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Cult and Calendars in the Ancient Empires of Qin, Han, and Rome

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Cult and Calendars in the Ancient Empires of Qin, Han, and Rome Cult and Calendars in the Ancient Empires of Qin, Han, and Rome Rebecca Robinson Department of History and Classical Studies McGill University Montreal December 2016 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Rebecca Robinson 2016 Robinson i Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................ iii Resumé ................................................................................................................. iv Acknowledgments ................................................................................................. v Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................. 1 Chapter Two: Comparative Perspectives ........................................................... 9 2.1Comparative Ancient History ..................................................................... 9 2.2Points of Comparison: Empire Formation in Han and Rome ................... 19 2.2.1. From Republic to Empire in Rome ............................................... 21 2.2.2. All Under Heaven in Early China ................................................. 27 2.2.3. Empire, Convergence, and Divergence ........................................ 34 2.3Sources ...................................................................................................... 39 Chapter Three: Imperial Cult in the Qin and Han ......................................... 50 3.1Introduction ............................................................................................... 50 3.2Types of Sacrifice in the Qin and Han ...................................................... 54 3.3Writing History from Myth: The Shiji and pre-Qin State Sacrifice .......... 60 3.4Sacrificial Practices in the State and Empire of Qin ................................. 67 3.5Expansion and Experimentation in the Early Han .................................... 72 3.6Emperor Wu and the Proliferation of Cult ................................................ 78 3.7Imperial Cult and Empire ........................................................................ 101 3.7.1. Sacrificial Networks .................................................................... 103 3.7.2. Imperial Tours ............................................................................. 107 3.7.3. Rewards and Honours ................................................................. 114 3.8Conclusions ............................................................................................. 117 Chapter Four: Religion from Republic to Empire ....................................... 121 4.1History of Cult Reforms in the late Republic ......................................... 121 4.2Priestly Colleges in the late Republic and early Principate .................... 126 4.3“Reviving” Colleges and Recentering Power in the Principate .............. 140 4.4Conclusions ............................................................................................. 153 Chapter Five: Comparing Calendars .............................................................. 156 Robinson ii 5.1Introduction ............................................................................................. 156 5.2“Granting the Seasons” in early China ................................................... 161 5.3Priests and the Calendar in early Rome .................................................. 167 5.4The Grand Inception Reform .................................................................. 170 5.5Creating and Implementing the Julian Calendar ..................................... 185 5.6Writing the Calendar in the Han and Rome ............................................ 195 5.7Conclusions ............................................................................................. 199 Chapter Six: Spectacular and Communicative Power: The Feng and Shan Sacrifices of Emperor Wu and the Ludi Saeculares of Augustus ................. 204 6.1Introduction ............................................................................................. 204 6.2The Feng and Shan Sacrifices in the Qin and Han ................................. 213 6.3Augustus’ Ludi Saeculares ..................................................................... 225 6.4Conclusions ............................................................................................. 237 Chapter Seven: Conclusion .............................................................................. 240 Bibliography ...................................................................................................... 255 List of Tables Table 1: Consulships held by Priests .................................................................. 149 Robinson iii Abstract Cult and Calendars in the Ancient Empires of Qin, Han, and Rome is a comparison of reforms made to imperial cult and calendar during the formative years of empire. As distinct from ruler cult, I define imperial cult as cult activity worshiped both by the emperor and on his authority. The early years of the Qin Han and Roman empires saw imperially- sponsored cult increase dramatically, and saw the positioning of the person of the emperor at the centre of all cult activity. In both empires, reforms to state cult and calendars were initiated as part of a larger program of consolidating power around the person of the emperor. Despite the very different challenges facing the emperors of Han and Rome, there is a remarkable similarity in the areas in which they chose to consolidate their power, as well as the methods through which they carried out their reforms. In both empires, the rulers sought the advice of advisors from outside of the traditional elite, incorporating astronomical and religious knowledge from diverse regions and peoples. This outside knowledge and practices were then incorporated into state cult, reshaping the way that the emperors and their subordinates worshipped. I argue that these reforms to cult, and the incorporation of outside knowledge, was fundamental to the consolidation of power in the person of the emperor. Examining the expansion of cult practices, calendrical reforms, and spectacular performances, the dissertation uncovers the processes in the transformation of imperial cult to fit the changing needs of empire. Rather than seeking parallels in belief systems or cult practice, the dissertation compares the ways in which religious institutions both shaped and communicated a new imperial order. The juxtaposition of the two societies reveals not only the similarities and differences in these processes, but also the biases of historical sources and subsequent scholarship in both fields. Robinson iv Resumé Culte et Calendriers dans les empires de Qin, Han et Rome est une comparaison des réformes apportées au culte impérial et au calendrier au cours des années de la formation de ces empires. Je fais une distinction entre culte du souverain et culte impérial. Je définis ce dernier comme étant un culte pratiqué par l’empereur et au nom de son autorité. Les premières années des empires Qin, Han et romain connurent une augmentation marquée des cultes commandités par le pouvoir impérial ainsi que le positionnement de la personne de l’empereur au centre de toute activité cultuelle. Dans les deux empires, des réformes apportées au culte d’état et au calendrier furent lancées dans le cadre d’un programme de consolidation du pouvoir autour de la personne de l’empereur. En dépit des défis forts différents auxquels les empereurs de Han et de Rome eurent à faire face, il existe une similitude remarquable quant au domaine dans lequel ils choisirent de consolider leur pouvoir, ainsi que dans les méthodes à travers lesquelles ils menèrent à bien leurs réformes. Dans les deux empires, les souverains firent appel à des conseillers qui ne provenaient pas des élites traditionnelles, incorporant le savoir astronomique et religieux de divers peuples et régions. Ce savoir et ces pratiques extérieurs furent ensuite intégrés dans le culte d’état, changeant la façon dont les empereurs et leurs sujets pratiquaient ce culte. Je propose que ces réformes cultuelles et l’incorporation de savoir extérieur s’avérèrent fondamentales pour la consolidation du pouvoir dans la personne de l’empereur. En examinant l’expansion des pratiques de culte, des réformes du calendrier et les représentations spectaculaires, cette thèse explore les processus de transformation du culte impérial dans son adaptation aux divers besoins impériaux. Plutôt que de rechercher des parallèles dans les systèmes de croyance ou les pratiques de culte, cette thèse compare les manières par lesquelles les institutions religieuses façonnèrent et communiquèrent un nouvel ordre impérial. La juxtaposition des deux sociétés met en lumière non seulement les similitudes et les différences dans ces processus, mais aussi les biais des sources historiques et de la littérature scientifique dans les deux domaines. Robinson v Acknowledgments First and foremost, I thank my supervisors, who have guided me on this project. In the field of early China, Robin D.S. Yates, who has mentored me through both a Master’s and PhD, has been an invaluable guide and critic. In the field of ancient Mediterranean history, thanks go to Hans Beck, who was willing to take on such a neophyte in the field as myself, and for his energies, along with Griet Vankerbeerghen,
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