THB BATTICCOMMERCE OF THB WESTRUSSIAN AND I,ITHUANIANCITIES DURING THB MIDDTEAGBS byGEoRcE VeRNADSKy

(NE\I/ HAVgN, CONN., U.S.A.)

I THE GEOCRAPHICALAND EARLYHISTORICAL BACKGROUND The geographicalbackground of the presentstudy centuriescanal,s were dug to join these various river is formedby the south-easternBaltic, i.e., the combined basinsin order to promote commercebetween the Battic basinsof the riversVistula (especially its easternpart), and both the Black Seaand the CaspianSea. Since there Niemen,Dvina, Narova and Neva. were practicallyno canalsin theseregions in the Middle Owing to the poor conditionof the overlandroutes Ages, the usual way to ship the goods from one river in EasternEurope in the MidclleAges, the importance basin to anotherwas to send them overland.Sometimes of rivers as commercialhighways at that time cannot small boats, including their loads, were put on wheels, be over-estimated.It was chietly up the rivers that the and taken to their destinationin this manner. In other goodsbrought from the poris of the westernBaltic and cases boats were unloaded in the upper reachesof a from Flanders to the ports of the south-easternBaltic river, their freights carried on carts to the upper rvaters could be re-shipped inland to the Russian and Lithu- of the next river, and there re-loadedon boats. aniantrading cities, situated as thesewere on the banks Owing to the fact that in the Middle Ages the of the upper reachesof the rivers of the south-eastern virgin lorests of norih-western and Lithu,ania Baltic basin. Commercialintercourse did not come to were but slightly touched by the axe, the water-level in an end in these regions, however. In addition to local the majority of rivers was then much higher than it is trade, the West Russianand Lithuanian cities were of to-day. Navigation on small craft was renderedpossible importancein the Middle Ages as intermediarylinks in even on small rivers which at the presentday are lost the chain of international commerce bringing together in swamps. the trade of the Baltic with the trade of the Black Sea, The importanceof the West Russianand Lithu'anian and of the Caspian Sea. In other words, the West cities in the Middle Ages was primarily due to their Russianand Lithuaniancities linked togetherN0rthern control over the 'upperwaters of the Baltic range of this Europeand the Orient. great network of waterways. These cities were in a We shall first examine in more detail ihis network position either to bl'ock or to open commercial inter- of commercialriver-ways (see map, page401). course between the south-eastern Baltic basin and the Starting from the west, we note that the upper Orient. They acted as guardians of these sections of Vistula and its eastern confluents run close to the the highways of internationalcommerce, besides being upper Dniester and Prypei rivers (the Prypei being a important cen,tresof local trade. tributary of the Dnieper). The upper Niemen and its The beginnings oi trade be.tweenthe Baltic and tributaries give easy accessto the upper Berezina and the Black Sea, as also between the Baltic and the upper Dnieper rivers. The upper waters of the rivers Caspian Sea regions, date {rom ,time immemorial. It discharging into Lake llmen (and thence via the river appears that there was lively in'tercoursebetween these Volkhov, Lake Ladoga and the river Neva into the Gulf regions in the Scythian and the Sarmatian period of Finland) run close to the headwaters of the rivers (seventhcen,tur)r B.C. to the third cen,turyA-D.) as well Dvina,Dnieper and Volga. as during the period of the domination of the Coths in Later, in the courseof the eighteenthand nineteenth South Russia (third and fourth centuriesA.D.).1

r For an outline of the development of Baltic commerce, see E.M. Minns,Scylfirans and Greeks,Cambridge 1913; and see H. Vitots, La mer Baltique et tbs 6tats baltes, Paris 1935. M. Rostovtzeff,Iranians and Greeksin SouthRussia, Oxford For early intercourse betwilen the Baltic and South Russia, 1 400 GEORGEVERNADSKY BALTIC AND SCANDINAVIANCOUNTRTES

At the end of the fourth century A.D. the Gothic Slavoniccharacter. The Dnieper becamethe chiel com- Kingdom was destroyed by the invasion of the Huns, mercial highway of the new State, offering as it did and for 'some time the former commercial highways easy access.tothe Black Sea. were blocked. After the disintegrafiono{ the empire of On the other hand, the Kiev'ian princes exerted the Huns, the expansion of the eastern Slavs in wh,at every eftort to secure the Baltic connexionsfor their later became known as EuroDeanRussia commenced trade. Vladimir I (978-1015) annexed part of the on a trargescale. region of the upper Vistula as well as oi that of its By the end of the eighth century the eastern Slavs eastern tributaries, including the city of Czerwiei had colonizedthe basinsoi the Dnieper, Don and upper (981). He also launched a campaign against the Volga, as well as the upper parts of the rivers o{ ihe LithuanianJadzwings in order to securethe upper basin south-eastern Baltic basin - the Vistula, Niemen, of the Niemen (983).lt was at this time that the city of Dvina, Velikaia and Volkhov. By this time the Poles Grodno was founded.3 Vladimir's son, Yaroslav I were holding the lower and middle parts of the Vistula (1019-1054), succeededin controlling part of what is basin (as well as the western part of the upper Vistula now Estonia,where he foundedthe city of Yuriev (later basin); theAncientPrussians and Lithuanianscontrolled re-named Dorpat by the Germans, now Est. ). the country between the lower Vistula and the Niemen, Both Vladimir and Yaroslav attached great importance besides the lower and middle sections of both the to maintainingcontrol over Novgorod, Polotsk and Smo- Niemen and Dvina basins. Various Finnish tribes oc- lensk - the key ,cities controlling the connexions of cupied the te,rritory north of the Dvina as far as the the Dnieper region with the northern Baltic. Gulf of Finland,as well as the lower parts of the basins After the death of Yaroslav I, the process of dis- of the rivers Narova and Neva. integration of the Kiev State started. Russia became During the courseof the eighth and ninth centuries a loose federationof a number of teudal principalities Scandinavian traders and warriors penetrated to the each trying to control a part of the network of river river highways of Russia. The Varangian (Scandinav- routes. ian) prrincessubjugated various East Slavonic tribes Thus the princes of Halicz controlled the junction and succeededin organizingin Russiaa mighty military of the routes connecting the eastern section of the and commercialState. At first, however,the upper Vistula basin with the 'trpperpart of the Dniester had to share the control of the South Russian rivers basin, and it was precisely on this foundaiion that the wirththe ,a Turkish tribe whose centreof power economic and political ascendancyof Halicz in the resied on the lower Volga. twelfth and thirteenth centuries was built. Important The flourishing state o{ Varangian commercewith trading centres in these regions were Jaroslaw and the Arabs on the one hand, and with the Byzantine PrzemySlon the river San, Lw6w on the river Peltew Greeks on the other, is proved by findings of in- (a tributary of the Bug), and Halicz city on the river numerablehoards of Arabian coins (and a number of Dniester. The commercial im,portanceof the cities of Byzantine coins) throughout the eastern Baltic region, Halicz was increasedby the fact that they controlled includ'i,ngthe island of Gottland. the overland route to Central Europe. Commercial The rapid expansion of commerce between the intercourse between Ratisbon (Regensburg) on the Varangiansand the Orient was partly a result of the Danube and Kiev on the Dnieper via Halicz was very interruption in this period of commercial ,intercourse lively in the Middte Ages, especially in the twelfth in the western Mediterranean,which was due to the century.