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On the Anti-Nationalist, Reform and Democratizing Initiatives And

On the Anti-Nationalist, Reform and Democratizing Initiatives And

CEU eTD Collection and Tendencies in 1989-1991 (with focus onBosnia- focus (with 1989-1991 inYugoslavia Tendencies and On the Anti-Nationalist, Reform and Democratizing Initiatives Democratizing and Reform Anti-Nationalist, On the In partial fulfillment ofthe requirements forthe degree of Second Reader: Prof.Constantin Iordachi and ) Supervisor: Prof.Balazs Trencsenyi CentralEuropean University Defeated Demos - Demos Defeated Ljubica Spaskovska History Department Budapest, Master ofArts Submitted to 2009 By CEU eTD Collection Author. such instructions maynotbemade without thewritten permission ofthe part ofany such copies made. Further copies made in accordance with a form must page This librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. instructions given by the Author and lodged in the Central European process, either in full or part may be madeonly in accordance with the Copyright in the text ofthis thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any Statement of Copyright CEU eTD Collection complement theimage andthestory of the last Yugoslav years. they donot deserve to be considered anindispensable factor which would The factthatmost ofthese initiatives andprojects were does belated notmean to cosmopolitan, European, orpersonal andemotional platforms andreasons. advocated a reformed democratic Yugoslavia ofequalcitizens and nations clung rational calculations, theintellectual, cultural andpopularmilieus which Yugoslav polity. thepoliticalWhile elites weredrivenbypragmatic motives and prosperity andsecurity helped determine theirpositive perception ofacommon recognized political partners and national groups, which, along withthe relative that boththe andthe Macedonians achieved astatus ofequal and A determining factor bothcasesappears in to bethatitwaswithin Yugoslavia initiatives, movements and events. intellectualand popular anti-war, Yugoslav-minded, anti-nationalist and reformist the Macedonians, theirposition inYugoslavia, relating ittothepolitical, historical background of the nation-building process of the Bosnian Muslim and period andrelevant secondary literature, theresearch concentrates on the dissolution. Using archival material, interview mediadata, accountsfrom the twowhich hadbeen the only openly pro-Yugoslav federalunits before the secondly, focusing onMacedonia andBosnia andHerzegovina, why wasit these of theYugoslav federation inthe period 1989-1991 manifested themselves and reformist/democratic and anti-nationalist tendencies before the definite break-up The work setsoutto explore how the Yugoslav-oriented, pro-European, Abstract i CEU eTD Collection in . labyrinths ofYugoslav history; to my whomade Sarajevofriends me feel athome and patience; toGëzim Krasniqifor the exciting debates and discussions onthe Balazsmy Trencsenyi Prof. useful supervisor for his encouragement insights, Stojan Andov,Prof. Grebo Zdravko andMr.Safet Pihljak. Iam equally thankfulto me:Tupurkovski,Mr. Vasil Mr.Bogi analyzing, who were kindenough to share their thoughts and experiences with sincere gratitude to all thosedirectly theeventsthisthesisinvolved in is connection to the history ofsocialist Yugoslavia. Hence,Iwould liketoextend my insight of many individuals who haveshared asimilar interest orpersonal This thesis would nothavebeen possible with thekindassistance, help, advice, Acknowledgements dedicate this workto them - forthey taughtme how to befascinated bydiversity. Finally, Ithankmyunderstanding, parentsfortheir inspiration and support,as I ü Bogicevi ii ü , Prof.Ljubomir Mr. Cuculovski, CEU eTD Collection OCUIN...... 104 CONCLUSION...... YUGOSLAV NON-POLITICAL 72 FRONT...... 4:“OVO JE CHAPTER ZEMLJA ZA NAS”/”THISISACOUNTRYFOR US” -THE PRO- AND REFORM 44 VOICES FROM ABOVE...... PRO-DEMOCRATIC -ANTI-NATIONALIST, ? DEMOCRATIC 3: CHAPTER CHAPTER 2: THE MAZE OF (UN)RECOGNIZED (NON)EXISTENCE...... 23 CHAPTER 1: SOME THEORETICAL 7 CONSIDERATIONS...... 1 INTRODUCTION...... ILORPY...... 114 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... ANNEX ANNEX 109 ANNEX...... 4.4. 4.3. 4.2. 4.1. 3.3. 3.2. 3.1. 2.4. 2.3. 2.2. 2.1. 1.3. 1.2. 1.1. T “G “R T T T T N T N D F N A EDERALISM HEY HE HE HE HE HE EW EW ENIED ATIONALISM LL OCK FOR OCK OOD EVENING V E E B C T ...... 113 2...... 110 1...... N K , IGHT NVISAGED HOSE THE ATTLE OF THE OMMUNIST OICES OF THE OICES OF INGDOM ATIONS IN A ATIONS IN /C ONTESTED P S P I EOPLE DENTITIES UPREME ...... 16 ...... EACE /S , UPRANATIONALISM O , U Y E LD ” ...... 96 ...... … NION OF NION MBRACE UGOSLAVIA N - I “L THE N NTELLECTUALS EW C G ATIONS ...... 7 ...... OMMANDERS AST RIEVANCES Y R UGOSLAVIA M OLE AND OLE Y ...... 32 ...... UGOSLAV YRIAD ...... 24 ...... !” - YUTEL ...... 29 ...... /C : F - R JI...... 73 ...... UJDI ACES ITIZENSHIP T ESPONSES OF THE ESPONSES ...... 46 ”...... 39 ...... HE P IN THE IN - RESIDENCY ANDTHE RESIDENCY W iii HAT ...... 11 ...... D K IVIDED IND OFA Y UGOSLAV M EDIA N EW A RMY S Y R PACE OCK UGOSLAVIA ...... 66 ...... 89 ...... S CENE ...... 83 ...... 58 ...... ? CEU eTD Collection Notebooks 1 Andrew thoseofjournalists,Wachtel), the autobiographies and memoirs of the scholars (among them John Lampe, SabrinaRamet, Susan Woodward, points of international lawand internationalrelations. Undeniably the writings of from social,economic, political, cultural aspects, aswell from as the vantage state during and thein aftermath ofyearswar. Theevents have been analyzed addressed thecomplex processes involved in thedissolution ofthemulti-ethnic , grassrootsnationalism, etc.Thevastscholarship onYugoslavia has of ethno-nationalism, religious nationalism, communism andnationalism, elite- majority ofthescholarly debates and reflections havecentered on the discourses and themanner which in thedissolution ofthe socialist federation tookplace, the irreconcilable voicesandclashing . Understandably, duetothecontext of atransitional paradigm which thefrom in following yearswould emanate a long-awaited return todemocracy, forthe markedit the inauguration Introduction Vojka Smiljanic - Djikic and Velimir Viskovic, “Why in notebooks?” Sarajevo “Why Viskovic, Velimir and -Djikic Smiljanic Vojka If the“annus mirabilis” 1989for the citizens of the symbolized any other.” anymore. Our generation grew up with that country and we didn’t know exist anymore. It was difficult to believe that Yugoslavia didn’t exist like towake up one morning and find that , Italy orEngland didn’t happen […] It was a strange feeling, you might imagine what it would be suspected that itmight happen, but you always hope that the worst won’t “One morning we woke up and we didn’t have acountry anymore. We No 18 edited by Vojka Smiljanic-Djikic (Sarajevo: Mediacentar, 2007), 7. 2007), Mediacentar, (Sarajevo: Smiljanic-Djikic byVojka No 18edited 1 1 Best of Sarajevo CEU eTD Collection 2008), 28. 2008), Disintegration in Explanations” 2 through the tendencies andconcepts of democratic reform and Yugoslavism. neglected aspect -namely thatof the anti-nationalist stream manifestedas discourse on the studies onYugoslavia byplunging into alargely unexplored and discourses, secessionismradical right militarism. and which from the late1980saimed tocounterbalance thatofultra-nationalism, analyzed as the parallel stream,movement, potentpopular will andenthusiasm essential partof the complex mosaic, and even more importantly, they must be Yugoslav forces and tendencies must beincluded and considered as an comprehended initsentirety, the anti-nationalist, democratizing andpro- history.” exist tothedominant nationalist discourses and policies throughout Yugoslavia’s has beenatendency to‘read history backwards’, ignoringalternatives that did reformation ofthe Yugoslav state. As Jasna Dragovi movement ofYugoslavism, anti-nationalism and preservation/democratic the years before theofficial dissolution of the country in 1992 - that is the to explicitly dealwith theotheropposing current which was particularly visible in East European history. Yet, most ofthescholarly work onformer Yugoslavia fails the most tragicchapters of thepost-communist eraand particularin of South- complex political, economic, socialandculturalupheaval which will remainone of generals andpoliticiansprovide a valuable account ofthe process of a highly Soso-Dragovic, Jasna. “Why Did Yugoslavia Disintegrate?: an Overview of Contending of an Overview Disintegrate?: Yugoslavia Did “Why Jasna. Soso-Dragovic, Therefore, this thesisaims, atleastpartially tosubvert the general 2 Ifthehistory of the dissolutionof Yugoslavia to beanalyzedis and edited by Lenard J. Cohen and Jasna Dragovic-Soso (Purdue University Press, University (Purdue Dragovic-Soso Jasna Cohen and J. byLenard edited State Collapse in South-: New Perspectives onYugoslavia’s Perspectives New Europe: CollapseinSouth-Eastern State 2 ü -Soso rightlynotes, “there CEU eTD Collection position ofbeing surrounded bystrongerneighbors who havehistorically laid and theMacedonians which bearsignificant patterns ofsimilarities, and their process. (political)process and thesecond onewith theidentity-building (cultural) have two interdependent levels -thefirst one relatedtothenation-building proposed evaluation andanswer tothe second(more complex) questionwould first question wouldbe approacheda descriptivein andanalyticalmanner, the been the only openlypro-Yugoslav federal units before thedissolution. the While themselves; andsecondly, why Macedonia andBosnia and Herzegovina had these pro-Yugoslav, reformist andanti-nationalist tendencies manifested , andSerbia. Inthis context, thecentral questions would be:how marginalized, silenced andoutrivaled bythe more from voices dominant negotiations of the future of Yugoslavia before the start of the war remained Yugoslaviaof the andtheir positions andactions duringthe usually tend tobeleftoutfrom the analyses addressing theso-called first citizenry being the strongholds ofthe pro-Yugoslav reformist option. These two Macedonian ascase-studies, with theirfederal republics, itsleadership and willfocus on two oftheconstituent Yugoslav nations: theBosnian Muslim and the nations ofSlovenes, Macedonians and . Furthermore, the thesis last federal censuses exceeded orequaled thenumbers oftheconstituent unintentionally ignore the factthatthenumber ofdeclared Yugoslavs inthetwo The proponents of theethno-nationalist approach tendtoleaveout or The specificities of the nation-building projects ofthe Bosnian Muslims 3 CEU eTD Collection outpourings of hostile nationalism there comparable to those in Croatia and . Croatia to those in comparable there nationalism hostile of outpourings and manifestations been collective not had 1992there to as prior nationalism, belated 3 nationaland thesupra-national (Yugoslav) layerwhich grewandevolvedparallel earlier fortheSerbs), theMacedonians simultaneously received theethno- promote, buildandstrengthen theirethno-national layersince 1918(and even theCroats,While theSerbs and theSlovenes hadbeenable tonourish, the BosnianMuslims andtheMacedonians: in1968and1945 in respectively. the recognition ofthe ethno-national layer/component came stage atalater for have an identical development, evolution and recognition. As it can be observed, hereunder demonstrate, thefour layers of identity among theSouthSlavsdid not the pro-Yugoslav andanti-nationalist tendency answer tothequestion why it was specifically these two groupswhich embodied the Bosnian Muslims andtheMacedonians form the secondpole which holdsthe leadership intheir endeavor topreserve areformed (con)federalYugoslavpolity. political leadershipupon thebreak-up. Popular opinion largelysupported the andled largely shapedboth theattitudes of the Bosnian andtheMacedonian were bypredominantly guided pragmatic motives for theirpro-Yugoslav stance), insecurity outside of astableYugoslavia (it canbearguedthatthe politicalelites socialist Yugoslavia for thefirst time theirhistories, in as theenvisioned aswell Their eventualrecognition asseparate national groupsand constituent nations in successful nation-building project withinalarger political entity/federation/union. Bosnian Muslims andtheMacedonians to seek asolution fora lasting and claims bothontheterritory oftheir countries and ontheir identity, hadledthe Or, rather, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Macedonia experienced a somewhat tame patriotism, or patriotism, tame asomewhat experienced andMacedonia Bosnia-Herzegovina rather, Or, The dimension ofidentity andtheprocesses of identityformation among 4 3 . Asthechartsattached CEU eTD Collection 1992 1968 1945 1918 in 1968. the chapterwillreflect ontheposition of the twogroups within socialist provide a logical andahistorical linktotheperiod inquestion, thesecond part of and theComintern ontheBosnianandMacedonian questions. Inorderto considerable references tothe positions taken bytheYugoslav Communist Party Yugoslavia (1918-1941) oftheBosnian Muslims andthe Macedonians, with the statusand theposition within andthe relationship totheKingdom of the topic. Thesecond chapter will laythe historical basis forthethesis, namely Slavic/religious identity until 1992,while theBosnian Muslims hadtheYugoslav layer mapped ontotheir BOSNIAKS The firstchapterpresent will certain theoretical consideration relevant to MACED. before SRB/CRO/SLO the ethno-national was introduced/institutionalized 5 Slavic/Religious Supranational (Yugoslav) Ethno-national CEU eTD Collection Bocinov). the 5 to thelast federal Presidency, Mr.Safet Pihljak, Sarajevo citizen, participant at Cuculovski, President ofUJDI-, Bosnian Bogic Bogicevic, representative representative to the last Yugoslav federalPresidency, Prof. Ljubomir involvedTupurkovski, orwitnessedtheevents(Mr. MacedonianVasil thesis will refer to several personal interviews with individuals who were directly 1991, originaldocuments from the intellectuals’ UJDI initiative. Inaddition, the news reports,the YUTEL materialof the centralanti-war protest in Sarajevo in Budapestin and the State Archive ofMacedonia, newspaper articles from 1991, (especially fortheperiod 1989-1992): documents from the Open Society Archive Yugoslav idea theresearch would makeof the available use archival material examining the popularsupport among theMacedonians andthe forthe the Bosnian republican presidents forthepreservation ofaYugoslav Union. In use oftheconcrete proposals (“The Platform”) submitted bytheMacedonian and addition to the available secondary literature, thethesis will furthermore make certain prominent parallels between the Bosnian and the Macedonian case. In preventing war andpreserving a reformed andcommon state. Yugoslav non-politicalfront: the intellectuals’ and thecitizens’ initiatives aimingat preservationof Yugoslavia. And finally, the third chapter will analyze the pro- voices from above, i.e.the initiatives ofthe politicalelites for the reformationand Yugoslavia. The third chapter will focus on the anti-nationalist and pro-Yugoslav The thesis willapproach the issue a comparativein manner, establishing th April protests andMr. April Simo Spaskovski, Chief ofStaffAdmiral 6 CEU eTD Collection interest”, tobeing understood asspecifically phenomenon acollective conveying particularistic self-understandings rather than byputatively universal self- denoting amanner inwhich individual orcollective action “governedis by major flaw being theaxiomatic, presupposed bounded groupness. Cooper argue against the use of the term precisely because of its ambiguity, its requires unambiguous analyticalcategories, Rogers Brubaker andFrederick on verydifferent meanings andconnotations. By arguingthatsocial analysis Identities Those 1.1. All through the works ofsome oftheprominent authors who wrote onthem. nationalism/supranationalism and (Yugoslav) federalism would bereflected upon exploring andexplaining. Namely, ofidentity, thenotions considerations relatedtothe corephenomena thesis is this interested in two case-studies, it wouldbeusefulto present anoverview ofthetheoretical 47. 5 29. 2000), Books, TV 4 Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, “Beyond ‘Identity’”, “Beyond Cooper, Frederick and Brubaker Rogers Ron Haviv, Chuck Sudetic and David Rieff, and David Chuck Sudetic RonHaviv, Identity hascome torepresent an all-encompassing term which cantake Before embarking onacloser analysis of the Yugoslav context and the Chapter 1:Some Theoretical Considerations Now I’m becoming aMuslim. It’s not my choice. “First Iwas a Yugoslav. Then, I was a Bosnian. Blood andHoney 7 Theory and Society Theory : I don’t even believe in God…” a Balkan war journal war a Balkan - Aresident of Sarajevo. 29 [1] (2000):1- 29 [1] (New York: 5 From 4 CEU eTD Collection channeling andresolving the differences which were voicedbythedifferent develop apolitical, social, cultural andeconomicmodel ofnegotiating, As itwill bediscussed below, the Yugoslav federation therefore hadtried to University Press,1992). University the world Yugoslav identity asfarfrom homogeneous and unified. viewingthe primary ethnic/republican identity building blocks andthe secondary particular affinities and connections. In the Yugoslav case, this would imply focus onthe particular stories ofself-identification andself-understanding, the presupposed bounded identity groups. Theauthors recommend agreater 8 7 47. 6 implication ofhomogeneity which the“identitarian politicaladvocates” groupness. Furthermore, onehastobear in mind thehighlyproblematic categorization and self-understanding, objective commonality and subjective groupness. Theyplausibly arguethatwhat needstobekeptdistinct isexternal “powerful‘identifier’”), self-understanding, commonality, connectedness or categorization (self-identificationvs. external identification, with thestate as the an alternative, theauthorspropose theuse of thenotionsidentificationand ‘self’ the deepaspects of selfhood orthefragmented andfluid nature ofthemodern fundamental “sameness” between groupmembers, oronthecontrary concerning Sabrina Ramet, Sabrina Ibid, 330 ‘Identity’”, “Beyond Cooper, Frederick and Brubaker Rogers 6 , thenotionof“identity” hasbecome aporousandomnipresent concept.As As ethnically Yugoslavia was oneof the most heterogeneous polities in 8 , (national, ethnic, religious) identity unavoidably played acrucial role. Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia 1962-1991 Yugoslavia in and Federalism Nationalism 8 Theory and Society Theory (Bloomington: Indiana (Bloomington: 29 [1] (2000):1- 29 [1] 7 ascribe to CEU eTD Collection Sage Publication, 1997), 9.1997), Sage Publication, 9 can neverbe reduced toasingle element, evenbyparticular factions of Smithby claiming that “anational identity isfundamentally multi-dimensional; it With themulti-layered approach tonational/cultural identity alsoagreesAnthony first, person-centered, second, group-centered andthird, collectivity centered. According to him, the political-cultural identity could work at a series of levels: individualselves tothe community considered asan ordered body of persons.” furthermore: “Theideaofpolitical-cultural identity expresses therelationshipof political-cultural identity thecontestednessofidentityiscentrallyimportant”and supporters of the two. AsP. Preston W. notes, “In general, in the sphere of publicand in memory. Thus,bothofthem were contestedorattacked byextreme supranationalYugoslav onewereequally present andupheld inthepublic realm distinguishable from the various ethnic identities. Both the ethnic and the on the one hand, but on the other hand simultaneously was totally separated and process culminating inthe 1970s andthe 1980s) witha Yugoslav cultural identity identity which was Yugoslav atthe same time overlapped(through a gradual relationship between the political and the cultural identity/identities: the political married andlived across what wouldlater become fixed republicanborders. and strictly defined spaces. On thecontrary, peoplemoved, were employed, political and personalcircumstances, asthe federal unitswere farfrom closed overlapped, evolved, changed, were negotiated andshaped with regard tothe constituent groups andterritories. Identities in theYugoslav context veryoften Peter Wallace Preston, Wallace Peter One centraldistinctive feature ofthe Yugoslav context was the Political/Cultural Identity: citizens and nations inaglobalera andnations citizens Identity: Political/Cultural 9 (London: 9 CEU eTD Collection Sage Publication, 1997), 59.1997), Sage Publication, given texts orsymbolssacred or sites. It is carriedinlanguageand made and Preston: “Identity isnotfixed, ithas noessence anditdoesnotreside inany whichexists between language and national/cultural identity isreconfirmed by which werelikewise pursued the followingin century.The strongrelatedness 11 182. 1995), Press, University (Edinburgh andHoward Spencer Wollman Philip reaffirmed bythe19 unitarism appears tobethe most prominent andthemost important one, century. The linguisticcomponent ofthe Yugoslav identity and South-Slav (historical andpolitical toamuch lesserextent) haspersisted throughout the 20 spread impression and awareness of some common cultural and linguistic roots knowledgecan be contrasted with thesphere of folk knowledge.” on strength andscale.As Preston notes, sphere“The ofpublic ideological narrower ethnic/regionalaffiliations weredeeply entrenched and hadnever lost of aSouthSlavidea national andlinguistic merging. Ithasbeenevident that the prominent intellectual(elite) figures mostly inCroatia and Sloveniaupheld the culturalunity istobetraced tothe19 South Slav solidarity, cultural andethnic proximity andpotential national and nation-building project. Namely,of the theadvocating Yugoslav idea,i.e.of Yugoslav/South Slavnation, asitsuggests the historical backgroundofthis failed 10 means.” nationalists, nor itcanbe easilyswiftly or induced a populationin byartificial Peter Wallace Preston, Wallace Peter Anthony Smith, “Civic and ” in Nationalism” Ethnic and “Civic Smith, Anthony This claim applies to thenotion andthe contestedconcept of a 10 th centuryattempts tocreate acommon Serb-Croat language Political/Cultural Identity: citizens and nations in a global era global in a nations and citizens Identity: Political/Cultural 10 th century. The and Nations and Nationalism - a reader - a Nationalism and Nations 11 Yet,thewide- edited by edited (London: th CEU eTD Collection (2000):1-47. 15 nationality Deutsch, Karl are carried.” culture of and channels habits the and memories whose minds in individuals living of thecollection we stress ‘community’ wesay 14 has passed. whose time ideas were asout-dated youth regarded progressive and the student population the for identities ethno-national of the concepts while studies, one discipline the by belonging belonging, thought of ofintellectual/school lines the along were running atthattime Yugoslavia former in identities youth the that underlined furthermore She borders. across republican student mobility huge bythe sustained and encouraged was primarily which youth), among the (in particular and identity orientation pro-European pro-Yugoslav, cosmopolitan a of existence evident the out She pointed ofBelgrade. University the at philosophy political 13 nationality 12 media,intellectual, artistic, economicand political interaction and events (Yugoslav/federal/supranational)encompassing level communication, cultural, linguistic, national andculturalcontexts, sharedaparallel andmore dominant information vehicles.” communities” referto“acommunity oflanguage [which] acommunityis of remade inroutine social practice.” InKarl Deutsch’s terminology, these “speech codifying it.” nationhood, theregimewent tounprecedented lengthsin institutionalizing itand regimewas butantinational, anything where “farfrom ruthlessly suppressing this case equally valid for theYugoslav context, althoughanti-nationalist, the 1.2. Nationalism/Supranationalism/Citizenship is applicable. sense, Deutsch’s understanding ofanation/nationality interms ofacommunity Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper. “Beyond ‘Identity’”, “Beyond Cooper. and Frederick RogersBrubaker as When such […] andinstitutions preferences habits, the westress we say “When ‘culture’, degree in aMaster’s 1980 did 1974 to who, from Mostov Julie Prof. by offered is example One Deutsch, Karl As Brubaker rightly noteswith tothe regard regime intheUSSR, butin (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969), 89. MIT Press,1969), (Cambridge: 41. MIT Press,1969), (Cambridge: 15 Nationalism and Social Communication: an inquiry into the foundations of foundations the into an inquiry Communication: and Social Nationalism Hefurthercitestheexampleof Romanians andHungarians in Nationalism and Social Communication: an inquiry into the foundations of foundations the into an inquiry Communication: and Social Nationalism 12 TheYugoslavs, beside theirnarrower ethnic/republican 11 Theory and Society Theory 13 . In this 29 [1] 14 CEU eTD Collection 2001), 6. 2001), Projects Postnational in Europe”, of Integration Social 19 18 solutions.” collective require that fortunes’ ‘collective overlapping of an understanding of “development is cosmopolitanism ofcultural requirements the of One [...] life stylesof andalternative offate communities cultures, between national tomediate capacity “The Press,1995), a reader and Nationalism: 17 16 115. “The Slovene Spring” – an Interview Kova Miha with – anInterview Spring” Slovene “The democracy.” ofinstitutionalized lack the causebeing root main its system, Kova As Miha engaging citizen.” three paradigms citizenship defining “favors thepassive, butemotionally traditionsthat atits lie core.” location of one’s own birth, land, upbringing, conversion) and to mediate individual identity […] It theis ability tostand outside asingular location (the cultural project, “cultural cosmopolitanism emphasizes the possible fluidity of whichdeveloped inspiteof the institutionalized national discourses. Being a federation there was acertaintype ofYugoslav “cultural cosmopolitanism” rightfully argue that especially during the last two-three decades of the Yugoslav from sheer indifference totheclaims ofethnocultural nationality.” intergenerational assimilation (in bothdirections), and-perhaps most important - from mixed marriages, from bilingualism, frommigration, […] from made efforts significant toblur andconceal“the fluidity andambiguity that arise “identitarian entrepreneurs” (particularly prominent inYugoslavia from the 1980s) Transylvania, which bears striking resemblances totheYugoslav context, where Bernhard Giesen and Klaus Eder, “Introduction - European Citizenship: An Avenue for the for An Avenue Citizenship: -European “Introduction Eder, Klaus and Giesen Bernhard 327. Ibid, David Held, “Culture and Political Community - National, Global and Cosmopolitan” in and Cosmopolitan” Global National, - Community andPolitical “Culture Held, David 318. Ibid, The collective identity paradigm,which Giesen andEder identify asoneof 326. þ similarly noted: “Nationalism is produced within the very structure of the Yugoslav the of structure the very within produced is “Nationalism noted: similarly , edited by Eder, Klaus and Bernhard Giesen. (, University (Oxford Giesen. and Bernhard Klaus byEder, edited , 19 This theis level whichcan beassociated withthe cultural edited by Philip Spencer and Howard Wollman (Edinburgh University (Edinburgh Wollman andHoward Spencer byPhilip edited 18 European Citizenship Between National Legacies and Legacies National Between Citizenship European 12 þ . New Left Review New Vol. 177 (1988): 115-128. 177 (1988): Vol. 16 Onecan Nations 17 CEU eTD Collection 21 177. 