Cilt 1, Sayı 1, 2013 / Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2013

A Comparative Study of The Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales: Köroğlu, Kalevipoeg and Daedalus

Erkan YÜCE*, Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU**

Abstract

Folk tales, as the products of literary oral tradition, display many common characteristics in their form, content and themes. However, at the same time, they have a local or national touch in them which differs them from the others. Thus, national heroes in folk tales represent the cultural diversities which constitute a perfect unity in which similarities as well as differences among morals, values, value judgments, images and traditions are presented. So, this study aims to compare the common characteristics of three national folk tale heroes, Köroğlu (Turkey), Kalevipoeg (Estonia) and Daedalus (Greece), although they are from completely different geographies, cultures and traditions. Key words: folk tale, folk tale tradition, national heroes.

Halk Hikâyelerindeki Ulusal Kahramanların Ortak Özelliklerinin Karşılaştırmalı Bir Çalışması: Köroğlu, Kalevipoeg ve Daedalus

Özet

Edebiyatta sözlü geleneğin bir ürünü olan Halk Hikâyeleri, şekil, içerik ve tema açısından pekçok benzerlik göstermektedir. Ancak bu hikâyelerde aynı zamanda belli bölgelere ait hikâyeleri diğerlerinden ayıran yerel farklılıklar da vardır. Halk hikâyelerinde rastladığımız ulusal kahramanlar bir yandan kendi kültürlerine has özellikleri sergilerken, diğer yandan da evrensel değerlerin, değer yargılarının ve kuralların birer temsilcisi olarak çıkarlar karşımıza. Bu çalışma da, bu çerçevede üç ayrı coğrafya, kültür ve gelenekten gelen üç farklı ulusal halk hikâyesi kahramanının (Köroğlu/ Türkiye, Kalevipoeg/Estonya ve Daedalus/Yunanistan) ortak özelliklerini karşılaştırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: halk hikayesi, halk hikayesi geleneği, ulusal kahramanlar.

* Graduate student, Gazi University, Education Faculty, Division of English Language Teaching, e-mail: [email protected] ** Assist. Prof. Gazi University, Education Faculty, Division of English Language Teaching e-mail: [email protected] 60 | Erkan YÜCE, Aslı Özlem TARAKÇIOĞLU

1. Introduction

Culture is the collection and the accumulation of the common human experience and literature is one of the major means to pass down the elements of cultures from one generation to the other. Among the literary genres, folk tales, the most representative examples of narrative prose found in the oral tradition, have a privileged state since they transmit the components of cultures conveying traditions, customs, beliefs and ways of life of common people with a moral or message in the background. Folk tales perfectly characterize the mutual and universal but at the same time diverging experiences of human beings situated in different social, cultural, political, geographical and anthropological areas and eras; that is, folk tales are one of the major elements of national/regional cultural heritages as well as being a prominent part of the mutual cultural heritage of humanity. On the one hand, they display individual experiences by showing ideal manners and attitudes in a specific society; on the other hand, they convey universal messages affirmed and suggested in any and every society aiming to unite humanity under universally accepted norms of truth, peace, democracy, equality and beauty. The basic element in a folk tale is the hero or the heroine and the tales about national heroes have many mutual qualifications in almost all cultures. His/her personality is of great importance because the way he/she acts and reacts gives a clear insight into the very essence and particular traits of the culture he/she belongs to as well as mirroring crucial collective values such as honesty, tolerance, justice, mercy, helpfulness and love of animals (Antti, 1961). The other basic components such as traditions, beliefs, food culture or setting in a folk tale may vary greatly; however although they are formed by a variety of cultural, geographical and religious background characteristics, national heroes are the most typical and similar features in folk tales (Propp, 1968). So, this study includes three “national hero” tales from three “different cultures” from “different parts” of Europe; Köroğlu, the Brave Bard from Turkey, Daedalus and Icarus from Greece and Kalevipoeg and the Hedgehog from Estonia. The article is organized as follows; the first section is a brief review of literature about the definition, origins and history of folk tales. The second section compares the three national folk tale heroes. The final section is the conclusion. A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 61