{ Arab invasionand to the desperatestruggle taking place The principality of , lying next to Halicz between rhe Franks and the Arabs. Finding the routes towards the north and the north-east, occupied the th,rough the western Mediterranean closed, European basin of the upper Bug on the one hand, and that of commerce with the Orient was lorced to seek ,new the upper Prypei on the other. The northern section of routes, and these were opened by Viking penetration Volhynia reachedthe Szczara,a tributary of the Niemen. into Russia.2 Drohiczyn and BrzeSi on the Bug, and Wlodzimierz on The Varangians,'being newcomers in Russia and the Lug (a tributary of the Bug) were the ,chieftrading not too numerous, soon merged with the Slavonic centresin these regions. masses.The Russian State which had centred around The principality ol Grodno on the river Szczara ii Kiev since the ninth century early assumed purely was connectedboth politically and economi'callywith ll a rl z See H. Pirenne, Medieval Cilias, Princeton 195, pp. Times), lurnal Ministerstva Narodnago Prosvieschenra(Journ. 25-55. of the National Ministry of Education), Vol. 258, t888, pp. 'Novye 'Germaniia g See A.V. Soloviev, raskopki v Grodno' (Recent 121-l5O; M.E. Shaitan, i Kiev v Xl v' (Cermany Excavations in Crodno), Zapiski Russkago Nauchnago In- and Kiev in the eleventh Century), Lelopis zanialii Istoriko- stl/u/a (Reports oi the Russian Institute oi Sciences), Xlll, Arkheosraticheskoi Komissii (Chronicle of the Work of the Belgrade 1935, pp. 69-96. Historicll-Archeographical Commission), l, 1927, pp. 3-26; a See V.O. Vasilievsky, 'Drevniaia torgovlia Kieva s A.V. Floresky, Chekhi i Vostochnye Slavione (The Czechs and Regensburgom' (Trade of Kiev with Regensburg in Ancient the Eastern Slavs), I, pp. 15&-199, Prague 1935. VOL, IIt, No. 3. [7]. SEPTEMBER1e37 WEST RUSSIANAND LITHUANIAN CITIES DURING THE MIDDLE AGES 401 the principality of Turov on the middle Prypei. In this their suzeraintythe Lettishdistricts of Kokeynosand wise commercial intercourse between the Niemen and Gersikeon theDvina, using these towns as theirtrading Prypei basins was secured. Such trading po,ints as outposts.Thus they controlledthe Dvina almostto its Grod,noon the Szczara,Pirisk on the Pina (a tributary mouth.s of the Prypei), Kleck on the l,ari, and Sluck on the The principalityof Smotensklay to the east of Slu,czrivers may be mentioned. the principalityof Polotsk.The princesof Smolensk Of considerableirnportance for the Baltic-Russian controlledthe upper basins of the follow,ingthree commercewas the princi,palityof Polotsk. The Polotsk rivers:ihe Dnieper,the Dvina and,to a certainextent,

princescombined to control the upper Niemenand the the Volga. Smolensk on the Dnieper was the chiei upper Dnieper, including its tributary, the Berezina,as political and commercialcentre of the whole area. An- well as that of the middle Dvina. The cities of Polotsk other hading town - of much less importance- was and on the Dvina, and Mogilev on the , situated between the u;pperLovat and upper D'nieper,and lziaslavl and Mirisk on the ,Swislocz (a Dvina rivers. Smolenskwas one of the key stations in tributary of the Berezina) were the chief trading commercialintercourse between the Black Sea and the centres. Baltic. There is an interesting passagein the Kievian For some time the princes of Polotsk had under chronicle referring to the meeting at Smolenskin 1148 Conquest of ), lahrbiicher lilr Kullur und Geschichte Diina zur Zeit der deutschenEroberung Livlands' (Russian ald der Slaven (Year-books'for Culture and History oi the Slavs), Lithuanian Princes on the Dvina at the Time of the Cerman Xl, Breslau 1935,pp. 367442. 402 CEORCE VERNADSKY BALTIC AND SCANDINAVIANCOUNTRIES of IziaslavII. Prince of Kiev, and his brother RostislavI, which were under the control ol the Russians. In some 'lziaslav Prince of Smolensk: gave Ito his brother] cases, as we have already mentioned,certain Lettish gifts from Sou,thRussia and the IByzantine] Empire, and Lithuanian districts recogn'izedthe suzerainty of and Rostislav,gave gifts from northern Russia and the the Russian princes. Generally speaking, in the early Varangians.'6 period ihe Li'thuaniansd'id not interfere with Russian We now come to Novgorod. Its importance in commercialintercourse with the Baltic. Later on, as we Russianmedieval com,mercewas par.amount.The Nov- shall see,the Lithuaniansseized control of the principal gorod territory comprised the basins of the Lovat, river-ways tor themselves. Volkhov and Neva on the one hand and the basin of the Up to the end of the twelfth centur;i,fthe Scan- upper Volga on the other. The basin of the Sukhona- dinavians were in control of the Baltic. and the island northern Dvina, with its outlet to the White Sea, was ol Cottland, with the city of , representedthe com- also under the control of Novgorod. Novgorod, there- mercial capital of the Baltic. Both Slavonic (Wend) fore, was the most important commercialcentre in the and German cities on the south-westernBaltic took a Eastern Baltic. less active part in the eastern Baltic trade. The Gott- The city of on the river Velikaia was origin- Iand merchantsplayed the rdle of m,iddlemenbetween ally under the rule of Novgorod but later lreed itsell the West and the East Baltic. and becamean independentCity-State. Velikie Luki on At this period German and Flemish goods were the river Lovat, Torzhok on ihe Tvertsa (a tributary chiefly brought by Cottland merchants to the West of the Volga), and Ladoga (at the mouth ot the river Russiancities such as Novgorod, Polotsk and Smolensk. Volkhov on Lake Ladoga) remained under the control However, a number ,of German and West Slavonic of Novgorod until the independenceof Novgorod came (Wend) merchants also succeededin reaching Nov- to an end. gorod. Lithuanian,Lettish and Estoniantribes in the early In iurn, Russianmerchants trom Novgorod,Polotsk, Middle Ages were occupying the lower parts of the and Smolensktravelled chiefly to Gottland.Some, how- basinsof most of the Baltic rivers, the upper reachesof ever,journied as far west as Lfibeck.

