid=142908 Taflaj , K. (2009, February 5). How to be a successful interpreter. Retrieved from http://www.proz.com/ translation-articles/articles/2357/1/How-to-be-a-successful-interpreter%3F Tennent, M. (2005). Training for the new millennium: Pedagogies for translation and interpreting. Re- trieved from http://sdl.summon.serialssolutions.com

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