CHAPTER ONE: THE GENESIS OF THE CONGO FREE STATE AND THE GORDIAN KNOT IMPOSED ON LEOPOLD II 15 I The Historical Background for the Genesis of the Congo Free State (CFS).... 15 II Belgium's Appearance on the International Stage 17 III Leopold I and the First Attempts at Colonial Expansion 19 IV Leopold II Pursuing the Action of His Father 22 V Leopold II and Livingstone's Legacy 26 VI The Action of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck 28 VII Great-Britain's Indifference Towards Stanley, Whom Leopold II Recruits.... 29 A -Stanley's Journey Across the African Continent 29 В -British Reaction -Interest on the Part of Leopold II : 31 VIII Leopold II and the Free Confederation of Black People project 33 IX The Texas Flag Flies Over the Congo Bassin 34 X Treatees Between the CFS and Traditional Authorities Along the River 38 XI The Rivalry with Savorgnan de Brazza 41 XII Birth of the Congo Free State and International Conflict at the Mouth of the River 45 XIII The Berlin Conference and the Application of the Status of the Danube ....49 XIV Leopold II : Souvereign in One Country, Constitutional King in Another ...56

CHAPTER TWO: CFS PUBLIC POWERS AND THE ACTION IN CHINA 61 I The Institutional Situation in the Congo Free State (CFS) 61 II How the Public Powers Were Organized 64 III The Legislative and Executive Powers 65 IV Organization of the Executive Power: the CFS Central Services 68 V Public Services in the CFS Capital in Africa 69 VI The Territorial Administration of the CFS 71 VII The Relationship Between Territorial Administration and Traditional Organization 72 VIII The Judicial Power and Its Organization 73 A - Application of the Written Law 73 В - Traditional Law in the CFS 76 IX Liaison and Means of Communication between CFS Authorities 78

617

Weerd, Guido de digitalisiert durch: The Congo Free State IDS Basel Bern X Personnel in the CFS Public Services 81 XI Secretary of State van Eetvelde and the King-Sovereign's Collaborators 82 XII Belgium's Actions in China and Their Impact On the CFS 90 A - The early days of activity in Imperial China 90 В - The Extraordinary Life of the Belgian Mandarin and His Role With Respect to Belgium 90 С -Charles Ursel's Planning Mission r. 92 D - The Action of Adolphe Joostens, Ambassador and Patron 94 £ - The Participation of Chinese Workers in the Construction of the Railway in the CFS 96 F - Epilogue of the Expansion Towards Imperial China 97 XIII The Myth of CFS and Leopold II Archives 98 A - Jules Van Praet's Work and Archives : 98 В - The Mystery Surrounding Leopold II's Archives 100 ADDENDUM - THE ORGANIZATION OF THE JUDICIARY IN RUANDA-URUNDI 103 A - Written Law 103 В - Customary Law 105

CHAPTER THREE: THE POPULATION OF THE CONGO FREE STATE 109 I The Impossible Task of Carrying Out a Census or Population Count 109 II The Different Estimates of the CFS Population 110 III Composition of the CFS Population 114 IV The Issue of Social Cohesion Across Particular Socio-cultural characteristics 116 V The 1885 General Act of Berlin and Choosing An Institutional System for the CFS 118 VI Demographic historical data of the population 120

CHAPTER FOUR: PUBLIC ORDER AND THE CONGO FREE STATE PUBLIC FORCE 121 I The Constraints of Public Order and the Specter of Balkanization 121 II The Genesis and International Dimension of the Public Force 122 III Implementing the Supervisory Staff of the CFS's Public Force 125 IV Birth of the CFS Public Force in the area of Lingala 127 V The Recruiting Process and CFS Public Force manpower 130 VI Regular CFS Troops and the Occasional Backups 131 VII Public Force manpower from 1889 to 1914 132 VIII Growth of British Law Enforcement Manpower from 1883 to 1903 133 IX Growth of CFS Manpower Under Contract From 1883 to 1901 134

CHAPTER FIVE: SETTING THE BORDERS OF THE CONGO FREE STATE . 135 I The physical outline of the Congo basin 135 II Emergence of the Sphere of Influence Concept in the World of International Politics 136