2. Review of Literature

First, it seems essential to define the key concepts; what a folk tale is, its origins and historical background. a. Definition of Folk Tales

It is difficult to put clear cut definitions of oral, folk and literary tales however the most evident characteristic of the folktale is its being a part of oral tradition. Basically, a folk tale is a tale or a legend originating and traditional among a people or folk, especially forming part of the oral tradition of the common people. They are the shared borrowings of humanity adopted to the local circumstances and they are used as one of the major means of passing on people’s experience and knowledge about nature, people’s traditions and beliefs from a generation to the following ones (Lüthi, 1982; O’Sullivan,2005: Uther,2004 ). They come from all directions; the East, the west, the North and the South and they keep moving further getting enriched through generations and along geographies. They generally reach from one geography to the other by means of intertextuality, adaptation, translation and imitation. Most of the time, they are described as the early pillars of social morality, religious commands as well as being stepping stones for cultural contact and transmission. They highly interfere with the cultural life of all societies because they include many elements from prehistoric times as well as culturally specific time and space of that particular group. They engage the listener/reader affectively while at the same time requiring cognitive attention (Lüthi, 1982; O’Sullivan, 2005: Uther, 2004). Being an important means of communication, folktales play a central in establishing social and cultural unity; they represent common and shared values along with native cultural heritages. At the same time, they cross borders and convey universal themes and messages in order to unite humanity under universally accepted norms and ideals.

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b. The Origin and the History of Folk Tales

It is possible to find a variety of theories about the origins of folk tales, still, the best classification seems to have been done recently by Jack Zipes. In his book Why Fairy Tales Stick (2006), Jack Zipes points two main theories related to the origins for folk tales. The first one is Monogenesis, which tends to the idea that folk tales derive from one particular source such as myths. Theodor Benfey (1809−1881), along with the Brothers Grimms, supports this theory. Furthermore, Benfey claims the origin of the genre to be the ancient India. According to him, folk tales, then, expand to Persia, and then to the Arabic−speaking world. The second theory is Polygenesis, developed by Joseph Bedier (1864−1938), the French folklorist. According to his theory, the folk tales blossom independently in different places and they are formed, reformed, cultivated and enriched by storytellers. This theory takes its ground from the assumption that humans go through similar processes and experiences throughout the world and it is natural that they respond to the environment and events in similar ways by using the different variations of the same motif(s) depending on the geography, history, society, and religion which mold the culture they belong to. The history of folk tales is a subject of a whole anthology, yet, just to give in a nutshell, the written history of the folk tales can be traced back to the publishment of The Pleasant Night (Le Piacevoli Notti), the collection of folk tales by an Italian writer, Gian Francesco Straparola (1480−1558), in Venice in 1508. Indeed, Giovanni Boccaccion’s Decameron (1348−53), or The Arabian Nights, also known as The Thousand and One Nights (9th century) or Don Juan Manuel Count Lucanor (El conde Lucanor, 1335) are the framework for the tales during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Giambattista Basile (1575−1632) publishes The Tale of Tales, or Entertainment for Little Ones (La cunto deli cunti overo lo trattenemiento de peccerille, 1634−6) also known as Pentamerone of which structure follows Panchatantra (Five Books), the famous Indian collection of fables (approx. 11th century). However, folktales turn into a focus for academic interest only since the beginning of the 19th century.

3. National Heroes in Folk Tales

It is very common that folk tales about national heroes and heroines (though they are rather rare) can be found in every culture. The major characters, structure of A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 63