1995), Press, University (Edinburgh andHoward Spencer Wollman Philip 3.acommon,mass public culture 2.commonmyths andhistorical memories “1. anhistoricterritory, orhomeland belong to’. forced into ascribed andprescribed ethnic categories, without theright of‘notto prescribed national belonging was wider. After 1990,most ofthepeople were supranational identity, thespace forindividual choiceand avoidance of with theintroduction and the acknowledgement ofthe existence of a 20 concept allowedsuch no latitude” but could chooseto which heor she belonged, the non-Western orethnic the conceptWestern laid downthatan individual hadtobelong tosome nation institutions within ethnic/republican frameworks. His assumption that“whereas context, asymbiotic in entity with the narrower cultures, ideologies and common publicandmass culturewere undeniablypresent all intheYugoslav and institutions Smithrefers to,thecommon culture andcivic , the and towhich theyfeel theybelong.” fairly well demarcated andbounded territory, withwhichmembers the identify single code of rights and duties […]It also suggests a definite social space, a community“a political turn implies atleast in some anda common institutions historical orethnic solidarity andsimilarity. As opposed to the ethnic conception, identity, as the level which featuredis bysubjective inclinations towards cultural, Ibid. 179. Ibid. Anthony Smith, “Civic and Ethnic Nationalism” in Nationalism” andEthnic “Civic Smith, Anthony Smithenumerates five features ofnational identity: 21 20 seems relevantfor the Yugoslav case, as The idea of 13 Nations and Nationalism - A reader - A andNationalism Nations patria -thecommunity oflaws edited by edited CEU eTD Collection nationality 23 181. 1995), Press, University (Edinburgh andHoward Spencer Wollman Philip does it seemdoes it probable that consciousness of nationality will strengthen its mayelse bethethingsculturally valuedat that time […] only then and place, is seenas a winning card in the social game forprestige, wealth, orwhatever blurringof ethnic boundaries. “Only ifnationality isvalued”, hefurthernotes, “if it generalsecurity andtheattempts atethnicandsocialjustice to the also led to blurringclass of lines,but thein Yugoslav case,the increased quality oflife, 22 “more complementarity effective ofsocialcommunication.” country”, accorded security and prestige, social reforms,well-being, leads to people.Social mobility and having thesense thatone hasa“stakethe in intercourse canlead tointernal integration and formationof anationout ofthe nationalismcommunication. and social Ifeffective, socialcommunication and constituent nations andnationalities. same time, allofthese had a parallel ethnic attribute referring to the eight commonmass culture, public common legaland economic framework. But atthe historical memories (usually associated withthe anti- struggleof WW2), project, as there were identifiable Yugoslav homeland, commonmyths and realms andonthelevel oftheYugoslav/South Slavattempted nation-building These features were viable andapplicableboth thein national/republican/ethnic 5.acommon economy withterritorial mobility for members.” 4.common rightsand duties legal forall members Karl Deutsch, Karl Anthony Smith, “Civic and Ethnic Nationalism” in Nationalism” andEthnic “Civic Smith, Anthony A different approach isassumedKarl Deutsch by inhisseminalwork on (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969), 99. MIT Press,1969), (Cambridge: Nationalism and Social Communication: an inquiry into the foundations of foundations the into an inquiry Communication: and Social Nationalism 14 Nations and Nationalism - A reader - A andNationalism Nations 23 HereDeutsch refers 22 edited by edited CEU eTD Collection pronounced polarizations. thoroughness. Thisto doubleoften led loyalty, multiple identities, but also to Yugoslav greatness AND Serb/Croat/Macedonian etc. greatness, witor context, therewasor multi-layered adouble, attachment ofsecondary symbols: but ‘French wit’; notthoroughness,but ‘German thoroughness.” channels ofsocialcommunication, or through themindof an individual. Not wit, secondary symbols ofnationality toprimary itemsof information moving through consciousness and nationalwill:“National consciousness theattachmentis of break-up ofthe federation. endorsed, andopposed bymore conscious actors ethnically anddisrupted bythe In theYugoslav casethe process of ethnic learningwas undeniably begun, which individuals, usually over severalgenerations, learn tobecome apeople.” 26 25 nationality 24 asyndromein of “experience and complementary may thencontinue to reproduce each other […] flourishing culturallife, etc.Theseprocesses Deutsch’s view in that entail valued: openness andtheinternational prestige ofYugoslavia, non-alignment, seen asawinning card, additionin totheother aspectswhich were culturally was valuedandfor a certain timewhen prosperity was atitsclimax it was indeed development.” Ibid, 172. Ibid, 174. Ibid, Deutsch, Karl Deutsch also differentiates between the concepts of national (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969), 178. MIT Press,1969), (Cambridge: 24 Nationalism and Social Communication: an inquiry into the foundations of foundations the into an inquiry Communication: and Social Nationalism Evidently, theYugoslav denomination and emerging nationality ethnic learning , that is, a historical process of social learning in 15 26 IntheYugoslav 25 CEU eTD Collection thus promote asystem of ethnic and social/economic justice narratives from the past,anything whichmight uptoethnic lead enmities and University Press, 1992), 16. Press,1992), University reaching autonomy tothefederalunits.” loyalty through the abandonment ofnation building andthe provision offar- regulation andsocial integration through devolution, seekingto assurecommunal Ramet assertsthat“socialist Yugoslavia evolved a particular system of conflict to resolvethe nationality problem and developing anoriginal Yugoslav model of federalism whose primary aim was 31 1988). ed. Rusinow, Dennison 1980s. the late in obvious especially became which self-government, exercising effectively from population the preventing elites, party corrupt republic-based the for aframework established federalism Yugoslav that fact the emphasizes example, for Rusinow, Dennison implications. and features andnegative positive 30 USSR. and the Czechoslovakia Yugoslavia, played in Party theCommunist role theunique underlining federalism” “socialist of notion uses the author The 1995). Press, of Columbia British University (: al. Knoppet Karen World inaChanging and Governments Markets, Citizens, Federalism: Rethinking 29 108. Press,2005), University West to Federalism”, Asymmetrical of Viability andthe Federation Yugoslav the of Collapse “The Žagar, Mitja existed.” haslong constituents, ethnic main byits acommon state for demands and ofYugoslavia, idea The powers. bygreat created entity was anartificial not Slovenes, 28 3. 1995), Press, Columbia ofBritish University al. (Vancouver: et Knopp by Karen layered institutions.” World”, 27 sovereignty, 1.3. Federalism Sabrina Ramet, Sabrina its argueboth to possible is it phases, different many wentthrough federalism Yugoslav As in Practice” and Theory Communist Federations: European and Eastern “Central Knapp, Viktor and , of as theKingdom I War World after established state, Yugoslav first “The Richard Simeon and Katherine Swinton, “Introduction: Rethinking Federalism in aChanging in Federalism Rethinking “Introduction: Swinton, andKatherine Simeon Richard Rethinking Federalism: Citizens, Markets, and Governments in a Changing World inaChanging and Governments Markets, Citizens, Federalism: Rethinking “As an idea, federalism“As anidea, suchassharedanddivided ustoissues points edited by Sergio Ortino, Mitja Žagar and Vojtech Mastny (Manchester: Manchester (Manchester: Mastny andVojtech Žagar Mitja Ortino, bySergio edited The Changing Faces of federalism: Institutional reconfiguration in Europe from East from Europe in reconfiguration Institutional federalism: of Faces Changing The multiple loyalties andidentities Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia 1962-1991 inYugoslavia and Federalism Nationalism Yugoslavia: A Fractured Federalism A Fractured Yugoslavia: 27 Duringitsexistence,Yugoslavia 29 , reconcile orlevel downdisparate ethnic 16 31 , andgovernance through multi- (Washington: Wilson Center Press, Center Wilson (Washington: 28 believedtobe building (Bloomington: Indiana (Bloomington: 30 . In this context this In . edited by edited edited CEU eTD Collection 35 83. 1995), Press, Columbia British of University inaChangingWorld and Governments Markets, 34 Press,2005). University West to East in Federalism” 33 3. 1995), Press, Columbia of British University al. (Vancouver: et byKarenKnopp edited World” in 32 and laws. meant toreform the economic system, orrefused to respect federal regulations non-functional the in late 1980swhen local nationalelites vetoed various bills over theethnic one on the ideology of self-management,with theclass component being prevalent model. The1963 constitution introduced a system democracy”of “socialist based new constitutions andconstitutionalamendments triedtoameliorate its federal constitution wasthe Federalassembly), passedin throughnumerous reforms, the Yugoslav Kingdom in 1918,theYugoslavpolity after 1946(when itsfirst centralism/unitarism vs. decentralism/confederalism since theestablishment of applicable intheYugoslav context. Although haunted bythe dilemma focus of all socialconsiderations.”focus ofall societies, “federalism maketends to nationalidentity andnational interest the Furthermore, ifunderstood exclusively as a system applicable for multination must havepassedthrough thehistorical stage ofnation statehood.” not compensate for the basic (unfulfilled) condition that “all of its constituent parts amendments andthe1974constitution). Eventually, theYugoslav model could Ibid. Mihailo Markovic, “The Federal Experience in Yugoslavia” in Yugoslavia” in Experience “The Federal Markovic, Mihailo ofAsymmetrical Viability and the Federation Yugoslav the Collapse of “The Žagar, Mitja a Changing in Federalism Rethinking “Introduction: Swinton, andKatherine Simeon Richard The claim that federalism is aprocess, rather than afixed state Rethinking Federalism: Citizens, Markets, and Governments in aChangingWorld andGovernments Citizens,Markets, Federalism: Rethinking edited by Sergio Ortino, Mitja Žagar and Vojtech Mastny (Manchester: Manchester (Manchester: Mastny Vojtech and Žagar Mitja Ortino, Sergio by edited The Changing Faces of federalism: Institutional reconfiguration in Europe from inEurope reconfiguration Institutional federalism: of ChangingFaces The 33 (which will dramatically change with subsequent 35 TheYugoslav federation was made totally 17 edited by Karen Knopp et al. (Vancouver: al. et Knopp byKaren edited Rethinking Federalism: Citizens, Federalism: Rethinking 32 is highly 34 CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1992), 19. Press,1992), University 36 were notpredicted either bypolicy makers orbyarea specialists. and theeventsof1989,in which context theYugoslavdissolution tookplace model failed. Firstofall, important itis tonotethatthecollapse ofcommunism caused the violent dissolution of the Yugoslav federation and why thisparticular 37 Press,1996). University in John Allcock examplethe factthatfirst Yugoslavia inherited eightdifferent legal systems). and JosephRotschchildpoints out thedisparate historical legacies (citing for independence, Sabrina Ramet choosesto emphasize thesystem’s illegitimacy role ofGermany andAustria andtheirrecognition ofthe Croatandthe Slovenian focus on a different dimension. SusanWhile Woodward underlines the (negative) story: politics, economy, culture,religion, demographics, history, each putting the have appeared after 1992 referred and analyzed different factors intheYugoslav visions oftheYugoslav federation. Theauthors onYugoslavia worksin which difference” referringto Croatiaand Serbia andtheir irreconcilable claims and problems.” multiethnic state, diversesocial problems manifest also themselves as interethnic of aunionor aconfederationof states. However, asRamet rightly notes, “ina wouldall endbya new constitution,a radical set of reforms oranestablishment crisis from 1970s,the late even thepolitical eliteswere proneto believe that it political situation inYugoslavia was aggravated bythesimultaneous economic Katherine Verdery, Katherine Sabrina Ramet, Sabrina There havebeen numerous attempts atexplaining what essentially 37 Ignatieff uses an intelligent coinage - “narcissism of minor Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia 1962-1991 inYugoslavia and Federalism Nationalism Explaining Yugoslavia What Was Socialism, And What Comes Next? Comes What And Socialism, Was What offersabroaderperspective by giving an 18 (Bloomington: Indiana (Bloomington: (Princeton: Princeton (Princeton: 36 Although the CEU eTD Collection closing of inconvenient channelscommunication of insociety, andtheattempted image ofanationalcharacter adopted as a goal […] In practice this meant the merely different from, thenational separateness, orthe nationalunity, orthe This would mean therefusal toaccept communication conflicting with, oreven Will”, where he states that “consciousness of nationality might harden into will. chapter “Extreme Nationalism and Self-Destruction: The InnerProblem of the destructive) role theSerbian politicalelite played. developments inthefederal presidency, by accentuating the (negative and outlook of the negotiations between the republican presidents and the politicalmemoir of the last Yugoslav President StipeMesi not inevitable iswhat, among otherthings, this thesis istrying toshow. The solution to the crisis. His view that the disintegration ofthe Yugoslav polity was terms them, who bearthe primary responsibility for not comingup with aviable individual political agencyoftheextremist republican leaders,the “villains” ashe Warren Zimmerman, thelastUSambassador to Yugoslavia stresses the accounts/memoirs involved ofthedirectly actors offer likewise differentviews. of thedissolutiondeterioration in of the Serb-Albanianrelations, while the instead of the institutionalized ethnicization of it. Branka Magaš locates the core medias res, Andrew isamongWachtel therareones to put culture and culturalpolicy equal attention andimportance bothtoeconomic/social andpolitical factors. To broadenthe theoretical ground, onemight refer toKarl Deutsch’s noting thefailure of forging atrue supranationalYugoslav culture 19 ü provides an insider’s in CEU eTD Collection applicable intheYugoslav case. His question of“why didGermany -unlike ethnic/religious/cultural terms. there is always alurkingdanger offramingpolitical and social conflicts in largely discounted, it isimportant tounderline thefactthat multinationalin states nations.” increasing risks any in of thesystems communication ofsocial which we call outside informationand internal self-control -thesearemajor andperhaps danger of such closing of the avenues of understanding and of the loss ofboth space for the destiny ofpolities and nations. He rightly concludes that “the essential roleofmedia, communication and the framing ofthecommunication propaganda - the manipulation ofmass communication” streams ofinformation bythe“deafening volume ofcoordinatedmass assertion aboutthe danger concealed intheprocess of the drowningof whole University Press, 2005), 123. Press,2005), University West to East in Federalism” Asymmetrical of Viability andthe Federation Yugoslav the of Collapse “The Žagar, Mitja of political conflicts into ethnic conflicts.” transformation to the contributed myths ethnic and and historic nationalism useof The provinces. 41 40 39 nationality 38 closing of the mindof individuals.” Herzegovina Thompson’s work of themedia forthe bloody disintegration is likewise emphasized inMark “Ethnic affiliation and nationalism became important political factors in all republics and republics all in factors political became important andnationalism affiliation “Ethnic 184. Ibid, Ibid, Deutsch, Karl 183. Lastly, JürgenKocka’s argument ontheGerman (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969), 181. MIT Press,1969), (Cambridge: 40 Although thetheory ofthe‘century-old ethnic hatreds’ hasbeen edited by Sergio Ortino, Mitja Žagar and Vojtech Mastny (Manchester: Manchester (Manchester: Mastny Vojtech and Žagar Mitja Ortino, Sergio by edited The Changing Faces of federalism: Institutional reconfiguration in Europe from inEurope reconfiguration Institutional federalism: of ChangingFaces The and Kemal Kurspahiand Kemal Nationalism and Social Communication: an inquiry into the foundations of foundations the into an inquiry Communication: and Social Nationalism Forging the War: media in Serbia, Croatia andBosnia- 41 ü 38 ’s The propaganda war and the responsibility Prime Time Crime Time Prime 20 Sonderweg . Deutsch’s much earlier 39 reconfirms the seems highly CEU eTD Collection 42 those who believedtheir country tobeYugoslavia andhencenatural thatit lenses of“today” or“theendofthestory”. An attempt the historyof toinclude and creative writer, travel time backin andtrytoseetheevents stripped ofthe historian should transcend his/her own times and,assuming therole ofa good to portray the past times inafair and balanced manner. Inthis sense the those who backathistorywith the look eyesofposteritytodotheirbest order in elites which couldnot keep productive pacewith thenew times. critical developments hadtobehandledat the same time bygenerallyolder internationalrelations (in addition tothe unrest inKosovo) meant thatseveral political/constitutionalone athome a major and post-Cold reconfigurationWar in international andadomestic economic coincided crisis witha seems plausible equally iftransposed tothe context.Yugoslav Thefactthat an social question]” which led to their incomplete resolution and NationalSocialism, [formationof anation-state, constitutional decision onparliamentarization andthe time” and“thetemporaloverlap of and interactionamong thesethree crises developmental problems ofmodern societiescameto theforeatabout the same perversion?” comparable countries suchasCzechoslovakia- turn tonationalist andwar perversion?” couldbe translated aswell into“why didYugoslavia -unlike comparable countries inthe andNorth West - turnto fascist and/or totalitarian History and Theory History Jürgen Kocka, “Asymmetrical Historical Comparison: the case of the German the of thecase Comparison: Historical “Asymmetrical Kocka, Jürgen Although historyoften takes unexpected orundesired directions, itisupto 42 Likewise, histhesisthat it was thefactthat“threebasic , Vol. 38, No. 1 (February 1999): 40-50. 1999): , Vol. 38,No.1(February 21 Sonderweg ” in CEU eTD Collection victors anditsvictims adifferent in way. continues toexist form, albeitinadifferent would at least illuminate thepast, its 22 CEU eTD Collection nation withnames, three represented forthe Bosniaks andtheMacedonians the the ethnic groupswhichdidnot come tofallintotheSouthSlavic triadof theone Kingdom of theSerbs,Croats and Slovenes and (notonly nominally) leftoutall advancing claims ontheterritories of Bosnia andMacedonia. claims onidentitywere ultimately and essentially used asalegitimization of “ours” (asCroat, Serb, or Bulgarian). It should behowever emphasized thatthe labeling the territory and the peoples ofBosnia-Herzegovinaand Macedonia as simultaneously with state-sponsored projects ofclaiming, appropriating and often the focalpoints towards which wavering loyalties were proceeding Bosnian, and Serbia (Yugoslavia) andBulgaria thein Macedonian casewere culturalprojects, stancesandsymbolic geographies. Serbia andCroatia the in thorn betweenprincipal their neighbors’ ideological, political, historical and perception byoutsiders has been largely conditioned by, dependent upon and the existence ofthese two communities, their self-perception, historiography and the late-comers tothenation-building andstate-building projects oftheregion, Bosna and the geographical region ofMacedonia. Moreover, considered tobe nations whose national identification draws uponaterritorial marker: the river no matter whether of Muslim, Orthodox or Catholic faith. or Catholic Orthodox ofMuslim, whether no matter Bosnia-Herzegovina of toallofthe inhabitants refers cases when the it Bosnians in or Bosniaks, as Muslims Bosnian the and to as “Macedonian”, self-identifies group which ethnic/national only arethe they battles, andsymbolical historiographic/scientific ideological, ongoing 43 Chapter 2:The Mazeof(Un)Recognized (Non)Existence I will henceforth refer to the Slavic Macedonians only as Macedonians, since beside the beside since asMacedonians, only Macedonians Slavic to the refer henceforth will I The newpolitical reality ofpost-1918 Europe which saw ofthe the creation The Bosnian Muslims andthe (Slavic) Macedonians 23 43 arethe only Balkan CEU eTD Collection the competing ideologies andnational projects which intheir interest. hadit nationalgroups of interwar Yugoslaviawas pronetobe filled inwithcontent of traditions” andsymbolic cultural maps whichwas typicalforthe unrecognized 45 Day Present the Agesto Middle the from Bosnia: 44 distance.” by othernations, whose nationbuilding is now concealed from us byhistorical visibleto us, notit is fundamentally different characterin from that experienced whereasconstruction the process in these cases is quite recent and hencemore the Macedonians and the BosnianMuslims, “it isimportant to recognize that, Nations 2.1. Denied/Contested Macedonia, ,Bosnia, Dalmatia andVojvodina). autonomy forthesubject peoplesand landsofYugoslavia (among which Macedonians) did openly favor and advocate theself-determination andbroad stands regarding the separate ofthe Muslims andthe ideologically supporttheYugoslav communists who the (beside initialambiguous and asfullyequal partners), bothgroups eventually came topolitically and through theJMO -theYugoslavMuslim Organization (although notproportionally political representationand actually partook in the governing of the Kingdom is onecore difference between the two groups inthat the Bosniaks did havea recognition asseparate and equal partners in the Yugoslavpolity. Although there crucial pointandcontext which helped indeed frameand voicetheirdemands for John B. Allcock, in 1878-1941” a NewBosnia-Herzegovina Seedof “The Hoare, Attila Marko As John B. rightlyAllcock pointsout with regard tothenation-building of 45 One can argue that the vacuum state-sponsoredin “invented Explaining Yugoslavia Explaining (London: C. Hurst, 2000), 315. 2000), Hurst,C. (London: 24 (London: Saqi, 2007). Saqi, (London: 44 The History of History The CEU eTD Collection and theMacedonians, considered tobe former (pro-Austro-Hungarian, “Turkish”, general disillusionment, butsignificant unrest and violence against the Bosniaks existence. autonomist andnationalist initiatives andvoices foranacknowledged national the Macedonians which provided the consequent strong incentives for policies andthe realand symbolic violence and terroragainst theBosniaks and with thepost-WW1 settlements. However, was it precisely the aggressive with elite theruling inSofiaopenly voicing itsrevisionist policies anddiscontent which the interwar in period was initself acenterofthe Serb-Bulgarian conflict, . disunity ofBosnia-Herzegovina andthe inclinations linked toZagreb and conflict” noted thatthe Muslims andtheirhomeland “layat the centerof Serbo-Croat 47 Day Present the Agesto Middle the from Bosnia: 46 Macedonia. through the work of the JMO and theunderground politicalactivities in distinctive Bosniak and Macedonian identities incultural andin political terms divided elites, there were significant autonomist streams andmanifestations of by territorial appetites, often with violent and discriminative means. Beside the Bosnian casecompeted forthe loyalties ofthe ordinarypeople essentially driven andSerbia intheMacedoniancase andSerbiaand Croatia thein Ibid. in 1878-1941” a NewBosnia-Herzegovina Seedof “The Hoare, Attila Marko only not Kingdom brought new the of existence the of decade first The Muhamed Sudžuka, the editor of JMO newspaper 46 47 and thusfollowed otherpoliticalfigures thatcondemned the internal All of these Allof aspectsare likewiseto befound in theMacedonian case 25 (London: Saqi, 2007), 150. 2007), Saqi, (London: Pravda , in 1933 rightly The History of History The CEU eTD Collection population and the forces of government, which many civiliansperceived as Macedonia attimes appeared to exist in a state ofvirtualwar between the (Skopje: Institute of National History, 1969), 40-41. 1969), History, ofNational Institute (Skopje: 51 2008). (December Pavlovski Trifun Mr. with interview Personal 40. 1969), History, National of Institute Ivan Katardzievet al. 1918-2005 Legitimation, 50 the project ofits“pacification”. Yugoslav gendarmerie (12000 outof17 000) were stationed Macedoniain for Macedonia was executed with notrial,while 70% of thetotal number ofthe 1923 theentire adult male ofthevillage population ofGarvan inEastern 49 31. 1969), History, ofNational Institute (Skopje: 48 Sabrina Ramet terms the“arbitrary terrorization of Macedonians.” Bulgarian Bandits” established in 1922, its leader Kosta Pe the finalaim of colonizing theborderzone towards Bulgaria. colonizing Serbfamilies were settled the in eastern regions ofMacedonia, with Muslim Other) or present (pro-Bulgarian) enemiesof thestate. Until 1929, 2.418 Trifun. because ofit beinga“Bulgarian” name hewas andthus given the Serbianname own actofbaptizing, whenthe Serbian priestrefused tobaptize him “Trpko” a Skopje born citizen in1921 recalled thestory passed on by his parents of his administration, teaching staff andstrongmilitary presence. Mr. Pavlovski, Trifun included astrict language policy, changing ofpersonalnames, aSerb “Serbianize” Macedonia or what was considered to be Southern Serbia also Ivan Katardziev etal. Katardziev Ivan in Yugoslavia” “The First Ramet, P. Sabrina Personal interview with Mr. Trifun Pavlovski (December 2008). See 2008). (December Pavlovski Mr.Trifun with interview Personal etal. Katardziev Ivan 49 He alsorecalled thenotorious military Istorija na makedonskiot narod/History of the Macedonian People Macedonian the of narod/History namakedonskiot Istorija (Washington: Woodraw Wilson Center Press, 2005), 47. 2005), Press, Center Wilson Woodraw (Washington: Istorija na makedonskiot narod/History of the Macedonian People Macedonian the of narod/History namakedonskiot Istorija Istorija na makedonskiot narod/History of the Macedonian People Macedonian the of narod/History namakedonskiot Istorija 51 Thus, Keith Brown rightly concludes that “Vardar 26 The Three : State-Building and State-Building Yugoslavias: The Three chetnik Annex “Associationagainst . þ 48 anac and what The project to 50 Hence, in (Skopje: CEU eTD Collection 52 voice theircomplaints tothe Reisul-ulema Džemaludin arrival in1918, the illegal arrests and burglaries of Muslim houses led many to landowners orthe crimes committed bySerb and Montenegrinsoldiers after their withregard tothepost-1918 situation Bosnia.in The revenge taken onMuslim assassinations ofSerb officials andthe murder ofKingAlexander. was responsiblefor the virtualstate of war Macedonia, in the numerous (claiming theterritory andpeople tobeBulgarian) and pro-fascist VMRO which foreign.” under Serb. Greek and Bulgarian rule Macedonia within aBalkan federation andliberation oftheMacedonian people withheadquarters inVienna and later in , arguing for an independent VMRO Unitedwith leftist/communist andMacedonian autonomist orientation, warring and radically hostileorganizations andideological streams, theone- the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization hadsplit into two dominant 54 Dissolution Its to Creation ed. Trifunovska, Snezana 1924” in 29 April (IMRO), Organization Revolutionary Macedonian the Internal of Committee Central the of “Declaration 1925). from (United) Organization Revolutionary Macedonian Internal 53 42. Press,2003), University Princeton (Princeton: Institute of National History, 1969). History, National of Institute Ivan Katardziev et al. et Katardziev Ivan Press,2003). University of the 1990s Wars Balkan in Question” Macedonian “The Andrew Rossos, Press,2003). University Princeton (Princeton: Keith Brown, Keith Keith Brown, Keith State Archive of Republic of Macedonia, Skopje Macedonia, Republic of of Archive State Similar parallels regarding thestate of violence andterror canbedrawn 52 Itisalsonecessary topoint out that in thecaseof Macedonia, VMRO - The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation of Uncertainties andthe ModernMacedonia inQuestion: Past The The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation of Uncertainties andthe ModernMacedonia inQuestion: Past The Istorija na makedonskiot narod/History of the Macedonian People Macedonian the of narod/History namakedonskiot Istorija (Dodrecht: M. Nijhoff, 1994). M.Nijhoff, (Dodrecht: edited by Norman Naimark and Holly Case (Stanford: Stanford Case(Stanford: NaimarkandHolly by Norman edited 27 Yugoslavia and Its Historians: Understanding the Understanding Historians: andIts Yugoslavia 53 and the Bulgarian-based, revisionist : 1.1260.1.43/463-470 (“Declaration of the of (“Declaration 1.1260.1.43/463-470 : Yugoslavia through Documents: from Its from Documents: through Yugoslavia ý ausevi ü andmade even 54 (Skopje: CEU eTD Collection 58 2007), 116. Saqi, being aminority inallofthem. 57 99. 56 and Slovenes Croats Serbs, deathbed and hissuccessor, the leader ofthe pro-Croat factionDžafer Kulenovi Bosnian territory was included,while JMO leader Mehmed Spahowas onhis Banovina Croatia further modified thehistorical map ofBosnia, asadditional Hrvata iSlovenaca Hrvata Srški radical nationalists and JMO enemies, sawthe partition ofBosnia (devised by banovinas Bosnian question. representationand theJMO andadvocated Serb-Croatresolving allying in the (1932-1934) was theoutspoken, embittered opponent of Bosniak political 55 Srški Croatian Bosnia!” of the Croat Peasant Party. live Serbian Sarajevo andSerbian Bosnia!”, asopposedtothe “Long live forces inSarajevo in1928heldupsloganssuch as“LongliveGreatSerbia, long Muslims as“thebestCroats” followed thenationalist tradition ofAnte Star the Minister ofInterior Svetozar Pribi Ibid. Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko Friedman, Francine AtifPurivatra, ü ü himself acting asaMinister of Justice) intofour , later aMinister ofJustice under thedictatorship andPrime Minister Thus, the1929 administrative reorganization oftheKingdom into nine which cutacrosshistorical borders, tothepleasure ofSerb and Croat Jugoslovenska Muslimanska Organizacija upoliti Organizacija Muslimanska Jugoslovenska / The Yugoslav Muslim Organization in the Political life of the Kingdom of Kingdom the of life Political inthe Organization Muslim Yugoslav The The Bosnian Muslims: Denial of a Nation Denial of Muslims: Bosnian The The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The (Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1977). Svjetlost, (Sarajevo: 56 58 , thedemonstrators ofthe Radical paramilitary The1939“Sporazum” which createdthenew ü evi 28 ü to react. þ evi 57 TheBosnian Radical leader ü 55 consideringin the Bosnian (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), Press, Westview (Boulder: While the Croat the While leadership þ banovinas kom životu Kraljevine Srba, životu Kraljevine kom with Muslims (London: ü CEU eTD Collection Herzegovinians.” territory and composition of population, particular mentality of Bosnians and spoke of a “particular historical development and social existence, particular Saqi, 2007), 114. Saqi, whether ofCroatorSerb orientation.” sentimenta shared among Bosniaks, as “wasit by most seconded Muslims, 61 141. Press,1996), University Harvard (Cambridge: Pinson the early 1920sitwas voicedthroughtheJMO. Thus,itspaper this threadofBosnian particularism and patriotism was preservedand even in more andpublicly exposed present. distinctness ofthetwo unrecognized yetdifferent identities was becomingthe all manner, theMacedonian in case incultural and rathersubversive terms, the historicalterritories.more IntheBosnian casepolitically andina systematic the statusofunrecognized nationalgroups and tothedismemberment oftheir and theMacedonians voiced differentin ways andmanners their opposition to Grievances Old Kingdom, 2.2. New Bosnia. Postcommunist Statehood, 1918-1992” in 1918-1992” Statehood, Postcommunist 60 2007). Saqi, 59 was calling invain forthe formation ofasimilar special Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko Ivo Banac, “The Bosnian Muslims: From Religious Community to Socialist Nationhood and Nationhood Socialist to Community Religious From Muslims: Bosnian “The Banac, Ivo Noel Malcolm, Džafer Kulenovi Simultaneously, with anincreasing intensity inthe1930s, Bosniaks 59 Bosnia - A Short History 61 The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The ü ’s opposition tothepartition oftheterritory ofBosnia was (London: Macmillan, 1994). Macmillan, (London: The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina of Muslims The 60 Throughouttheexistence oftheKingdom, 29 banovina Pravda edited byMark edited statusfor in1923 (London: (London: CEU eTD Collection 65 2007), 128. Saqi, which defended itsown identity” established themselves as“acommunity onaparwiththeothers, acommunity cultural andreligious societies, their distinct identity was crystallized and they pro-Serb leanings among Bosniaks, it is evident that through the JMO and the say that isYugoslav.”it can saythatBosnia-Herzegovina Serboris Slovene, Croat or buteveryonecan solely arecognized religious peculiarity/identity. InKulenovi appetites andaway fortheBosniakstoleave thenarrow limits ofpossessing was seenas mostthe defense viable tool againstSerbian andCroatian territorial banovina MuslimsCroats. intoSerbsor Stjepan Radi 64 and Slovenes Croats Serbs, 62 “undeclared” or “Yugoslav”, spitein of the claims byfiguressuch as Srški declaringthat Bosnia isneither Serbnor Croat,were optingfor theoption the endof 1930s leadingBosniak and JMO representatives were openly who expressedhis preference ofbeing called Yugoslav) identified asCroats, Bosnian Muslim deputies thein Yugoslav Parliament (except forMehmed Spaho expected todeclareasMuslim Croats orMuslim Serbs. in1924allthe While Hrvata iSlovenaca Hrvata 63 Noel Malcolm, Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko Noel Malcolm, AtifPurivatra, Being recognized onlyasareligious community, theBosniaks were actually displayed the early roots of Yugoslav supranationalism, which ü thatJMO istoblame theassimilation forpreventing of theBosnian Bosnia - A Short History Bosnia - A Short History Jugoslovenska Muslimanska Organizacija upoliti Organizacija Muslimanska Jugoslovenska / The Yugoslav Muslim Organization in the Political life of the Kingdom of Kingdom the of life Political inthe Organization Muslim Yugoslav The The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The (Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1977). Svjetlost, (Sarajevo: 64 Although this period was alsomarked by pro-Croat or 65 63 . Kulenovi (London: Macmillan, 1994).166. Macmillan, (London: (London: Macmillan, 1994). Macmillan, (London: 30 ü ’s argument forafourthBosnian þ kom životu Kraljevine Srba, životu Kraljevine kom ü ’s words, “Nobody (London: 62 ü by or CEU eTD Collection Monographs, 2000), 190. 2000), Monographs, Politics Historiography, Culture, 67 66 Macedonians… There seemedno love tobe lost forthe mostin places. “were equallyinsistent oncalling themselves neither SerbsnorBulgars, but Gallop, who after avisit toMacedonia reported thatthepeople whom methe is the observation ofthe third secretary of the British Legation at Belgrade R.A. “neither Serbnor Bulgarian” inthe case of the Macedonians. An exampleof this language.” only helped confirm sentimentthe popular that Macedonian was aseparate regard totheMacedonian language,as Friedmanrightly argues,“such treatment nationalself-awareness even where onlyit existed inrudimentary form; or,with incorrect Serbian orBulgarian inschools andingeneral, fostered revolt anda name changingpolicies andthestigmatization oftheMacedonian “dialect” as we to wear had ribbons black signofin mourning for Tzar Boris’ death.” our loyalty. celebrated We KingAlexander’s birthday asastateholiday andlater “they wanted toSerbianize us, astheBulgarians similarly in1941wanted togain placed them the categoryin of (Southern) Serbs. Mr. TrifunPavlovski recalls that Macedonians’ Orthodox Christian faith and the hegemonic policies ofSerbia status ofanofficially recognized religious, culturaland political community, the with certain significant differences. Namely, while theBosniaks enjoyed the Victor Friedman, “Modern Macedonian Standard language” in language” Standard Macedonian “Modern Friedman, Victor 2008). (December Pavlovski Mr.Trifun with interview Personal In the MacedonianIn the case iseasyto it draw verysimilar parallels,although The Bosnianformula of “neither Serb nor Croat” was translated into The competing Serb and Bulgarian nationalprojects, thebrutalmeans, the 67 edited by Victor Roudmentof (Boulder: East European (Boulder: Roudmentof byVictor edited 31 The Macedonian Question: Macedonian The 66 CEU eTD Collection 69 145. Press,2003). University 1990s of the Wars Balkan the 68 dimensions oftheinterwar Bosnian andMacedonian history -therelation oftheir IMRO (United) with theComintern brings about one ofthemost important Embrace Communist The 2.3. the Macedonians asadistinct Slavic nation. debate, the Balkan Communist Partiesandthe Comintern (in1934)recognized liberation andreunification oftheMacedonian people. Balkanique 1934. Its other publication/newspaper was as aresolution ofIMRO (United) its newspaperin to the Executive Committee ofthe Comintern and subsequently itwas published left”) and the intelligentsia (inwhat Rossos terms “ on the significant support among theMacedonians, in particular among theleftist youth group. The above-mentionedIMRO (United) functioned illegally andenjoyed a within the Kingdom which wouldrepresent their interests as an ethnic/national before theBalkan hadbeentheirfriends…”War Their brutality during thewar hadlostthem the affection evenofthose who 70 165. Press,2008), Andrew Rossos, Andrew Rossos, “The Macedonian Question” in Question” Macedonian “The Rossos, Andrew Ibid. 69 . In1933 submittedit Resolution a concerning the situationMacedonia in The above-mentioned connection and cooperation of the Macedonian As itwas noted above, theMacedonians didnothave a politicalparty andbyitsmany activities IMRO (United) promoted thecauseof Macedonia and the Macedonians: a history Macedonians: the and Macedonia edited by Norman Naimark and Holly Case (Stanford: Stanford Case (Stanford: andHolly Naimark byNorman edited 32 Yugoslavia and Its Historians: Understanding Its Historians: and Yugoslavia 68 -Fédération Makedonsko delo 70 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Hoover (Stanford: Eventually, aftermuch inApril CEU eTD Collection Monographs, 2000). Monographs, Politics Historiography, Culture, 71 “theirdefenders because the CPY opposed and ‘hegemony’ movements, theMacedonians andtheMontenegrins saw the Communists as nation. Resolution officially recognized the right of Macedonians toexist as aseparate largest number ofvotes, while the Comintern withthe above-mentioned 1934 disputed issueuntil Itwas muchlater. inMacedoniathatthecommunists wonthe federation was recognized,while theBosniaknationhood would remain a determination andexistence asan independent unit inaBalkansocialist attitudes concerning Macedonia and Bosnia, Macedonia’s right tonational self- were cooperating with their Bulgarian andGreek like-minded comrades. party, while inMacedonia, although not that prominently, the communist activists interests, it couldbe as well saidfor theBosnian communistmovement and politicalthorn lifeinBosniaanditsbeing between Serb,CroatandBosniak socialist federationas a constituent nation). What was trueabout the mainstream not gettheir recognition until1968, while the Macedonians entered theYugoslav equalnations in Yugoslavia (with thesignificant difference that the Bosniaks did Bosniaks and theMacedonians andtheireventual recognition asseparate and with theComintern) played acrucial rolefor the overall emancipation of the Although outlawed attheend of 1920, the Communist PartyofYugoslavia (along nationalquestions andrecognition asdistinct nationalgroups with communism. Victor Friedman, “Modern Macedonian Standard language” in language” Standard Macedonian “Modern Friedman, Victor As Aleksa Djilas rightly argues, absencein of their own nationalpolitical 71 Although theYugoslav communists (andthe Comintern)had changing edited by Victor Roudmentof (Boulder: East European (Boulder: Roudmentof byVictor edited 33 The Macedonian Question: Macedonian The CEU eTD Collection question. Sentenced to death in 1939 for an alleged collaboration with the Intelligence. withBritish the collaboration alleged an 1939 for in death to Sentenced question. national onthe wing” views “right his 1929for in Party the from expelled official, Comintern 76 2007), 167. Saqi, 72 alliance oftheBalkans peoples whose equalmemberwould beautonomous and itssuccessful solution would come with only theestablishment ofa“brotherly that the Macedonian question isstill anapple of discord for the Balkan nations and advocated fundamental changes.” 75 55. 74 22. 1969), History, ofNational Institute (Skopje: 73 on thenational question from the same year , Bosnia,Croatia, Dalmatia andSlovenia” ‘Serbia, Macedonia, Kosovo with Metohija, with Hercegovina, favor ofthe reordering ofthe Yugoslavstate on thebasisof broad autonomy for at thesecondCountry Conference Mayin 1923theCPY pronounced itself “in Macedonia aseparate place and a right to autonomy andfull recognition. Thus, seats (92and91respectively). Democratic andthe Radical Parties which sharedalmost thesame number of the Communist Partywas thethirdlargest party intheAssembly afterthe seats the communists won, 15mandates/deputies were from Macedonia. 40.201, theDemocratic Party30.379, theRadical Party10.702; oroutofthe59 Macedonians: out of 105.000 registered voters, the Communist Party won made thewidespreadvisible supportthe communists enjoyedthe among Serb mathematician, elected secretary of the Yugoslav Communist Party in 1920andhigh in Party Communist Yugoslav the of secretary elected mathematician, Serb Djilas, Aleksa Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko Friedman, Francine etal. Katardziev Ivan From the beginning ofthe1920s the Yugoslav Communist Partyaccorded The Contested Country Contested The The Bosnian Muslims: Denial of a Nation Denial of Muslims: Bosnian The The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The Istorija na makedonskiot narod/History of the Macedonian People Macedonian the of narod/History namakedonskiot Istorija 74 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 63. Press,1991), University Harvard (Cambridge: 34 72 The 1920elections tothe Assembly by Sima Markovi 75 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), Press, Westview (Boulder: , while inadocument/report ü 76 , it is underlined, itis (London: 73 Thus, CEU eTD Collection Saqi, 2007). Saqi, 81 Ʌɢɫɬ 80 Ʌɢɫɬ 79 2007), 168. Saqi, 78 12. framework oftheCPY. Croatia, Slovenia andMacedonia was decided tobeestablished within the Conference ofthe CPY inDecember 1934that separate Communist Parties of without theright of each to secession”). It was notuntil the Fourth Country ɝɪɚɧɢɰɚɯɭɫɬɚɧɨɜɥɟɧɧɵɯɩɥɟɛɢɫɰɢɬɨɦ among other things, the Yugoslav Kingdom was perceived by the Comintern and the immigration ofmany counterrevolutionariesWhite from to Serbia Yugoslav constituent nations. communists andwas thus guaranteed the future status of one of the five throughout the interwar years on the political agenda of the Yugoslav The Electronic Archives of the Communist ofthe Archives Electronic The ɧɚɪɨɞɨɜ ɛɚɥɤɚɧɫɤɢɯ ɨɬɞɟɥɟɧɢɟ ɧɚ ɤɚɠɞɨɣ ɩɪɚɜɚ ɩɪɢɡɧɚɧɢɹ Moreover, the Comintern asserted that “ formula was one of“BalkanFederation of Independent Soviet Republics.” Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Vojvodina” independent worker-peasant republics ofCroatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Macedonia, Comintern instructions and developments, arguedfor theformation of“free and September 1928,theCentral Committee oftheCPY, incompliance with 77 Macedonia inborders establisheda plebiscite.” by Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko “ The Electronic Archives of the Communist International Communist the of Archives Electronic The The Electronic Archives of the Communist International Communist ofthe Archives Electronic The ɚɢɧɥɧɣ ɢɧȻɥɚɚɦɠɬ ɢɶ ɨɬɝɭɬɥɤɛɚɫɢɫɨɸɡɨɦ ɛɪɚɬɫɤɢɦ ɬɨɥɶɤɨ ɞɨɫɬɢɝɧɭɬ ɛɢɬɶ ɦɨɠɟɬ Ȼɚɥɤɚɧɚɯ ɧɚ ɦɢɪ ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɵɣ 3. 42. Because ofSerbia’s close relations with Tsarist Russia priorand to WW1 , The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The ɚɧɩɚɧɦ ɥɧɦ ɨɨɨɨɛɥɛɢɚɬɧɦɚɚɟɨɢɜ ɢɚɜɬɨɧɨɦɧɚɹɆɚɤɟɞɨɧɢɹ ɛɢ ɤɨɬɨɪɨɝɨɛɵɥɚ ɱɥɟɧɨɦ ɪɚɜɧɨɩɪɚɜɧɵɦ 81 Allof this goestoshow that Macedonia was present .” 35 ɪɚɜɧɨɩɪɚɜɧɢɟɧɚɰɢɣɧɟɜɨɡɦɨɠɧɨɛɟɡ ” 80 (“equality of nations is impossible , ɄɈɆɂɇɌȿɊɇ , , ɄɈɆɂɇɌȿɊɇ ɄɈɆɂɇɌȿɊɇ 78 , whilethe Comintern’s 77 Five years later, in , Ɏ .495, , , Ɏ Ɏ .495, .495, .495, ɨɩ .58, ɨɩ ɨɩ .58, .58, ɞ (London: (London: .58, .3 / ɞ Ʌɢɫɬ ɞ .7 .4 / ɚ 79 / CEU eTD Collection Ʌɢɫɬ 85 40. The Electronic Archives of the Communist International Communist ofthe Archives Electronic The ɚɟɨɫɢɦɫɵ ɫɪɲɬɥɧɣ ɵɬɩɥɩɨɢɛɭɚɶɨɝɝɦɧɢ ɫɟɪɛɫɤɨɣ ɝɟɝɟɦɨɧɢɢ ɛɪɭɬɚɥɶɧɨɣ ɩɪɨɬɢɜ ɛɭɪɠɭɚɡɢɢɢɫɟɪɛɫɤɨɝɨɦɨɧɚɪɯɢɡɦɚɢɦɢɥɢɬɚɪɢɡɦɚ ɜɵɫɬɭɩɚɥɢ ɪɟɲɢɬɟɥɶɧɟɣ ɜɫɟ ɦɚɫɫɵ ɦɚɤɟɞɨɧɫɤɢɟ ȾɇɌɈ ɝɥɜɤɝɝɫɞɪɬɚ ɡɇɐɈȺɇɃ ɂɜ ɚɤɯ ɷɬɨɝɨ ɪɚɦɤɚɯ ɜ ɆɂɊ ɇȺɐɂɈɇȺɅɇɕɃ ɡɚ ɬɨ ɢ ɢ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɚ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɚ ɸɝɨɫɥɚɜɫɤɨɝɨ ȿȾɂɇɋɌȼɈ 84 Ʌɢɫɬ 83 Ʌɢɫɬ elites which remained in(Vardar) Macedonia after1918 (after theones with the national question bytheComintern andthe Yugoslav Communist Party,the use ofall thepossibilities tofight for the oppressed nationalities.” Comintern Executive Committee noted, the Party “has not always made proper of theLCYYugoslavof asingle nation views on thenational question: namely, theComintern openly criticized thepolicy the 1920s,however, theComintern andtheYugoslav communists helddiverging ɫɥɚɜɢɢ 82 imperialistic war) where theSerbnation “ ɜɨɣɧɢ ɦɢɪɨɜɨɣɢɦɩɟɪɢɚɥɢɫɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɣ towards Serbimperialism)concluding or thatYugoslavia “ ɢɦɩɟɪɢɚɥɢɡɦɭ ɫɟɪɛɫɤɨɦɭ astate“ as beingin many Cominterndocuments from this period, which refer to interwar Yugoslavia the asahegemonic imperialistic Serb expansion. Thisvisible is in “ The Electronic Archives of the Communist International Communist of the Archives Electronic The The Electronic Archives of the Communist International Communist the of Archives Electronic The The Electronic Archives of the Communist International Communist ofthe Archives Electronic The ɄɉɘɡɚɧɹɥɚɩɨɇȺɐɂɈɇȺɅɖɇɈɆɍȼɈɉɊɈɋɍɧɟɩɪɚɜɢɥɶɧɭɸɩɨɡɢɰɢɸ 41. 20. 30. All ofthis goesto show that, no matter theextent of ideologicalframing of ” 83 (oppressesall oftheothernations inYugoslavia). , ɚɪɡ ɬɬ ɦɨɦɟɧɬ ɬɨɬ ɜ ɪɚɡ ɤɚɤ ɬ ɟɢɨɟɛɤɣ ɨɧɨɩɥɰɣɤɣ ɟɟɨɢɤ ɝɟɝɟɦɨɧɢɢ ɜɨɟɧɧɨɩɨɥɢɰɟɣɫɤɨɣ ɜɟɥɢɤɨɫɟɪɛɫɤɨɣ ɨɬ ” 82 (from great-Serbian military-police hegemony , 36 ” (appears asaproductof theworld- ɨɞɯɨɪɜɟɬɫɤɢɟ ɤɨɝɞɚ 84 or,asa1926DraftResolution ofthe ɭɝɧɟɬɚɟɬɜɫɟɨɫɬɚɥɶɧɢɟɧɚɰɢɢɘɝɨ .” , ɄɈɆɂɇɌȿɊɇ , , , ɄɈɆɂɇɌȿɊɇ ɄɈɆɂɇɌȿɊɇ ɄɈɆɂɇɌȿɊɇ , ɫɥɨɜɟɧɫɤɢɟ ɹɚɜɥɹɟɬɫɹɩɪɨɞɭɤɬɨɦ , Ɏ At the beginning of .495, , , , Ɏ Ɏ 85 Ɏ .495, .495, .495, .495, , .495, ɨɛɹɛɢɥɚɫɟɛɹɡɚ ɨɩ , .58, ɨɧɣɤɟ ɢ ɛɨɫɧɢɣɫɤɢɟ ɨɩ ɨɩ ɨɩ .58, .58, .58, .58, ɞ .58, .3 / ɞ ɞ . 15 / . Ʌɢɫɬ ɞ .18 / .18 .3 / - CEU eTD Collection 86 medieval andfeudal-stylenationalisms frameworkwhich denounced “tribal chauvinisms” andstigmatized Serb and Croat platform of theCPYfoundmost ground. fertile The communist ideological the interwar period, it waspreciselyBosnia in that theYugoslavist communist differentia specifica differences and specificities. Because of the Serb-Croat-Muslim triad as the emancipation possible andlikelywithin thecommunist platform. materializationthe oftheir ideasforMacedonian autonomy andfull-scale strong pro-Greek or pro-Bulgarian sentiments had left for thesecountries) advocating ananti-nationalist all-Bosnian platform, a1923proclamation bythe “Men and womenworkers ofBosnia-Herzegovina!” material read an address to the “Working Class of Bosnia-Herzegovina!” or tothe from the very beginning with regard to Bosnia. Thus, 1921 leaflets and agitation Muslim nation. communists time foralong notentaila did consensus onaseparate Bosnian autonomy/sovereignty and territorial integrity which existedamong theYugoslav the historical Bosnian territories. The consensus onBosnian capable ofsolving theBosnian knot,all thewhile preserving the compactness of progressive and promising politicaland ideological platform which wouldbe 87 Press,2003). University Princeton (Princeton: Saqi, 2007), 160. Saqi, 88 Keith Brown, Keith Aleksa Djilas, Aleksa Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko Although comparable, thecase of Bosnia-Herzegovina has pronounced The all-Bosnian outlook was taken upbythe Yugoslav Communist Party The Contested Country Contested The The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation of Uncertainties andthe ModernMacedonia in Question: Past The The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The of the Bosnian context and its irreconcilable oftheBosniancontext its and implications in (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 62. Press,1991), University Harvard (Cambridge: 37 87 seemed atthemoment themost 88 In a similar manner (London: 86 saw CEU eTD Collection 90 2007), 160. Saqi, government) andinparticularafter the1939 partition ofBosnia. TheYugoslav (the year when JMO joined theYugoslav Radical Union and theStojadinovic political enemies which however startedto interact andto cooperate after 1935 borders is therelationship between theJMO andtheCPY, theformer bitter communist movement struggle for andthe Bosnian autonomy historical its in national group. widespread although not official recognition ofthe Bosniaks asaseparate Serbs, theMuslims andthe Croats) and in away confirmed thealready addressed the“Nations ofBosnia-Herzegovina!” (subsequentlynaming the 89 coexistence, regardless ofreligion.” commented that“Bosnia isonebecause [inhabitants’]of its centuries of the Muslims ofBosnia aformed are“not nation”but“an ”,while Tito being only aconfessional/religious andnot anational Some group. arguedthat when prominent communists suchasPijade or Djilas insisted ontheBosniaks nationhood was waged 1940 in atthe Fifth Country Conference of the CPY, as notbelonging toatitular nation. The main debateofBosnian/Bosniak as aprincipleand policy, both Bosniaand Vojvodina remainedto be considered chauvinist-nationalist leaders.” Herzegovina should notallow ourworkers’ movement tobelinedupbehind Bosnian Communist organization emphasized that “theproletariat ofBosnia and Ibid, 188. Ibid, Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko Another interestingdimension of the Bosnian caseasrelated tothe Although the integrity andautonomy ofBosniawas preserved and upheld The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The 89 90 But, the proclamation of1 38 st April1941 (London: CEU eTD Collection Bosnia and Yugoslavia respectively. andYugoslavia Bosnia in movements anti-fascist the organsof governing highest wereand AVNOJ the ZAVNOBiH 2007). Saqi, the royalarmy intoguerillaunits; andtheestablishment ofthepartisan liberation withthe involvement ofreturned exiled Croatian fascists inItaly;the breaking of 1941 saw the formation oftheIndependent State ofCroatia (NDH) bytheNazis, the relationships theyhad among eachother. Thebeginning ofthewar inApril Yugoslavia was enhanced by the highnumber ofactors and warring parties and national, pro-Yugoslav anti-. Thecomplexity ofthe war context in saw clashfierce between mainly Croat and Serb ultra-nationalism and trans- aNewYugoslavia in Nations 2.4. New member ofthepresidencies of ZAVNOBiH andAVNOJ. 91 editor of the JMO newspaper the communist andPartisan movements, amongwhich mentioned thealready Moreover, a considerable number ofJMOmembers andsupporters later joined programmatically overlapped with thecommunist platform for Bosnianautonomy. AutonomyBosnia-Herzegovina” of which stemmed the JMO from in Belgrade and . The above-mentioned “Muslim Movement forthe the SerbRadicals andinparticular withthe studentsBosnian attheUniversities left-leaning wing of the JMO, the JMO members which opposed the coalition with Communist Partymademoves pragmatic intryingto appealto and lobby with the Marko Attila Hoare, Attila Marko WW2’s battleWW2’s fields inYugoslavia, besidethe presence oftheAxis forces The History of Bosnia: from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Present the to Ages theMiddle from Bosnia: of History The Pravda 39 Muhamed Sudžuka who servedas a 91 (London: CEU eTD Collection dropping from 1939to35.7% in 1953and10.9% 75% in in 1981 upward economicprogress and improvedstandard, life with illiteracy rates and Arts,theaters, operaand ballet ensembles, publishing houses, etc. an With university, Macedonian television and radio services, an Academy ofSciences alphabet and the language which was followed bythe establishment ofthe state processes which finalized its nation-building process: the codification ofthe Nevertheless, being oneoftheconstituent Yugoslav nations, itwent through 95 235. relatively free realm mobility andculturalof expression (provided onedidnot 93 1995). Institution, Brookings The 92 separate political, national andcultural entity, itwas partner in the federation and for the first timein itshistory it was recognized as a Rusinow observes, representatives and anti-fascists from all of the Yugoslav ‘tribes’. As Dennison the only supranational, all-Yugoslav platform which aimed tounite anti-fascist movement andarmy. 94 302. 2008), Press, Pittsburgh Ibid, 252. Ibid, Dennison Rusinow, Dennison L. Woodward, Susan Andrew Rossos, Although Macedonia entered post-WW2 socialist Yugoslavia asanequal widespread propensity to try again a new formula.” paroxysm mutualof . The force of this lesson generated a peoples did not hang together they would end by hanging each other in a course of the war itself […] the lesson seemed to be that if the Yugoslav a powerful recruiting slogan for the Partisan armies is explained by the “That this rebirth theof Yugoslav idea was not merely widely accepted but Macedonia and the Macedonians the and Macedonia Yugoslavia: oblique insights and observations and insights oblique Yugoslavia: Balkan Tragedy - Chaos and Dissolution after the ColdWar the after Dissolution and - Chaos Tragedy Balkan 92 Thepartisan resistance movement provided 40 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press,2008), Institution Hoover (Stanford: de facto 93 (Pittsburgh: University of University (Pittsburgh: a“junior partner.” (Washington: 95 anda 94 CEU eTD Collection 146. 98 pathandideology. particular Yugoslavia’s to a betrayal represent would theybelieved structures European the Entering alignment. non- of ideology the upheld whogenuinely functionaries Yugoslav high by namely differences, byideological was hampered intheEC membership Yugoslavia’s asserted that Andov Mr. 97 72-77. wanted to introduce capitalism - interview with ”, Kiro with - interview capitalism introduce wanted to 96 opportunities foraccesstothe system’s enhanced.” rewards Macedonians, the Bosnian Muslims andeventheAlbanians “foundtheir second half ofthe1970s and Yugoslavia’s last ambassador toIraq. head ofthe Yugoslav negotiating team with theEuropeanCommunities in the the spokesperson ofthe first post-Yugoslav Macedonian Parliament was the the Yugoslav reform (the only one before that of Ante Markovi federal Assembly was among thedesigners of thehistorical1965 economical Secretary (Minister) of Finance from 1962-1967 and President ofthe Yugoslav Kiro Gligorov, the first president of independent Macedonia after 1991, federal manyparticipated inthe highest milieus ofthe federal governing bodies. Thus, safe haven. True, there were noMacedoniansthe in inner circlearound Tito, yet reason to appreciate its Yugoslav years and view thefederationas a veritable questionoppose orTito’s andYugoslavia’s republic andprovince except Slovenia (where thepercentage was 61%) unsatisfied with yourfamily’s prospects forthefuture?”,more 77% or every in “In general, would yousaythat youare very satisfied, mainly satisfied, or of 1967the Center for Public OpinionResearch asurveyin asked respondents: Francine Friedman, Francine 2009). Andov(April Stojan with interview Personal Darko Hudelist, “ Hudelist, Darko Thus, inparticular “the newly enfranchised groups” such as the dinar ɢɨ ɚɚɟ ɚ ɨɟɟ ɤɚɩɢɬɚɥɢɡɚɦ ɜɨɜɟɞɟ ɞɚ ɫɚɤɚɲɟ Ɍɢɬɨ convertible andto liberalize the market; The Bosnian Muslims: denialof anation Muslims: Bosnian The 41 raison d’être ü in 1989) which wanted to make - (Boulder: Westview 1996), Press, Westview (Boulder: Globus Globus ɧɟɜɭ ɢɨ Ƚɥɢɝɨɪɨɜ Ʉɢɪɨ ɢɧɬɟɪɜʁɭ ), Macedonia hadevery 96 98 while Stojan while Andov, When inthespring 104 (April 2009): 104 (April 97 ” / “Tito ” / CEU eTD Collection 104 103 102 100 1966 99 answered that they were ‘satisfied’. 101 144. response” Bosnian society demonstrated suchanenthusiasm and “enormous popular rapidurbanization andimprovement ofinfrastructure andquality oflife,the withthe organization ofthe1984 Olympics.Winter Moreover, experiencing a culturalcenter with flourishing music, literary, theater scenes, which culminated federal unit anda“multinationalconglomerate” and animproved qualityof workedstrengthenlife to the to thestate.loyalty resources heavy industry andweapons production, aswellas abounding innatural only few in years 3000km of asphalt roads were built. As Yugoslavia’s center of somewhat Bosnian“nationalrenaissance” Muslims wouldbe asanation.listed Theperiod after 1968is believed tobea referred toas“Muslims sense”.ethnic inthe “indeterminateYugoslavs” 1953, be in itwillin 1961thattheywould only be decades: categorized as“indeterminate Muslims” thecensus in of 1948, nationhood and identity would remainan open questionfor the following two predominance represented indeed some kindofachievement. Yet,theirdistinct Unlike theother republics (with theexception ofKosovo) andbeside thefact that Steven L.Burg, Steven Francine Friedman, Francine 182. Ibid, Ivan Lovrenovi Ivan Friedman, Francine John B. Allcock, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 49-50. Press,1983), University Princeton (Princeton: For theBosniaks, thecreation ofBosnia-Herzegovina asaseparate 104 103 , Bosnia could feel all the, Bosniacouldfeelall benefits Macedonia likewise profitedfrom. thatthe1968National RoadsLoan project was sosuccessful and ü , Conflict and Cohesion in Socialist Yugoslavia: political decision makingsince decision political Yugoslavia: and CohesioninSocialist Conflict Explaining Yugoslavia Explaining Bosnia: a cultural history a cultural Bosnia: The Bosnian Muslims: denial of a nation denial of Muslims: The Bosnian The Bosnian Muslims: denial of a nation denial of Muslims: The Bosnian (London: Hurst & Company, 2000), 335. 2000), Company, Hurst & (London: 99 (London: Saqi Books, 2001), 181. 2001), Books, Saqi (London: Hence, upward progress until the1970s 42 102 101 inthatSarajevo became averitable Inthelastfederal censusof1981 100 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996). Press, Westview (Boulder: (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), Press, Westview (Boulder: with no Croat or Serb CEU eTD Collection Sloveniamight have done. Bosnia had appreciated more their ‘Yugoslav ’ than Croatia or Yugoslavia enjoyed abroad, wasit consequently logical that Macedonia and roads, electrification and relative welfare and security. theaddedWith prestige their histories saw big investments ontheirsoil, remote villages connected with they remained among the lesser developed regions, these two forthefirst time in 43 CEU eTD Collection Conflicts Robert M. Hayden, M. Robert 1991. of untilthe fall association Yugoslav onthe representatives EC the with negotiations regular was conducting presidency federal Yugoslav the Furthermore, 2000). (Hayden, own republics.” their of greaterindependence for wished them of as many even state, single asa Yugoslavia of thecontinuation envisioned republics all 107 93. 106 Away 105 to the international community. shock to the majority of Yugoslav citizens, even to the politicalelites, as well as previous judgments andestimates oftheabove kind,but it alsocame atagreat outcome aform in of aviolentconflict not only profoundly contradicted any terms ofdeeppolitical, economic crisis,thedissolutionand particularin the shock ofTito’s departure.” maintenance ofEuropean stability, that the country will undoubtedly survive the and thesurvival ofastrong,independent, nonaligned Yugoslaviais sovitalto the ahead, politically andeconomically, theYugoslav system sodeeply rooted,is moralvictory asthe Cold wasnearingWar its endin1989. inspiring leftists the anddissidents in West intheEast andabouttocelebrate its successfulcountry and model, developing a home-grown typeof socialism, the Chapter 3: DemocraticYugoslavism?Chapter - Anti-Nationalist, “Despite the nationalist tensions that had spiraled since 1987, a majority of the populations in populations ofthe since1987,amajority had spiraled that tensions nationalist the “Despite Mark Thompson, Mark Jovi Dejan Encyclopaedia Britannica (Zagreb: Prometej, 2003). Prometej, (Zagreb: Pro-Democratic and ReformVoices from Above Yugoslavia, especially during the1960sand1970s seemed tobea (The University of Michigan Press, 2000), 64. 2000), Press, ofMichigan University (The ü , Jugoslavija - država koja je odumrla / Yugoslavia - the Country that Withered that Country the - Yugoslavia / jeodumrla država koja - Jugoslavija Blueprints A Paper House: the ending of Yugoslavia of ending the House: A Paper for a House Divided - the Constitutional Logic of the Yugoslav the of Logic Constitutional - the Divided aHouse for 106 noted: However, what fifteen followed only years later in 107 As Raif Dizdarevi “Although likely tobedifficult thereare years 44 We too are Europe, butin our own way. ü , the Yugoslav President (of . (London: Vintage Books, 1992), Books, Vintage (London: . 105 The1974 edition of Milovan Djilas Milovan CEU eTD Collection Death of Yugoslavia of Death http://www.slobodnaevropa.org/content/article/1045340.html unavoidable, but notthewar-Interview,” unavoidable, was rat/The dissolution ne ali i neminovan, Raspad jebio Tupurkovski: “Vasil Karabeg, Omer 2003). Prometej, (Zagreb: 108 Jovi Dejan government headedbyAnte Markovi the unwanted outcome despiteofthegreatsupportpolicies ofthe federal these initiatives andconstructive efforts eventually failed andcould notprevent the only TV channelof pan-Yugoslav/supra-republican character -YUTEL.All Yugoslav Democratic Initiative (UJDI) andthemedia circlesconcentrated around intellectual andpopularlevel, more specifically inthecircles oftheUnited and also onthelower republican levelas will bediscussed below), butalsoan on different form, tookplace at the levelof the politicalelites (in thefederalcircles, processes which also aimed atthepreservation of the federation, albeit ina and an eligiblestate-candidate for full membership inthe EC/EU. Thereform spheres which would eventually transform Yugoslavia into a democratic state on the other tried to initiate profound reforms in the politicaland the economic the ultra-nationalist discourses and the violent means ofsolving theconflicts, and would really takeplace?” have possibly imagined thenthatallthosetragic eventsfrom 3-4 years later events, phenomena andprocessesfromofview couldof thattime.the point Who the collective presidency) 1988-89in writes, “itis necessary thatwe observethe Raif Dizdarevi Raif This chapterexamines thealternatives which ontheonehanddenounced ü , Jugoslavija - država koja je odumrla / Yugoslavia - the Country that Withered Away Withered that Country -the /Yugoslavia je odumrla koja -država Jugoslavija ü , Od smrti Tita do smrti Jugoslavije - Svjedo Jugoslavije dosmrti Tita smrti Od (Sarajevo: Oko, 1999), 436. 1999), Oko, (Sarajevo: 108 Radio Free Europe Radio Free 45 ü enjoyed withthe international (accessed March 25, 2009). 25, (accessed March , þ enja/From the Death of Tito to the ofTito Death the enja/From CEU eTD Collection religious andintolerance. hatred religious or racial national, inequality, national of anyact criminalized article same The anation. to a belonging to declare obliged are NOT thecitizens that provided at thesame time but language, and culture identity, one’s national of ofexpression tofreedom right the 170guaranteed Article 1975). Studies, Political of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia of Republic Federal Socialist the of 112 approached with a great dose of humor and sarcasm conveying this criticism. See thiscriticism. doseconveying humor and sarcasm of agreat with approached was also crisis political The leaderships. political republics’ ofthe incompetence and the euphoria nationalist the developments, the ofcoverage andcritical objective pursuedan Slovenia and Croatia inSerbia, newspapers other andfew YUTEL alongside and Bosnia-Herzegovina, 111 123. Press,2005), University West to East in Federalism” 110 240 1993), Press, University Oxford (New York: Stokes, Gale Markovi for support his indicated Paul II John toPope Gorbachev Mikhail through Bush George from leader 109 and militarism the ultra-nationalist euphoria andthemedia discourses ofhate-speech, violence consideration these particularstreams ofactionandthought which rancounter to the Yugoslav dissolution, ofanutmostit is importance for one totake into fully understand and grasp the essence of the developments which determined affiliation came tobeadecisive factor among republican elites. Yet, inorder to community. tongue for all nationsand nationalities onthe entire territory ofYugoslavia. to work andtherighttohousing, aswell asthe righttoeducation inthemother embedded into its lastfederalconstitution from 1974,which guaranteed the right Yugoslaviatried to build its image athome andabroad, but wasit alsoexplicitly Yugoslav” the“Last of Battle 3.1. The In a general atmosphere of polarization and biased reporting, the printed media in Macedonia in media printed the reporting, and biased polarization of atmosphere ageneral In ofAsymmetrical andtheViability Federation Yugoslav the of“The Collapse Žagar, Mitja foreign every almost 1991, in 1990andclearly in apart late pull beganto Yugoslavia “As Ustav Socijalisti Ustav Ethnic andsocialequality was something aroundwhich notonly ü ’s government.” edited by Sergio Ortino, Mitja Žagar and Vojtech Mastny (Manchester: Manchester (Manchester: Mastny Vojtech and Žagar Mitja Ortino, Sergio by edited 109 The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe Eastern in communism collapse of the Down: Tumbling Came The Walls The Changing Faces of federalism: Institutional reconfiguration in Europe from inEurope reconfiguration Institutional federalism: of ChangingFaces The 111 Political conflicts Political weretranslated intoethnic conflicts þ . ke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije -Stru Jugoslavije Republike ke Federativne 46 - Expert interpretation Expert þ no objašnjenje (Belgrade: Institute for Institute (Belgrade: / The Constitution The 110 Annex 1 Annex asethnic . 112 CEU eTD Collection Federalism” in Federalism” 116 225. 1993), Press, University Oxford (New York: Gale. Stokes, interests.” managing ofself- “pluralism newsystemthe termed 1974constitution the ofarchitects principal the one of Kardelj, Edvard Labor.” Associated of Organizations “Basic so-called the into organizations 115 social-politicalcommunity”. democratic self-managing socialist as“anautonomous province autonomous the 4defined Article 43. 1975), Studies, Political of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia of Republic Federal Socialist the of their equality units (including the two autonomous provinces within Serbia) in order to ensure procedural requirements, since akindofminority vetowas giventoallfederal government. introduced acomplicatedsystem of delegates andconsultations at all levelsof system, addition totheamendments sincein of 1971,the constitutionlast the new constitution institutionalized aspart ofthe political and the economic democratic community”. 114 118. Press,2005), University West to East in Federalism” Asymmetrical of Viability andthe Federation Yugoslav the of Collapse “The Žagar, Mitja programmes.” and systems educational specific and holidays, public languages, official national anthems, 113 unit) as“a Article 3of the Yugoslav Constitution defined thesocialist republic (the federal legal responsibility, republics were given all theattributes of statehood.” constituent nations […]Except for international independence and international the Constitution established, whereas it “defined republics asnation-states of However, which thepoint ismost oftenemphasized isthefurther decentralization Mitja Žagar, “The Collapse of the Yugoslav Federation and the Viability ofAsymmetrical andtheViability Federation Yugoslav the of“The Collapse Žagar, Mitja charitable and hospitals even enterprises, economic all divided Labor onAssociated Law The This included “constitutions that determined their political systems, coats of arms, national arms, ofcoats systems, political their determined that “constitutions included This Ustav Socijalisti Ustav edited by Sergio Ortino, Mitja Žagar and Vojtech Mastny (Manchester: Manchester (Manchester: Mastny Vojtech and Žagar Mitja Ortino, Sergio by edited state The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe inEastern communism collapseof the Down: Tumbling Came The Walls 115 The Changing Faces of federalism: Institutional reconfiguration in Europe from inEurope reconfiguration Institutional federalism: of ChangingFaces The The Changing Faces of federalism: Institutional reconfiguration in Europe from inEurope reconfiguration Institutional federalism: of ChangingFaces The 116 Decision-making was rendered more and burdened difficult with ; while forthefederal government itwas possible “only aftera þ based on sovereignty ofnations” and “asocialist self-managing ke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije -Stru Jugoslavije Republike ke Federativne 114 Analystsandscholars point also outthecomplexities 47 - Expert interpretation Expert þ no objašnjenje (Belgrade: Institute for Institute (Belgrade: / The Constitution The 113 Thus, CEU eTD Collection Mark Thompson, Mark undermined bytheMarkovi undermined being economies their over control foresaw their which rightly Serbia, in especially governments, republican primitive the to thoughnot elite, own cosmopolitan ears andtoYugoslavia’s to Western was music This citizens.’ all for and freedoms rights democratic pluralism, political 120 1975). Studies, Political interpretation Expert - of Yugoslavia Republic Federal Socialist the Ustav Socijalisti Ustav Republic.” ofthat asthecitizens andobligations rights the same have Republic member another of territory onthe Republic a member of Citizens Yugoslavia. of Republic Federal 119 Conflicts 118 226. 1993), Press, University Oxford (New York: 117 Press,2005). University West to East the system federalism”.as “combative was providedbypolitical scientist Slobodan Samardži declared vital tothe interest ofthe entire federation.” autonomousto regiona particular piece of legislation, and then only when was it lengthy series ofsteps” that it could “override theobjections ofa republic oran Yugoslav with avision forademocratic, prosperous andEuropean Yugoslavia. Ante Markovi Yugoslavin history. lost thevoteof confidence the federalin assemblyresigned for and thefirst time especially from December 1988onwards, theyearwhen thefederal government the state. which would later havelegaland practical consequences with thedissolution of citizenship, something which themajority of Yugoslavs were notaware ofand Constitution provided forasomewhatdouble/sub-national orrepublican “In his Markovi ownwords, his “In “ Robert M. Hayden, M. Robert Stokes, Gale Every citizen of the member Republic at the same time shall be citizen of the Socialistic ofthe be citizen shall same time the at Republic member ofthe citizen Every In March 1989themandate toform a governmentwas handedoverto (The University of Michigan Press, 2000), 30. 2000), Press, ofMichigan University (The 119 edited by Sergio Ortino, Mitja Žagar and Vojtech Mastny (Manchester: Manchester (Manchester: Mastny Vojtech and Žagar Mitja Ortino, Sergio by edited Allof the above-mentioned would laterhave significant implications, þ The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe Eastern in communism of collapse the Down: Tumbling Came Walls The ü ke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije - Stru Jugoslavije Republike ke Federativne A Paper House: the ending of Yugoslavia ending of the A PaperHouse: , the Yugoslavlast Prime-Minister, aCroatandcommitted Blueprints ü reform programme.” reform ü stood for ‘an undivided Yugoslavia with a market economy, a with market Yugoslavia ‘anundivided stoodfor for a House Divided - the Constitutional Logic of the Yugoslav the Logicof Constitutional the Divided- aHouse for 48 118 Moreover, Article 249ofthe (London: Vintage Books, 1992), 105. 1992), Books, Vintage (London: þ no objašnjenje/The Constitution of Constitution no objašnjenje/The ü in1990which referred to 117 Anintelligent coinage (Belgrade: Institute for Institute (Belgrade: 120 CEU eTD Collection interview” 123 crisis. andpolitical economic Markovi postand the assume to motivated not very he was personally However, correctness. political the federal government from Serbia, so Jovi Serbia, government from the federal The argument againstMarkovi argument The 122 Yugoslavia of Death comprehensive reform program. of which the profound economicreforms were onlythe first part of a policy determinant was theintroduction ofa“(completely) new type ofsocialism”, Presidency decided infavorofthelatter who acceptedthemandate. and Miloševi from the topofSerbia which was destroyingthecountry” was Dizdarevi function thefederation in thenegative trends inwould Serbia behampered and it mainreason was thatbyleavingthe republican leadership andassuminga either Slovene Milan Ku election ofMarkovi Secretary (Minister) ofForeignAffairs. In his memoirs herecalls indetail the 2009). 121 Yugoslavia). However, bothSerbiaand Slovenia declined theproposals ofKu wasDizdarevi Raif the Yugoslav Bankfor Economic Cooperation. largest and most successfulcompanies “Rade Kon He was aPresident of the Presidency of Croatia, director ofone of Yugoslavia’s Milan Gavrovi Milan Ibid. Raif Dizdarevi Raif ü At the time ofhiselection, president ofthe Yugoslav collective presidency was by far considered as the right person to be appointed at that particular period of period particular atthat tobeappointed person right the as considered was byfar Liderpress ü andeventually, between Borisav Jovi ü ü ü , , “Ante Markovi , “Ante ’s deep personalconviction that “would this stoptheoffensive Od smrti Tita do smrti Jugoslavije - Svjedo - Jugoslavije dosmrti Tita smrti Od (Sarajevo: Oko, 1999), 321. 1999), Oko, (Sarajevo: , ü ü http://www.liderpress.hr/Default.aspx?sid=67490 , who in1988 ended his fouryear mandate as a federal , which was veryuncertain, asthe Presidency preferred þ ü an orSlobodan Miloševi ’s election was that for 24 years there hasn’t been a president of apresident been hasn’t there 24 years wasfor ’s election that ü : kako bih ja rešio ovu krizu/How I would solve this crisis - thiscrisis solve would I krizu/How rešioovu ja bih : kako 123 Firstly aiming at eliminating “excessive ü 49 stood better chances in terms of procedure and procedure of terms in chances stoodbetter ü þ þ , particularin thelatter. The enja/From the Death of Tito to the ofTito Death the enja/From ar” and one of the leaders of ü andAnteMarkovi (accessed March 10, March (accessed 121 122 (meaning His main ü the þ an CEU eTD Collection by Lenard J. Cohen andJasnaDragovi J. by Lenard Disintegration onYugoslavia’s New Europe: Perspectives in South-Eastern Collapse State 127 240. 1993), Press, University Oxford (New York: 126 Assembly. federal the of and President Presidency the of member offinance, secretary/minister federal was a by Markovi invited personally team, was onthe also Gligorov Mr. 2002). 125 67. Ibid, developments.” political harmonize to onhow than matters economic country’s onthe agree more “we since precedence take 124 66. 1993), but proved highly effective inthefollowingyear of1990.Inorder to illustrate and whichwere initially perceived as painful and accepted with alot of reservations, Yugoslavia.” of view, Markovi during 1991when theYugoslav crisis reached itsclimax), “from the foreignpoint at the same time asthe EC was negotiating its further integration (especially reforms forwhich hewould beapplauded abroad and repudiated at home. republics. reforms included professors, economists andscientists from all theYugoslav team as theabsolutepriority. Thelarge team of expertsworking ontheeconomic incompetent ruling andadministrative elitewith ayounger,ableand professional It seemed right for him to perceive the replacement ofan inefficient and announced cutting thesize ofthe federal bureaucracy from 14 000to 10 000. members “includingseveral younger and highly qualified officials” andhe Cohen, Lenard J. Cohen, normativism”, Markovi Michael Palairet, “The Inter-Regional Struggle for Resources and the Fall of Yugoslavia” in ofYugoslavia” Fall andthe Resources for Struggle “The Inter-Regional Palairet, Michael Stokes, Gale Kiro Gligorov, Kiro must reforms economic that whomaintained Pregl, Živko Slovene wasthe Vice-President His In an international context where the US presidentialrace was underway 125 Hissecondprioritywas onwas toembark profoundeconomic 126 The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe Eastern in communism of collapse the Down: Tumbling Came Walls The ɚɟɨɢɚ ɫ ɟ Ɇɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ  His “far-reaching economic Broken Bonds: the disintegration of Yugoslavia disintegration the Bonds: Broken ü was amiracle man, clearlythehopeof future for ü formed asmaller cabinet consisting of 19 instead of 29 è ɬɢɦɚɦɟ ɲɬɨ ü -Soso (Purdue University Press, 2008), 233. Press,2008), University -Soso (Purdue 50 /Macedonia is all we have we isall /Macedonia perestroika ” 127 ü . Among other functions, he functions, other Among . (Boulder: Westview Press, Westview (Boulder: included many reforms (Skopje: Kultura, (Skopje: edited 124 CEU eTD Collection http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Markovic”, introduced changes tothe budget andset restrictive monetary policies which hallmark ofthe most prosperous year ‘before the storm’. It furthermore something which is still evoked with fondness among former Yugoslavs, as the 129 1993). currency -the (new) 2009). 128 objections.” applause, such ovations intheAssembly, thatnoonecouldputforward any one knew had beenprinted […] At that moment, therewas such thunderous become convertibleand showed them the new convertible currency, which no basic elements oftheprogramme, that andIannounced the currency would when thePrimeMinister reported tothefederal Assembly, “putting forward allthe Certain deputies were thetask given totopple downthereform program, but measures” procedurewhich required only a2/3voterather thanaconsensus. particular because wasit approved thein federalassembly underthe“urgent passed because had it sufficient support from the otherfederal republics, but in state subsidies tounprofitable companies, mostof which were basedinSerbia) the Montenegrin leaderships, theproposed package (which alsoput anendto approval for his economic reform program. Namely, blocked by the Serbian and the federation, oneshould citetheway inwhich Markovi obtainan impression oftheextent ofdeteriorationof the communication inside “Case Slobodan Miloševi “CaseSlobodan Lenard J Cohen, LenardJ International Criminal Tribunal for the Yugoslavia Former the for Tribunal Criminal International 129 Thus, among otherthings, the reform program made theYugoslav Broken Bonds: the disintegration ofYugoslavia disintegration Bonds:the Broken ü - transcript 23 - transcript dinar convertible, set atseventothe deutschmark, rd October 2003 - testimony ofwitness Ante 51 (Boulder: Westview Press, Westview (Boulder: (accessed on16May, ü managed toget 128 CEU eTD Collection http://www.liderpress.hr/Default.aspx?sid=67490 http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Markovic”, http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Markovic”, reforms. government invitedJeffrey Sachs toprovide anadvice ontheenvisaged and with theIMF director obtained him outright support, while thefederal extensive consultations with internationalactors. Markovi The implementation ofthereformswas conducted coordinationin and after billiondollars and 65000 private companies were createdduringthe first year. European countries, thecountry’s foreign debt declined from 21.5 billion to12.2 approximately 11billion dollars were created, larger than those of many inflation hadbeenreduced tozero.” drastically dropped “andthis was time any socialist thefirst in country that above, this caused impressive and unexpected resultsasthe inflation rate Kiro Gligorov,Kiro Press,2008). (PurdueUniversity Cohen andJasnaDragovic-Soso Lenard J. Disintegration onYugoslavia’s Perspectives New Europe: Collapse inSouth-Eastern in ofYugoslavia” Fall andthe Resources for Struggle Inter-Regional “The Palairet, Michael 31 Milan Gavrovi 2009). 132 2009). 131 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). 130 the Slovene (andlater theCroat) delegation lefttheCongress aftertheir all froze the wages forsix months andfreed all prices. (LCY orSKJ) took place from 20-22 enough, the last President oftheLeague was Macedonian MilanPan “Case Slobodan Miloševi “CaseSlobodan Miloševi “CaseSlobodan Stokes, Gale The 14 133 International Criminal Tribunal for the Yugoslavia Former the for Tribunal Criminal International Yugoslavia Former the for Tribunal Criminal International Ɇɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚɟɫ The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe Eastern in communism of collapse the Down: Tumbling Came Walls The th ü , “Ante Markovi (andlast) Congress oftheLeague of Communist ofYugoslavia ü ü - transcript 23 - transcript 23 - transcript è ɲɬɨɢɦɚɦɟ ü : kako bihja rešio ovu krizu,” rd rd /Macedonia is all we have isallwe /Macedonia 131 October 2003 - testimony ofwitness Ante October 2003 - testimony ofwitness Ante 52 nd Furthermore, currencyreserves of hard (accessed March 10, 2009). 10, (accessedMarch January1990 in Belgrade. Curiously Liderpress 130 As it was mentioned ü (Skopje: Kultura, 2002). Kultura, (Skopje: ’s visit to Washington (accessed on16May, (accessed on16May, , þ evski. As edited by edited State 132 CEU eTD Collection http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Yugoslavia Former the for Tribunal Criminal International ‘either been stopped orslowed down’ byregional officials, and he raised the complained “that most reform efforts initiated bythe federalgovernment had much occasion, at earlier a session oftheParty’s central committee, Markovi government fortheirgrowingnationalist andmutually hostile policies. Even ata were toperceive right athreatthe in figure ofMarkovi 2009) “Belgrade is the Balkan New York - interview with Milenko Jergovic, writer”, Jergovic, Milenko with NewYork-interview Balkan isthe “Belgrade 137 collective attackofserious nostalgia” to Belgrade in April 2009was saidtohave caused “generalfascination and “Case Slobodan Miloševi “Case Slobodan 1995), 128. Institution, Brookings The (Washington: were reminiscent ofthosemade during Tito’s era.” “Markovic’s popularity grew to suchanextent that his visitstotheordinary people percentages ofsupportranging from Croatia83% in to93%inBosnia. Slovenian, the Croat and the Serb republican presidents, with polls showing Minister was byfar themost popularpolitician inYugoslavia, above the even without theLCY. believed andvoiced his opinion thatYugoslavia can andwillcontinue toexist 136 2009). 135 134 leadership never took place andthe LCYceased to exist. proposed amendments wererefused andblocked, thesecret votefor anew Jovana Gligorijevic, “Beograd je balkanski Njujork - intervju Milenko Jergovic, pisac” / pisac” Jergovic, Milenko -intervju Njujork balkanski je “Beograd Gligorijevic, Jovana Neven Andjeli Neven Susan L.Woodward, See http://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=865297 Annex2 In thespring of 1990,once thereforms startedtaking effect, thePrime . ü , Bosnia-Herzegovina: the end of a legacy endof the Bosnia-Herzegovina: ü - transcript 23 -transcript Balkan Tragedy - Chaos and Dissolution after the ColdWar the after - ChaosandDissolution Tragedy Balkan rd October 2003 - testimony ofwitness AnteMarkovic”, testimony 2003- October 137 53 ). Therefore, the republican leaderships (accessed 24 May, 2009). (accessed 24May, (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 139. Cass,Frank 2003), (London: 136 (even his most (evenhis recentvisit 134 ü (accessed on16May, and in the federal The Prime Minister Vreme 959(May 135 ü CEU eTD Collection http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Markovic”, http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Yugoslavia Former the for Tribunal Criminal International 141 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 140 Makedonija refused. emission credit of8000 million dinars (1 100 million marks) which Markovi dissatisfaction was growing before the elections, Miloševi enterprise/corporate losses was thehighest innarrower Serbia andthe social enrage the already discontent Slovenes. Namely, since the percentage of reform process would come atthecloseof 1990, something which would also the sideofSerbian political leadershipthat themostserious blow for the this case wasSerbia andthis it prevented byboth Slovenia. constitutional reformswhich would allow for federal elections tobeheld, butin “Ustasha” and aforeign agent. accused him of beingacentrist communist andpro-Serb,Serbs labeled him Lenard J. Cohen and Jasna Dragovic-Soso (Purdue University Press, 2008), 232. Press,2008), (PurdueUniversity Cohen andJasnaDragovic-Soso Lenard J. Disintegration onYugoslavia’s Perspectives New Europe: Collapse inSouth-Eastern in ofYugoslavia” Fall andthe Resources for Struggle Inter-Regional “The Palairet, Michael andMacedonia.” Slovenia of atthe expense mainly transfers 142 2009). 139 2009). Miloševi “Case Slobodan 70. 1993), Press, University Oxford (New York: 138 government. highest degree of unanimity only in their strategy directed against the federal In a“panicky fear from Ante Markovi issue ofwhether Yugoslav political leaders genuinely desired a‘new system.’” “Case Slobodan Miloševi “CaseSlobodan Stokes, Gale “Yugoslavia’s inflation regime awarded enterprises in narrower Serbia a massive volume of volume amassive Serbia narrower in awarded enterprises regime inflation “Yugoslavia’s “ ErolRizaov, Stokes, Gale 142 International Criminal Tribunal for the Yugoslavia Former the for Tribunal Criminal International , 30 March, 1991. 30 March, , Byabusing theweak mechanismsof control theNational Bankof 139 The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe Eastern in communism of collapse the Down: Tumbling Came Walls The The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe Eastern in communism of collapse the Down: Tumbling Came Walls The ɉɚɧɢɱɟɧɫɬɪɚɜɨɞȺɧɬɟɆɚɪɤɨɜɢʅ Hewas demonized bothinSerbiaand Croatia, astheCroat side ü - transcript 23 -transcript ü - transcript 23 - transcript rd 140 October 2003 - testimony ofwitness AnteMarkovic”, testimony 2003- October Thefederalgovernment alsoenvisioned rd ü October 2003 - testimony ofwitness Ante ”, therepublican leaders haveachieved the 54 ”/“Panicky FearAnteMarkovi from 141 ü It was precisely from Itwasprecisely (accessed on16May, (accessed on16May, requested a primary edited by edited ü ”, Nova State 138 ü CEU eTD Collection http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Yugoslavia Former the for Tribunal Criminal International “Case Slobodan Miloševi “Case Slobodan Press,2008). (PurdueUniversity Cohen andJasnaDragovic-Soso Lenard J. Disintegration onYugoslavia’s Perspectives New Europe: Collapse inSouth-Eastern in ofYugoslavia” Fall andthe Resources for Struggle Inter-Regional “The Palairet, Michael whichdid. andBosnia-Herzegovina Macedonia wasanymore, only it budget pay the federal notto in decisions took andSerbia Croatia Slovenia, by Lenard J. Cohen and Jasna Dragovic-Soso (Purdue University Press, 2008), 243. Press,2008), University (Purdue Cohen andJasnaDragovic-Soso J. by Lenard Disintegration onYugoslavia’s New Europe: Perspectives in South-Eastern Collapse State 144 2009). Markovi Furthermore, assets. federal the of plunder reckless the in notpartake andBosniadid Macedonia Only 1700 million. at andCroatia 1000 million at Slovenia also but dinars, million 34400 with list the of 143 simple.” scheduledfor 1991,which Markovi which oftheamount washalf availablefor theincrease moneyin supply withthe National Bank of Serbia to create secretly credits of18.2 billion dinars, Yugoslavia exercised over the republican Nationalbanks, Miloševi conclusion (asSloveniahad announced the declarationof independence forthe the endofJune thepolitical developments were approaching anunsuccessful hard work, time andresourcesinvested its in reform program.Although towards it further distanced the republics anddiscredited the federal government andthe not only undermined Yugoslavia’s fragile monetary system, butmore importantly part ofthesum (around 1.5billion deutschmarks were neverreturned), the act previouslyagreed $3.6 billion in credits. attack on the monetary system”, while this caused the US to withdraw the were infuriated bythe act of what they called Serbia’s “coarse and unheard of secret document sentanonymously andlater reachedthe press,theSlovenes Michael Palairet, “The Inter-Regional Struggle for Resources and the Fall of Yugoslavia” in ofYugoslavia” Fall andthe Resources for Struggle “The Inter-Regional Palairet, Michael top the on Serbia shows clearly emissions’ ‘grey 1990 on the by Palairet proposed table The Although eventually under pressure theNational BankofSerbia returned 143 Oncetheoutright theftcame totheknowledge ofMarkovi ü himself witnesses in front of the ICTY that for a certain time in 1991 after in time acertain that for ofthe ICTY in front witnesses himself ü - transcript 23 -transcript rd October 2003 - testimony ofwitness AnteMarkovic”, testimony 2003- October ü 55 termed “adaylight robbery, pure and 144 (accessed on16May, ü ü through a arranged edited by edited edited State CEU eTD Collection http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Markovic”, 147 http://www.slobodnaevropa.org/content/article/1045340.html Yugoslavia”, 146 1991. union of independent republics. illegitimate andillegalunilateral acts) which would lead to a new Yugoslavia asa acceptable option isanagreed upon and democratic dissolution (with no the Federal Assembly andtheYugoslav public, sayingthattheonly possible and unavoidable, but notthewar-Interview,” unavoidable, 149 148 2009). 145 system.legal Ottawa,where hewas promised Canadianlegalhelp in reforming theYugoslav the Yugoslav delegation attheconference ofthe EuropeanMinisters ofJustice in end ofJune), the federal Secretary (Minister) of Justice Dr. Vlado Kambovski led conducting negotiation talks with the ECin Brussels. Croats […]Keep your hands off Bosniaand Herzegovina.” kind ofCroat that you are because you hate Serbs and others because you are Markovi taking radicalsteps: “This thefirst andthelast is asaCroat”, timespeaking Iam the Serbianin Parliament),a in last effortto dissuade thetwo republics from Parliaments ofSlovenia andCroatia was (and deniedthechance todothe same JamesBaker visited Belgrade inJuneandextended supporttoMarkovi support for thefederal government wellinto 1991,asUS Secretary ofState “Case Slobodan Miloševi “CaseSlobodan “ Omer Karabeg, “Vasil Tupurkovski: Raspad je bio neminovan, ali ne i rat/The dissolution was dissolution rat/The ali ne i neminovan, bio Raspad je “Vasil Tupurkovski: Karabeg, Omer Ibid. “ ɪɜɚ ɨɨɡȳɭɝɨɫɥɚɜɢʁɚ ɡɚ ɩɨɦɨɲ ɉɪɚɜɧɚ ɟɚ ɚ ɨɜɥɦɪɡɢɚɟ ɚ ȳɭɝɨɫɥɚɜɢʁɚ ɧɚ ɪɚɡɛɢɜɚʃɟ ɞɨɡɜɨɥɢɦɟ ɞɚ ɇɟɦɚ Moreover, until aslate as September 1991the federalpresidency was ü said infrontoftheCroatian parliamentarians. International Criminal Tribunal for the Yugoslavia Former the for Tribunal Criminal International Nova Makedonija 145 InJune1991,Ante Markovi ü - transcript 23 - transcript , 22 June, 1991. 1-2. 1991. 22 June, , ”/“Legal help Yugoslavia”, for help ”/“Legal 146 ThePrime also Minister gavespeeches at the Radio Free Europe Radio Free rd October 2003 - testimony ofwitness Ante 56 ü delivered a“dramatic address” to ”/“We won’t allow a destruction of adestruction won’t”/“We allow (accessed March 25, 2009). 25, (accessed March , 149 Nova Makedonija 147 148 TheUSpursued its (accessed on16May, “I am “Iam not thesame , 19 June, , ü forthe CEU eTD Collection place. Thedownfall ofMarkovi environment where all-encompassing reforms and democratization could take constructive andpragmatic effortstoprimarily stabilize the stateand createan given asawitness theICTYsince in caseagainstMiloševi Yet, judging bytheactions andthe only personal public statement Markovi possible toexaminethe genuineness or the real intent ofpast acts and moves. into the deeper, personalmotives ofthe relevant actors and thus it would notbe recognized asaserious, viable andpragmatic project. Onecannever penetrate had astrong economic, but lacked aclear political platform. Yet, ithastobe atmospheresuccessful fora implementation. Also, Markovi reform was aratherbelated attempt andneeded thelacking stablepolitical on 20 fear forhis safety,duringhis last monthsoffice in inBelgrade (before heresigned were always more intense than they otherwise might have been.” Ibid. 224. been.” Ibid. have might otherwise they than intense more were always Yugoslavs totheir senses.” that, despite thepolitical skirmishing, economic rationality eventually would bring compromise. AsGale Stokes rightly notes, “many observers the in believed West overpowered byanationalist paranoia andunwillingness for anytypeof ambassador. investment allocation, and convertible currency rules currency and convertible allocation, investment efficiency, economic over controversies sides Allperceived […] environment homogeneous anethnically in even arbitrate to beendifficult would have issues economic tough “These 240. 1993), Press, University Oxford (New York: 151 150 preservation ofYugoslavia within itspresent borders, and Markovi Gale Stokes, Gale Thompson, Mark th Yet, thevoices which werecalling for reason and patience were December 1991)was guarded byUSmarines lent by theUS 150 The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe Eastern in communism of collapse the Down: Tumbling Came Walls The A Paper House: the ending of Yugoslavia theendingof House: A Paper 151 Itdidnot. is indeedarguable thatthe economic ü andthefederal government (aswellas thatof 57 in ethnic terms ethnic in (London: Vintage Books, 1992). Books, Vintage (London: . Therefore the arguments the Therefore . ü ’s overall program ü ü , his were himself, in ü has CEU eTD Collection Practice). Thus,the issue of December 1990published already the second set of through the established Slovenian scientific journal propositions for the future (re)organization oftheYugoslav (con)federation comprehensive reform,many youngintellectuals voiced their views and spread to all the levels of society andthe situation was criticaland asking for among theintellectualand the politicalcircles. Thus,when the crisis hadalready political reorganization and transformation oftheYugoslav federation tookshape Code, and so forth. It was also Sloveniain that the first concrete proposals for a removingof thecontroversial “verbal delict” Article 133oftheYugoslav penal country’s human rightsrecord, abolishment of the mandatory military service, Sloveniawhich stoodfordemocratizationof Yugoslavia, improvement ofthe Yugoslavia? aNew of Kind -What Faces Myriad of Union The Envisaged 3.2. there was always a loud mob tosupporttheir demagoguery. and irreconcilable ethnic,historical, mythical and/orreligious terms. Regrettably, and, atleast nominallynot wholeheartedlyif framed everything intocombative another; elites that did not have the competence or the willingness to cooperate largely duetoregional political eliteswhose conflicts primarily fed onone the federalcollective presidency) and the brutalcollapse of Yugoslavia were thus The late1980s brought to life thestrong civil societymovements in 58 Teorija in Praksa (Theoryand CEU eTD Collection republics were pushing for further decentralization andconfederalization, Serbia whowant todestabilize Yugoslavia. The fact remains thatwhile thetwo northern convince thepublic andtheinternational community is Serbia, notthey thatit alibi fortheCroatian andtheSlovenian leaderships, whose soleaim was to University Press,2005). University West to East in Federalism” 155 2008). Disintegration in Solution?” Dejan Jovi states onthemodel oftheEC. proposal forYugoslavia tobetransformedinto acommunity ofindependent whichthe Slovenian andtheCroatian political leaderships modified itintoa 154 125. Press,2005), University West to East in Federalism” 153 University). Journalism, Issues asymmetrical was rejected byamajority ofsix votes to two, a vote frontin of the eight-member federalpresidency, theproposalfor an functions thatsecure Yugoslavia as acommon economic space.” such asinternational relations, defense against foreign aggression, andthose was addedthat“thisproposal doesnotundermine ofthefederation thefunctions Communists, theproposalfor anasymmetrical federationwas adopted,and it 152 as asetwell ofarticles on “TheCrisisYugoslavia in – Out”.Ways articles on “The Constitutional Changes and the Reforming ofYugoslavia”, as Mitja Žagar, “The Collapse of the Yugoslav Federation and the Viability ofAsymmetrical andtheViability Federation Yugoslav the of“The Collapse Žagar, Mitja Dejan Jovi Dejan ofAsymmetrical andtheViability Federation Yugoslav the of“The Collapse Žagar, Mitja Teorija in Praksa – Revija za vprašanja Družbena –Revija inPraksa Teorija ). Year XXVI, 12, pp.1417-1664 (Ljubljana: Faculty of Sociology, Political Science and Science Political Sociology, of Faculty (Ljubljana: pp.1417-1664 12, XXVI, Year ). In thepoliticalrealm, atthe11 ü edited by Sergio Ortino, Mitja Žagar and Vojtech Mastny (Manchester: Manchester (Manchester: Mastny Vojtech and Žagar Mitja Ortino, Sergio by edited edited by Sergio Ortino, Mitja Žagar and Vojtech Mastny (Manchester: Manchester (Manchester: Mastny Vojtech and Žagar Mitja Ortino, Sergio by edited edited by Lenard J. Cohen and Jasna Dragovic-Soso (Purdue University Press, University (Purdue Dragovic-Soso Jasna Cohen and J. by Lenard edited argue, the proposalwas insincere andunserious, serving onlyas an State Collapse in South-Eastern Europe: New Perspectives on Yugoslavia’s Perspectives New Europe: South-Eastern Collapsein State ü The Changing Faces of federalism: Institutional reconfiguration in Europe from inEurope reconfiguration Institutional federalism: of ChangingFaces The The Changing Faces of federalism: Institutional reconfiguration in Europe from inEurope reconfiguration Institutional federalism: of ChangingFaces The , “The Slovenian-Croatian Federal Proposal: a Tactical Move oranUltimate Move a Tactical Proposal: Federal “The Slovenian-Croatian , 155 Itisdebatable if,assome authorssuchas 59 th Congress of theSlovenian League of . ( Theory and Practice – Journal for Social for –Journal and Practice Theory 152 153 When putto When 154 after CEU eTD Collection (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). 219. 1993). Press, University Oxford (New York: 156 Macedonia andBosnia(inCroatia itsregistration was hampered onpurpose)- Yugoslav non-ethnic politicaloption won considerable number of votes in hoping that its realchancewouldcome federalelections. atthe The onlypan- Minister Markovi preceded orimmediately followed therepublican ones. The Party ofPrime crucialfacts in the process of dissolution, as federalelections should have 23 parliamentary elections (while Sloveniaheld its referendum on independence on Communist Leagueof Yugoslavia, each of the Yugoslav republics held internal terms ofastateunderSerbian leadership.” the latter thinking inbroad cultural terms andtheformer thinking inpractical Stokes observes, “the orientation ofSerbian andCroatian Yugoslavists differed, determining Kingdom werebefore WW2 boththen and almost seventy years laterthe Croat axis andthe disparate politicalstands on theorganizationof the Yugoslav stemmed from wellbefore thesocialist federation was established. TheSerb- balance between the two, with theirown, albeit belated, concrete proposal. than acentralized federation, while Macedonia andBosnia-Herzegovina tried to and Montenegro were reform-resistant and strongly opposed toanything less Gale Stokes, Gale rd December 1991).Some observers and authors point to this asone of the By the endof 1990, followingthe above-mentioned last Congress ofthe This prominent gapbetween the visions for thefuture of the country casus belli The Walls Came Tumbling Down: the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe Eastern in communism of collapse the Down: Tumbling Came Walls The ü , the“Alliance ofReformistsYugoslavia” Forces of alsoran,but . From the veryfirst days ofthe Yugoslav idea, as Gale 60 156 CEU eTD Collection the openquestions”, the 160 Šahinpaši (Sarajevo: 159 Conflicts 158 1995), 121-122. Institution, Brookings The (Washington: 157 calm for openand ofthecrucialdiscussion questions” took place “in acongenial and constructive atmosphere andwith preparedness so-called presidential summits. thesummit While CroatiaSplit, Marchin in 1991 tête-à-tête meetings the in former holidayresidencies of late President Tito -the determination inethnicterms comes onceit toBosnia-Herzegovina: 1991, Bosnian President Izetbegovi his speechat the first congress of the Party for Democratic ActionDecember in the republicsexcept for Serbia, theelectoral campaigns saw voices.different In center.” local (republican or statelevel), butafederally oriented party winning atthe electoral patternsimilar tothatofIndia, with local nationalists victorious atthe “had such elections been held, it ispossible that Yugoslavia would have seen an 19 seatsin Macedonia and13inBosnia. summitBrdo in Slovenia in the two opposite visions came tothefore (a unitary Milan Banov, “ Banov, Milan Alija Izetbegovi Alija Robert M. Hayden, M. Robert Susan L.Woodward, In March1991 thepresidents ofall theYugoslav republics began regular represents a humane, democratic and European solution?” result historicalof circumstances and has functioned well, and moreover exercise this right […] Why, then, destroy something which has been the determination for the nations, but how the mixture ofthese nations is to “The real question in Bosnia is not whether and how to achieve self- (The University of Michigan Press, 2000), 28. 2000), Press, ofMichigan University (The 158 Althoughthe reformed communists didnot winthe elections any in of ɨɫɪɤɢɧɪɡɨɨɢ ɚ ɬɨɟɢɟ ɩɪɚɲɚʃɚ ɨɬɜɨɪɟɧɢɬɟ ɡɚ ɪɚɡɝɨɜɨɪɢ Ʉɨɧɫɬɪɭɤɬɢɜɧɢ ü ü Nova Makedonija , , 2001), 103. , 2001), Sje Blueprints þ anja - autobiografski zapis/Memoirs - an autobiographical essay - anautobiographical zapis/Memoirs anja -autobiografski Balkan Tragedy - Chaos and Dissolution after the ColdWar the after - ChaosandDissolution Tragedy Balkan for a House Divided - the Constitutional Logic of the Yugoslav the Logicof Constitutional the Divided- aHouse for , 29 March 1991. 1. 1991. 29 March , ü 61 raised theproblematic issue of self- 157 AsRobertHaydenrightly observes, 160 , already in April at theApril , already in ” / “Constructive on talks ” /“Constructive 159 CEU eTD Collection (Sarajevo: Šahinpaši (Sarajevo: 162 2002). preservation ofYugoslavia, but significantly changed/reformed.” January 1991, hementions that with Gligorovtheyboth “advocated the memoirs. Talking about the meeting withthe Macedonian delegation on29 “Our views were theclosest to the Macedonian”, recalls Izetbegovi interests oftheBosnian citizens -Bosniaks/Muslims, Serbs,Croatsandothers. even more complicated position ofhavingto reconcile thediverse voices and political entity. Bosnia-Herzegovina andPresident Alija Izetbegovi an interest advocatingin and securing aposition ofanequalpartner inalarger regionsYugoslavia of andbeingnumerically andeconomically inferior, theyhad and practical dimension, since thetwo republics were among theless developed preservationof Yugoslavia a in new form. Certainly this position had a pragmatic mediating positions andmost prominently lobbied and advocated the 161 public. different republics and therefore the biased way ofinforming theYugoslav being repeated and he could also notice the polarization of the media from the behind closed doorswas quitetense, asthe same irreconcilable attitudes were Summitrecalls inhis memoirs, theatmosphere duringthe talks which tookplace summit . in state vs.aunion ofindependent states), which crystallized evenmore atthe Alija Izetbegovi Alija Kiro Gligorov, Kiro 161 As itwas mentionedabove, Macedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina held the As Macedonian President at the time KiroGligorov and hostof the Ohrid ɚɟɨɢɚ ɫ ɟ Ɇɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ ü ü , , 2001), 91. , 2001), Sje þ anja - autobiografski zapis/Memoirs - an autobiographical essay - anautobiographical zapis/Memoirs anja -autobiografski è ɬɢɦɚɦɟ ɲɬɨ 62 /Macedonia is all we have we isall /Macedonia 162 (Skopje: Kultura, (Skopje: ü were the in ü inhis th CEU eTD Collection talks”, 165 Šahinpaši (Sarajevo: European mechanisms forhuman protection rights andwhere theterritorial only Union oraCommunity ofYugoslavStates, which byall would the abide implementation ofthe agreement. More precisely, itproposed aformation ofa structure andprocedures ofdecision-making and6) guarantees for the economic interests,3)international/legalstatus andforeign policy, 4)defense, 5) six partsreferringto: 1) fundamental andbasiccivic rights, 2)thecommon forward aso-called“Platform for thefutureof the Yugoslav community.” As alastattemptworst-case topreventthe scenario, on 6 164 137. 2008). I, Iustinian 1990-2005 Macedonia Republicof onthe 1990-2005/Documents 163 Tudjmansaid isanacceptable publicly it document. leaders thatthe Platform represented agood basis forfurther talks, inthateven the mediaand the press, which commentedon the general agreement ofthe refused byTudjman. the advisor ofMiloševi Drnovšek, theSlovene representative publicly upheld thePlatform, even while Sarajevo, BosnianandMacedonian Presidents Izetbegovi Croat president Tudjman andMiloševi paramilitary units inCroatia andBosnia andthealready publicized talksbetween June, theconflicts withthe Serbminority inCroatia, the illegal armingof Yugoslavia had deteriorated, with theannounced secession ofSlovenia for 25 A. Sholjakovska, “ Sholjakovska, A. Alija Izetbegovi Alija community”. Yugoslav the of thefuture for “Platform Nova Makedonija As itwasmentioned above, by June 1991the politicalsituation in ü ü , , 2001). ɨɨɨɧɚɦɫɟɚ ɨ ɪɚɡɝɨɜɨɪɢɬɟ ɜɨ ɚɬɦɨɫɮɟɪɚ ɉɨɩɨɜɨɥɧɚ Sje , 7 June, 1991. 7 June, , 164 þ anja - autobiografski zapis/Memoirs - an autobiographical essay - anautobiographical zapis/Memoirs anja -autobiografski Amore optimistic view ofthe talks was alsoreflected in ü said itwas astep forward; theproposalwas outright 63 ü onthe division ofBosnia-Herzegovina. ȾɨɤɭɦɟɧɬɢɡɚɊɟɩɭɛɥɢɤɚɆɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ 165 ”/“Improved atmosphere in the atmospherein ”/“Improved ThePlatform contained (Skopje: Faculty Law ofFaculty (Skopje: ü andGligorov put th June1991 in 163 Janez th CEU eTD Collection (Sarajevo: Šahinpaši (Sarajevo: 167 269. 2002), Delors andLuxemburg Prime-Minister Jacques Santer-thelastconcrete attempt Platform was alsopresented to the ECrepresentatives -EC President Jacques The outcomewas thewar forwhich everyone paid.” “Unfortunately, there was not enough political maturity, norcourage toaccept it. peoples havetheir basic interests guaranteed”, writes Izetbegovi could haveprevented thewar, atthesametime assuringthatall Yugoslav Yugoslaviawith modified borders and without one oftherepublics. “This platform Herzegovinanor Macedonia wouldstay ina‘crippled’ Yugoslavia, i.e. ina 166 compromise.” them by acalm democratic dialogue, rational approachand reasonable atmosphere where threats,weapons and ultimatums dominated, andtoreplace the bloodshed, andtoseek arational way ofescaping from the heated territorial defenseunits. The aim of thePlatform was “toavoidthe extremes and proportionally reflect the ethnic balance, while the republics would retaintheir its membership; professional defense forces whose command staffwould policies, andapply formembership intheUN althoughYugoslavia would retain Currency Unit); republics wouldas well beentitled topursue theirown foreign EMU (EuropeanMonetary Union)and acurrency tied totheECU (European determination and secession; acommonmarket functioning by the rules ofthe units/republics, NOTthenations orpeople will havetheright toself- Alija Izetbegovic, Alija Kiro Gligorov, Kiro The presidential summit Sarajevo in was thelastone, andalthough the 166 ɚɟɨɢɚ ɫ ɟ Ɇɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ Similarly, both presidents agreed that neither Bosnia- ü , 2001), 100. , 2001), Sje þ anja - autobiografski zapis/Memoirs - an autobiographical essay - anautobiographical zapis/Memoirs anja -autobiografski è ɬɢɦɚɦɟ ɲɬɨ 64 /Macedonia is all we have we isall /Macedonia 167 (Skopje: Kultura, (Skopje: ü . CEU eTD Collection 170 169 2002). Arbitration Commission of the Conference (better known asthe Badinter followingday Macedoniawouldhold itsplebiscite onindependence. The crisis and reformation ofYugoslavia asaunion of independent states again reconfirmed theMacedonian position - a peacefulsolution oftheYugoslav and stillthere were options atthe negotiating table. Mr.Gligorov in his speech weakened, the FederalExecutive Council (the Government) was still existencein gathered atthenegotiating table. Atthis point in time, althoughseriously members ofthePresidency, the federal government andtheEC ministers foreign 168 on 7 not!” butithasonemajorwell, isallrational. Andthesituation- it flaw Yugoslavia in is Gligorov on the subject ofthe proposed Platform: “Mr.Gligorov, all that is very Conference onYugoslavia and former UKforeign secretarysaid toPresident Gligorov andIzetbegovi the negotiations between the republics on the basis oftheproposed Platform by Bundestag inaproject-resolution onYugoslavia recommended continuationof Platform was basis anexcellent forsolving theYugoslav crisis, while the could havetheirsay onthefuture oftheir state, failed. ECstated The that the EC, ortoconduct any typeof a federal referendum where theYugoslav citizens to preserve Yugoslavia andestablish aYugoslav Community onthemodelof the Ibid. 271. Ibid, Kiro Gligorov, Kiro 169 th September the presidents 1991,all oftheYugoslav republics, the At thefirst session of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia in The Hague ɚɟɨɢɚ ɫ ɟ Ɇɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ ü . 168 è AsLordCarrington, chairman ofthePeace ɬɢɦɚɦɟ ɲɬɨ 65 /Macedonia is all we have we isall /Macedonia (Skopje: Kultura, (Skopje: 170 . The CEU eTD Collection Snezana (Dodrecht: M. Nijhoff, 1994). M.Nijhoff, (Dodrecht: Snezana Dissolution CreationtoIts from Its Documents: through Yugoslavia 171 by theSerbian political leadership, themembers ofthePresidency no longer particularand in after the abolishment oftheautonomy ofKosovo andVojvodina to procedures established bythe last 1974 constitution. At the end of the 1980s, followingthe proportional representation ofall republicsand provinces according of thesebodies alsofunctioned andwere composed onanethnicprinciple, already mentioned Federal Executive Council (orthe Government). However, all the Yugoslav Army; thefederal Parliament with two its chambers; andthe which alsoactedasthesupreme commander withthe authorityto issue orders to the local, republican institutions: the collective presidency(or Supreme Council) Youth-the Army). one ofthe famous parolesread: symbols ofYugoslav unity: Tito, the League of Communists, and the Army, as cinematography and sports), there were Yugoslav few truly things orundisputed those who felt and declared Yugoslav andthecultural life(music, Army the and Presidency -The Commanders Supreme Eight 3.3. The eventually proclaim that SFRYugoslavia no longer exists from the dissolutionand the Opinion in No. 8(dated4 wouldlater issue fifteen opinions onthemost important legal aspects arising Commission) set up to assist with the legal matters related tothe conference “Opinion No. 8 of the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia” in onYugoslavia” Conference the Peace of Commission Arbitration the No.8of “Opinion It was widelyIt was accepted in Yugoslavia that, beside themixed marriages, One would be also right to add here the federal, as opposed to Tito-Partija-Omladina-Armija (Tito-the Party-the 66 171 . th edited by Trifunovska edited July1992)would CEU eTD Collection federal Secretary ofDefense), Secretary federal 174 173 announce asituation ofemergency onthe entire territory ofYugoslavia Ɍɩɪɨɫɢ Ȼɝɱɜʅ ɚ ɚɝɜɪɜɁɚɝɪɟɛ ɜɨ Zagreb”, ɪɚɡɝɨɜɨɪɢ ɧɚ Ȼɨɝɢɱɟɜɢʅ ɢ ³Ɍɭɩɭɪɤɨɜɫɤɢ the famous Presidency meeting withtheArmy command on12 verge of constitutional order and the integrity of the state, the Army was indeedon the that theArmywouldeventually step in. As thesupreme ofthe guardian started collapsing, many Yugoslavs expected, fearedand some secretlyhoped Yugoslavia in anatmosphere where theentire federal institutionalframework dissolution. Viewed as the last strong, truly Yugoslav institutioncapable ofsaving important tounderline itscrucial role during theprocess of the Yugoslav successfulexchange ofmany capturedsoldiers from all sides. 172 Bogi Slovenia andCroatia. appointed thetwo ofthem as negotiators/arbiters duringthe armed conflicts in Moreover, because of their neutralpositions and status, the Presidency Montenegrin, Kosovo and Vojvodina members), nor of the Slovenian-Croat one. neither supportive ofthe Serbian camp (which encompassed theSerb, Presidency:last VasilTupurkovski andBogi Exceptions tothis patternwere the Macedonian and the Bosnian members ofthe strove to represent Yugoslav, but narrower ethnic principles and interests. Olivera Jovi Olivera 2009). (April Tupurkovski Vasil with interview Personal Personal interviews with Vasil Tupurkovski and Bogi Tupurkovski Vasil with interviews Personal ü Bogi Although theYugoslav Armyis notthefocus ofthiswork Nova Makedonija coup d’état ü evi ü evi ü ’s now historical decision to voteNO on the proposalto ü , “Upitnik”/”Questionmark” (Interview with General Veljko Kadijevi Veljko General with (Interview , “Upitnik”/”Questionmark” , under the pressure primarily ofthe Serbian leadership. , 3 April, 1991.1. 3 April, , 172 Radio Television Serbia RadioTelevision Theireffort, help and involvement allowed forthe 67 , 2007. , ”/“Tupurkovski and Bogicevic at Talks in atTalks and Bogicevic ”/“Tupurkovski ü ü Bogicevi Bogi þ evi ü (April 2009). (April ü . Theirpositions were 173 th March 1991, per se , it is , it ü 174 , last At CEU eTD Collection Television Serbia Television 177 176 1997). Peace, Center for International intervjui support the Serbian initiativefor to otherpragmatic considerations, asforeign assistance) theArmynot to decided Yugoslav Armywaging awar against its own citizens. (himselfmixed ofa Croat-Serb marriage) did not support theidea of the Yugoslav generals, among them Secretary ofDefensegeneral Veljko Kadijevi the emergency situation. TheArmyleadership was also dividedand the pro- Slovene members ofthePresidency who were against themilitary scenario and at thetime would havebeenanequivalent to a moralsuicide.” never been […] Approving ofwhat the political-nationalist aggressors were doing matters ofeachindividual. My Serbnationality is not my profession,has and it life in Yugoslavia: “I have always understood nationality and faith aspersonal nationalist and militarist frameworkwhich started spreading toall poresof public a Serbbyorigintosupporttheirplans for Yugoslavia,Bogi the Serbian leadership expected him to follow his ethnic line of reasoning and as attackingYugoslavia from the outside obligating the Army tostep in. favor ofpolitical dialogue and peaceful solution, claimingthat no onewas origin, Bogi Croatiaand the followingyear inBosnia-Herzegovina. Despite beingSerb by 175 prevented a Olivera Jovi Olivera 31/42. Ibid, “Rat je bio planiran”/”The War was Planned”, interview with Bogi with interview was Planned”, War planiran”/”The bio je “Rat / But, it was notonly theMacedonian, the Bosnian, theCroat and the The Hopelessness of Evil Evil - Interviews of The Hopelessness ü evi ü de facto evi , 2007. , ü ü chose tovoteagainst military solutions totheYugoslav crisis, in , “Upitnik”/”Questionmark” (Interview with General Veljko Kadijevi Veljko General with (Interview , “Upitnik”/”Questionmark” civilwar, which anywayeruptedseveralmonths laterin coup d’état 68 . edited byAdemovi edited Dr. Fadil 177 ü That is why (in addition Bogi ü evi 176 þ ü evi didnot follow the ü , in 175 Bezna ü (Sarajevo: Although ü ), ÿ Radio e zla - ü CEU eTD Collection (Skopje: Faculty of Law Iustinian I,2008). Law ofIustinian Faculty (Skopje: Ɇɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ Ɋɟɩɭɛɥɢɤɚ 181 Stipe MesiStipe of1991. half the first press from the from visible explicitly and Gligorov Kiro of thememoirs in reasserted factis same The system. anddefense policy foreign currency, common with borders, andoutside inside current ofYugoslavia’s preservation 180 179 1993-1996. Army of theMacedonian Staff the General ofHead of position 178 declaration forpeaceful solution oftheYugoslav crisis” from 7 and the federal leaderships on the Croatian island of Brioni. The final “Common to build andprotect Yugoslavia, nottodestroy it. base, herefused toabide bythedecision, under thepretext thathewas trained the military command Belgrade in to bomb cityandtheSplit the military naval Croatiaand chief staff of ofthe navalAcademy. After hereceived an order from Navy atthe outbreak of thewar, commander ofthemilitary navalbase Split,in is thecase ofDragoljub Bocinov, Macedonian byorigin, Admiral oftheYugoslav Yugoslav-minded action within theArmy beforetheofficial dissolution ofthestate in June 1991, the EC (the so-called ministerial troika forces of the Slovene territorial defense after the proclamation ofindependence Macedonian Army inAprilofthat year. 1993, where he assumed the position of Head ofthe GeneralStaff ofthe Macedonian government, he was transferred to Macedonia atthe beginning of a torture and imprisonment foralmost ayearanduponan interventionfrom the transferred with ahelicopter tothemilitary prison inNiš, Serbia.After undergoing “Common (Brioni) declaration for peaceful solution of the Yugoslav crisis” Yugoslav the of solution peaceful for declaration (Brioni) “Common Stipe Mesi Stipe Ibid. onthe while Bocinov Admiral of cabinet ofChief Spaskovski, Simo with interview Personal Another illustrative andprominent exampleofananti-nationalist, When When the conflict Sloveniain erupted between the Yugoslav Army andthe ü , The Demise of Yugoslavia: a political memoir a political ofYugoslavia: Demise The ü in his memoir on the dissolution recalls the firm support of the EC for the ECfor the of support firm the recalls dissolution onthe memoir his in 1990-2005/Documents on the Republic of Macedonia 1990-2005 Macedonia Republicof onthe 1990-2005/Documents 179 69 (Budapest: CEU Press, 2004). CEU Press, (Budapest: 178 Next hewas arrestedand 180 ) met with the republican th in July1991 Ⱦɨɤɭɦɟɧɬɢɡɚ 181 CEU eTD Collection 2008). 1990-2005 Macedonia Republic of onthe 2005/Documents the overcoming of the crisis in former SFRY” in SFRY” former in crisis the of overcoming the meeting withtherepublics’ presidents of 22-23 Croat) refused tosign theOhriddeclaration at theextended Federal Presidency 182 the tragic dissolutionsometimes referred toas Dizdarevi uninformed and profoundly misplaced position. The concluding words ofRaif violent dissolution was aninevitable act wouldmean pursuingan unjust, conspiracies which plotted against Yugoslavia. Topursuethe argument thatthe entire process, as there were no invisible historical forcesatwork orforeign immediate withdrawal oftheYugoslav Army toits barracks. the other participants atthe meeting didnot accept theirdemand foran President Tudjman President andtheYugoslav ofthePresidency Mesi of thecountry. However, withthe escalation oftheconflict inCroatia, theCroat out toadetermination fora constructiveapproach which aims atthepreservation the basis foranCSCE (present OSCE) observationmission toYugoslavia point remain afederal matter, thedeactivation ofthe territorial defenseunits, etc. and violent or unilateral acts. All theprovisions referring to the customs which will political andconstitutional roleand duties,while allsides hadto refrain from any established that the collective presidency must retain andcontinueto pursue its about being nostalgic thatYugoslavia was notdefendedorpreserved theway it “ ɈɯɪɢɞɫɤɚɢɡʁɚɜɚɡɚɧɚɞɦɢɧɭɜɚʃɟɧɚɤɪɢɡɚɬɚɜɨɩɨɪɚɧɟɲɧɚɋɎɊȳ It isimportant torecognize theresponsibility oftheindividualactors the in ü in his in memoirs offer an accurate summary ofthesense ofregret over 70 ɨɭɟɬɡɊɟɩɭɛɥɢɤɚɆɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ ɡɚ Ⱦɨɤɭɦɟɧɬɢ jugonostalgija: rd July 1991 in Macedonia July1991in since (Skopje: Faculty of Law Iustinian I, ofLaw Iustinian Faculty (Skopje: 182 ” / “Ohrid declaration for declaration “Ohrid ” / “Of course it is not 1990- ü (a CEU eTD Collection (Sarajevo: Šahinpaši (Sarajevo: 184 Yugoslavia of Death of thoseultimately destroyed thepossibility ofanypeaceful solution. fed oneachotherandmutually reinforced and provokedeachother’s actions -all favorand in of each other, the interaction of andindividualswhich factors, internaland externalwhich (sometimesunintentionally) playedagainst give aserious blow to thecountry.It was preciselythefatal combination ofmany one ofthefactorswhich ledtothedissolution wouldnot havebeenenough to no way ahistoricalgiven (nužnost).” was determined bythepersonalities ofMiloševi break-up itself could have happened in anentirely different way. happenedWhat that “the fate of Yugoslaviaand its dissolution were notunavoidable, while the 183 all…” advance and enrich theinner relations which wouldhave ensured prosperity for dignity; that Yugoslavia was notreformed tothebenefit ofall; thatwe didn’t values andachievements from that periodofequality, human, andnational civic historical, moral and ethical responsibility that we did not preserve all thegreat was beforethedissolution. Itisabout a nostalgia which hastodowith a Alija Izetbegovic, Alija Raif Dizdarevi Raif 183 Izetbegovi ü , Od smrti Tita do smrti Jugoslavije - Svjedo Jugoslavije dosmrti Tita smrti Od (Sarajevo: Oko, 1999), 435. 1999), Oko, (Sarajevo: ü , 2001), 90. , 2001), ü Sje seems toagreewith this view thathenotesin inhis memoirs þ anja - autobiografski zapis/Memoirs - an autobiographical essay - anautobiographical zapis/Memoirs anja -autobiografski 184 71 Itis undeniablethat the presence of only ü and Tudjman, andthey were in þ enja/From the Death of Tito to the ofTito Death the enja/From CEU eTD Collection option clearly putforward throughout the dissolution process; while bythetime 1990-2005 Ɇɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ Ɋɟɩɭɛɥɢɤɚ ɡɚ Ⱦɨɤɭɦɟɧɬɢ in 6 August 1991 Skopje, Macedonia, of Republic in a referendum of holding for “Decision 1991” / Yugoslav states?” and independent Macedoniawiththe righttojoin afuture alliance of independent referendum question in Macedonia was thusformulated: “Areyou for asovereign questions inCroatia andMacedoniahad this option explicitly embedded: the future alliance orunion of independent Yugoslav states. Namely, thereferenda overwhelmingly voted inthe independence referenda voted alsoinfavor of a and superficial interpretation of the events. In fact, the Yugoslav ‘demos’ which applauded the dissolution ofYugoslavia. Yet, this wouldonly represent a biased 186 1991. July 185 and Serbs which wholeheartedly supported Miloševi Yugoslavia, ithasbeen usually pointed outto the largecrowds ofordinary Croats whatin eventually would end up as an elite-driven process. In the case of the entire demos was allowed tovoiceitswill anddemands ortohaveatruesay been used asa way oflegitimization ofthe actions ofthe political elites, rarely “ in Sarajevo in rally Peace” for the “YUTEL at performed also band EKV, rock bythe Asong Chapter 4:“Ovojezemljazanas” ɞɭɚ ɚ ɚɩɲɜʃɧɪɮɪɧɭɜɊɩɛɢɚ Ɇɚɤɟɞɨɧɢʁɚ Ɋɟɩɭɛɥɢɤɚ ɜɨ ɪɟɮɟɪɟɧɞɭɦ ɧɚ ɪɚɫɩɢɲɭɜɚʃɟ ɡɚ Ɉɞɥɭɤɚ Although throughout history the supposed voluntarism of themasses has for us” -the pro-Yugoslav Non-Political Front (Skopje: Faculty of Law Iustinian I, 2008), 152. I,2008), ofLaw Faculty Iustinian (Skopje: 186 ; theSlovenian political leadership hadthe confederation 1990-2005/Documents on the Republic of Macedonia of Republic onthe 1990-2005/Documents 72 How many years of blood and confusion the very rudiments of political science! 185 /”This is a country would it have cost us to learn ü and Tudjman and - Thomas Macaulay , ɋɤɨɩʁɟ , 6 , ɚɜɝɭɫɬ CEU eTD Collection 2009). in Europe andCooperation on Security Commission 187 intellectuals united thein “Association for Yugoslav Democratic Initiative” (UJDI) UJDI theIntellectuals: of Voices 4.1. The musicalrock scene) andthe ordinary citizens, amongwhich theyouth. to implement: theintellectuals, theartists (in particular theprogressive Yugoslav ends, this chapterwillanalyze thepositions ofthose who the actualpower lacked which could,hadaright toanddidvoice theirvisions which ledto unfortunate fact. Taking intoaccount the essential factthat itwas not onlythepoliticalelites Tudjman-Miloševi casein itcontradicted analready agreed agenda. In this sense,the meeting driven process which didnotcaremuch abouttakinginto accountthe popularwill Czechoslovak case,was neverheld.Inboth cases, thedissolution was anelite- economic crisis. Afederalreferendum on thefateof country, like inthe genocide andabsolute termination ofall contacts asasolution tothepolitical and majority ofYugoslavsnever envisioned atotalpolarization, armed and conflicts Muslims, Serbs,Croats, andmembersnations ofother -living init.” Herzegovina, astateofequalcitizens, the peoples ofBosniaand Herzegovina - who voted“yes”were factvoting for“asovereign in and independent Bosnia and 1992 it no longer made sense to advocate any kindof Yugoslavia. Yet, those the independence referendum in Bosnia-Herzegovina came inFebruary/March “The Referendum on Independence in Bosnia-Herzegovina February 29-March 1, 1992”, 29-March February Bosnia-Herzegovina on in Independence Referendum “The The Yugoslav democratically, anti-nationalist and reform-minded ü on thedivisionof Bosnia inMarch 1991 is nowawell-known 73 http://www.csce.gov (accessed on 20 May, on 20 (accessed 187 The CEU eTD Collection 8 January 1990. Personal archive of Prof. Ljubomir Cuculovski, President ofUJDI-Skopje. President Cuculovski, Ljubomir ofProf. archive Personal 1990. 8 January dated document/correspondence, - original Initiative” Democratic Yugoslav for Association the of 191 Economy. for Prize theNobel for nominated also He was Tudjman. of rule the during Croatia post-communist those in as of Yugoslavia socialist in practices economic negative the of critical equally and was socialism market advocating Branko Horvat, author ofauthor Horvat, Branko 1999). Kulura, Yugoslav League of Communists, theywere bytheled principlethat theyhave 1002. context. On8 anti-war andhuman rightsactivists and opposition leaders in thepost-Yugoslav active in UJDI andsome ofwhom would preserve their roles ofprominent civic, eminent philosophers, Yugoslav lawyers, professors, liberals, writers whowere Mirjana Ule,Tibor Varadi, LjubomirCuculovski, weresome ofthe names of 190 1989). Vesna Peši economist, the‘spiritualfather’ ofUJDI) Skopje, Sarajevo andZagreb.BrankoHorvat (Croatian intellectualand renowned intellectuals, professors and writers from Prishtina and Belgrade, to Ljubljana, place inZagreb.The members oftheinitiative’s Council were well-known in Zagreb,Croatia.Likewise, the printing ofthe UJDInewsletter branches allin therepublics, while theseatandofficialaddress were situated advancement processes. ofdemocratic the Republic’s Secretariat forInternal Affairsasanassociation ofcitizens for the April 1989 inthen Titograd, today’sPodgorica, thecapital ofMontenegro, with 189 Idea a Failed of 188 which its firstmeeting held inJanuary1989. “Godišna skupština Udruženja za jugoslavensku demokratsku inicijativu” / “Annual assembly “Annual / inicijativu” demokratsku zajugoslavensku Udruženja skupština “Godišna Ljubomir Cuculovski, Ljubomir Branko Horvat, “The Association for Yugoslav Democratic Initiative” in Initiative” Democratic Yugoslav for Association “The Horvat, Branko Republika 191 Although a significant number ofthe UJDI activists were members ofthe (Newsletter of the Association for Yugoslav Democratic Initiative), Vol. 1, No 3 (July Vol.1, Initiative), Yugoslav Democratic for the Association of (Newsletter ü , Gajo Sekuli edited by Dejan Djokic (London: Hurst & Company, 2003), 298. 2003), Hurst &Company, (London: Djokic byDejan edited th January 1990 the registered number ofmembers of UJDI was The Political Economy ofSocialism ɜɞɲɜɢ ɤɨɦɟɧɬɚɪɢ ɢ ɋɜɟɞɨɲɬɜɚ ü , Abdulah Sidran, Ko 74 189 TheAssociation (hereafter UJDI) had 190 , Nebojša Popov,ŽarkoPuhovski, / 188 Itwas legallyregistered on 17 Testimonies and Comments Testimonies þ a Popovi published in English in 1982, was 1982, in English in published ü , Dubravka Ugreši Yugoslavism -Histories Republika (Skopje: took ü th , CEU eTD Collection 196 195 Idea a Failed of 194 193 192 divisions.” emphasize the“limitations of seeing Yugoslavia simply throughnational program of politicalreorganization of thestate into a democratic federation and initiative which is both Yugoslav and democratic; theypropose a concrete outlines the reason fortheirestablishment intheinexistence ofanymovement or other solution but radical democratization.” have at least two possible solutions. For Yugoslavia there alternativeis no toany party). claiming thatUJDIwouldmore be effectiveand usefulit registers if as a political branch led by Nebojša Popov, once the situation began deteriorating after 1990, become apoliticalparty (although there was such a proposalfrom the Belgrade the sameway they,ascommunists, hada right todoso. person with different politicalviews to voice them or tobeamember ofaparty, no moralor any other right toprevent a social democrat, aliberal oranyother persistence.” language of]violence anddestruction must bereplaced bydeep principles and tradition, such views [democratic alternative] might appear soft […] [The raise the matter: “To those who were brought up in thewarrior’s and epic anti-Yugoslav/nationalist was becoming especially prominent, UJDIdid notfail to Ibid, 299. Ibid, 301. Ibid, in Initative” Democratic Yugoslav for Association “The Horvat, Branko Ibid. 2009). (April, UJDI -Skopje of President Cuculovski, Ljubomir Prof. with interview Personal 193 Beside politicalits engagement, UJDInever became, neither strove to “We arenot an alternative movement. Tohaveanalternative means to 195 Inanatmosphere where theopposition Yugoslav/democratic vs. 196 edited by Dejan Djokic (London: Hurst & Company, 2003), 298. 2003), Hurst &Company, (London: Djokic byDejan edited Becauseoftheirposition and stands which criticized andwent 75 194 IntheirManifesto, the Initiative 192 Yugoslavism -Histories CEU eTD Collection envisioned asapossible mechanism achievingof this major change, i.e. Yugoslavia. Theabove-mentioned Yugoslav Pre-Parliament was actually were centeredonthe reform of thelegaland thepolitical system of socialist Kosovo). the futurearrangement (nor ofYugoslavia aclear visionon the futurestatus of has arealeconomic andprogram, policy did nothaveaclear political platform for principle extended supportfor Markovi UJDI forhis Party ofReform Forces. UJDIdeclined anypotential coalition, but in Yugoslaviain (inparticular inBosnia-Herzegovina) and asked for the support of and duringthe four-hour meeting he underlined thegravity ofthe overall situation enough strength tostopthedevastatingstorm.” gathered theemerging anti-war parties andgroups, but really it couldnot muster armed conflicts, springin 1991,we founded the Yugoslav Pre-Parliament, which UJDI hadandconveyed toMarkovi edited by edited 199 198 1999). Kulura, 197 second half of1990, Ante Markovi them of beingCroat the acronym certainstands forthat), while politicalcircles Serbia in accused they were regarded as Yugoslav orSerb unitarists (arguing that the initial “U” in Markovi beyond the mainstream nationalist political ideologies, like in thecase ofAnte Nebojša Popov, “Destruction and Defense of Life - in Whose Name?” in Name?” Whose -in Life of andDefense “Destruction Popov, Nebojša 2009). (April, UJDI -Skopje of President Cuculovski, Ljubomir with interview Personal Cuculovski, Ljubomir Nebojša Popov, oneof the leaders ofUJDI, recalls that “reacting to early ü Mirjana Vojvodic (Niš: Center for Civic Initiative, 2008), 26. 2008), Initiative, Civic for Center (Niš: Vojvodic Mirjana 198 , UJDIwas stigmatized publicly andattacked:Croatia in andSlovenia Ustashas, ɜɞɲɜɢ ɤɨɦɟɧɬɚɪɢ ɢ ɋɜɟɞɨɲɬɜɚ againfinding thebase in initialletter. ü ü askedfor a meetingwith theUJDI leadership was that his party,being the only onewhich 76 ü ’s program. However, the main remark / Testimonies and Comments Testimonies 199 The initial activities of UJDI Not in My Name 197 (Skopje: Inthe CEU eTD Collection 202 201 5. 1989): 1,No 3(July Initiative), Democratic Yugoslav for Association the of that something imperatively had to bechanged, bothnominally and structurally. existence ofawidespread awareness in theintellectual (andthe political) circles the sametimeas theeconomic reform program of Ante Markovi these reflections andproposals came already inthefirsthalf of1989,almost at pluralism impossible without ownership/propertyis pluralism. the economical aspectswere centered onthe assumption that a realpolitical only onewhich dominated thedebates and activities ofUJDI. The reflections on 200 conducted.” law based onwhich theelections forthe Constitutive Parliamentwould be establishment oftheConstitutive Parliament,and secondly,for anew electoral approving oneamendment tothepresentconstitutionwhich would allow the new politicallegal and basis: “UJDI, following itsManifesto, arguingis for initially adoptinga new federalconstitution which would set thecountry on anentirely democratic means suitsuchan aim.” individual andthecommon existence democracy, […] Ifourgoal is thenonly problems basic the SUCCESSFUL forthe of andDEMOCRATICsolution FUTURE. Themainand most acceptable source of legitimacy wouldbe a THE PRESENTAND THE TO THEPAST FROM BESHIFTED SHOULD citizens and the majority offederal units. “THE CENTER OF LEGITIMACY would havebeenconfirmed atafederalreferendum by themajority ofYugoslav Personal interview with Prof. Ljubomir Cuculovski, President of UJDI - Skopje (April, 2009). (April, UJDI - Skopje of President Cuculovski, Ljubomir Prof. with interview Personal Ibid. “Kojim putem do novog ustava?” / “Which Way toaNewConstitution?”, Way “Which / ustava?” do novog putem “Kojim 200 Thechangeoftheconstitution andtheadoption ofanew one 201 77 However, the politicalaspect was notthe Republika 202 Thefact that ü , reveals the (Newsletter CEU eTD Collection politicalYugoslav lifeand,inthe context, asourceofdangerousirrational based onanationpolitical insteadofona platform represent retrogression in constitutive Yugoslav Pre-Parliament explicitly underlined that“political parties interview inNovember 1989, branch ofUJDI and Professor ofphilosophy LjubomirCuculovskiargued in an constituent nations and nationalities. envisioned Yugoslavia asacountry “aswell asofitscitizens”,notonly of its Kulura, 1999), 118. Kulura, 205 204 1999). Kulura, 203 individualwouldundeniably leadto anew kind oftotalitarianism. of thenation/ethnic orreligious group; thatthis collectivist spirit being blind forthe danger of merely replacing thecollectivity ofthe socialist working classwith that UJDI wason was insisting thatofthe“citizen” anditconstantly warnedofthe the above-mentioneddraft electoral lawandConstitution.A notion andconcept January 1990 atthe Faculty ofPolitical Science, oneofthe discussion points was Ljubomir Cuculovski, Ljubomir 2009). (April, UJDI - Skopje of President Cuculovski, Ljubomir Prof. with interview Personal Cuculovski, Ljubomir Likewise, Likewise, the draftelectoral lawwhich was supposedto establish the exclusive national parties…” look beyond their national boundaries, wewill avoid the danger of [...] Thus, ifwe strive to constitute political subjects, that iscitizens, who category of with aCroat, Croat with a Slovene… areWe still not familiar with the man/human to another man/human, butmore and more as a Macedonian case, the nations. This led to ourcommunicating less and less as a “So far it has been insisted upon abstract categories - in our Yugoslav At thesecond sessionof theCouncil ofUJDI heldinSarajevo on19 people, ɜɞɲɜɢ ɤɨɦɟɧɬɚɪɢ ɢ ɋɜɟɞɨɲɬɜɚ ɤɨɦɟɧɬɚɪɢ ɢ ɋɜɟɞɨɲɬɜɚ not inthe sense of 205 204 78 Asthe President of the Macedonian ethnos / / Testimonies and Comments Testimonies and Comments Testimonies , but in thesense of demos 203 (Skopje: (Skopje: UJDI th CEU eTD Collection such awaywhere first thenarrow leadership core is established andafterwards peoplevote for nationaland not for political options andparties are formed in Macedonia thattheYugoslav societya in is pre-politicalcondition/state, asthe interviews givenformagazines andnewspapersSlovenia, in Serbia and (who compared UJDItotheFabianSociety inEngland) argued atthattime in members on local/republican elected elections). (based onthe principle ofthesovereignty of the nations/federal units, with elected at all-Yugoslav federalelections) and aChamber of the federal units principle(based onthe ofthesovereignty of citizens, whose members would be federal Parliament consisting of aFederal Chamber, oraChamber ofCitizens one ofthe corepillars ofthe federation. Thus, they were envisioninga bicameral Yugoslav context cannot afford tototally ignore thenational principlewhich was the constitutions. the Association for Yugoslav Democratic Initiative), 1, No 3 (July 1989): 5. 1989): 1, No3(July Initiative), Democratic Yugoslav for Association the toaNewConstitution?”, “Which Way / ustava?” do novog putem “Kojim 1999). Kulura, 208 207 Skopje. UJDI - of President Cuculovski, Ljubomir Prof. of archive 1990. Personal 19January Council, UJDI the of session thesecond to 206 federal units. constitution with aconsensus, i.e.byaqualified majority vote eachofthe in are tobeadopted in referenda byaqualified majority vote,while thefederal conflicts.” Ljubomir Cuculovski, Ljubomir Ibid. document/annex law”, electoral ofthe principles “Basic / zakona” odredbeizbornog “Osnovne No matter how supportive ofthe civic principle, UJDI was aware thatthe 206 Furthermore, thedraft law stipulated thatthe republics’ constitutions 207 Thiswas believed to ensure the longevity andthe credibility of ɜɞɲɜɢ ɤɨɦɟɧɬɚɪɢ ɢ ɋɜɟɞɨɲɬɜɚ 79 / Testimonies and Comments Testimonies 208 Prof.Ljubomir Cuculovski Republika (Newsletter of (Newsletter (Skopje: CEU eTD Collection growingpolarization and ethnicizationof politics. Thus, the Bosnian branches of at theupcomingelections because ofthespecific situation inBosniaand the Executive Council ofUJDI discussed the option of the Bosnian branches running UJDI branches eventually entered the political arena. In June 1990, the forUJDI Bosnia-Herzegovinawas wasin onlyinthisrepublicthe specific that number ofmembers inBosnia-Herzegovina. Macedonia where rulespolitical, nationaland religious tolerance.” “The answer tothechallenge we arefacingtoday can onlybeademocratic minority andunderlying that no already approved minority rights canbe revoked. proposals for the outlawing of the Party for Democratic Prosperity of the Albanian voiced its standon the interethnicrelations intherepublic, opposing some ofthe narrower Macedonian political sphere. On 20 conferences/discussions and statementsissued which were also relevant for the ethnic options. elections wouldhave come afterthem, with people votingfor political andnot for Yugoslavia in1990 would havebeen “zero-elections”, while theactual first 212 media. and Parliament in andattacked was emphasized nationalism Albanian while Yugoslavia, with all of ties termination onaradical VMRO insisted right-wing emerged newly the either: discourse tonationalist immune was not 1991 of beginning the from Macedonia notethat to important is It ofUJDI-Skopje. President Cuculovski, 211 210 1999). Kulura, 209 searchthere isa andhunt for members. Personal interview with Ljubomir Cuculovski, President of UJDI - Skopje (April, 2009). (April, UJDI -Skopje of President Cuculovski, Ljubomir with interview Personal “ Ibid. Cuculovski, Ljubomir ɋɨɨɩɲɬɟɧɢɟ Curiously enough,UJDI had the most widespreadsupport and largest In the context of Macedonia, the UJDI branch organized two public , 20.09.1990” / “Announcement, 20.09.1990”. Personal archive of Prof. Ljubomir of Prof. archive Personal 20.09.1990”. “Announcement, / 20.09.1990” , 210 ɜɞɲɜɢ ɤɨɦɟɧɬɚɪɢ ɢ ɋɜɟɞɨɲɬɜɚ 80 209 Therefore, the first free elections in / 212 th Another crucial element which September 1990,UJDI-Skopje Testimonies and Comments Testimonies 211 (Skopje: CEU eTD Collection 215 214 1999). Kulura, 213 so-calledDemocratic Forum of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Union ofB&H (future Liberal Partyof B&H) and theDemocratic Party formed the UJDI, alongwith theSocial-democratic Union ofB&H, theSSO -Democratic President ofEM Yugoslavia, while UJDI members suchasShkelzenMaliqi from participants/members, they elected Belgrade lawyer Srdja Popovi Prime Minister Pregl, foreign ambassadors and around one hundred Belgrade March 1991,in the in presence of AnteMarkovi European Movement (EM) Yugoslavia leader who doesnot speak the complicated language ofthe intellectuals. which couldnotdetach itself from the inherited needfor acharismatic, strong say however thatagreatpartoftheresponsibility doesnotliewithelectorate the increased their visibility might haveearnedthem support.a bigger notto This is widerYugoslav public.Amore engaged, unified approach which wouldhave and thuspreserved anelitist anddetached outlook which couldnotreachthe their endeavor primarily because they decided tostay out of the politicalarena political significance oftheideasandactivities ofUJDI, they eventually failed in this work. However,has to it benoted that despite thesocial, intellectualand option great popularsupport which existed forAnte Markovi nationalist parties won the1990elections inBosnia-Herzegovina despite the Founded in 1948 in The Hague, with Winston Churchill being one of its honorary presidents. honorary oneofits being Churchill with Hague, Winston 1948inThe in Founded Andjelic, Neven Ljubomir Cuculovski, Ljubomir 214 Some oftheUJDImembers were also among thefounders of the isacomplex oneandwould require ashiftoffocus which isnotpartof Bosnia-Herzegovina: the end of a legacy endof the Bosnia-Herzegovina: ɜɞɲɜɢ ɤɨɦɟɧɬɚɪɢ ɢ ɋɜɟɞɨɲɬɜɚ 215 81 . Atabigceremony attheHyattHotelin / Testimonies and Comments Testimonies (London: Frank Cass,Frank 2003). (London: ü 213 ’s party andthe Yugoslav Thequestion why the ü , the federalVice- ü (Skopje: as a CEU eTD Collection 1994 made sense.” secessionism from Ithoughtthe very beginning. thatYugoslavia was that an idea democratization, andties with theEuropean Community […]Iwas against never advocated apolitical program except thebroad onesofmodernization, his former clients’useandabuseofnationalism and power. “In Yugoslavia I political dissidents like 218 1991. EM - Yugoslavia Popovi interview forthe Macedonian daily newspaper 217 Lon addressed the assembly, while the Yugoslav Minister of Foreign Affairs Budimir processes and integrations”, processes 216 Kosovo were among theelected Vice-Presidents. Slobodan Drakuli Slobodan Mironski, “ Mironski, Tanjug, “ Tanjug, þ http://archive.peacemagazine.org/v10n2p08.htm ar underlined the actual and the symbolic value of EM - Yugoslavia. Inan Srdja Popovi for a long time, but now we realize the actual cost it.”of the beginning maybe it was a little fun because all of that was forbidden that nonsense. And I really think that the people have had enoughit. ofAt of because todie has someone week a once that practice established quarrels are impossible to listen. Even killings began. It’s already an possible to watch, those newspapers are impossible to read, those day someone hits their head, or their stomach, this TV is nolonger militant nationalistic projects have no future. Thepeople are fed up.Every There is a feeling among the people, at least here inBelgrade, that the and indifferent ways, but we still haven’t completed this enterprise […] “We are dismantling the country we live in. All of us. From different parts ɤɭɭɚɟ ɨ ɜɨɫɢɟ ɪɰɫɢ ɢɧɬɟɝɪɚɰɢɢ ɢ ɩɪɨɰɟɫɢ ɟɜɪɨɩɫɤɢɬɟ ɜɨ ȼɤɥɭɱɭɜɚʃɟ Ɋɚɡɨɪɭɜɚʃɟɧɚɞɪɠɚɜɚɬɚ 218 ü , “Srdja Popovic: en exiled Yugoslav speaks”, Yugoslav en exiled Popovic: , “Srdja ü , who also worked as a human rights lawyer defending ý ü Nova Makedonija concluded: osi ü orTudjman, 1994was exile, in in embittered with ” / “Dismantling of the state”, ofthe “Dismantling ” / , 27 March, 1991. 27 March, , 82 (accessed on 22 May, 2009). on22May, (accessed Nova Makedonija 216 TheDutch ambassador ” / “Inclusion in European the in “Inclusion ” / Peace Magazine Peace 217 Nova Makedonija , the President of , March/April , 23 June, , CEU eTD Collection Osamdesetih 219 and more liberalYugoslav typeofcommunism. Thecountry which from the dissolution ofthemultinational federation. A lot hasbeenwritten onthespecific later become aconflict ofthesetwo loyalties came the during yearsofthe manifestation inallspheres oflife,likewise music.in climaxwhatwould The of to thenarrower ethnic/religious identity and the wider Yugoslav one had its storiesfull of ofpastinjustices andgrievances). Thisreally-existing doubleloyalty andthesecondWW2) sub-ideological levelofanationalidentityethno-folk (the whichgave a heroic, evenmythical representationof the liberation battlesof an over-arching, supranational identity (the growingup with partisan movies grouping andself-perceptionYugoslav in history, i.e.: thefirst ideologicallevelof the following verse: kazalište/Dirty Theater Scene Rock Yugoslav ofthe Responses and Role -the Peace” for 4.2. “Rock Free translation by Ljubica Spaskovska. Prljavo kazalište, “Sretno dijete”. “Sretno kazalište, Prljavo Spaskovska. by Ljubica translation Free The first twoThe first perfectly lines portray two levels dominant ofidentification, I’m a really happy child… I’m a really happy child With folk songs full of pain I grew up with color partisan films Jas sam stvarno sretno dijete… Jas sam stvarno sretno dijete Uz narodne pijesme pune boli Jas sam odrastao uz ratne filmove u boji A famous song(bytheprominentYugoslav/Croatian band (CD). Belgade: , 2005. City Records, Belgade: (CD). ) from the periodof 1980s Yugoslav “new wave” had 219 83 Novi Val Prljavo CEU eTD Collection (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999). where theysang: the political scene, while theyear after, ButtonWhite released their lastalbum 222 best European music clubs. 221 139. Press,1977), in Europe and Belgrade’slisted club ofthe artstudents Express Dorian Grey, Film, VideoSex and Electric Orgasm.” capital “television shows thelatest videos and local groupsgo bynames like musically wide-open Yugoslavia fortheirvacations”, whereas intheYugoslav Communist Europe”noted that “hundreds of thousands ofCzechoslovaks flock to the 1980sresponded inits own way totheall-encompassingcrisis. as well aflourishing , punkand new wave scene,which at the endof speak outandpoint outorcriticize serious flaws,malpractices or negative 220 the mid-1960s was “the only Communist capital with a parking problem” 1960s onwards experienced several waves of liberalization andwhose capital in Eric Gordy, Eric Dennison Rusinow, Dennison Open Society Archives, Budapest Archives, Society Open A 1984RadioFree Europe reportentitled “Rock n’Roll isHeretoStay in As onmany occassionthusfar,themusicians andbandswere to thefirst , a UK music magazine,music rated, aUK Electric Orgasm as oneofthefinestbands The Culture of Power in Serbia: Nationalism and the Destruction of Alternatives of Destruction and the Nationalism inSerbia: Power of Culture The The Yugoslav Experiment 1948-1974 Experiment Yugoslav The Will we cover ourselves in a blanket And kiss each other 'til it's over?« 222 : Yugoslav Subject Files I. HU OSA 300-10-2. 496 (Youth). HU I.300-10-2. OSA Files Subject : Yugoslav However, 1987 brought Slobodan Miloševi You and me my baby? »When the war starts, What we gonna do, 84 (Berkeley: UniversityCalifornia of 221 Akademija In1981, asone of the New Musical 220 ü had on CEU eTD Collection (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), 114. Press, 1999), University State Pennsylvania Park,PA: (University 223 youth oncedominated.” peasants and ‘urban-peasants’ colonized the cultural space thatrock and roll oriented nationalist elite takingthe place ofanurban-oriented communist elite, Yugoslavia nevertheless. As Eric Gordyrightly notes, “withand arural- regional- mainstream Button included,White certainly wanted Yugoslavia, adifferent buta hesitate to create songs with politicaland engaged messages before, even influence or change them. phenomena Yugoslavsociety. But in yetagain, theywereenough to notpowerful andmanifestations where theyvoiced theirprotest against thecurrent Other hostilities woulddie down 1995. in across republican borders would notberesumedyears later,once until the others. The market irretrievably shrank and circulation ofbands andmusicians Smoking Forbidden which now has aBelgrade and aSarajevo branch,among Štuli dissolution of Button, White of legendary (whose self-exiled leader Johnny the epic. the cities which stood for cosmopolitanism, culture and neglect ofthe ethnic and protesting this threat, the riseofnationalism the‘offensive’and oftheprovince on Eric Gordy, Eric ü refusesany type of contact with ex-Yugoslav media), andthe split of , the rockscene initiated andorganized peace,several or ‘RockforPeace” One canclaim Yugoslavthat theprogressive not rockbandswhich did In themidst of thenationalist euphoria andsymbolic stigmatizations ofthe The beginning ofthe violence andthebreak upbroughtalong the The Culture of Power in Serbia: Nationalism and the Destruction of Alternatives of Destruction and the Nationalism inSerbia: Power of Culture The 223 Inthissense, therock scene hadareal interest in 85 CEU eTD Collection 2003). Gallagher, Tom war.to going country of the question on the to be held areferendum asking for peace for a petition signed 000 people 1991, 50 endof the At 15%. only it’s Belgrade in while 50%, is Serbia in reservists from response 226 (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999). followed similar peace concerts featuring themost well-known Yugoslav rock bands from all overYugoslavia playing in front ofacrowd of20000. There 225 1994). Press, Westview (Boulder: Ramet andRussia Europe in Eastern andpolitics rockmusic State: the Rocking 224 mobilization for the wars Croatia in and Bosnia. peopleeither were hiding in or left Serbia in orderto avoidthe military militarism it propagated. related the above-mentionedthreat posed by thenationalist ideology andthe recorded theanti-war song“Listen here (peace, brother, peace)” andclearly us” (anallusion toanoldersong byDjordje Balaševi The 1992anti-war demonstrations tookplace underthemotto “Don’t count on peace concerts, the largest one Aprilin 1992 gatheringsome 50000people andEKV) which was also ananti-war initiative, organizing several Belgrade-based association ofseveral rockbands(Electric Orgasm, by thespringandworst wasmaterializing. scenario “” was a the existence ofthe federation, when sporadic incidents already were occurring developments inYugoslavia. Most ofthem took partduring1991, the last yearof At a closed session of the Serbian Parliament in September 1991 it was noted that the was that noted 1991it in September Parliament Serbian the of session a closed At Eric Gordy, Eric in Yugoslavia” in Scene the Making andSelf-Management: Rattle “Shake, Ramet, Sabrina In August1991,Zaje The Culture of Power in Serbia: Nationalism and the Destruction of Alternatives of Destruction and the Nationalism inSerbia: Power of Culture The The After the Cold War - from Tyranny to Tragedy to Tyranny -from ColdWar the After Balkans The 225 Itisusually pointed out that around 200 000 young þ ar, thehosttown ofthe famous 86 226 ü “Count onus”). Theyalso (London: Routledge, (London: edited bySabrina edited gathered 224 . CEU eTD Collection participation ofthemost prominent Yugoslav musicians, artists (most prominently from over Bosnia-Herzegovinaall andYugoslavia, ata big eventwith the for Peace” on the rainy day of 28 scene was alsoprominently present was heldin Sarajevo. The initiative “YUTEL for peace. actors, operasingersandballet dancers.It was morejust certainly arock than Sarajevo; journalists -among which Laszlo Totfrom ;well-known directors who heldspeeches; poets and writers -oneof them Izet Karajli Bregovi Zdravko country.” Albanians, Slovenes andMuslims, OrthodoxandCatholics, ofeveryone inour a peaceful coexistence between Macedonians and Albanians, Serbs and generalmessage conveyed was that “this modest act is dedicated to our idealof de Coilar sentamessage ofgreeting andsupport tothe manifestation, while the 228 1994). Press, Westview (Boulder: Ramet and Russia Europe in Eastern andpolitics rockmusic State: the Rocking 227 which atthis occasion was absolutely crowded. in OurCountry” was held March in 1991 thein largehall ofthe NationalTheatre Slovenia as asOctober1991.late bands and otherartists Dubrovnikin and Pula Croatia in andinLjubljana- 229 Jasmina Mironska, “Lend a Hand - Announce Peace”, Announce “Lend aHand - Mironska, Jasmina in Yugoslavia” in Scene the Making andSelf-Management: Rattle “Shake, Ramet, Sabrina Ibid. However, themost significant manifestation of this type where therock In Macedoniaa manifestation/concert entitled “Peace the in World-Peace ü 229 , Bread and Salt leader Vlatko Stefanovski; famous film and theatre ý Performing atthegathering werefamous Bosnian-Serb singer oli ü , Croatsinger TerezaKesovija,Button White leader Goran 227 th July 1991 gathered around 70 000 people 87 Nova Makedonija 228 UNSecretary General Perez , 4 March 1991, 1. 1991, 4 March , edited bySabrina edited ü from CEU eTD Collection prevent the war. Thatwas thefeeling ofthemajority of Bosnians…” children. They brought it toYutel, believing naively but honestly that TV could that one day we received an appeal forpeace signed by one million Bosnian recalls, were “We theheart ofBosnia in and therewas suchanantiwar sentiment and canrestore common sense.As GoranMili art andthevoices ofthethousands ofordinary Yugoslavs canbe more powerful Forbidden NeleKarajli Apple, Indexi,Regina,, ,theleaderof Smoking country for us”, Goran Bregovi pop bands and musicians included EKV singing their famous song“This isa dissatisfaction withthe current nationalist power-games. Performing and rock revealed thepopular enthusiasm for the common stateandthe radical Institute of Peace 70. Peace Press,2003), of Institute gathering was supposed to have its continuation on 3 surrender, Yugoslavia!) and denouncing the“epidemic ofnationalism”, the against Yugoslavs”, “Chase out politics from homes”,our “Nedaj se, Jugo”(Don’t slogans from the audience and statements suchas “This is awar ofYugoslavs this wasthis “thebiggestsuch rallyinYugoslav history.” Zetra Presidency Vasil Tupurkovski), youth,workers, miners, etc.Itwas notedthat civil society activists, politicians (Macedonian representative tothefederal 231 1994). Censorship, Centre Against 19 -International Article 230 actor Rade Šerbe Kemal Kurspahi Kemal Thompson, Mark , the Sarajevo Olympic SportsHall hasnever beenso overcrowded andthat ü , Forging War: the media in Serbia, Croatia andBosnia-Herzegovina Croatia mediainSerbia, the War: Forging ÿ Prime Time Crime: Balkan media in war andpeace war in media Balkan Crime: Time Prime ija), students (“The Student Leaguefor PeaceYugoslavia”), in ü and others. Foramoment, itseemed thatmusic, credible ü , Bajaga and Instructors, Blue Orchestra, Red 88 ü , the YUTEL Editor-in-Chief 230 With Yugoslav With flags, rd October 1991, and (Washington DC: US DC: (Washington 231 (London: CEU eTD Collection Mirjana Vojvodic (Nis: Center for Civic Initiative, 2008), 114. Civic Initiative, for Center (Nis: Vojvodic Mirjana 234 Magazine Globus 233 (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999). 232 decentralized, asevery republic andautonomous haditsown region radioand media. Yugoslav The media spacewas traditionally “federalized” andhighly responsibility for the tragic outcome oftheYugoslav dissolution lies with the Post festum the journalist’s pen orcamera were oftenequallyeffectivegun asa orapistol.” Space Media Divided in the - YUTEL Yugoslavia!” evening, “Good 4.3. to say. culture, and insome casesYugonostalgia. Or, Yugo-futurism, assomewould like synonymouswith cosmopolitanism, anti-nationalism, progressivism, urban and post-Yugoslav rockandroll, punkandalltheirvariations thusremained tobe be welcomed back‘intheenemy’s camp’ oncethehostilities ended.Yugoslav the wars. That iswhy, seems,it musicians were thefirst to cross borders and to many anti-warandanti-nationalist concerts and initiatives, both before and during preservationof Yugoslavia and initiated or supported withtheir performances Most ofthem both emotionally andpragmatically advocated peace and country, or were sellingasmany as500000copiesofsome oftheiralbums. rock bands,the most famouswhich among regularly didtwo-month toursofthe Drago Hedl, “Media Manipulations Have Remained Unpunished”, in Unpunished”, Remained Have Manipulations “Media DragoHedl, Rossig. Rüdiger with - interview Yugonostalgic” German the of Futurism “The Hilmi, Enis Eric Gordy, Eric 233 Yugoslavia withmillion its22 inhabitants representedmarket asolid for “There havebeen many tostress individuals that,inthis mindless time, , there have been many voices arguing that a greatportion ofthe The Culture of Power in Serbia: Nationalism and the Destruction of Alternatives of Destruction and the Nationalism inSerbia: Power of Culture The 104 (April 2009): 56. 104(April 89 Not in My Name edited by edited 234 232 CEU eTD Collection the Croatian and the Serbian mediaused to portray Miloševi in March1991 published themain epithets, coinages andexpressions which both controland stigmatization ofthe only presentSerbia. in TheCroatian media reachedthe sameof political level the Yugoslavmedia (in this case those Serbia):in illustrative insight intothe real symbolic and ideological battlegrounds set upby Belgrade). The Editor-in-Chief of Editor-in-Chief The Belgrade). Borba local political elites. printed mediaalongwith thelocalradioand televisioncompanies fellpreytothe Pristina, etc.Thus,when thepoliticalcrisis was itsclimax, abouttoreach the Speech in the Media inthe Speech 238 237 236 Media, inthe Speech Conflict” Producing Role in Media’s “The Gredelj Stjepan to come.” was yet ofa warwhich victim the first considered and canbe 49 years old, just 1989, in - he died policy paper’sindependent the preserve daily state by the stubbornness degree of 235 JRT( service television broadcastingcompany, allofwhich were undertheumbrella public Stjepan Gredelj “The Media’s Role in Producing Conflict” Producing Rolein “The Media’s Gredelj Stjepan Albanians for pejorative Croat flag the to referring checkerboard, greatest the with was resisted atone’senemies spitting artof the in training forced “The - 235 This isnottosaythat thestigmatizing discourses andhate-speech were The resultspresented bytheresearch done on thetwo newspapers daily Metaphors: Serbian cradle, holy bones, Tantalus’ sufferings, unitarist alchemy and - Key symbols: freedom, dignity, liberation, people, homeland, justice. - Jugoslovenska Radio Televizija Politika - Neologisms: Serbophobia, ustashoid, genocidal, ustashism edited by Svetlana Slapsak (Belgrade: Media Center, 1997). Center, Media Slapsak (Belgrade: by Svetlana edited edited by Svetlana Slapsak (Belgrade: Media Center, 1997), 200. Center, Media Slapsak(Belgrade: bySvetlana edited - - Stereotypes: perfidious Shiptars Traditionalisms: hearth, home, fatherland, bravery between January1987 and December 1990providean - Neo-traditionalisms: ustashi,, sahovnica Slogans: Serbia in one, not in three parts Borba Other paid the highest price of all for his two-year battle to battle histwo-year all for of price highest the paid Borba 90 . The Macedonian daily , and sections of some broadcast media (Radio media broadcast some of and sections , ): RTV ): Skopje, RTVSarajevo, RTV 237 , genocidal Croats The War Started at Maksimir at Started War The The War Started at Maksimir: at Started War The 236 ü , NDH and Tudjman: Nova Makedonija 238 : Hate Hate CEU eTD Collection labeled traitors and foreign hirelings.” social crisis went tosuch an extent that “people, groups and entire nations were important), decisive, crucial, etc. became indispensable elementsany for text ifit hand, qualifications suchas:great, historical, majestic, imposing, important (most the Yugoslav citizens, and the written media werenoexception: “On the other ethnic mediacan besaidto have started awar overthe hearts andthe minds of 240 239 Speech in the Media inthe Speech Stjepan Gredelj, “The Media’s Role in Producing Conflict” Producing Rolein Media’s “The Gredelj, Stjepan Tudjman”, “Milosevic; Consequently, the(ab)useof media duringtheYugoslav political and - - - - The Serb media on Tudjman: inheritor of Ante Paveli The Croat media on Tudjman: wise, dignified; his missions land The Serb media on Miloševi The Croat media on Miloševi elections. Catholic Church; evenHitler came topower through multiparty political, psychologicaleveneconomical and importance. importance tothe Croat political ideas; each ofhisappearances has Croat democratically oriented person. manwho restoreddignity totheSerbian people; modern politician; AVNOJ Yugoslavia; initiator ofSrboslavia. enflames thehysteria; bankrobber; authoritarian populist; destroyer of ban 239 edited by Svetlana Slapsak (Belgrade: Media Center, 1997), 183-185. 1997), Center, Media Slapsak (Belgrade: by Svetlana edited ; dreams ofan Nova Makedonija Ustasha ü , 23 March, 1991.23 March, , : representative of the entire Serb people; the 240 ü : Stalinist; an illegitimate child of Sadam; 91 At this early stage, Atthisearly however, thedifferent NDH;elected bythe and the West The War Started at Maksimir: at Started War The ü ; newly enthroned Hate CEU eTD Collection Makedonija 244 60. 2003), peace Press, of Institute 243 in 242 Media the Bosnian Parliament building,demanding that the Minister ofInformation andhis Sarajevo citizens gathered toprotest (around 5000ofthem) frontofthe in attempt forindependent journalism. Thejournalists, intellectuals, artists and other under state control ofthethen ruling nationalist parties andtoundermineany journalists andintellectuals. portion ofstate TV poisoning.” every evening: Idon’t understand a word, just the pictures, so I am spared my Belgrade colleague telling him “You know,watch I theHungarian TVJournal hatred.’” intellectuals, andjournalists ofthoseyears were paradigmatic ‘instigators of stronger and ruthless falsification ofreality […]Serbian politicians, their inaccurate anddangerousinterpretation ofsome their evens,butalso[…]in was asubject todemonization andhate-speech: “Theproblem was notjust in opinion, topromote attitudes, new values and and tofuelfear from the Otherwho propaganda was centeredaround an explicit struggle tobuildanew public 241 “Radio Television Sarajevo” and the daily Bosnian Parliament responsible for the appointment ofdirectors and editors in was togainanaudience.” “ Kemal Kurspahi Kemal Not in My Name Svetlana Luki Svetlana VelimirCurgus “NoiseKazimir, and in Silence” ȾɪɠɚɜɟɧɭɞɚɪɜɪɡɧɨɜɢɧɚɪɫɬɜɨɬɨɜɨȻɢɏ In March 1991achange intheLaw on Information whichmade the edited by Svetlana Slapsak (Belgrade: Media Center, 1997), 175. 1997), MediaCenter, Slapsak (Belgrade: by Svetlana edited 242 , 28 March, 1991. 28 March, , Kemal Kurspahi ü , “Responsibility of the Media for Creating war and Peace: the Case of Serbia” of Case the and Peace: war Creating for Media ofthe “Responsibility , edited by Mirjana Vojvodic (Niš: Center for Civic Initiative, 2008). 117. 2008). Initiative, Civic for (Niš:Center Vojvodic byMirjana edited ü , Prime Time Crime: Balkan media in war andpeace war in media Balkan Crime: Time Prime 241 ü 244 The most The oftendrawn conclusionisthatthemedia , the prominent 243 This represented This a clearattempt toputthemedia 92 ” / “Coup d’état against journalism in B&H”, in journalism against d’état “Coup ” / The War Started at Maksimir at Started The War Oslobodjenje Oslobodjenje Editor-in-Chief cites a outraged Bosnian (Washington DC: US DC: (Washington : Hate Speech in Speech Hate Nova CEU eTD Collection would broadcast YUTEL only after midnight. after only YUTEL would broadcast Zagreb and Belgrade andboth HTV service state the for apart anyone for towork forbidden were journalists Croatian andZagreb, Belgrade in were both harassed that journalists in authorities, andtheCroatian Serbian bythe undermined was constantly work YUTEL’s describes, as Thompson 1991. Moreover, of beginning atthe license aprovisional granted Croatia ofviewers, number and increased support widespread gained YUTEL pressure andonce public 247 2003). peace Press, of Institute 246 Makedonija Prime Minister. where arepublican Minister of Informationwas more powerful than the federal was absolutelyweak andsubjugated to thesub-federal unitsand institutions and Yugoslavia was probably the only country in the world where the federal level refused mediacoverage of its activities bythe republican media.In this sense, was initiallysetupas a project ofthefederal governmentwhich was constantly fragmented political, cultural andmedia space. The first federal television station trying todefy thewarring rhetoric and acts and tosomehow the alreadyglue many Yugoslavs, YUTEL is the last connecting thread which was ostensibly understand the role, importance andthe meaning ofYUTEL. Inthe memory of before the comingstorm. far-sighted manner ridiculed everyone and everything the in Yugoslav space produced oneofthenow legendary and immensely popular politicalsatire shows space. was thelastbastion ofanti-war, independent, freedom-mindedpublic and media 245 deputy resign. The Croatian Ministry of Information did not allow YUTEL to be registered in Croatia. Under Croatia. in beregistered to YUTEL allow not did ofInformation Ministry Croatian The Kemal Kurspahi Kemal “ ȾɪɠɚɜɟɧɭɞɚɪɜɪɡɧɨɜɢɧɚɪɫɬɜɨɬɨɜɨȻɢɏ 246 This contextualset-up is important orderin to beabletosituate and Notonly thatYUTEL was based in Sarajevo, butalso TVSarajevo , 28 March, 1991. 28 March, , 245 247 ü Sarajevo inthis context was veryspecific and onecould claim it , Moreover, setupwithprofessional high standards, primarily Prime Time Crime: Balkan media in war andpeace war in media Balkan Crime: Time Prime (The Top (The List ofSurrealists) which inanintelligent, funand 93 ” / “Coup d’état against journalism in B&H”, in journalism against d’état “Coup ” / (Washington DC: US DC: (Washington Nova CEU eTD Collection Makedonija 250 57-58. 2003), peace Press, of Institute one.” feeling helpless becauseone political violence hasbeenreplaced with another because the primitive propaganda is pushing usbackto 1941; but the peopleare driving them bloody adventureinto a […] have notbecomeWe different menjust helplessly observes how the hot-headed and irresponsible national leaders are developments inSerbia. In 1991 he wrote: “The quiet majority of Yugoslavs […] become thesymbolof YUTEL, albeit later disillusioned withcritical and of the based Croat, successfuljournalist andsupporter ofthe Yugoslav idea,was to half ofYUTEL’s existence. Goran Mili greetingwhich would setofftheeveningnews the next during oneyear and a the mediaspace on 23October 1990. “Good evening, Yugoslavia!” was the agreedthe only upon editorial line was anantiwar position.” of theconflicting nationalist policies. Besides our support fordemocratic reform, equality andamarket economy. agreed thatWe wasn’tit our roleto support any that Yugoslavia could only survive asa reformed, democratic country, based on 249 1994). Censorship, Against Center 19 -International Article 248 passage todemocracy. ‘separatism’ withSerbian ‘extremism’”, YUTEL aimed atspeeding Yugoslavia’s with thecommitment topreserveobjectivity andatendency to “equate Croatian Goran Mili Goran Kemal Kurspahi Kemal Thompson, Mark 250 The main broadcasting centrewas basedinSarajevo andYUTEL entered , 23 March 1991. 23 March , ü , “ , ɨɥɤɜʃɜɤɜɜɚɜɚɧɬɭɪɚ ɤɪɜɚɜɚ ɜɨ ȼɨɜɥɟɤɭɜɚʃɟ ü , Forging War: the media in Serbia, Croatia andBosnia-Herzegovina Croatia media inSerbia, the War: Forging Prime Time Crime: Balkan media in war andpeace war in media Balkan Crime: Time Prime 248 AsEditor-in-Chief GoranMili 94 ü , a charismatic, cosmopolitan Belgrade- ” / “Driven into a bloody adventure”, abloody into “Driven ” / ü recalls, believed “We 249 (Washington DC: US DC: (Washington (London: Nova CEU eTD Collection Churchill, andthensaying ‘And now the football results.’ Itwas impossible.” or inonelanguage withsubtitles, putting Himmleron screen, then cuttingto station forHitler, Stalin andChurchill, broadcasting forall threeinonelanguage, understood“We littleby littlethat Yutel was like tryingtohaveasingle television impossible for YUTELto continue its lineof balanced reporting.As Mili thousands employed bythestate media)by theendof1991 it became virtually a time ofrising rivalries, confusions andviolence. space and a platform of reporting and thought which seemed themost logical at quality novelty, achange in thetraditional ‘one TVandradio perrepublic’ media involvement orinterest theCroat-Serbin conflict, primarily sawYUTEL asagood 253 252 Herzegovina ranging from 60%-80% of YUTEL and its anti-war discourse with an estimated regular audience there alive.” showing usat11.30night. Only Sarajevo andSkopje everbroadcastus reached 45percent ofthe TVaudience, even though they were recordingusand started showingSlovene stories subtitled in Serbo-Croatian: “Our audience there the factthat TVLjubljana soon asked to transmit theirprogram, andYUTEL 251 and didnot give anyprivileged treatment to the federalgovernment, Mili Ibid. Ibid. As cited in Mark Thompson, Mark in Ascited 251 But, withstaff ofonly averysmall 50(compared to thedozens of As a proofthatYUTEL was aiming essentially ateditorial independence While theBosnians hadarealWhile interest optingin fortheeditorial balance (London: Article 19 - International Center Against Censorship, 1994). Censorship, Against Center 19-International Article (London: 252 , thepeopleMacedonia, in not havingany direct Forging War: the media in Serbia, Croatia andBosnia- Croatia the media inSerbia, War: Forging 95 ü recalls, ü 253 cites CEU eTD Collection Yugoslavia”, 256 255 Crisis - Yugoslavia in the Early ‘90s Early inthe Yugoslavia - Crisis 254 countries.” small ethnic distance, much smaller than in numerous other, more developed scholars (initially duringthe1960s andthe1970s)showed “theexistence ofa People… the 4.4. They, demons oftheBosnian war. former colleaguesand present warring parties who unleashedthe Sarajevo as April1992 tried toestablish some kindoftruthandput onatelephone line the YUTEL will remain ‘uninfected’ thelast space and sparkle ofhopewhich aslate After all, inthememorymany of Yugoslavs towitness who lived the dissolution, Belgrade andZagreb dideverything toprevent YUTEL from normal functioning. late. The localpolitical elites andmediaservices were too already powerfuland the same withregard to YUTEL. Beside itsgreat potential, wasit initiated too differencebig hadtheycome several yearsearlier,at least onecould emphasize that the people of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Vojvodina, being themost nationally and Macedonians andtheleast ofBulgarians andGermans. acceptance of 5.61 (out of7), whereas the greatest acceptance was ofSlovenes Consortium Research Institutesof Social ofYugoslavia. early 1990an all-Yugoslav sociological research was conducted by the Randy Hodson, Dusko Sekulic and Garth Massey, “National Tolerance in Former the in Tolerance “National Massey, and Garth Dusko Sekulic Hodson, Randy Ibid. Bora Kuzmanovi Bora As in thecaseofMarkovi The research on ethnic distance done by both foreign andYugoslav 254 The American Journal ofSociology Journal American The The1973research by Rot and Havelka indicated anaverage ü , “Social distance towards individual nations (ethnic distance)” in distance)” (ethnic nations individual towards distance “Social , , edited by Mladen Lazi byMladen , edited ü ’s reforms whicharguably would havemade a 96 Vol. 99 (1994): 1534-1558. 99 Vol.(1994): ü (Belgrade: Filip Višnji Filip (Belgrade: 256 The results showed Theresults 255 Inlate1989and ü , 1995), 242. , 1995), Society in CEU eTD Collection identify asYugoslav werethe urbanresidents, theyoung (“demographic Yugoslavia point out tothefact thatthe categories whichmost were likely to notion of Yugoslavism, onthe common identity and on the ethnic composition of designationof Yugoslav as“nationally undeclared”. The studies focusingon the Party not to promote Yugoslavness asnational belonging andtotreatthevery national identity, despitethe officialcontradictory policiesof thestate andthe from political,being apurely “Yugoslav” was gradually becoming acultural anda by 2%lower than that ofthe Slovenes and the Albanians. This clearly shows that that ofthe Montenegrins, almost thesame thatof like the Macedonians, and only nationalities in thestate, the numberthe of declared Yugoslavs ishigher than 5.4%). declared Yugoslav identity increased from 273.077 to 1.219.024 (from 1.3% to Between the1971and the 1981 federal censuses, the number ofindividuals who Another indicative social andculturalphenomenon was the“Yugoslav” identity. and theSerb andHungarian minorities in Bosnia, Vojvodina andCroatia. groups, the research showed thatthemost tolerantgroups are Muslims inBosnia The Brookings Institution, 1995). 32. Institution, Brookings The SusanL. Woodward, Paul. Garde, Yugoslavia”, Multinational 258 Yugoslavia”, 257 the factors which tend toincrease levels of tolerance. nationally mixed parentage/marriages and non-religiosity were concluded tobe diverse federal units have thehighest levels oftolerance. Urban residency, Steven L. Burg, and Michael L. Berbaum. “Community, Integration, and Stability in and Stability Integration, “Community, L. Berbaum. and Michael Burg, L. Steven Former the in Tolerance “National Massey, and Garth Dusko Sekulic Hodson, Randy 258 Ifobservedincomparison tothenumbers oftheothernationsand The American Journal ofSociology Journal American The Vie et Mort de laYugoslavie et Mort Vie Balkan Tragedy - Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War the after and Dissolution - Chaos Tragedy Balkan The American Political Science Review Science Political The American . Fayard, 2000. Fayard, . 97 Vol. 99 (1994): 1534-1558. 99 Vol.(1994): Vol. 83 (1989): 540. 83(1989): Vol. 257 Asper national/ethnic . (Washington: . CEU eTD Collection 1984). Communists of League Yugoslav ofthe Structure Social Struktura Saveza Komunista Jugoslavije Saveza Komunista Struktura 261 260 83-97. Yugoslavia”, Former the in Identity a Common of 259 region’s problems.” against traditional nationalist politics thatseemed tobeattheheartof the discredited past, especially among theyounger persons – itwas aprotest “Yugoslav identification also provided away ofbreakingwith anincreasingly indeed progressively beingspread and accepted particularin among theyouth: members andtheminorities (“defensive Yugoslavism”). Yugoslavism), thosefrom nationally mixed parentage, theCommunist Party someone toentertheParty thecompulsory agewas notless than 18. “omladinac” (ayoung person) was considered to last until theage of 28, while for and encompassed alltheAssociationsof the separate republics. Thecategory of socijalisti be admitted totheLeague oftheSocialist Youth ofYugoslavia -LSYY ( model.grade Inthefinal oftheprimary school (the ageof14) allstudents usedto organizations. In the Yugoslav case, they were also built onasomewhat federal anti-nationalist initiatives would not be complete without theyouth. League ofCommunists starteddecreasing and theyouth voiced some ofthefirst the political realm, thenumber seeking ofyoungpeople membership the in during the1980s, LSYY grew more andmore and distant independent from Slobodan Bjelajac and Stojan Obradovi andStojan Bjelajac Slobodan Ibid. Sources Failed Yugoslavs? the Were “Who Randy Hodson. Massey and Garth Sekulic, Dusko The new Yugoslav identification and the supra-ethnic self-perception were The Yugoslav youth, as in theother socialist states, had formal þ ke omladine Jugoslavije 260 Thus,thecomplete portrait ofthepro-democratization and / “The Youth in the League of Communists” in Communists” Leagueof inthe Youth “The / ), which wasthefederal, pan-Yugoslav body ü . “Omladina u Savezu komunista” in komunista” u Savezu “Omladina . 98 American Sociological Review American Sociological (Belgrade: Center for Social Research, Social for Center (Belgrade: 259 Klasno-Socijalna Vol. 59 (1994): Vol. Class and Class 261 Savez But, CEU eTD Collection offer arms andbloodbecausewe know that when thegunsstopfiring and blood because mayit betoo late ifleftfortomorrow. donotaccept We solutions which the LSYY further stated: “We want todiscuss thefate of our homelandtoday more socially and politically aware than the political elites, asthe Presidency of internally integrated Yugoslavia. Theyouth at thispointseems tohavebeen economy, individual and public accountability at all levels, culture of dialogue and 264 of theproblems.” system” closertofratricidal which is situation war solution for“a thanprogressive LSYY issuedanofficialstatement blamingthe “almost totally inefficient political Similarly, inSeptember 1988,following theunfolding oftheKosovo crisis, the celebrations began in NoviSad with adiscussion onthecurrent societalcrisis. Tito’s portraityoung or participants from the YugoslavArmy. Onthecontrary, the manner,without thetraditional Batonofyouth, without anyideological symbols, 263 128. (25 andcurrents.voices young professionals was ahighlyheterogeneous groupwhich likewise hadmany constructive, far-sighted approach. Undoubtedly, this studentslarge bodyof and 262 changing/reforming ofYugoslavia example, atthe1986Congress oftheLSYY, a22-point program was adoptedfor requests for change, well before the political initiatives were taken up.For Ibid. “The Slovene Spring” – an Interview with Miha Kova Miha with –anInterview Spring” Slovene “The Open Society Archives, Budapest Archives, Society Open th May,which was celebrated also as Tito’s birthday), but averydifferentin In May 1988the LSYY organized the last celebration ofthe Youth Day 264 Thestatement alsoadvocatedfreeelections, market : Yugoslav Subject Files I. HU OSA 300-10-2. 496 (Youth). HU I.300-10-2. OSA Files Subject : Yugoslav 262 , which certainly provedthe youth’s 99 þ . New Left Review Left New Vol. 177 (1988): 115- 177 (1988): Vol. 263 CEU eTD Collection children. This surelywas notfake. Therewas something…” Hajduk when -Zvezda theyannounced Tito’speople death- literally cried like say itwas allartificial, butifwe returntothevideomaterials ofthe football match Party directives […] oursportsteamscheeredWhen we […]Theycan all played, the anti-fascist, socialist, brotherhood-and-unity dimension ofYugoslavia. outlook, the popular sentiment was stillconsiderably embedded in the symbols of socialist discourse ofthepastandwereadoptingademocratic andreformist the Yugoslav platform clearly were distancing themselves from the communist- Yugoslav patriotism.football TheWorld Cup Italyin 1990was one ofthelast mentioned, sportwas indeedone ofthe few things which were able toarouse reasoning isnotuncommon inthepost-Yugoslavcontext.was As already it 267 1995), 144. Institution, Brookings The (Washington: is important to 266 265 even thedemocratic aspects ofthesystem workers’of self-management…” of Yugoslavia, its independence and prestige abroad, the personality of Tito, and “Among citizensthere wasmuch still thatattractedsubstantial loyalty totheidea Herzegovinawhich was anti-nationalist and pro-Yugoslav. As notes, Woodward aggravating, there was stilla popular sentiment, especially Bosnia-in understanding, progress anddemocracy prevail.” stops flowing webe neither shall freernor richer. […] areforaSFRY inwhich We Personal interview with Prof. Ljubomir Cuculovski, President of UJDI - Skopje (April, 2009). (April, UJDI - Skopje of President Cuculovski, Ljubomir Prof. with interview Personal Susan L.Woodward, Open Society Archives, Budapest Archives, Society Open “Surelypeople didn’t inter-marry acrossethnic andreligious lines following In the late 1980s while the politicaland the economiccrisis was underline Balkan Tragedy - Chaos and Dissolution after the ColdWar the after and Dissolution - Chaos Tragedy Balkan that while thenewpoliticaland intellectualelites pushing : Yugoslav Subject Files I. HU OSA 300-10-2. 496 (Youth). HU I.300-10-2. OSA Files Subject : Yugoslav 100 265 267 This way This of 266 It . CEU eTD Collection Party. crowd ofSarajevans was there, among whichmembers of the Social-Democratic “YU Summit”,upon their arrivalat the “Konak” Residence inthecity, a large capableof defeating the likelihood of any future tragicscenarios. their celebration, might havethought that this shared enthusiasm would be “Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia!” and carryingYugoslav flagsfor amoment, unitedin match againstSpain andentered thequarter finals. Hundreds of people cheering conveys the atmosphere onthestreets of Sarajevo afterYugoslavia won the 268 the mainBosnian media launched a last, desperate appealfor peace transmitted categories. Just before theoutbreak ofviolence inBosnia, theeditors-in-chief of being formed, theordinary peoplewere forced into clear-cut camps and arguments with growingnationalist rhetoric andmilitary wings oftheparties were sessions of theBosnianassembly during 1991were turninginto permanent withthe situation, they even broke intothe Residence. the While parliamentary Jani were following thematches, taken bytheatmosphere ofgeneral euphoria.Vuk pictures of the CupteamsWorld andalthough notunderstanding much, they even ten-yearolds, both girls andboyswerecollecting albumswith sticker occasions which saw the manifestation of this popular sentiment. InMacedonia, Personal interview with Mr. Safet Pihljak, Sarajevo citizen (April, 2009). (April, citizen Sarajevo Pihljak, Safet Mr. with interview Personal ü ’s documentary “TheLast Yugoslav Football Team” among otherthings 268 After themeeting ofthe republics’ Presidents nearSarajevo atthelast Revolted with thepoliticians’ nationalist talk andinability toproperly deal 101 CEU eTD Collection 272 99. 2003), peace Press, of Institute city. “Are youcity. “Are crazy?-Isaidtomy There noway friend. Icould is theywill shoot. great disbelief that theywould actually fire on the ordinary peoplegathered the in the “Holiday Inn”,theystarted shooting atus.” circus, naively thinking ouropinion matters to someone […]And then,infront of a participant thesein events recalls, “We occupied theParliament,made that 271 270 99. 2003), peace Press, of Institute conviction thatwar couldneverhappen intheir city.” Muslims, Serbs,Croats, Yugoslavs, Jews alike -had clung tothecomplacent multicultural cityofYugoslavia. “Until April 5[1992], most ofSarajevo’s - citizens Serb paramilitaries andthewar in Bosnia was officially announced from mostthe But, the crowd demandingpeaceful solution to theYugoslav crisis was shotat by Serbia andthe hole ofCroatia thatour Bosnia isacommunity ofbrotherhood.” portraits of Tito.” Parliament, when “Serbs,Croats, and Muslims alikecarried Yugoslav flags and mass heldinfront of the protest Holiday Inn Hotel,opposite theBosnian on 5 only anti-nationalist, supranational, reconcilable platform and option) tookplace and thesupport for Yugoslavia (since atthatmoment itstillseemed tobethe peopleof Bosnia torefuse any party’s call toattacktheir neighbors.” 273 269 on theradio andtelevision news andinthedaily Laura Silber and Allan Little, andAllan LauraSilber Kemal Kurspahi Kemal Little, andAllan LauraSilber Personal interview with Mr. Safet Pihljak, Sarajevo citizen (April, 2009). (April, citizen Sarajevo Pihljak, Safet Mr. with interview Personal Kurspahi Kemal th April 1992 Sarajevo.in April Thepopular ‘front’ was defeated finally atthis last The last bigprotest where the ordinary people voiced their anti-war stands ü ü 270 , , Prime Time Crime: Balkan media in war andpeace war in media Balkan Crime: Time Prime Prime Time Crime: Balkan media in war andpeace war in media Balkan Crime: Time Prime Among other things, the crowdwas singing “Let them hear in The Death of Yugoslavia Death The The Death of Yugoslavia Death The 102 273 . (London: Penguin Books, 1996), 227. 1996), Books, Penguin (London: . . (London: Penguin Books, 1996). 226. 1996). Books, Penguin (London: . Even atthisstage,therea was 272 AsaSarajevo and citizen Oslobodjenje (Washington DC: US DC: (Washington (Washington DC: US DC: (Washington 269 , “urging the 271 CEU eTD Collection 275 274 not believe thatthey actually startedshooting at us…” were...” everything ispossible butthatscenario. “Wedidn’t evenknow what grenades Sarajevo weremet bythesame amount ofdisbelief,with thepeople thinking that Ibid. 2009). (April, citizen Sarajevo Pihljak, Safet Mr. with interview Personal 275 103 274 The threats The of bombing CEU eTD Collection 2003), 107. 2003), 276 neglected republics of Bosnia-Herzegovinaand Macedoniawhen comes it tothe constructive solutionfor theYugoslav crisis and,byfocusing on the usually an overview ofthepoliticaland thenon-political initiatives which triedto offer a to intellectuals, rock musicians andordinary workers.Thethesisalso tried to give different corners ofthefederation andspanning overdifferent social strata-from alternative, anti-nationalist, pro-reformist anddemocratic voices coming from they seem to assume aratherdeterministic approachand overlook thenumerous Croatiathat aresubject ofanalysis thein scholarly works onYugoslavia. Yet, to why it usuallyis theevents and political developments Slovenia,in Serbia and which remainedmarginalized, ifnotforgotten. There isasoundargumentation as dissolution and locate thosevoices, individuals, initiatives and streams ofthought factors, strove to closerlook atthe years precedingthe violent Yugoslav Sunday newspaper: Conclusion Tom Gallagher, Tom This thesis, takinginto accountthecontext, the“media and weapons” media and weapons.” been engineered by arelatively small group of people with access to because the Scots actually hate the English but because the situation had consumed with violence injust a weeks.few All this would happen not speed: just as in Bosnia, Scotland, inthis doomwatch scenario, could be “Once destabilised, society could terminally break down with terrifying In August 1992 Paul Harris, war reporter for Bosnia wrote a in Scottish The Balkans After the Cold War: from tyranny to to tragedy tyranny from Cold War: the After Balkans The 276 104 (London: Routledge, (London: CEU eTD Collection political circles andinstitutions. the Macedonianpolitical elite ledbyGligorov used tobe partoftheYugoslav politicalprisoner and often nothesitatingto follow the religious nationalist line, biographies of the leadership:while Bosnian President Izetbegovi or obstacles. On the political level, aprominentdifference to is be found inthe of theYugoslav Army from its territory and secede without major consequences entirely separatepaths, asMacedonia managed tonegotiate apeaceful retreat introduction). However, from September 1991,Macedonia andBosnia took ethnic/nationallayers of identity (as itwasdemonstrated the chart in inthe entities, almost simultaneously developed the Yugoslav along their of equaland recognized political partners and separate nationaland cultural These two communities which forthefirsttime in theirhistoryachieved astatus account thehistoricalcircumstances related totheirnation-building projects. Yugoslav idea andproject islogical andunderstandable when taking into rarity. Thespecialattachment oftheBosniaks andtheMacedonians tothe guided by a mixture ofmotives, where emotional arguments didnotrepresent a relative security andprosperity within alarger polity, thenon-political actorswere economically inferiorBosniaks andMacedonians wouldbe able topreserve their primarily driven bypragmatic motives, rationally calculating thatnumerically and for thepreservation ofareformed Yugoslav state. the politicalWhile elites were more precisely theMacedonians andtheBosniaks) which advocated andwished pre-1992 period, toanswer thequestion why itwas thesetwo federalunits(or 105 ü was aformer CEU eTD Collection which eventually lostthebattle wanted it tofight withnon-violent means. nationalism started towitheraway andtograduallytaketheplace ofamovement nationalist), while theregime basisof Yugoslavism, socialism and anti- (those ofSlobodan Miloševi republican multi-party elections in1990and establishment later asregimes the gradual institutionalization of the nationalist movements throughthefirst the late1980suntil thebreak-up ofYugoslavia onecan observetheopposite, i.e. and policy of anti-nationalism successfully suppressed and marginalized, from nationalist, accompanied byunderlying nationalist of thefederation after1945 was Yugoslav, socialist/communist, andopenly anti- note the reversal whichstarted to emerge from 1989 onwards: while the of thereal consequences theiractions would have.Itmight important bealso to actors, somewhich, of it is possible, atthattimemight havenotbeenfully aware consequence ofmoves, stands,strategies assumedand identifiable byindividual The Yugoslav events of 1989-1992 and the wars which ensuedwere a Nothing in thepolitical andthesocial realm ispredetermined andunavoidable. ethnic-hatreds’ argument andrefutestheunavoidability-of-the-dissolution one. hypotheses were offered. Thus, this thesis absolutely disregarded the ‘ancient- this work, because of the overlapof the time-period, several insights and most prosperousSouth-East European states. Although this was notthefocus of engage with thequestionof what essentially toled thebreak-up ofone the When When writing onmatters related toYugoslavia, one is always tempted to ü and FranjoTudjman asthemost prominently 106 movements which Tito’s rule which Tito’s regime CEU eTD Collection This workwanted toalso implicitly recall thethousands ofYugoslavs who lost post-Yugoslav context whichwas notinsomeway affected bythe dissolution. support both from the insideand outside. Rarely onecould find afamily inthe proven successfulhad theycome orhadtheypossessedthesufficient earlier reinforce the argument thattherewere viablealternatives which might have thesis wanted toaddthe indispensable “but”; tofill inthemissing gapsand to the presence of the nationalist drive orthe centrality of the Serb-Croat axis, this arena. Bynot wanting tounderestimate theimportance ofthesedevelopments, which disregard theeventsand actors that stayed outside ofthe nationalist brought on the territory offormer Yugoslavia understandably brought analyses ethnicrather than civicin terms. from 1974 onwards functioned asa a significant portionof Yugoslavs were taught through andby the system which fear andthreat andtoinfluence, polarizeand shapepublic the opinion. Moreover, change things. By1991,the controlled media wereabletoinstillsentiments of politicalplatforms came inorder toolate tobeableto essentially influence or it was pointed throughout, many oftheseconcrete reform projects, programs and alternatives present beforethedissolution, yet doesmake it.As it sensetoraise answer this very question, but only tooffer the complementary overview and the eventually fail tohave areal impact? Although theaim wasof thiswork notto pro-Yugoslav and reformist political initiatives, alongwith the popular support, Yet, aviablequestion arises: why allthe did constructive, pro-European, The unimaginable degrees of suffering theexperiences of the 1990s de facto 107 confederate arrangement tothinkin CEU eTD Collection story”. 2009) “Belgrade is the Balkan New York - interview with Milenko Jergovic, writer”, Jergovic, Milenko with NewYork-interview Balkan isthe “Belgrade 277 to betold, andnotforgotten.” falsification of experiences; I think that Yugoslavia is onegreat story which needs think that Yugoslavia was some perfectcountry, butIdonotaccept this typeof something abnormalor unnaturalwhich caused us painand suffering. Idon’t Yugoslavia therearestereotypes which wanttorepresent thatcountry as seem to touchuponthe heart ofthe matter: “Inall ofthecountries offormer grey areas.Inthis sense,the words Croat ofBosnian writer Milenko Jergovi mosaicthat theytake consideration and into that sometimes thetruth hides inthe the post-Yugoslav region, thatthey have available tothem the pieces of all the lives. It is ofan immense importance, inparticular forthefuture generations of for the sacred slogans of self-determination and independence with their own provisions or models ofconfederate arrangements -itwas theywho hadtopay family and friendsonall sidesandcouldnotcare aboutless constitutional politically andotherwise indifferent, the large mass ofordinary peoplewho had vote foror desire suchanoutcome. Eventually, thosewho were forthemost part their homes, families, their lives,theirpast and futureanddid neverenvisage, Jovana Gligorijevic, “Beograd je balkanski Njujork - intervju Milenko Jergovic, pisac” / pisac” Jergovic, Milenko -intervju Njujork balkanski je “Beograd Gligorijevic, Jovana http://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=865297 277 This thesis This hopestobeonepart ofthat “great 108 (accessed 24 May, 2009). (accessed 24May, Vreme 959(May ü CEU eTD Collection ANNEX Mr. Trifun Pavlovski’s high school graduation diploma dated 12 diploma graduation school high Pavlovski’s Trifun Mr. with the Serbian version of his personal name his personal of Serbian version the with 109 th July 1940, written in Serbian and Serbian written in 1940, July CEU eTD Collection April and June 1991. April 278 ANNEX 1 All caricature drawings were published in the daily newspaper daily the in published were drawings caricature All 278 Negotiations from the the trenches from Negotiations The six republics’ ‘chefs’ republics’ sixThe 110 Nova Makedonija Nova in March, in CEU eTD Collection am for the pension!” the am for “I you?” “And forces…” reform the for daughter-in-law my VMRO, for is grand-son my communist, still is son My toanyone… talks no one home son… At Donka?”“Bad, auntie “How areyou, The YU Summits 111 CEU eTD Collection “The from the crisis is visible!” 112 CEU eTD Collection ANNEX 2 Unused ballots for secret voting from the last congress of the LCY (personal archive) LCY(personal ofthe lastcongress the from voting secret for Unused ballots Voting cards from the last congress of(personal archive) theLCY lastcongress the from cards Voting 113 CEU eTD Collection adventure”. Ƚɥɢɝɨɪɨɜ x Globus Magazin x Rüdiger Rossig. x journalism B&H”.in x “Constructive talksontheopen questions”. x - Newspaper Articles x from 1925). (“Declaration ofthe InternalMacedonian Revolutionary Organization(United) Ɏ x x 10-2. x - Archives Primary Sources BIBLIOGRAPHY .495, Mili Hudelist, Darko. “ Hilmi, “The Enis. Futurism of theGerman Yugonostalgic” -interview with Ȼɢɏ ɜɨ ɧɨɜɢɧɚɪɫɬɜɨɬɨ ɜɪɡ ɭɞɚɪ ³Ⱦɪɠɚɜɟɧ Banov, Milan. “ The Electronic Archives of the Communist International State Archive ofRepublic ofMacedonia Personal Archive ofProf Open Society Archives, Budapest ɨɩ ” / “Tito wanted to introduce capitalism - interview with Gligorov”, Kiro .58, ü , Goran. “ Nova Makedonija ɞ .3, 4, 7 Globus Magazine 104 (April 2009). Nova Makedonija ȼɨɜɥɟɤɭɜɚʃɟɜɨɤɪɜɚɜɚɚɜɚɧɬɭɪɚ ɚ ɨɫɪɤɢɧɪɡɨɨɢ ɚ ɬɨɟɢɟ ɩɪɚɲɚʃɚ ɨɬɜɨɪɟɧɢɬɟ ɡɚ ɪɚɡɝɨɜɨɪɢ Ʉɨɧɫɬɪɭɤɬɢɜɧɢ , 15, 18. Ɍɢɬɨɫɚɤɚɲɟɞɚɜɨɜɟɞɟɤɚɩɢɬɚɥɢɡɚɦ , 23March 1991. . 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Nova Makedonija ɨɨɨɧɚɦɫɟɚ ɨ ɪɚɡɝɨɜɨɪɢɬɟ ɜɨ ɚɬɦɨɫɮɟɪɚ ɉɨɩɨɜɨɥɧɚ Nova Makedonija ɨɚɟɟ ɪɚɤɚ ɉɨɞɚɞɟɬɟ ɚɨɭɚɟ ɚ ɞɪɠɚɜɚɬɚ ɧɚ Ɋɚɡɨɪɭɜɚʃɟ Nova Makedonija Nova Makedonija , 30March, 1991. , 4March, 1991. 115 ”/“Legal helpforYugoslavia”. , 7June,1991. , 22June,1991. - Nova Makedonija , 23March, 1991. ɛɚɟɟ ɦɢɪ ɨɛʁɚɜɟɬɟ , 3April, 1991. ” /“Dismantling ofthe ”/“Panicky Fear from ”/“We ”/“We won’t allow a ” / Lend a Hand - ”/“Tupurkovski and ”/“Tupurkovski , 27March, 1991. ” /“Inclusion ”/“Improved Nova CEU eTD Collection Europe rat/The dissolution was unavoidable, butnot thewar -Interview,” x Kadijevi http://www.liderpress.hr/Default.aspx?sid=67490 Magazine http://www.csce.gov March 1,1992”, x March 25,2009. x http://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=865297 Jergovic, writer”, Jergovic, pisac” /“Belgrade is theBalkan New York -interview with Milenko x x Accessed 22May,2009. x Accessed 16May,2009. http://www.icty.org/x/cases/slobodan_milosevic/trans/en/031023ED.htm Yugoslavia witness Ante Markovic”, x - Internet Files Karabeg, Omer. “VasilTupurkovski:Raspad je neminovan, bio alinei “The Referendum on Independence Bosnia-Herzegovinain February 29- Jovi Milenko intervju - Njujork balkanski je“Beograd Jovana. 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