618 TABLE OF CONTENTS III The Sphere of Influence Concept and the Setting the Boundaries of the CFS 137 A - The German Sphere of Influence at the Eastern Border 137 В - The British Sphere of Influence At the Eastern Border 138 С - The Main German Concerns With Respect to Border Demarcation 139 D - The Main British Concerns With Respect to Border Demarcation 140 E - Heligoland: A British Thorn in the Foot of Germany and a Foreshadowing of WWI 140 F - The "Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty," Which Changed European and African Borders 141 IV Demarcation of the Northern Border of the CFS 144 A - The Colonial Powers and the Link-up Between the Congo and Niles Basins 144 В - The Conflict in Bahr el Gazai, the River of Gazelles in Equatoria 146 С - The Attempt to Link the Congo Basin to the Nile Basin. Stanley's Expedition To Rescue Emin Pasha 148 D - A New Attempt To Expand the CFS Towards the Nile 158 E - Consolidation of the Northern Position and the Seeds of Mutiny 162 F - The Chaltin Column Heading For the Nile 163 G - Captain Marchand's Congo-Nile Mission and the Fashoda Syndrome 164 V Demarcating the Katanga Border 166 A - Annexing the Katanga Province: Britain's Splendid Blunder 166 В - The CFS's Southern Border Before Friction Over Border Demarcation 170 С -Mwami Msiri's Conquest of the Katanga 172 D - Britain's Last Attempt At Annexing the Katanga Province 174 E - The Dramatic and Definite Conquest of the Katanga Province by CFS Forces : 177 F -Hamadi bin Malum, Who Saved the Katanga Expedition 182 G - The seeds of the secessionist spirit of Katanga 183

CHAPTER SIX: THE SLAVE TRADE IN THE CONGO BASIN 187 I Historical and Geographical Aspects of Slavery 187 II The Extent of the African Trade Slave 194 III The Harsh Plight of the Slaves 197 IV The Fight Against Slavery: the Abolitionist Movements 203 V Lavigerie, Beernaert and the 1889 Anti-Slave Trade Conference 204 VI Events in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Move the Slave Trade To the CFS ...209 VII Premises of the Wars Against the Afro-Arab Slave Traders 214 VIII Emin Pasha's Assassination 217 IX Members of the Hodister Mission Handed Over As Food To Starving Slaves 223

CHAPTER SEVEN: CAMPAIGNS AGAINST THE SLAVE TRADERS IN THE CONGO FREE STATE 229 I The Territorial Integrity of the Congo Free State vis-à-vis the Bastions of the Arab Slave traders 229 II The Slave Trader Presence 232 A - The Transition from the Foundation of the Crown to the Niederfüllbach Foundation 348 В - The Niederfüllbacher Stiftung 350 К The Royal Donation and the Dynastic Preservation of the Property Portfolio 354

CHAPTER TEN: MISSIONNARY INSTITUTIONS IN THE CONGO FREE STATE 359 I A Historical Overview of Missionary Presence in the Congo Free State ....359 II History of the Presence of Protestant Missions 360 A - The Presence of Protestant Missions Before the Advent of the Congo Free State 360 В -Baptist Missionaries in the Congo Basin 361 1 - The Livingstone Inland Mission and the American Baptist Foreign Mission ..361 2 - The Family of Guinness, the Irish Brewer, and the Congo-Balolo Mission 363 3 - The Work Carried Out by the Famous Explorer and Baptist, Reverend George GrenfeU 365 С - History of the Other Protestant Missions Present in the Congo Free State.367 III History of the Catholic Church's Missionary Institutions in the Congo Free State 368 A - Arrival of the First Portuguese Missionaries At the Mouth of the Congo River 368 В - The Arrival of Catholic Missionaries in the Congo Basin 370 С - First Contact with the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (CICM) or Scheut Congregation 371 D - The First Apostolic Vicariates in the Congo Free State 372 E -A Preference For Missionary Congregations With Mother Establishments in Belgium 372 F - The Founding and Temporary Abandonment of the Missionary Station at the Mouth of the Kasai River 374 G - The Founding of the Missions in New Antwerp and Luluabourg and the Tragedies That Unfolded There 376 IV The Domanial Issue and the Conflict With British Protestant Missions 378 V Collaboration Between the State and The Missionary Institutions 381 A - The Respective Concerns of the State and The Missionary Institutions 381 В - The Main Aspects of the Regulations Defining the Action of the State and the Missions 382 С - Objectives of the School Settlements and the Participation of the Missions 384 D - The Overall System of the State's School Settlements 385 E - The Training Program 386 VI The Nature of the Missionary Work Carried Out by Protestant Churches .387 VII The Nature of the Ministry Carried Out By the Catholic Missions 388 A - The Ministry Approach Used as a Model by the Other Catholic Institutions 388 1 - General Characteristics of the Ministry Approaches Used as Models 388 2 - The Nature of the Ministry Carried Out by the CICM Missionaries 389 3 - The Nature of the Ministry Carried Out by the Jesuits 389