II THE LATE MEDIEVALBACKCROUND This earlier balanceof power on the Baltic was out Livonia and Estonia.Later on the Order becamean overthrown by the Oermansin the course of the twelfth independent ecclesiasticaland political power; dis- century. Early in this cenhrry the last West Slavonic sensionstook place between the Master oi the Order (Wend) principalitiesof the south-westernBaltic were and the bishops who succeededAlbert. destnoyedby the Germans. The Bishop, however, claimed to be investedwith Towards the end of the twel'fthcentury the drive oi supremeauthority in these regions.Aiter 1207 he took Cerman colonizationreached the south-easternBaltic, the oath of allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor. pushing the Lithuanian tribes from the Iittoral up Another German knightly Order - the Teutonic Order the rivers.Missionaries and merchantswere the chief - was in 1226 establishedin the region of the lower prom'otersof Germanaggression. Vistula and the lower Niemen in order to combat An importantlandmark of the Germanthrust east- paganismamong the Prussians.Although it was a Polish wards was the ioundationof the city of at the prince, Conrad of Masovia, who invited the Order to mouth oi the Dvina by Bishop Albert,who had set sail assist him against the Prussians,the Teutonic Order from Liibeck in 1201. The next year saw the founda- later directedits activitiesagainst the Poles as well. tion of the knightly Order of Swordbearers- the so- ln 1237 the iwo German Orders j'oinedhands. The called Livonian Order. The aim of the Order was to Master of the Livonian Order recognizedthe supreme assistthe Bishop ot Riga to spreadChristianity through- authoritv of the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order.T

t Polnoe Sobranie Rrssklkft Letopisei (Complete Col- Chronicle (1201-1292). The whole version became known ag Iection of the Russian Chroniclers), I, St. Petersburg 1843, the Hypatian Chronicle, after the Hypatian monastery at Ko- p.39 (Hypatius Chronicle). The Kievian Chronicleis an stroma where the manuscript of the work, dating frorn the important source {or the study of Russian medieval history. first half of the fifteenth century, was discovered.A new edition It gives a detailed account oI the main events which took place of this manuscript has been published by the Academy of in the during the twelfth century. Parts Sciences o{ the U.S.S.R., but the author, having no copy of of the Kievian Chroniclewere at a later date includedwithin this to hand. has quoted from the first edition. a historicalcompilation of wider scopewhich coveredthe period z See C. Krolimann, Politische Geschichte des Deulschen from the origins of the Russian State until the end of the Ordens in PreuBen (Political History of the Oerman Order in thirteenth century. The first part of this compilation compris€d Prussia), Kcinigsberg 1932; E. Caspar, Hermonn von Salza, the so-called Primary Chronicle. The account of thirteenth Tiibingen 19241 E.- Maschke, Pole'n und die Berufung des j century events was based on the so-called South Russian Deutsihen Ordens nach Preuffen, Danzig 193. t VoL. Itt. No, 3. 17l. SEPTEMBER1937 WEST RUSSIANAND LITHUANIAN CITIES DURINC THE MIDDLE AOES 403

The un,ionof the two German Orders securedfor Ger- The rise of the Gran'dDuchy of brought man colonizaiion and trade almost the whole south- about significant changes in the political and com- easternshore of the Baltic. The Lithuanian tribes were merc,ialrelations of the south-easternBaltic. Wedged either subjugated by the conquerorsor driven urp the in as they were betweenthe Germansand the Russians, rivers. The city of Riga became an important com- the disunited Lithuanian tribes gradually came to mercial port and a successfulrival to Visby. understand the necessityof uniting themselyesand of The Germanized Prussia likewise otfered an ex- forming a political union stron.gerthan the loose federa- cellent point of issuetor Cerman commercialexpansion tion of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. both to and westernRussia. The cities of Danzig, The Mongol invasion,which for a time resulted in Kdnigsberg and Memel served as outlets to the Baltic the subjugationof the whole of Russia by the Khans, for products of the forest ind.ustriesand agriculture of at one moment seemed also to threaten Lithuania. the inhabitantsof the Vistula and Niemen basins.The Charting their political course between ihese various merchantsof the Prussiancities entered into lively re- influences,however, the Grand Dukes of Lithuaniaskil- lationswith the merchantsof Polish,LithuanianandWest fully played off one factor against another in order to Russiancities as far south as Wlodzimierzand Lw6w.8 achieve their own aims. They all,ied themselvesnow Germancommerce on the Baltic was promotedby with the Russiansagainst both the Germansand the the unionof Gerrnancommercial cities which took more Mongols,and now with the Cermansagainst both the organizedshape in the courseof the thirteenthand four- Mongols and the Russians,and so on. teenthcenturies. The final nrovefor the organizationof The Grand Duke Gedymin ( I 3 16- I 341) succeed- the GermanHansa was effectedin 1367,when 57 cities ed in bringing together politically severalparts of both organizeda confederationagainst King Waldemar lV Lithuaniaproper and north-westernRussia. His sons, of Denmark.The Peaceof Stralsundin 1370confirmed Olgierd and Keistut, completed the building of the the rights and privilegesof the Hansa.0Twenty years Grand Duchy of Lithuaniaand western Russia.Local previouslythe LivonianOrder had su,cceededin check- princesand lords were forced to recognizethe suzerainty ing Danish com'petitionon the easiern Baltic. The of the Grand Duke.lo Danes,who had occupiedEstonia in 1237,sold it to Economically,the Grand Duchy was based on its the Order in 1347.In the thirteenthcentury the Swedes control of the m,iddleand upper basinsof the Dvina, likewisehad tried to gain a foothold on the southern Niemen and Bug, as well as of the Dnieper with its shore of the Culf of Finland, but had failed in their western tributariessuch as the Berezinaand Prypei. atternpt. In the course of the fourteenthand early fifteenth cen- The West Russian princes, and cities such as turies, both Polotsk and Smolenskwere brought under Novgorod, Pskov and Polotsk, naturally oifered op- Lithuanianpolitical control. Kiev and Wlodzimierzin position to the German drive. Although the Russians Volhynia were conquered by the Grand Dukes in thc wereunable to preven,tGerman power from establishing fourteenthcentury. Only Novgorod and Pskov remained