their tales and the hero−related themes have many mutual qualifications in almost all folk tales, which also lays a ground for comparatively more recent versions of heroic stories. In Bruno Bettleheim’s words, “Through the characters on the page, children are able to live out their worst fears and their fondest wishes. Valuable life lessons are conveyed through the stories which children readily absorb in a non−threatening and even enjoyable context” (1976, p. 12). These tales may well have some drastic changes due to the geographical, religious, social and cultural differences in which the folk tale has been formed. However, when the folk tale heroes and heroines of various geographies and cultures are studied, it is inevitable to find out many parallels between the personal traits and experiences of them, although national and regional traits in character/characterization are highly shaped by geographical conditions, cultural differences and formations, which this study aims to exemplify through the tales of three national heroes of various geographies; Köroğlu (Turkey), Daedalus (Greece) and Kalevipoeg (Estonia). Before making a detailed comparison among the heroes, it seems necessary to give a brief summary of their tales and characteristics. Köroglu is a great Turkish national hero (as well as being a trickster) who throws himself into struggles and succeeds in the end; he frequently makes use of clever disguises to achieve his goal; he rebels against the Bey of Bolu, the cruel oppressor and takes the revenge of his father and the other tortured people. Although he is basically a robber, and even sometimes coarse in his manners, Köroglu is, however, soon transformed into the avenger hero of the oppressed people against the tyrannical ruler of the region in a similar story that of Robin Hood, an outlaw fighting for social justice. Kalevipoeg is the youngest son of a malicious giant known with the name of Kalev, Kalevine, Kalevipoiss, Kalevine Posikine and Kalevin Poika in ancient Estonian folklore. Kalev fights against other giants as well as enemies of the nation. Kalevipoeg is born after his father dies and he is more intelligent and stronger than his brothers. He is responsible for shaping surface structures on landscape and bodies of water and building towns. He uses stones and planks to destroy the enemies of the nation. Finally, Daedalus is a legendary Athenian architect and inventor, who builds the labyrinth for Minos on Crete. Daedalus is in fact a descendant of Athens, but he kills his nephew, who is a more skilled artist, out of jealousy and takes refuge in Crete. There, he works for King Minos. He designs the famous labyrinth where the

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Minotaur is kept, but when Minos does not keep his promise to release him, he fashions wings for himself and his son, Icarus, to flee the island, which ends in the death of Icarus. Basically, in folk tales, the hero motifs, though they are considered to be the national ones, take their basis from the demigod cult in almost every culture. So it is not a coincidence that most of the time, even though they are completely a part of the physical human world, national heroes and heroines are equipped with some godlike or superhuman qualities. Moreover, their adventures may well have mythological significance. Kalevipoeg, indeed, is a giant and, due to his physical appearance, he is the most fictional hero among the others covered in this study. He is a demi−god and bestowed with the ability to sculpt geographical formations of the world. Furthermore, he can re−form natural elements as he does when he “grabbed a handful of fir needles and threw them at the naked creature” to create a hedgehog out of a rat. His story is a reference to the mythic stories related to the creation of the world and the elements and creatures within. Although Köroğlu is supposed to be a historical figure and even a real personality− especially when compared to Kalevipoeg and Daedalus− he is still armed with supernatural support. Like his counterparts in this study, he also displays courage, wit and national character strengthened by mystical interference. He has the Kırat with which “no living horse will ever be able to match …… in terms of its beauty and power” after staying in a dark cave. Additionaly, upon drinking the “silver foam” of the magical spring, Köroğlu turns into an “invincible warrior” who can challenge the authority as well as the other outlaws. Daedalus, in the same way is almost a superhuman with his “very good mind and magic hands” and his personal and professional qualifications as “an inventor, a good technician, a sculptor, an architect, and also a builder.” Actually, he is a perfect representation of the desire of man to fly and of the fear of eternal failure. When the mythic representations and demigod cult in the depiction of heroic figures are considered, it is not surprising to find the counterparts of these figures in the neighboring regions and cultures. Kalevipoeg’s deeds and adventures have many parallels and similarities with Kalevala, the Finnish epic. The same figure can also be found in the epics of other Scandinavian countries. Similarly, it is possible to find the story of Köroğlu with almost an identical story under the names of Koroğlu A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 65

Dastanı in Azerbaijan, Görogly Dessany in Turkmenistan, and Ko‘ro‘g‘li Dostoni in Uzbekistan. These national heroes are also the stereotypes of patriarchal culture and from C.G. Jung’s point of view they are presented in all folktales as hero archetypes. They represent the values of a manly and heroic society in which only the strongest survive. So, heroism is mainly the basic characteristic of the male hero. That’s why female characters as main figures are rare in folk tales. If the main hero is a female, this heroine motif is generally represented as the girl in disguise such as Jean d’Arc, Mulan, Vasilisa, The Maiden Tsar, The Girl as a Soldier; Fanta−Ghiro the beautiful. Beautiful Vida from Slovenia, for example, is a female folk tale character; still her life represents the values of a patriarchal world in which women are supposed to play certain roles. Even her song is an appreciation and praise about the patriarchal system and most versions of her story end unhappily. Still, female figures are not completely excluded from the lives of folk tale national heroes; rather, the female figures take a symbolic role in this unyielding world of these tough men. The women in the lives of these heroes are generally portrayed as devoted mothers or wives; Kalevipoeg starts his adventure in search of his kidnapped mother and through his journey, her rescues three maidens from the hell and the Satan. He also has a devoted lover who kills herself for his love. Köroğlu has wives; all are devoted to and deeply in love with him while Daedalus has Nafcratis, his wife, symbolically a slave, not only to the system of Minos but also by the demands of patriarchal system. Both Köroğlu and Daedalus have sons by these women− it is not a coincidence that their children are also male to maintain the heroic code in the patriarchal system. It is notable that both women are almost completely kept out of the stream of incidents in the tales after giving birth to the sons; that is, after completing their functions. Their existence in the lives of the national folk tale heroes confirms the domestification of females as mother with children, nursemaid or a devoted wife. It is rather common that the national folk hero figure is frequently presented in a series of folk tales− and mostly with different adventures but with similar messages. Principally, the folk hero is a universal symbol of the eternal struggle between the evil and the good in which the evil is eternally doomed to be defeated. So, the hero generally begins as an average person and is then transformed into an extraordinary person by a significant and mostly a national event such as social

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injustice, or in response to natural or social disasters. In a more general term, national heroes are usually the defenders of common people and their heroism and idealism get more and more clarified with the image of the antagonists (anti−heroes) created as an anti−thesis to their existences. Even, Kalevipoeg, the giant serves for the good of his people, though some of his actions can be described as “violent” or “brutal”. His fight against “evil forest spirit” clearly points the ground on which he stands. Furthermore, he generously rewards the rat that helps him as a reflection of his “soft heart” under his “frightening physical appearance”. Köroğlu, the Brave Bard, in the same way, is an emblem of the struggle against oppression and oppressors depicted in the personality of the Bey of Bolu. Actually, all the people of the region suffer from the unjust, cruel and despotic practices of the Bey, yet, it is only Köroğlu who dares to rebel against the Bey –of course, supported by some supernatural interference. He becomes the voice of his people, with both his actions and his “saz”. Although he is indeed an outlaw, he is embraced by his people (and the reader, of course), since he “robs only the rich, to give to the poor”. Similarly, Daedalus uses his creativity to get rid of the unjust and mendacious King, Minos. As a “criminal”, Daedalus is ready to pay for his misdeed, but in the face of dishonesty, he does not turn into a submissive and muted slave. His resistance is not a direct rebel like that of Köroğlu, but an indirect rejection of injustice and tyrannical authority, though it ends tragically. From this point of view, in short, all national heroes are omnipotent characters who can shape and reshape the histories, values and value judgments of their people. It is even possible to claim that they go through a simple kind of process of becoming, although it can never be compared that of a tragic hero. Indeed, this process, unlike in a tragedy, takes place at the very beginning of the tales most frequently, so it takes them a certain time to get hold of their real missions in life as a national character. This process is caused by some kind of weakness in their personality, which gradually fades away –or perhaps is ignored by the listener/reader, thanks to the idealism and/or heroism in his code of behavior− as the folk tale hero gets involved in more and more heroic deeds. That is, especially at the beginning, they all seem to have some flaws in their characters; Kalevipoeg is very strong physically, yet it is not possible to say that he is very clever and his mental abilities can match with his physical strength. Even a rat can guide him and it seems that Kalevipoeg’s physical and instinctual capacity and ability is much far beyond A Comparative Study of the Common Characteristics of National Heroes in Folk Tales...| 67

his mental ones. Köroğlu is extremely impatient and curious and it costs him a lot; contrary to his father’s demands and requirements, he cannot wait for forty days for the grey colt to turn into a magic horse. It is a real pity that on the thirty ninth day, he peeps through a hole to see what is going inside. In the end, he gets the strongest and the fastest horse of the world, but instead of a winged one. Correspondingly, he is defeated by his curiosity and impatience again when his father asks him to bring the “silver foam” of the spring; he himself tastes it before taking to his father. Köroğlu turns into an “invincible warrior” at the cost of his father’s eyes. Likewise, Daedalus’ exile in Crete is absolutely a result of his moral weakness; his jealousy. Although Daedalus himself is a very talented and able person, he is madly jealous of his own nephew, Talos since he thinks that Talos is better than him and Talos’ fame will exceed his name. So, he kills him in rage without thinking of its results. In actual fact, they could have been created as flawless heroes, it is possible to conceptualize the main reason beyond these flaws; on the one hand, the listener/reader is reminded that he is not a god although he is equipped with godly qualifications and supported by supernatural powers. On the other hand, the folk tale hero is an incarnation of the godly potential within every human being to do the right thing at the right time. Finally, the national heroes in the folk tales, who are almost always called by their first names such as Kalevipoeg, Daedalus, Icarus, Minos, and Köroğlu, embody both cultural and religious traits; Kalevipoeg and Daedalus, both through their personalities and deeds represent the values of a pagan world with gods and goddesses whereas Köroğlu and his adventures often reflect some Islamic virtues and traits. In the same way, these heroes also picture some culture specific elements; Kalevipoeg’s existence is directly related to Estonian geographical characteristics such as hills, rivers, animal variety and towns along with the beliefs, superstitions and traditions of the people. Köroğlu is directly related to the geography of his region, Bolu, especially with the mountains. His personality and deeds al through his serial of tales, in a close study, may well reveal many details about the way of life, traditions, beliefs, political system, practices and manners of Turkish people – particularly of that region at that time. The importance of the cols/horses in the tale, for example, is a typical Turkish characteristic of the period due to the nature of the society. The tale of Daedalus is also tightly linked to the Greek culture and geography. The way of their living, life styles and beliefs of the period are, in the

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same way, reflected in the tale. The principle rules, laws, requirements and the practices of that particular society and the period are also mirrored through the experiences and deeds of Daedalus. The naming of the region is even precisely associated with the story of Daedalus and his son, Icarus; “This island, where Daedalus buried his son’s dead body, was named Icaria after his name, and the Sea, where Icarus fell, Icarian Sea.”

4. Conclusion

To conclude, folk tales serve to transmit, stabilize, and conserve the common beliefs, laws, values and norms of a particular culture while at the same time challenging, overcoming and subverting them. Within this framework, national folk tale heroes are the universal elements presented in a unique cultural way supposed to come from a background of tribal origins. In general, national folk tale heroes are metaphors for the human quest for existence and marvels. These heroes project the wishes of real human beings rather than those of a fictional hero. They encompass the eternal hope for a better life. The existence of folk tale heroes compensate for the lack of power, wealth and pleasure that most people experience and severely suffer from. Lack, deprivation, prohibition and interdiction motivate people to long for signs of fulfillment and emancipation. These wiss come true in folk tales in the personality of the national folk tale heroes when those who are naïve or simple are able to succeed because they can recognize wondrous signs as Kaleviopeg recognizes and follows the voice of the invisible advisor or Yusuf knows that the ugly colts are born of the magic horse from the great Sakarya River. National folk tale heroes cross the borders with their admirable and idealistic qualifications as universal motifs because they are basically the representatives of patriarchal dominancy, preservation of rules, taboos, domestic life and public spheres as well as being the symbols of allegorical figures of courage, bravery, honesty and justice.

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