622 TABLE OF CONTENTS G - Victory Once More for the Dhanis Column 305 H - Appreciation for Dhanis 306 IV The Uprising Spreads in the Shinkakasa Fortress (Boma) 308 A - Ngongo's Former Warriors Transferred to Boma 308 В - Construction of the Shinkakasa Camp 308 С - The Social Environment in the New Camp 309 D - The Seeds of the Shinkakasa Uprising 309 £ - The Angolan Slave Traders and their Links To the Insurgents 311

CHAPTER NINE: THE PUBLIC DOMAIN, THE PRIVATE DOMAIN, AND THE CROWN ESTATE 313 I The domanial issue: between populist legend and historical truth 313 II What Belongs and Does Not Belong To the State 315 III Vacant and Ownerless Land 316 IV Property Belonging to the Domain of the CFS 318 A - Property Belonging to the Public Domain of the CFS 318 В - Property Belonging to the Private Domain of the CFS 319 С - Concessions With Privileges Granted in the Private Domain of the CFS...319 1 - Management of the State's Private Domain, Ownership Rights, and the Granting of Privileges 319 2-Land from the State's Private Domain Granted to the CFL With Privileges ..321 3 - The Concession With Privileges Granted to the Compagnie du Katanga and the British Breakthrough 321 4 - The Need to Created the Kasai Company Holding Company 327 5 - The Beginnings of the Comité National du Kivu's (CNKi) Concession with Privileges 328 V Ownership of the Products of the Private Domain of the Congo Free State 329 A - Ownership of the Products of the Private Domain of the CFS in the Congo Basin 329 В - Ownership of Products Belonging to the Private Domain of the State in Neighboring Territories of the Congo Free State 330 С - The Brussels Conference and the Decree of September 21, 1891 331 D - Regulations Related to the Exploitation of Domanial Products 332 £ - Monopolies In Terms of Marketing Products of the State 334 VI Purchasing Land Belonging To the Private Domain of the Congo Free State 335 VII Property of The Crown (Crown Estate) and the Foundation of the Crown .336 A - The Historical and Comparative Dimention of the Crown Estate 336 В - The Legal Nature of the Property of the Crown and the Foundation of the Crown 337 С - The Geographical Areas of the Crown Estate in the CFS 341 D - Management of the Property Portfolio of the Crown Estate and of the Foundation of the Crown 342 £ - Developing the Crown Estate's Property 343 F - Revenue of the Foundation of the Crown 345 G-How Revenue Generated by the Foundation of the Crown Was Used....346 VIII The Foundation of the Crown and the Niederfüllbach Foundation 348 A - The Transition from the Foundation of the Crown to the Niederfüllbach Foundation 348 В - The Niederfüllbacher Stiftung 350 К The Royal Donation and the Dynastic Preservation of the Property Portfolio 354