itself at the mouth ot the Dvina and in Livonia, they outsidethe Crand DLrchy. sought to maintain control of the u,pperDvina basin In 1386 the Union was effected between the and to securethe free transit of goods to the Balt'ic. Kingdomof Polandand the Cra,ndDuchy of Lithuania. Periodsof open warfarebetween the Russiansand This turnedthe balanceof powerin both the Vistula and Cermansalternated with periodsoi peacefulcommercial Niemen basinsagainst the Teutonic Order. Both Poland intercourse.A number of treatieswere signedbetween and Lithuania succeededin securing,with some re- the two powers in the courseof the tweltth,thirteenth servations,freedom of trade between themselvesand and fourteenthcenturies. the Baltic. For their own part, the Crand Dukes of There was no united action on the part of the Lithuania were greatly interestedin promoting the com- Russians,however. At times, Novgorod fought the Ger- mercial activitiesof the otd West Russiancities such as mans while Pskov remainedneutral, or even concl,uded Polotsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk, Luck and Wlodzimierz. an agreement with them. Polotsk likewise pursued Among the Lithuanian cities proper, Wilno became policies of its own. especiallyprominent.

e See J. Rutkowski, Histoire iconomique de Ia Pologne M.K. Linbavsky, Ocherk istorii litovsko-russkago gosudarstva avant les partages, Paris 1927,Chapter 7: Le commerce,pp. (Summary(Summarv of ihethe HistoryHistorv of the Lithuanian-RuthenianState),State). 53-72; M. Hrushevsky, Istoriia Ukrainy-Rusy (History of 2nd. EditionEdit Moscoww 1915; L. Kolankowski, Dzieje Wielkiego Ukrainian-Ruthenia)VI,- kiev-Lw6w 1907,Chapfer i, espeiiatly Ksi1stwa Litewskiego (Hisiory of the Lithuanian Ciand Oughf), pp. 23-57. I, Warsaw 1930; I:1. Lappo,-Litovskii Statut 1588 goda (The s See H. Pirenne and others, La lin du Moyen Age, Paris Lithuanian Statute of 1588), l, 102, 1934-36. Cf. G' 1931, pp. 224-227. Vernadsky Political and Diplomatic History ol Russia, Boston ro On the history of the Crand Duchy of Lithuania see t936, Chapters10, ll, 12. 404 CEORCE VERNADSKY B ALTIC AND SCAN DINAV I AN COCINTR'ES

III COMMERCIALTREATIES We have now outlined the involved character ot one party travelling in the country ol the other party, the nredievalhistory of the political and the economic it was decreed that equality should be orbservedwith relations of the countries of the south-easternBaltic. regard to protectionby the law. Thus were an envoy of ln view of the unstable conditions generally pre- Novgorod to be killed during his travels abroad, or vice vailing, the constant wars, the looting of trade cara- versa,the offendingparty was subjectto a fine oI twenty vans, and the confiscation of the goods oi Ioreign silver griuna.13Il a merchant of Novgorod were to be merchants,the maintenanceof commercial intercourse killed during his travels abroad, or vice versa, the of- appeared to be extremely dilficult. Yet the mainte- fendin.gparty was subject to a fine of ten silver grivna. nance of such intercoursewas vital for the economic All contestsand liti.gationbetween the merchantsol the progress of the countries oi the south-easternBaltic two partieshad to be brought to the court of the country region. We see, moreover,that in spite of all the ob- where the dispute occurred.In no case was it permis- stacles a certain amount of stability and continuity sible to close the frontier to other merchants of the neverthelesscharacterized trade transactions.This was offendingparty becauseof a cnime committed by their primarily due to the fact that various groups of people countrymen. were greatly interestedin the trade.ln addition to the The next important treaty was that concluded in merchantsthemselves, the princesand the bishops,as 1229between ihe city of Smolenskon the one hand and well as the upper classesin general,depended on the the city of Riga and the island of Gottland on the other. trade tor drawing profits from taxes and from sales. We may regard this treaty as the foundation of com- Furthermore,this trade was the sourcefrom which they mercial law in the countries of eastern Europe in the clerivedvarious imported luxuries which contributedto late Middle Ages (thirteenthand fourteenthcenturies). the amenitiesof life. While the treaty of 1229referred specifically to the The commercial treaties, however, were the chief' Dvina-Dnieper route, its sti,pulationsserved as a factor in securingpeacefuI commercial intercourse. A standardfor the conduct of commerceover other routes series of such treaties was concludedbetween western as well. merchantsand the more importaniWest Russiancities The first draft of this treaty was prepared in such as Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk and Smolensk. At Smolenskaiter careful discussionapparently by both times, these cities also succeededin securing from the native and foreign merchants.The Smolenskenvoys princesand Grand Dukesspecial commercial rights and then broughtthe draft copy to Riga,whence they sailed guarantees.l1 to Gottland accompaniedby representativesof the Riga The first among these important medieval com- merchants.The committeeof Gottland merchantsdis- mercialtreaties in ihe region aroundthe easternBaltic cusseclthe draft with both the Smolenskand the Riga was the treaty agreed upon between the city of Nov- delegates as well as with the representativesof the gorod and the islandof Oottland.The dateot this treaty followi'ng German and Frisian cities: Liibeck, Soest, is usuallytaken to be 1189A.D.1'9 Mrinster,Croningen, Dortmu,nd and .Aftersome The trvo parties to the treaty were Russians(Nov- revision the draft was approved. gorodians) on the one side and 'Latins', i.e., Roman The copy of the treaty approved at the Gottland Catholics,on the other. Both 'Goths' (Scandinavians) meetingwas presentedto the Smolenskenvoys. It was 'Latins'. and Germa,nsare signilied by the term probably drawn up in Latin. After the return of the The treaty gives reciprocal rights to the parties. envoys to Srnolensk,the treaty was ratified by the Novgorodianswere allowed to sail ireely to the island Smolenskauthorites and its text was translatedinto the of Gottlandand alsoto the 'Cermanland' (i.e.,Cerman Russianand German languages.The Cerman copy was tities both on the easternand the rvesternBaltic).'They then given to the envoysof the German cities. shall suffer n'ohann and nobody shall offend them.' In the same manner as the Novgorod treaty of 'Goths' The and Germans enjoyed identical privi- 1189,the Smolensktreaty opens by listing the cases leges and were allowed to come freely to Novgorod. In of offencesagainst the nationalsof each party travelling the event of anything untoward befalling a national of in the country of the other party. Ten silver griuna

11 The standard work on the medieval commercial treaties 1857; I. Andreevsky,O Dogovore Novgarda s nemetskimi goro- io the Eastern Baltic is L.K. Goetz's Deufscft-Ru.ssischeHan- dami i Gotlandom (Novgorod's Treaty with the German Towns delsvertftige des Miltelalters (Cerman-Russian Commercial and Cottland), St. Peteriburg 1855;M.F. Vladimirsky-Budanov, Treaties in the Middle Ages), l9t6. For the text of Khristomatiia po istorii russkago prava (Handbook of the the treaties, see K.E. Napiersky, Russkd-livonskieakfy (Russo- History of Russian Law), I, 6th Edition, St. Petersburg-Kiev Livonian Acts), St. Petersburg1868; K.E. Nrpiersky, Gramoty 1908. kasaiushchiesiado snosheniia severozapadnoiRossii s Rigoiiu rr Somescholars refer this treaty to ll95 A.D. i ganzeiskimi gorodami (Documents on'the Relations of North- 13 The buying capacity of one silver'grivna' was estimated West Russia with Riga and the Hansa Towns), St. Petersburg as equal to that of about 700 pre-War Russian gold roubles. vOL. III. No. 3. 17l. SEPTEMBER1937 WEST RUSSIANAND LITHUANIAN CITIES DURING THE MIDDLE ACES 1l were to be paid for the murder of a ireeman and one the shipwrecked merchant against the filing of ex- grivna for the murder oi a slave. Corporal injury, the cessiveclaims by the native population,who could loot inflicting of wounds or blows on a visiting foreign his goods on the pretext that he did not pay them the merchant, were to be punished by the imposition of stipulated rem'unerationfor their assistance.The goods 'Latin' 'Goth') minor fines assessedaccording to a special list. of (German and merchantswere exempt There follow in the treaty several sections con- from custom duties on their way to Smolensk,and like- cerning offencescommitted by a merchant of one party wise the goods of Russianmerchants were to be carried during his sojourn in the country oi the other party. In free oi duty to Cottland. the event of a crime being committed by a Russian in I have tried to selectthe more characteristicclauses Riga or in Gottland,he was exemptfrom punishmentin of this treaty ot 1229, since within the limits of this the stocks.In the event of a Cerman merchantcommit- article it is impossibleto give a full outline of its con- ting an offencein Smolensk,he was to be exemptedfrom tents. Enough has been cited, however, to make per- dungeon,and would be bailed out instead.Ii nobody fectly obvious the importanceof this document in both would vouch for him, he was to be arrestedand put in the legal and economichistory of the Middle Ages. 'commercial shackles.The differen,cebetween the two clausesis to Among later treaties of importance, 'Latins' be explained by the iact that at this time Russian the two treatiesconcluded by Novgorod with the criminal larv knew no such punishmentas placing in in 1259and in 1269should be mentioned. the stocks. Oi great importance is the treaty concluded be- As to the ordeal by hot iron, which was known tween the city oi Polotsk and the city ot Riga under the both in German and in Russia,nlaw of the period, it was auspicesof the Crand Duke Vitovt of Lithuania.Vitovt's left to a reciprocalagreement between the parties con- charter was issued in Kopys in July 1406. Later, the cerned. city of Riga exchangedwith the city of Polotskcopies A number of other cases and litigations are dealt ,of the ireaty, revisedand approvedby both of them. rvith in the remaining clauses of the treaty. It was These were written at Mogilev,and sealedin Riga on characteristicthat in the event of the bankruptcyof a May 14, 1407.r{ rrative merchant his debts to foreign creditors had to This treaty has the same signitican'cefor the fif- bc paid first. teenth century as the treaty of 1229 had for the thir- Neither party could force a merchant of the other teenth century. party to enlistin its army during his stay in this party's According to the clausesof this treaty the Polotsk country. merchants were given the right to visit Riga without Merchants of either party resident in the other hindrancefrom the Riga authorities,and the Riga mer- party's country had to accept the decisionof native chants received the same privilege with regard to courts,there being no appealfrom thesedecisions. Polotsk. The merchantsof each'party were also grant- 'by Measuresrvere taken to protect the goods oi foreign ed the privilegeof travellingfreely, at their choice, merchantsduring their journeys.Both the Bishop of water or by land', lrom Polotsk and Riga respectively Rigaancl the CrandMaster of the LivonianOrder pledg- to any place beyond these cities. However, the mer- ecl themselvesto keep navigation on the Dvina free to chants of each party were denied the right of retail both Russianand 'Latin' merch-ants.The corporation of trade. They were granted permits only for the storage the portage drivers who hauled the goods from one of their goods used in wholesaletrade. river to anotherwas made responsiblcfor loss of goods An important change in the legal status oi the during transportation.It was apparent that this clause foreign merchantshas to be noted in comparisonwith applied most specifically to the portage ot German the treaty ol 1229.While the latter, as we have seen goods on their way irom the Dvina basin to that of the above,subjected the foreign merchantsto the jurisdiction Dnieper. However,the principle of equality was observ- of native courts in the land of each oi the two con- ed, and the possibility of Russiangoods suffering loss tracting parties respectively,the treat of 1407 estab- or damage during their transportationin Gottland was lished the principle of extra-territorialityfor the loreign mentionedin the same article. merchant. The goods oi both parties were exempt from con- If a Polotsk merchant should commit a crime in fiscation by the native authoritiesin the event of ship- Riga, he was exempt fro'm trial in Riga courts and had wreck. If the owner had to hire native personsto assist to be sent back to Pototsk to be tried by his native in salvaging his goods he had to do so publicly before courts. The same princi,pleapplied to Riga merchants witnesses.The object of this regulation was to protect residentin Polotsk. Ekspeditsriu(Collected-Acts rl Vitovt's charter of- 1406has beenprinted in Napiersky, sobrannye.Arkheograt'icheskoiuj, Russko-Lit,onskieAkty f fiui*-l--iuoniu Acts), No. ii;0, pir. of the Archeograph"icaiExpedition), St'.Pete^rsburg 1ff6' ,ryg' 124-126. The Mogilev virsion has beenprinted in the Akfy 16,pp. ll-13, reprintedin Naplersky,No. l9.l, pp. rz.+rJr- 406 OEORCEVERNADSKY BALTIC AND SCANDINAVIANCOUNTRIES IV GOODSTRAFFIC We shall now deal with the nature and organization the other hand, in 1468 the value of lwo sorok (a com- of the Baltic commerceof the West Russianand Lithu- bination of forty skins sufficient tor a lull iur coat) oi anian cities in the Middle Ages. sable was estimated at l4O marks. It seemsmost proper to start with the very essence Russianwax was regardedas beyond competition, of trade, the turnover of goods. neverthelesscomplaints of fraud were also made. Fat, Generally speaking,West Russian medieval cities butter or peas were sometimes added. The price for performed two ditferent commercial iunctions. First, pure wax was quoted as 8'5 marks per ship-pound at they exported to the West the products of their own ihe end of the thirteenthcentury.ls hinterland.Secondly, they played the r0le of inier- Among items oi lesser significanceexported from mediary stations in transit trade between the Orient Novgorod were sturgeon, walrus-bone, train-oil sup- and Europe. plies, tallow, soap, grain, vegetables,birch-bark, silver Aiter the Mongol invasion most of the Oriental (from the Urals) and hunting falcons. trade was shifted f rom,the old Caspian-Baltic route to With regard to the export from Lithuanian and the Black Sea-Mediterranean route, being carried by Russiancities controlled by the Crand Duke of Lithu- Genoeseand Venetianvessels. Tana at the mouth of the ania, chief emphasiswas laid on the forest industries. Don and Kaffa in the becameimportant outlets In addition to furs and wax, such items as wainscot, for the Oriental overlandtrade. After reachingthe Black tar, pitch and potash were exported. Sea, however,some part of the goods irom the Orient To this list some products of agriculture should was divertedto Akkermanand Hacibey(Odessa) near be added, su,chas grits and barley. The intensivetrade the mouth of the Dniesterand shippedup the river to in grain, wich was to contribute so much to the pros- Lw6w and Wlodzimierz,whence such goods could easily . perity of Danzig, began at a somewhat later date, in reachDanzig or someother Baltic port. the sixteenthcentury. On the other hand, the old Volga-Neva river- Gold and silver bullion and specie,jewellery and way from the CaspianSea to the Baltic Sea was still vesselswere also exported from Smolenskand Polotsk, usedand at timeseven very actively.The consideration chiefly, it appears, as tran,sitgoods, since there were with which the Khans treated the city of Novgorod neithergold n'orsilver minesin .thisregion. is to be explained by the commercialprofit which the Among the goods imported from western Europe Khans or their commercialagents expecteclto derive by Russia and Lithuania, the chief item was cloth. lrom the Baltic trade. Both via Lw6w and via Nov- Various kinds ol cloth are mentionedin contemporary gorod, Oriental commoditiessuch as silk, spices,and sources. They were usually classified according to drugs of variouskinds reachedthe Baltic ports.On the origin. The finest and most expensivekinds came from other hand, certainwestern merchandise imported into Flanders.Flemish cloih was generallyknown in Russia Russia,such as finer kinds of cloth, for example,was as Ypres cloth.rBIt was highly val,uedand it is known re-shippedlarther East. that the Crand Duke of Muscovy used to send .pieces With regard to the native Russian products ex- of this cloth to the Khan when wishing to give him ported to western Europe,the two staple productswere valuablepresents. iurs and wax. Novgorod was the chief centre lor the ,' Dutch, German and English cloth was also shipped export of furs whereas Smolensk and Polotsk con- to Novgorod. In the lifteenth century the prices varied centrated their activities on wax. betweenone mark per ell of English cloth to over fifteen Russianfurs were of high quality,sable being con- marks for Ypres cloth. sideredthe most valuable.At times,German merchants Although eager to buy western cloth, Russian complainedof trickery and frauds being practisedby merchantsconstantly complained ol fraud and lalsifi- the Russiancontractors. Furs of the finestgrades were cation. Lower grade cloth was representedas Ypres mixed with some of lower value, heads and paws were cloih. Piecesof cloth oi different grade would be sewn cut down beforeselling, and other dishonestpractlces together and sold as highest grade cloth. Pieces of were resortedto. cloth were also sold shorter than the stipulatedlength; The price rangebetween lower and higher grades in many cases dyeing was poor, and other methods of lur was considerable.Five hundred and twenty pieces were employedto delraud the unsuspectingpurchaser. ot lower grade mixed fur were sold in Riga at the be- ' Linen as an item imported by Novgorod is mention- ginning of the fourteenthcentury ior 9'75 marks. On ed for the first time in 1292.Yarn and thread were also 15 si6cle', Be,Ige de philo.Iogie et One ship-poundwas equal to threehundred and twenty' mencement du XIle Revue 'A. English pounds. d'htstoire, IX, 1930,pp. 563-566; A. Eck, propos des draps 16 Cf. H. Pirenne,'Draps d'Ypres i Novgorode au com- d'Ypres i Novgorode',ibid', X, 1931,pp. 591-594- VOL. III. No, 3. 17l. SEPTEMBERt937 WEST RUSSIANAND LITHUANIAN CITIES DURINC THE MIDDLE AGES 407 imported. With regard to food and beverages,herrings, Salt provides another characteristicexample of the wine and beer were imported. There was also some fluctuations of the local market. Novgorod produced importation of metal and metal-ware,chiefly silver. somesalt of its own. Salt suppliescould also be shipped Salt was an important import commodity. French from the upper Volga or from the Crimeavia the Dnieper and Portuguesesalt was especiallyvalued, but q,uantities route. In case of a dearth in the supply of salt trom of salt from Liineburg, Oldesloeand Kolberg were also the localitiesin question,the irnportationof salt via the shipped to Novgorod. Characteristicof the peculiarities Baltic would become essential. trt is probable that oi medievaltrade was the fact that severalitems played Polish salt, a certain amount of which was shi,pped a double rdlE - they were not only on the list ot ex- to Danzig, was in some cases re-shipped to Novgorod ports from Russia and Lithuania but also on the list of via the Baltic as French or Lisbon salt. their imports. Among such co,mmoditieswere, for ex- The importation of salt was also partly due to the ample, silver, lish and grain. This peculiarity is partly fact that finer grades of salt than could be obtained to be explained by the iact that different varieties of locally were sometimesrequired in Russiaand Lithuania. similar items were either exported or imported. In the In many cases,however, 'under the guise of finer grades, case of fish, for example,sturgeon was exported from coarse salt was imported. Many claims by Russian Novgorod, while herrings were imported. mercha,ntsresulted from such practi,ces. In some casesthe fluctuationsin the turnoverot With regard to spices and drugs imported by goods are to 'be explained as the result of temporary Novgorod f rom the Orient, considerable quantities changesin the local market. Novgorod did not possess of these commoditieswere exported to the West. But a an adequatesupply of native grain, and used to receive number of such products was also imported by Nov- its grain supply chiefly from central Russia cither via gorod from western Europe, since western merchants the upper Dnieper route or the upper Volga route. lf likewise obtained them from the Orient, but via other there was an interruptionin the delivery of South trade routes, i.e., via the Levant. Russiangrain, due to the failureof cropsin that region, Generally speaking, the bulk of the exports from or to political disturbances,orders were placed with Russia and Lithuania consisted of raw materials, the German Baltic merchantsfor the imoortationof whereas manufactured goods o{cupied chiei place g rain. among the imports from the West. v THE MERCHANTCLASS AND THE ORGANIZATIONOF TRADE The provisions of the commercial treaties have was customary lor both Russianand German boats to been discussedabove. Some of the clauses quoted ply. The upper Dvina was reservedexclusively for provide us with interestinghints both as to the status Russianboats. When usingthe Neva-Volkhov route,it of the merchant and the organizatio.nof commercial was customaryto use only Russianboats. intercourse.We shall now approach these questions Portage between the upper parts of the two river more sysiematically.lT systemsrepresented a seriousproblem. This particular First, with regard to the main problems alfecting problemchiefly affected the Smolensktrade. Responsible the external organizationof trade: the transportationof corporations of portage haulers were organized in all goods, sales,credit and cash transactions,and so on. of the more important portage sectionsof a trade route. For transportation,waterways were mostly used We have seen that the treaty of 1229 paid a great deal in the summertimeand the overland routes (by sleigh) of attention to this proble,m.lE in wintertime. Merchants preferred to travel not in- On arrival at the terminal point of the journey, the dividuallybut in caravans,since the latter method se- merchant'swares were first stored in special ware- cured them better,protection lrom attack by brigands houses.The HanseaticLeague possessed its own ware- and from confiscationby military authoritiesduring houseat Novgorod.In most casesthe ioreignmerchants time of war. were either refusedthe right to sell their goods at retail Each merchant was usually acconapaniedby a or such rights were limited. Native merchantsbought num,berof assistants,guards and servants to expedite part or all of the stock to re-sell it on the market. the loading and unloading of merchandise. In some cases,ho,wever, particularly in Smolensk, ! When the merchantarrived at the mouth oi a river foreigners were allowed to do business in the local ti after completi.ngthe sea voyage, his goods were re- market place. This central square was the vital point I loaded on smaller river crajt. On the lower Dvina it of the Russianmedieval city. Not only the commercial rz SeeL.K. Goetz, Deutsch-RussischeHandelsgeschichte des 1879; iVl.V. Dovnar-Zapolsky, Istoriia russkago narodnago f, Mittelalters (German-Russian History of the khoziaistva (History of Russian National Economy), I, Kiev- x Commercial I Middle Ages), Liibeck 1922;M. Berezhkov,O torgovle Rusi s St. Petersburg19ll; LM. Kulisher,ibid., I, Moscow 1925. ; Gansoi (Old, Russia'sTrade with the Hansa), St. Petersburg rs See Chapter3 of this article. 408 GEORCE VERNADSKY BALTIC AND SCIlvDtil/4vrArv COUNTRIES

transactionswere carried on in the market place, but duties and other taxes. Sometimes,however, they were all announcementson the part oi the magistratesand led by political considerationsto i,nterierewith trade, administrativeofiicers were also made here.This square retaliating against the foreign merchants in the event likewise served as the headquartersfor public scribes of there being a political controversywith the State ol and notaries.The archivesof the city were usually kept which these merchantswere subjocts. in the basement of the church located in the square. The merchants themselves,however, since they Usuallythis churchwas the Cathedralof the city. were the most intimately interestedin trade, ,coniribut- The goods of loreign merchants were tree irom ed most of all to the mainten,an,ceof whatever degree customsduties during transit to theirplace of destination. of stability trade enjoyed in these times. Treaties and On arriving at his destination, the importer had to regulations issued in the name of the Crand Duke or 'presents' give to local authorites,which were actually of a local prince were usually the result of the advice duties. He also had to pay special charges on the and suggestio,nsof the merchantcorporations. weighingof his goods. The Oerman merchants were the best organized, How to guarantee the honest weighing of goods and this was especially so after the was one of the most urgent problems facing medieval came into existence.The Hanseatic agencies in 'both commercial larv. Nobody was allowed to use his own Novgorod and Smolenskenjoyed considerable autonomy scales.When sellingor buying goodspublic scaleshad in the managementof their affairs.The German House to ,be used. The transaction took place in public, so in Novgorod was a big institution with its own oitices, that both parties could be sure that there was no fraud. storage barns and living quarters for merchant travel- The weighing charges rvere collected by the agent of Iers, and it even disposed of its own church building. the city. In somecases the weighing ol goods took place The House was managed by two. elders (oldermen) in front of the market-place church, and part of the and a councilof selectmen.The statutesof the House collectionwas for the benefitof the church. tended to establish strict parietal rules to secure the Goods were sold either by barter or through caih good behaviour of the merchants as well as of their or credit transactions.In cases of barter the value of assistants.It was a male community, since all the in- the goods ol each party was first estimatedaccording mates were either single or merchants who had left to a dcfinitemonetary standard. their familiesbehind in their native country.Russians When cash transactionswere made, both German were forbidden either to interfere with the internal life and Russian currency was used. Silver was adopted of the German Houseor even to enter it without having as the monetarystandard. Small bars of silverstamped previouslyreceived permission from the Germanauthor- by city authoritieswere used in Russia.These were the ities. so-calledgrivna. The Novgorod grivna weighed about The Russiancities did not succeedin forming un- one Englishpound; the Smolenskgrivna was somewhat ions or leagues of such wide scope as the Hanseatic smaller. Coins ol the Mongol Khans and the Crand League.Most of the West Russianand Lithuanian cities Dukesof Lithuaniawere also in circulation.Small silver were, however, merged into one political body by the anclcopper coins were minted in the chiei Russiancities Grand Dukes of Lithuaniain the courseof the fourteenth after the end of the fourteenthcentury. Furs were also and early fifteenth centuries.ln each of the more im- used as currency,especially in northern Russia. portant of the Russianand Lithuanian cities local mer- Credit transactionswere widely practisedin spite chants organized themselvesin some sort of corpora- of the oppositionof the HanseaticLeague. The Riga tions, which at times acquired considerablepower and register book of loans mentionsforty-three cases of influence.There were several corporations of Russian loans contractedby .Russianmerchants in Riga in 1292. merchants in Novgor.od.The best known was the St. This, however,was the peak year Ior such transactions, John iraternity, an association of merchants centred and the number of Russian loans is much smaller Jor around the Church of St. John. The initial fee for mem- the precedingand the following period. bership was fifty silver grivna. The Novgorod mer- With regard to the legal staius of the merchants chants who conducted businesswith Gottland formed 'oversea and the jurisdiction of the courts,we have already said another 'corporationknown as the fraternity', enough in our discussionof the provisionsof the com- It centredaround the Friday Church at Novgorod.Similar mercialtreaties.le conporationsexisted in Smolenskand Polotsk, but less The whole of commercialintercourse was regulat- is known about their activities. ed by the State authorities- the Grand Duke or the With regard to the Russian and Lithuanian cities local princes - and their administration. The State within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, most of them ' authorities in general sought to protect trade because were granted law' accordingto the pattern of the value to the princely treasury of the customs of the German cities. This provided for corporate or-

ts See Chapter 3 of this article. VOL. III. No.3. 17l, SEPTEMBER1937 WEST RUSSIANAND LITHUANIAN CITIES DURINC THE MIDDLE AGES 409

ganization of both merchantsand artisans. five members.In somecases all of the membersbelong- Business transactions were conducted either by ed to the samefamily. In othercases they were stran- each merchantindividually or by a j,ointstock company. gers.Mixed companies with participationof both - Such companieswere usually small - three, four, or siansand foreignerswere forbidden. VI CONCLUSION The medieval balance ol power in the south- and Lithuanian cities in the Middle Ages. eastern Baltic was entirely upset in the sixteenth cen- From the point of view ot economic history, the tury. medieval West Russian and Lithuanian cities perform- The rise of Muscovy and her clash with Sweden ed the important task of linking together the West and and Lithuania were among the most important under- the East, both in the more speci{icsense of western and lying causes of the change. eastern Europe, and, to a certain extent, in the wider After the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithu- senseof linking Europe with the Orient. ania, central Russia, with the rapidly rising city of The Baltic conlmerce contributed much to the Moscow, was cut off both from the Dnie.perriver-way economic and cultural developmentof Western Russia and from accessto the Baltic, exceptvia the Neva river and Lithuaniain the Middle Ages. The upper classes route, which was controlled by Novgorod. derived the greatest ,profit from this com,mercialin- For almost a century Muscovy and Lithuania tercourse,which brought about a noticeablerise in their struggled for the control of Novgorod. The victory of standardof living. But the whole population oi both the Lithuania would have meant the blocking oi the only cities and the rural districts was more or less affected. direct route to the Baltic lelt to Moscow. It was not 'German law, especially in Lithuania, exerted a Lithuania, however, but Muscovy who won in this . noti,ceableinfluence on municipal and social organiza- struggle, and Novgorod was annexed by Muscovy in tion. 1478. As for general cultural intercourse,there was less In 1494 the Hanseatic agency in Novgorod was of it than might be supposed.The German merchants closed by order of the Grand Duke of Muscovy. This did not mix very much with the native population, was but the beginning of an aggressive Muscovite partly because of religious differences between the policy in the Baltic. Tsar lvan the Terrible laun,ched Roman Catholicsand Greek Orthodox adherents.The his atiack on Livonia in 1558.There iollowed a period Hanseaticagency in Novgorod was an isolated,closed of obdurate struggle for Livonia. Although lvan suc. community.Whilelarge numbersof Novgorodmerchants ceeded in breaking the power ot the Livonian Order, used to travel overseas before the establishmentof he did not obtain the spoils. The former territory of German supremacyin Livonia, fewer oi them ventured the Order was divided between Lithuania and Sweden. abroad in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth Thus an important period in the economic and centuries. political life of the Baltic came to a close in 1558.The The policy of the German authorities in Livonia events which followed are outside the limits of the was to prevent direct contact between the Russians presentarticle. and the West. It was chiefly due to his desire to pierce We may now recapitulate in briei the historical the German barrier that lvan the Terrible decided to importanceof the Baltic commerceof the West Russian attackLivonia in 1558.