622 TABLE OF CONTENTS В - The Jesuits' Concept of Ministry in Bas-Congo and Kwango 390 1 - The Founding of a New Victariate for the Jesuits' Belgian Province 390 2-Father Van Hencxthoven' s Concept of a Network of Farm Chapels 392 3 - Expansion of the Farm Chapel Network in Kwango 393 4 - Van Hencxthoven's Death and Succession and the Founding of Wombali 395 5 - Father René Butaye Launches the First Cycle of Secondary Studies 397 6 - The Work of Prefect Apostolic Julien Banckaert and the Flarbinger of Conflicts To Come 398 С - Criticism and Accusations Leveled Against the School Settlements and the Farm Chapels 399 1 - Documents Containing the Items Meeting With Criticism 399 2 - Assistant Public Prosecutor Moth-Borglum's Investigation and Sectarian Attitude 401 3 - The Report Drafted by Moth-Borglum and Given to the Commission of Inquiry..403 4 -Reactions to Moth-Berglum's Report 404 D - The Congolese Issue by Jesuit Father Arthur Vermeersch 404 E - The Work of the Missionaries Reviewed by the 1904 Commission of Inquiry 406 1 - How the Commission of Inquiry First Came Into Being 406 2 - The composition and early activities of the Commission of Inquiry 407 3 - The Testimony of District Commissioner Paul Delhaye 408 4 - The Commission Refuses To Go To Kwango To Interview the Missionaries ...409 5 - The Passage in the Commission's Report About the Missions 409 6 - Initial and Final Versions of the Commission's Report 410 VIII Overall Assessment of Missionary Work in the Congo Free State 412 A - Overall Assessment of the Ministry of the Catholic Missionaries 412 В - Overall Assessment of the Ministry of the Protestant Missionaries 413

CHAPTER ELEVEN: THE ISSUE OF THE RESPECT OF THE UNIVERSAL HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE CHALLENGING SEARCH FOR MEANS OF ACTION 415 I European Powers and Universal Human Rights 415 II Examples of Inhuman Practices That Preceded European Expansionism . 417 III The Wild Vines Found During the Emin Pasha Expedition 420 IV Rubber: Worthless in 1887, Priceless in 1895 423 V The Choice of Budgetary Resources for the CFS 425 A - The Quest For Taxable Transactions 425 В - The British and Portuguese Hut Tax Solution 426 С - The Franco-Belgian Labor Tax Option 427 D - The Rubber Boom and the Urgent Need to Find Budgetary Resources..429 E -Actions Taken by the Talented Edouard Bunge 429 F - Searching for Financial Resources to Bridge the Gap 431 G - Setting Up Commercial Companies and Companies With Privileges 434 H -How the Companies Were Run and Managed With the Participation of the State 437 VI The Anversoise Tragedies 442 A - The Two Incarnations of the Anversoise 442 В - Living Conditions In the Anversoise Concession 445 С - Tragedies in Budja Territory 447

623 D - Lothaire's Pacification of the Mongola Basin Starting In 1898 449 E - Actions by Force Publique Commander Auguste Gérard 451 1 - Action In the Field 451 2 - The Adverse Effects of the Gérard Method 451 VII ABIR: The Concession Fraught With Dangers 453 A - The Foundation of ABIR with the Financial Assistance of the Saltpeter Colonel 453 В - Basankusu, AKA "Perrots' Nest" and ABIR Headquarters 455 С - The Final Exploit of César Peters and Lucien TermoUe 456 D - The Monopoly On Rubber and Ivory 457 E -Albert Longtain and the Aberrations of ABIR Management 458 1 - Territorial Organization and Living Conditions in the Trading Posts 458 2 - The Absurd System Used to Pay ABIR Agents 460 3 - The Rush To Earn Bonuses At All Cost 461 4 - Resistance to the Pressures of the Harvesting System 463 5 - The Warning by Leopold II That Led to ABIR Shutting Down 469 F - The Return of Antislavery Activist and U.S. Consul Richard Mohun 470 VIII The Congo Free State and the Abuses Committed in the Congo Basin 470 A - The European Powers and the Promises They Made In 1885 470 В - Penalties of Mutilation Existed Prior to the Birth of the Congo Free State 472 С - Modesty Required On the Part of Those Alleging Acts of Inhumanity ...474 D - Observations by Professors Félicien Cottier and Jean Stengers 476 £ - Table showing ivory and rubber imports from 1889 to 1908 479

CHAPTER TWELVE: THE ACCUSED AND THE ACCUSERS: ACCUSATIONS OF ACTS OF INHUMANITY IN THE CONGO FREE STATE 481 I The Action of Reverend George Washington Williams 481 II The Action of Edmund Dene Morel 483 1 - The First Tragedy: the Death of His Father 483 2 - Traumatic Events On His Mother's Side of the Family 483 3 - His First Job in the Former Slave-Trafficking Hub 483 4 - The Consequences of His First Job: An Indelible Mark 485 5 - Morel Loses His Job at Dempster and Devotes Himself to Journalism...487 6 - Morel Launches His Campaign Against the CFS 488 7 - The Congo Reform Association and the Tactical Alliance Between Lord Grey and Edmund Morel 491 III Myth and Reality of the Severed Hands and the Actions of Husband and Wife Team Harris-Seeley 493 IV The Action of Baptist Missionnary John Weeks 501 1 - Reverend John Weeks's London and Angola Periods 501 2 - Reverend John Weeks Among the ba-Ngala 504 V The Congo Balolo Mission and the Action of Irish Brewer Guinness's Grandson 510 VI The Action of Roger Casement 512 A - Casement: British Consul and Irish Nationalist 512 1 - Casement's Action With Respect to the CFS As Part of British Politics 512 2 - A Short Biography of Roger Casement 512

624 TABLE OF CONTENTS В - Casement's Report: an Advantage Devised by London 516 1 - The impact of the report 516 2 - The Form and Content of Casement's Report 518 VII The Commission of Inquiry and Its Report 520 1 - Political Reasons for Creating the Commission 520 2 - The Makeup and Mandate of the Commission of Inquiry 522 3 - The Itinerary and Work of the Commission Members 524 4 - The Commission of Inquiry's Report 527

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: THE TRANSFER OF SOVEREIGNTY OVER THE CONGO FREE STATE TO BELGIUM 529 I The Commission of Inquiry's Report in the International Context 529 II British Reactions to the Commission of Inquiry Report 531 III Reactions to the Commission of Inquiry's Report in Belgium 533 IV The Transfer of Sovereignty Over the CFS to Belgium 536 A - The Overall Political Environment of the Transfer of Sovereignty 536 В - The Political Background in Belgium 538 С - The Financial Imbroglio Over the Transfer of Sovereignty 539 D - The Political Imbroglio Over the Transfer of Sovereignty 541 1 - The Beernaert Government (October 1884-March 1894) 541 2 - The Jules de Burlet Government (March 1894 - February 1896) 542 3 - The First Paul de Smet de Naeyer Government (February 1896 - Januaryl899) 544 4 — The Vandenpeereboom Government (January - July 1899) 545 5 - The Second Paul de Smet de Naeyer Government (August 1899-April 1907) 545 6 - The Jules de Trooz Government (May 1907 - December 1907) 549 7 - The Franz Schollaert Government (January 1908 - June 1911) 550 E - International Recognition of the Status of the Belgian Congo 553 F - Leopold II's Death and Will 554

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: THE PERCEPTION OF THE HISTORICAL TRUTH THROUGH THE DISTORTING MIRROR OF THE MEDIA 557 I Antagonisms with Respect to the Portrayal of History in the Media 557 II The Major Features of the Veil Obscuring History 560 III The Main Writings That Brought The History of the CFS Into the Spotlight 564 1 - Guy Burrows and The Curse of Central Africa 564 2 - Sherlock Holmes and The Crime of the Congo 565 3 - Conrad's Heart of Darkness 566 4 - Mark Twain and King Leopold's Soliloquy 568 5 - Adam Hochschild and King Leopold's Ghost: a Stori> of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa 570 a - Hochschild's Motives .' 570 b - Jules Marchai, Hochschild's Frustrated Documentalist 571 с - Hochschild's Bestseller: King Leopold's Ghosts: a Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa 574 6 - Mario Vargas Llosa and The Dream of the Celt 580 7 - David Van Reybrouck's Congo - The Epic History of a People 582 IV The Congo Free State in the Audiovisual Media 587 1 - Myths and Legends: Far More Lucrative for Media Outlets, than Historical Facts 587 2 - Congo River, Mobutu, King of Zaire and Other Audiovisual Productions 587 3 - King Leopold's Ghost by Pippa Scott 588 4 - How Filmmaker Peter Bate Manipulated Historical Facts 588 5 - The Reality Bethind the Manipulations of the Truth 590 V The Distortion of History by Lobbyists, Special Interest Groups and Advocacy Groups 591 VI Leopold II and the Manipulation of the Historical Truth 592

AFTERWORD > " THE ROOTS OF THE BOOK 593 In life, everything passes but the past 593 The Help I Received 596

SOURCES 601

626 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents