The virtues of being peripheral, recreational, and transnational: local wild food and medicinal plant knowledge in

selected remote municipalities of , Southern Giulia Mattalia, Paolo Corvo, Andrea Pieroni

Research have contributed to the creation of a “glocal” ethnobotany by introducing knowledge from other Abstract European contexts.

Background: The Italian “Strategy for Inner Areas” Conclusions : In conclusion, the “Strategy for Inner includes a series of actions to avoid depopulation of Areas” should target the rich ethnobotanical rural areas by safeguarding the territory from traditional knowledge still present in Calabria as it hydrogeological instability and triggering may represent a powerful tool for achieving development. Such strategy classified each sustainable development of peripheral and ultra- municipality according to the distance to a centre peripheral areas. defined as a town where certain services are provided. This article analyses the ethnobotanical Keywords: Ethnobotany; Inner Areas; Peripheral; knowledge in four villages distant from a centre. Traditional Ecological Knowledge; Sacred Natural Moreover, it discusses the effect of a millennium-old Sites sacred natural site (SNS), the Certosa of , on the local ethnobotanical knowledge. Correspondence Methods: Sixty semi-structured interviews were conducted among elderly inhabitants of two Giulia Mattalia1,2*, Paolo Corvo1, Andrea Pieroni 1 peripheral and two ultra-peripheral Calabrian villages in 2017 and 2018. The interviews focused on the use 1University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza of local wild and semi-wild plants currently gathered, Vittorio Emanuele II 9, I-12042 Pollenzo, Bra, Italy for both culinary and medicinal purposes, and the 2Department of Environmental Sciences, modes of preparation and consumption. Informatics and Statistics, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Via Torino 155, I-30172 Mestre (Venezia), Results: Our study reveals that in Calabria Italy ethnobotanical knowledge is better preserved when it can contribute to household food security in *Corresponding Author: [email protected] contexts of remoteness and extremely poor economic conditions or when relative well-being Ethnobotany Research & Applications allows spending time foraging as a recreational 19:38 (2020) activity. Moreover, we found peculiar ethnobotanical practices in Serra San Bruno which may have been introduced by the monastic community and may

Manuscript received: 21/03/2020 – Revised manuscript received: 27/04/2020 - Published: 02/05/2020 http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.19.38.1-20 Ethnobotany Research and Applications 2

Background et al. 2010; and Lupia et al. 2018 have published Around 60% of Italian territory is characterized by ethnobotanical data for different areas of Calabria. small municipalities located far from basic services such as schools, hospitals and mobility hubs (mainly As this study was conducted within the framework of train stations). Since 2012, the Italian government the PRIN Project BioESSaNS, another aim of the has promoted the “Strategy for Inner Areas”, a series present research was to assess whether traditional of actions to prevent marginalization (and ecological knowledge was more persistent closer to depopulation) of these rural areas by safeguarding a sacred natural site because of its spiritualness. We the territory from hydrogeological instability, selected the Sacred Natural Site (SNS) of Santo promoting their biocultural diversity, and triggering Stefano, known as the Certosa di Serra San Bruno, development. Indeed, territorial cohesion is also a founded by in 1091. The site is common goal of the European Union which is aiming located a few hundred meters outside the city center at “a more harmonious and balanced state of of Serra San Bruno, and it is still inhabited by Europe” (European Commission 2011). Integrated Carthusian monks. We argue that the SNS of the territorial development, as a result of the co- Certosa di Serra San Bruno, inhabited by monks ordination of different sectoral policies, promotes an almost uninterruptedly for over 900 years, may have optimal balance of social cohesion, as well as affected local traditional knowledge regarding the sustainability and competitiveness. Particularly, the use of plants. Territorial Agenda of the European Union 2020 (European Commission 2011) includes the With regard to the peripheral context, we sustainable and efficient use of European territories hypothesize that in remote areas with little access to as a key element of cohesion. As an example, a main public infrastructures ethnobotanical TEK may project was carried out in Dalmatia to manage and be more important than in more urbanized areas as connect ecological and landscape heritage and observed in other studies (Wezel & Ohl, 2005). cultural values at the regional level, promoting prudent management of cultural and natural Therefore, in this study we aimed to explore the resources and using local biodiversity to foster ethnobotanical knowledge in peripheral and ultra- tourism and therefore economic development of peripheral contexts of Calabria’s inner areas. inner Croatia (European Commission 2015). Specifically, the objectives of the study were: In Italy, the national Strategy for Inner Areas has • to document uses of wild and semi-domesticated classified municipalities into the following categories: plants for food and medicinal preparations in centers, intercommunal centers, belts, intermediate, peripheral and ultra-peripheral contexts of inner peripheral and ultra-peripheral. With over 50% of the Calabria: population residing in inner areas (intermediate, • to discuss the recorded ethnobotanical traditional peripheral and ultra-peripheral), mainly located in the knowledge in light of peripheral and ultra- proximity of the Apennine Mountains, Calabria is an peripheral classification following the Italian interesting region in which to study this classification “Strategy for inner areas”; and in light of its possible effects on traditional • to collate the ethnobotanical information in order ethnobotanical knowledge. Indeed, over 40% of to evaluate the influence of the SNS of Certosa Calabrian territory hosts peripheral and ultra- di Serra San Bruno on the traditional ecological peripheral municipalities which lost 15% and 27% of knowledge of the near and distant communities their inhabitants, respectively, in the period 1981- of Serra San Bruno and . 2011. Such marginalized areas are often hotspots of biocultural diversity as they are home to National Material and Methods Parks (Pollino, Aspromonte, Sila) as well as the Study area Arbereshe and Graecnics cultural and linguistic The current study was conducted at four sites of minorities. inner Calabria located in two areas of the region. The Northern sites, located in the Northern Tyrrhenian In the last 20 years, a few ethnobotanical studies area, include the municipalities of Papasidero and have been conducted in Calabria focusing on the Maierà, while the Southern sites, located in Central northern province of Cosenza (Leporatti & Impieri Calabria and the so-called Serre Calabresi, include 2007; Mattalia et al. 2019b), the central area (Lupia Serra San Bruno and Nardodipace. In order to 2004; Maruca et al. 2019), and the southern province compare peripheral and ultra-peripheral of Reggio Calabria which is home to the Graecanics municipalities, we included Mottafollone and minority (Nebel et al. 2006; Nebel & Heinrich 2009). Sant’Agata di Esaro, which were investigated in a In addition, Passalacqua et al. 2006; 2007; Tagarelli previous study conducted in 2017-2018 and published in Mattalia et al. (2019b) (Fig. 1, Table 1).

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Figure 1. Map of the study area: T = Tyrrhenian sites including the municipalities of Papasidero and Maierà, and S = Calabrian Serre sites including Serra San Bruno and Nardodipace.

Table 1. Main characteristics of the study sites * previous study see Mattalia et al. 2019.

Inhabitants Altitude Classification Time to a “center” (minutes) Papasidero (CS) 671 208 Ultra-peripheral 100 (Cosenza) Maierà (CS) 1213 360 Ultra-peripheral 92 (Cosenza) Nardodipace (VV) 1260 1080 Ultra-peripheral 100 () Serra San Bruno (VV) 6584 790 Peripheral 60 (Catanzaro) Mottafollone (CS)* 1215 384 Peripheral 55 (Cosenza) Sant’Agata di Esaro (CS)* 1841 450 Peripheral 67 (Cosenza)

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Papasidero is located in Pollino National Park and is from a center, while ultra-peripheral residents need well-known for the Lao River which crosses the over 75 minutes to get to a center. village and contributes to the touristic appeal of the area. Indeed, in summertime, canoeing and rafting BioESSaNS are important economic resources for local BioESSaNs (Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of residents. Besides tourism, animal breeding still Sacred Natural Sites) is a multidisciplinary project plays an important role in the countryside around the which aims to improve our understanding of village. ecological dynamics and the relation between humans and the environment in Sacred Natural Sites Maierà is a small municipality of Pollino National as defined by the IUCN (“areas of land or water that Park mainly devoted to tourism, as it is only a few hold special spiritual significance for people and kilometers away from the coast. Rural areas of the communities”). We selected the municipalities of municipality are devoted to agriculture and especially Serra San Bruno and Nardodipace to represent to the production of olive oil and citrus fruits. areas, respectively, close to (1 km from the town center) and distant from (11 km as the crow flies and Nardodipace is the most elevated municipality in 20 km driving) the SNS of the Certosa di Serra San Calabria and since 2004 it has been part of the Bruno. Natural Regional Park of the Serre. The main city center was created in the 1960s after flooding Data collection and analysis threatened the historical center. Indeed, as the Two fieldwork campaigns were conducted in municipality does not have direct access to the sea, December 2017 and June 2018 in which 15 semi- the new center was built in Ciano, at over 1000 structured interviews were gathered in each meters above sea level. However, a few locals still municipality, for a total of 60 interviews. Convenient live in the historical center (Abitato vecchio, 650 m sampling and snowball methods were applied in the asl), in Ragonà (500 m asl), and in Santo Todaro selection of informants, mainly elderly individuals (650 m asl). who spent most of their lives in the area. The Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology Serra San Bruno lies in the heart of the Natural was strictly followed, and prior informed consent was Regional Park of the Serre. Its economy is based on orally received. Interviews were conducted in the agricultural products, mushroom picking (especially Italian language; however, many interviewees mostly Boletus edulis which is distributed all over Italy), and answered in the local Calabrian dialect. The tourism. In addition, the tradition of charcoal making interviews focused on the use of local wild and semi- still persists which makes use of the forest heritage. wild plants currently gathered, for both culinary and medicinal purposes, and the modes of preparation The study area is characterized by a temperate and consumption. We collected voucher specimens climate, warm, dry summers in Nardodipace and of leafy plants when possible and we stored them in Serra San Bruno (Serre Calabresi area) and hot, dry the University of Gastronomic Sciences bearing summers in Papasidero and Maierà (Northern codes between UNISGCAL001 and UNISGCAL062. Tyrrhenian area). Average temperature in the Serre Whenever possible, informants were asked to show Calabresi area is around 12°C (Csb climate mentioned plants in order to better identify the according to Köppen Geiger), while average specimen according to the “Flora d’Italia” (Pignatti precipitation is around 900 mm per year. The study 1982). Taxonomic identification, botanical areas of Northern Tyrrhenia are characterized by a nomenclature, and family assignments followed the Csa climate with an average annual temperature Flora Europaea and The Plant List database (Tutin around 16°C and an average rainfall around 825 mm et al. 1964) and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV per year. In both areas, rains are concentrated (Stevens 2001 onwards). Data were assembled into during the winter months, with consistent snowfall in an Excel database and structured in the form of food the area of Serre Calabresi. and medicinal detailed use-reports.

The national Strategy for Inner Areas Results and Discussion The methodology developed for classifying Italian municipalities follows the criterion of time needed to Ethnobotany of two Calabrian inner areas get to a center. A center is defined as a municipality We recorded a total of 79 taxa belonging to 36 that simultaneously offers high schools, basic families (Table 2). hospitals and railway stations with a daily traffic of over 2500 passengers. Peripheral municipalities are located between 40 and 75 (driving) minutes away

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Table 2. Recorded wild food and medicinal plant taxa in Maierà (M), Nardodipace (N), Papasidero (P), Serra San Bruno (S) Nr cit =Number of citations

Botanical taxon / Family / Voucher Nr Nr Nr Site Local name Part(s) used Food use Medicinal use ·# cit cit cit Allium ampeloprasum L. and Agghiu Bulb and Aerial possibly other Allium spp. N 2 Seasoning 2 servaggio parts Amaryllidaceae Apium graveolens L. Aerial parts and Boiled with lemon for Apiaceae N Accia, Accio 5 Seasoning 2 3 Roots abdominal pain; for burns UNISGCAL054 Raw; Ice cream; snow cones; Arbutus unedo L. M Arrobete Fruits 5 5 Jam Ericaceae N Cacummaro Fruits 4 Raw as a snack 4 UNISGCAL016 P Arrobete Fruits 1 Liquor 1 M Asparago Stems 6 To prepare omelets 6 Cooked with eggs or in Aspargi di N Stems 9 omelets; Cooked in pasta, a 9 spine Asparagus acutifolius L. fritelle; preserved with vinegar Asparagaceae Boiled and the fried or cooked P Asparago Stems 7 7 UNISGCAL014 with pasta Cooked with eggs or in Aspargi di S Stems 9 omelets; Boiled and then in 9 spine salads Atropa belladonna L.* M Belladonna Leaves 1 For children to fall asleep* 1 Solanaceae Beta vulgaris L. Amaranthaceae N Secara, Secria Aerial parts 1 Boiled 1 UNISGCAL020 S Secara, Secria Aerial parts 3 Boiled 3 Ravioli filling; Boiled in soup; M Vurraina Aerial parts 7 Cooked with bell peppers; 7 Flowers in salads N Vurraina Aerial parts 3 Boiled and stir fried; a frittelle 3 Infusion for sore throat; Borago officinalis L. Boraginaceae Filling for ravioli; To make P Vurraina Aerial parts 6 3 Mixed decoction for sore 3 UNISGCAL006 green tagliatelle throat and flu Cooked in risotto or pasta; Boiled; Omelets; Cooked with S Vurraina Aerial parts 8 8 sanguinaccio, Boiled and stir- fried Brassica fruticulosa Cirillo subsp. Cavolo fruticulosa servaggio, N Leaves 6 Boiled and stir fried 6 Brassicaceae Rapa UNISGCAL055 servaggia

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Capparis spinosa L. M Cappero Fruits 1 Seasoning 1 Capparaceae M Cardo fucsia Roots 1 Boiled in salads 1 Carduus pycnocephalus L., Carduni, Cynara cardunculus L. N Stems 3 Raw as a snack 3 Cardunari and possibly other Carduus spp. Preserved with vinegar or olive Asteraceae Carduni, S Buds and Stems 4 oil (buds); raw as a snack 4 UNISGCAL060 Cardunari (stems) Carlina acanthifolia subsp. utzka (Hacq.) Meusel & Kästner S Carrozzelle Tubers 2 Raw as a snack 2 Asteraceae M Castagna Fruits 5 To prepare desserts; Liquor 5 Boiled; Roasted; Baked; N Castagna Fruits 13 13 Bread; Cooked in the ash Castanea sativa L. Cooked; Cooked and mashed Fagaceae P Castagna Fruits 7 7 in desserts e.g. castagnaccio Boiled; Roasted; Bread; S Castagna Fruits 11 11 Dessert; Baked Chelidonium majus L. S No name Latex 3 To treat (foot) warts 3 Ranuncolaceae Boiled with garlic, olive oil and M Cicoria Shoots 11 salt; Boiled in soup; Prepared 11 Cichorium intybus L. with beans Asteraceae Mixed soup; Boiled and then N Latariedi Leaves 4 4 UNISGCAL008 stir-fried Boiled with garlic, olive oil and P Cicoria Shoots 7 7 salt; Boiled with beans Boiled in omelets; Raw in M Vingiarra Buds and Roots 4 4 salads Ligunin(a), Omelets; A frittelle; Boiled and Liguniza, N Shoots 15 stir-fried; Boiled and then in 15 Clematis vitalba L. Ligunarari, salads Ranuncolaceae Ligunaradi UNISGCAL011 P Vingiarra Buds and Roots 4 Cooked in salads 3 Root infusion for toothache 1 Ligunin(a), Leaves chewed with olive Liguniza, Omelets; Cooked in pasta; S Shoots 6 5 oil and then applied on the 1 Ligunarari, Boiled and then in salads wounds Ligunaradi M Anipeta Aerial parts 5 Seasoning ( artichokes) 4 Bee stings 1 Clinopodium nepeta (L.) Kuntze Infusion for abdominal Lamiaceae N Niepeta Aerial parts 9 9 pain; For flu; Bee stings UNISGCAL028 P Anipeta Aerial parts 1 Decoction for toothache 1

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Corylus avellana L. N Nucilli Fruits 4 Raw; Nutella 4 Betulaceae P Nocciola Fruits 3 Raw 3 UNISGCAL023 S Nucilli Fruits 7 Raw 7 Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Infusion as tranquilizer; As Rosaceae S Biancospino Flowers 3 3 expectorant UNISGCAL027 Pelusielli, Crepis biennis Lapeyr. Asteraceae N Aerial parts 6 Boiled and stir fried 6 On wounds as a plaster 1 Pilusiedi It was used with rosemary Crocus vernus (L.) Hill* P Zaferan Flowers 1 and thyme for inhalation. 1 Iridaceae Then it was also drunken. Mixed decoction for bronchitis and sore throat; Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. M Gramigna Roots 3 3 Infusion of roots for renal Poaceae colic; Good for kidneys UNISGCAL034 Infusion for cough; For N Gramigna Roots 4 4 rheumatism Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Rucola M Leaves 1 Raw in salad 1 Brassicaceae selvatica Eucalyptus spp. P Iucalipto Leaves 1 Cough syrup 1 Myrtaceae Fagus sylvatica L. “To feel drunken” S Fruit 2 2 Fagaceae ("t'imbriaca") Mixed decoction for bronchitis and flu; Latex to help cicatrisation; Mixed Dried; To make "honey" (fig decoction for sore throat syrup); Prepared with nuts M Fico Fruits: Latex 14 14 and cough; Mixed 5 (skin of citrus fruits- cedar fruit- decoction for flu; Mixed , and Laurus); Jam decoction for breathing; Infusion of dried figs as Ficus carica L. panacea Moraceae Infusion for sore throat and N Fichi Fruits 14 Jam; Raw; Dried 14 1 cough Infusion for flu; Mixed decoction for abdominal Dried; Prepared with nuts ( pain; Decoction for P Fico Fruits; Latex 8 skin of citrus fruits- cedar fruit-, 8 bronchitis; Mixed decoction 4 Laurus and liquors) for sore throat and flu; Decoction of mandarin peel and dried fig for cough

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Infusion with wine for flu; S Fichi Fruits 5 Raw 3 Decoction as panacea with 3 chamomile and mallow Aerial parts and Seasoning ( olives, eggplant; M Finocchio 9 9 Infusions for digestion 2 Seeds taralli; sausages);Liquor Raw in salads; Boiled (“Tuber”); Seasoning; Liquor; Anieddu, Seeds and N 13 Mixed soups; Cooked with 13 Infusion for abdominal pain 3 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Finocc Aerial parts pasta, Boiled and stir-fried; Apiaceae Boiled UNISGCAL026 Fresh for seasoning ( Infusions for digesting; Aerial parts, especially olives); dry for Infusions for rheumatisms; P Finocchio Seeds and 11 sausages; dry to make broth; 11 4 Mixed decoction for sore Roots* to cook pasta with fava beans; throat and flu Syrup from roots* M Fragoline Fruits 8 Raw; Liquor 8 N Fragoline Fruits 9 Liquor; Jam; Raw 9 Fragaria vesca L. Liquor, Raw, Preserved with Rosaceae P Fragoline Fruits 5 5 alcohol UNISGCAL052 Liquor; Jam; Raw; Preserved S Fragoline Fruits 8 8 in alcohol Fragaria viridis Weston Infusion for fever and flu in Fragole verdi Fruits 2 2 Rosaceae children Glycyrrhiza glabra L.* Leguminosae P Liquirizia Roots 1 Raw 1 UNISGCAL035 Hypericum perforatum L. Preserved in olive oil for Fiore di Hypericaceae N Aerial parts 6 arthrosis and skin 6 Sant'Antonio UNISGCAL056 (especially burns) Viediruni; Vierirune; Asparago selvatico; Boiled and then in salads Spiche di Stems and N 11 (stems); Boiled and stir-fried; 11 Hypochoeris spp. cuostole; Cime leaves Soup (leaves) Asteraceae di cuostole UNISGCAL057 (stems); Cuostole (leaves) Viediruni; Boiled and then in salads; a S Vierirune; Stems 14 14 frittelle; cooked with pasta; Asparago

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selvatico; omelets (stems); cooked with Spiche di pasta (leaves) cuostole; Cime di cuostole (stems); cuostole (leaves) Humulus lupulus L. S Luppari Shoots 5 Boiled and in omelets 5 Cannabaceae Raw; Prepared with figs; Jam; M Noce Fruits 6 6 Liquor Raw; Filling for fried figs; N Noce Fruits 12 12 Juglans regia L. Liquor; Dessert Juglandaceae Raw; To make desserts; To P Noce Fruits 6 6 prepare dry figs; Liquor Raw; Liquor; Dessert; Pizza S Noce Fruits 10 10 garniture Lactuca serriola L. M Scarola Leaves 1 Boiled in salads 1 Asteraceae P Scarola Leaves 1 To make green tagliatelle 1 Infusion for helping digestion; Mixed decoction Seasoning ( baccalà; chili for sore throat and cough; M Lauro Leaves 9 peppers; figs); Liquor; To cook 7 2 Mixed decoction for pork's liver; relaxing and minor medical Laurus nobilis L. disorders Lauraceae Infusion for abdominal N Afra Leaves 12 Seasoning (jellied pork) 9 5 UNISGCAL038 pain; For stomach pain Seasoning (jellied pork); To Mixed decoction for sore P Lauro Leaves 5 prepare " Fegato alla 4 1 throat and flu veneziana" Seasoning (jellied pork); Infusion for abdominal S Afra Leaves 13 8 10 Omelets pain; toothache; For flu Roasted in the ash; Cooked M Cipollozzi Bulbs 7 with vinegar; Fried with 7 sausage Cipolline Leopoldia comosa (L.) Parl. N Bulbs 1 Preserved with vinegar 1 selvatiche Asparagaceae Cooked in omelets; preserved P Cipollozzi Bulbs 6 6 with olive oil Cipolline Stir-fried; Preserved with S Bulbs 5 5 selvatiche vinegar or olive oil

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Mixed decoction for relaxing and minor medical disorders; Mixed decoction M Mele selvagge Fruits 5 for sore throat and cough; 5 Malus sylvestris Mill. Decoction of mallow fresh Rosaceae leaves and dried apples for cough N Meli Fruits 3 Jam 2 Infusion for sore throat 1 P Mele selvagge Fruits 4 Fresh, Jam 4 S Meli Fruits 4 Jam; Liquor 4 For healthy infusions; Mixed decoction for bronchitis and sore throat; Mixed decoction for flu; Mixed decoction for minor Aerial parts and M Malva 10 medical disorders; Mixed 10 Roots decoction for for improving breathing; Boiled leaves for wounds; Decoction of mallow fresh leaves with dried apples for cough Fresh or dried N Marva, Milieji aerial parts and 3 Infusion for sore throat 3 Malva sylvestris L. Roots Malvaceae Mixed decoction for UNISGCAL040 abdominal pain; Roots' infusion for sore throat; Mixed decoction for sore Aerial part and throat and flu; Infusion with P Magola 9 9 Roots honey for bronchitis and sore throat; Infusion of dried roots for flu; Healthy infusion with dried figs and wine Decoction as panacea; Fresh or dried Infusion for abdominal S Marva aerial parts and 8 8 pain; for chest; as Roots tranquilizer; for flu Infusions for abdominal Matricaria chamomilla L. pain; Infusion for Asteraceae M Camomilla Aerial parts 12 bronchitis; Mixed decoction 12 UNISGCAL043 for improving breathing; Mixed decoction for

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bronchitis and flu; Chamomile water good for eyes Infusion as mild tranquilizer; as sleep- N Cacomira Aerial parts 9 inducing; for flu; for 9 abdominal pain; Fomentation for eyes Infusion as tranquilizer; Mixed decoction for abdominal pain; For P Campomilla Aerial parts 9 cataract and other eye- 9 related medical disorder; Mixed decoction for sore throat and flu Infusion as mild tranquilizer; for pains of pregnancy; as sleep- S Cacomira Aerial parts 12 12 inducing; for toothache; for eyes; for sore throat; for abdominal pain To prepare eggplant "alla M Menta Leaves 2 2 scapece"; Liquor To be put under armpit to Mentha spp. N Menta Leaves 5 Seasoning 3 stop breastfeeding*; 3 Including Mentha arvensis L. Infusion for abdominal pain Lamiaceae To cook eggplant and zucchini UNISGCAL046 P Menta Leaves 7 and green beans; To season 6 "It refreshes the intestine" 1 potatoes Infusion for abdominal S Menta Leaves 7 Seasoning; Liquor 3 4 pain; Poultice for epistaxis Mespilus germanica L. N Nespola Fruits 2 Raw 2 Rosaceae Morus alba L. Amure di N Fruits 5 Raw; Liquor 5 Moraceae cierzo ianca M Cersi Fruits 1 Raw 1 Amure di N Fruits 6 Raw; Liquor 6 cierzo Morus nigra L. For flank pain*; Raw is Moraceae P Cersi Fruits 2 Raw 2 2 good for heart Amure di S Fruits 1 Jam 1 cierzo

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Jam; Liquor; Preserved in M Mirtiddu Fruits 8 8 alcohol Myrtus communis L. N Mirtillo Fruits 2 Liquor 2 Myrtaceae Syrup for urinary bladder P Mirtiddu Fruits 6 Jam, Liquor 2 1 as anti-inflammatory M Crescione Aerial parts 3 Stir fried; Pancakes 3 Crisciò, Nasturtium officinale R.Br. N Schiafuni, Aerial parts 4 Raw in salads 4 Brassicaceae Sgiafuni UNISGCAL048 Crisciò, Good for kidneys; good for S Schiafuni, Aerial parts 4 Boiled 2 3 prostate Sgiafuni Olea europaea L. Infusion for controlling high P Olivo Leaves 2 Seasoning (e.g. goat) 1 1 Oleaceae blood pressure Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. N Fichilindi Leaves 8 Sundried; Raw; Baked 8 Cactaceae S Fichilindi Leaves 3 Raw 3 Origanum vulgare L. M Arregano Aerial parts 5 Seasoning 5 Lamiaceae N Arigano Aerial parts 10 Seasoning 10 UNISGCAL053 P Arregano Aerial parts 7 Seasoning 7 Origanum majorana L. M Maggiorana Leaves 1 Seasoning 1 Lamiaceae Papaver somniferum L.* M Papagna Pistil 2 For children to fall asleep* 2 Papaveraceae S Papavero Pistil 3 Sleep inducing* 3 Infusion for cough; Erba di muro; N Aerial parts 5 Fomentation to treat 5 Parietaria officinalis L. Erba du vient respiratory ways Urticaceae Poultice for warts; Infusion UNISGCAL017 Erba di muro; S Aerial parts 4 for personal cleaning; For 4 Erba du vient abdominal pain Pimpinella anisoides V.Brig Apiaceae N Ciminu Seeds 2 Seasoning for biscuits; Liquor 2 UNISGCAL058 Pinus pinea L. N Pinolo Fruits 2 Raw 2 Pinaceae Plantago lanceolata L. To treat skin to prevent Plantaginaceae S Rapuzzella Leaves 1 1 infections UNISGCAL009 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae M Andracchia Aerial parts 4 Raw in salad 4 UNISGCAL012 Prunus cerasus L. Amarena M Fruits 2 Jam 2 Rosaceae selvatica

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Amarene, N Fruits 4 Jam; Raw 4 Ciliegie Amarene, S Fruits 3 Jam; Preserved with sugar 3 Ciliegie M Prugni Fruits 2 Jam; Raw 2 N Prugni, Pruna Fruits 7 Jam; Raw 7 Prugne Prunus domestica L. "peroni"; Rosaceae P "vilici"; Fruits 3 Raw; Jam 3 Good for intestine 1 "agostarico"; "di ottobre" Mixed decoction for relaxing and minor medical M Peri Fruits 6 Raw 5 disorders; Mixed decoction 3 Pyrus piraster Burgsd. for sore throat and cough; Rosaceae Mixed decoction for flu N Peri Fruits 2 Jam 2 Peri P Fruits 3 Fresh 3 var."Proini" Quercus pubescens Willd* and possibly other Quercus spp. N Ghianda Fruits 3 Coffee*; Bread* 3 Fagaceae Robinia pseudoacacia L. S Robino Dried Flowers 1 For abdominal pain 1 Leguminosae M Rosemarino Aerial part 4 Seasoning 4 Rosmarinus officinalis L. N Rosamarina Aerial part 4 Seasoning 4 Lamiaceae P Rosemarino Aerial part 6 Seasoning 6 UNISGCAL021 S Rosamarina Aerial part 8 Seasoning 8 Rubus idaeus L. Rosaceae S Formosa Fruits 3 Raw; Preserved in alcohol 3 UNISGCALG059 M Muri Fruits 6 Raw, Jam 6 Amure di Locally applied for wounds; Fruits, Shoots Jam; Liquor; Raw; Dessert; N ruviettu, Muori 13 13 Boiled for menstruation 4 Rubus ulmifolius Schott and Leaves (fruits) A frittelle (shoots) di ruvattari pain (leaves) Rosaceae P Muri Fruits 6 Jam, Liquor; Raw ( with sugar) 6 UNISGCAL029 Amure di Infusion for sore throat; for Fruits and Jam; Liquor; Preserved in S ruviettu, Muori 13 13 stomach pain; mouthwash 4 Shoots alcohol; Raw (fruits) di ruvattari (shoots) Ruscus aculeatus L. Boiled; Preserved with Asparagaceae N Pungitopo Stems 6 vinegar; A frittelle; Cooked 6 UNISGCAL033 with pasta

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S Pungitopo Stems 5 Boiled 5 Ruta graveolens L. S Ruta Leaves 2 Infusion as panacea 2 Rutaceae M Salvia Leaves 5 Seasoning ( e.g. Chicken) 5 Infusion for headache 1 Infusion for sore throat; for Salvia officinalis L. N Salvia Leaves 7 Seasoning 2 abdominal pain; for 5 Lamiaceae stomach pain UNISGCAL037 P Salvia Leaves 5 Seasoning 5 S Salvia Leaves 6 Seasoning 6 To season taralli; To make M Sambuco Flowers 3 3 "pancakes"; Liquor Dried and then as a seasoning Pepe di maio, Infusion locally applied for N Flowers 11 to make pittachina; Seasoning; 11 2 Sambucus nigra L. Sambucu eyes To prepare bread (seeds) Adoxaceae P Sambuco Flowers 3 Fried flower 3 Dried and then as a seasoning Pepe di maio, Flowers and Infusion to treat cough S 13 to make pittachina; Seasoning 13 2 Sambucu Fruits (berries) (flowers); Jam (berries) Sinapis arvensis L. Senape Brassicaceae M Young Leaves 1 Boiled 1 selvatica UNISGCAL041 Sinapis pubescens L. Razza, Cooked in risotto or pasta; stir Brassicaceae S Vruoccolo di Aerial parts 11 11 Fried UNISGCAL062 razza Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.* Stem and P Cardo mariano 4 Boiled (stem) 3 Syrup for cough (roots)* 1 Asteraceae Roots* Spartium junceum L. P Sparto Roots* 1 Healthy infusion* 1 Leguminosae Sorbus domestica L. M Sorbo Fruits 2 Raw 2 Rosaceae N Zorbu Fruits 2 Raw 2 M Cicoria Leaves 1 Boiled 1 Cicoria matta; Mixed soup; Boiled and then Taraxacum campylodes N Cicoria, Aerial parts 9 stir-fried; Boiled and then in 9 G.E.Haglund Latariedi salads; Raw in salads Asteraceae P Cicoria Leaves 3 Boiled then in salads, Omelets 3 UNISGCAL042 Cicoria matta; Mixed soup; Boiled and then S Cicoria, Aerial part 14 stir-fried; Boiled and then in 14 Latariedi salads; Raw in salads M Timo Aerial part 2 Seasoning 2 Thymus spp. With rosemary and Crocus Lamiaceae P Timo Aerial part 2 Seasoning 1 vernus for inhalation. Then 1 it was also drunken*

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S Timo Aerial part 3 Seasoning 3 N Tiglio Dried flowers 4 Infusion as a tranquilizer 4 Infusion as a tranquilizer ; Tilia cordata Mill. for flu; as expectorant; Malvaceae S Tiglio Dried flowers 7 7 Poultice for personal cleaning Trifolium pratense L. Leguminosae N Suria Flowers 2 Sucked as a snack 2 UNISGCAL061 M Ardica Leaves 1 Ravioli filling 1 Cooked in risotto or pasta; Ordica, Ardica, Poultice locally applied for N Aerial part 7 Boiled and then in salads; A 6 2 Artichi facial paralysis frittelle; Cooked in polenta Urtica dioica L. Filling for ravioli; Stem boiled Locally applied for shoulder Urticaceae P Ardica Stem; Leaves 6 then in salads; To make green 4 pain. To be used three 1 UNISGCAL050 gnocchi times every seven days. Quiche; Cooked in risotto or Poultice for washing hair Ordica, Ardica, Aerial part and pasta; Boiled and then in S 14 14 (aerial parts); Infusion for 4 Artichi roots salads; Gnocchi; Soup; A abdominal pain (roots) frittelle (aerial parts) Viola odorata L. Viola M Flowers 1 Raw in salad 1 Violaceae mammola Mixed decoction for sore throat and cough; Mixed decoction for relaxing and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. M Giuggiola Fruit 3 Raw 3 3 minor medical disorders; Rhamnaceae Mixed decoction for improving breathing N Zunzuru (Dried) Fruits 4 Raw 4

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Around 25% of the taxa (n=19) are common to all sites, while around 44% of taxa were recorded in only In total we recorded 20 taxa which are used for both a single municipality. In the Northern Tyrrhenian food and medicinal preparations. Such versatile sites, 51 taxa were mentioned (44 in Maierà and 37 plants were mainly mentioned in Papasidero (9 taxa) in Papasidero, 30 were common to both). In the and Nardodipace (8 taxa). As for medicinal taxa, the Serre Calabresi sites, we recorded 65 taxa (53 in most important are Malva and Matricaria which were Nardodipace, 41 in Serra San Bruno, 29 common to widely used in all the studied communities. The Venn both). Most reported botanical families include diagram illustrates that 19 taxa are common to all the Rosaceae (11 taxa), Asteraceae (9 taxa), and sites, while 9 are common to all except Serra San Lamiaceae (6 taxa). Some plants are very common Bruno, and 6 taxa were reported only in Nardodipace and versatile as in the case of Ficus carica and and Serra San Bruno. Twenty taxa are common to Laurus nobilis which are used in all the sites for both the six municipalities including Asparagus, Borago food and medicinal purposes. Mentha spp., Urtica officinalis, Sambucus nigra and Urtica dioica, which dioica and Foeniculum vulgare are also used as both are very common wild species in several areas of food and medicine in three sites. Italy (Ghirardini et al. 2007).

Figure 1. Venn diagram of mentioned wild food and medicinal plant taxa the four study sites M= Maierà; N= Nardodipace; P=Papasidero; S=Serra San Bruno.

The decoctions of the Tyrrhenian sites while recipe 6 is for relaxing and treating minor In the Northern Tyrrhenian sites we recorded nine ailments. The composition of the recipe varies from recipes for decoctions to treat various symptoms. family to family and sometimes also on the Such decoctions include between 2 and 6 wild and availability of ingredients. However, in the Northern cultivated taxa. Indeed, different plant parts were Tyrrhenian climate, most of the listed ingredients are used (peels, fruits, roots, aerial parts). The main very common and available, dried or fresh, ingredients especially included dried Ficus carica throughout the year. Several female interviewees, and Malva spp.; Table 3 lists the ingredients. the ones who generally know such recipes, reported preparing such “decottu” in the night, leaving it Most of the recipes (apart from 5 and 6) are meant outside the window, and drinking it the following to improve breathing and treat the respiratory system morning after such preparations have received the and in particular bronchitis, flu, cough, and sore “sereno” (dew). Such multi-ingredient recipes were throat. Recipe 5 is prepared for abdominal pain, not found in the Serre Calabresi area.

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Table 3. Ingredients of decoctions recorded in Northern Tyrrhenian. Numbers from 1 to 9 refer to each mentioned recipe.

Recipe 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Borago officinalis x (aerial parts) Citrus × limon x (peel) Citrus reticulata x (peel) Citrus x sinensis x (peel) Cynodon dactylon x (roots) Ficus carica x x x x x x x (dried fruits) Foeniculum vulgare x (seeds) Hordeum vulgare x x x (grain) Laurus nobilis x x x (leaves) Malus spp. x x x (fruits) Malva x x x x x x x (roots or aerial parts) Matricaria chamomilla x x x x (dried flower) Pyrus spp. x x x (fruits) Ziziphus jujuba x x x x (fruits)

Ethnobotanical knowledge and practice in tortuous (mountain) roads). Indeed, Nardodipace is peripheral and ultra-peripheral contexts highly isolated, and moreover its main center was Among the six municipalities included in the analysis relocated around 60 years ago, from 600 m asl to of peripheral and ultra-peripheral areas, the lowest over 1000 m asl, due to a flood, which also number of taxa was mentioned in Papasidero (ultra- contributed to such peripheralization. On the peripheral), while the highest number of taxa was contrary, within our sample, Mottafollone was the mentioned in Mottafollone (peripheral), as presented closest municipality to a center, Cosenza, which in Table 4. The highest percentage of food taxa was offers all the necessary services. In these two recorded in Serra San Bruno, while the lowest in contexts of Nardodipace and Mottafollone we Mottafollone. Indeed, the latter municipality has quite recorded the highest number of taxa being very a high percentage of taxa used simultaneously for remotely located and not so isolated, respectively. food and medicine, second only to Sant’Agata di The municipality of Nardodipace is characterized by Esaro, for which just 3% of taxa are only used extreme poverty and geographical isolation and this medicinally. This may be due to the high number of may have contributed to the persistence of TEK pharmacies and para-pharmacies present in the related to wild plants. Many publications (however municipality, which may have contributed to the none of them regarding Europe) agree with this erosion of the TEK related to only-medicinal taxa, correlation between remoteness and richness of wild while the use of some multifunctional species may plant foraging knowledge (Misra et al. 2008; De La Torre et al. 2012; Bonta et al. 2019), especially in the The highest number of taxa mentioned by at least medicinal domain (Ballabh et al. 2017; Bhattarai et three people was registered in Mottafollone and al. 2006; Sarri et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2009; Amjad Nardodipace, which are respectively the “least” et al. 2017). peripheral and the “most” ultra-peripheral. Nardodipace can be considered the most ultra- In the case of Mottafollone, the social-economic peripheral for several reasons including the fact that context is favored by its relative closeness to the municipality is the highest in Calabria (over 1000 services which allows local inhabitants to make the m asl) and that inhabitants mentioned not trusting the most of their wild plant resources while being able to closest hospital (Locri) and, when possible, travelling easily access other resources in the city. Indeed, in to Catanzaro for health issues (over 100 minutes of peripheral contexts, as in the case of Mottafollone,

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the increasing importance of new culinary trends contributed to the local corpus of ethnobotanical promoting healthy and “green” lifestyles (see Łuczaj knowledge. et al. 2012; Łuczaj & Pieroni 2016) may have

Table 4 Number of wild food and medicinal plant taxa reported per municipality. F= taxa used for food purposes only; FM= taxa used for both food and medicinal purposes; M= taxa used for medicinal purposes only

Nr % Nr Nr Nr Ftaxa Nr Nr Ftaxa % % taxa Fam taxa* * FMtaxa* Mtaxa* * FMtaxa* Mtaxa* Maierà (U) 44 21 27 16 7 4 59 26 15 Mottafollone (P) 58 28 42 19 18 5 45 43 12 Nardodipace (U) 53 26 42 24 11 7 57 26 17 Papasidero (U) 37 18 27 15 10 2 56 37 7 Sant’Agata d’Esaro (P) 43 22 36 19 16 1 53 44 3 Serra San Bruno (P) 41 23 35 22 8 5 63 23 14 * here are considered only taxa mentioned by at least three interviewees. Ftaxa= Food taxa; FMtaxa=Food and Medicinal taxa (simultaneously); Mtaxa= Medicinal taxa (U) = Ultra-peripheral (P) = Peripheral

The municipalities located in between (Serra San argue that such a difference cannot be due only to Bruno, Maierà, Papasidero, Santa Caterina di Esaro) geographical position, but also to the peculiar rely on wild plant resources to a lesser extent for character of this municipality whose life has been several reasons, including remittance economics heavily influenced by the presence of such an and the easy access to seasonal tourism jobs on the important SNS such as the Certosa di Serra San coast (Papasidero, Maierà), as well as the taboo of Bruno over nine centuries. Indeed, the wild plant gathering as it is a sign of poverty. This ethnobotanical knowledge of the religious phenomenon has been recorded in other community which has been inhabiting this site, Mediterranean countries as there is a tendency to nearly uninterruptedly for many centuries, may have consider wild plant foraging as a symbol of created a “glocal” ethnobotany when merging with backwardness and lack of resources (González the local TEK (as in the case of Piedmontese Turmo 1997; Barão & Soveral, 2010). Waldensians described by Bellia & Pieroni 2015). For instance, the founder himself, Saint Bruno was SNS and TEK: The case of the Certosa of Serra born in Germany and lived a long time in , and San Bruno thus he, as well as other members of this religious We assessed the richness of TEK in municipalities community, may have introduced, over the course of close to (Serra San Bruno) and distant from nine centuries, some ethnobotanical knowledge from (Nardodipace) the selected SNS of the Certosa of other (more Northern) European contexts. The Serra San Bruno. We found a lower number of exchanges with other monastic communities, ethnobotanical taxa in proximity to the SNS, as we especially with the ones in France, are well found 41 taxa in Serra San Bruno and 53 in documented and lasted centuries (Gritella 1991). Nardodipace. This result is in line with the findings of However, we also must acknowledge that French a previous study we carried out in Tuscany (Mattalia domination in Calabria may have had a role in et al. 2019a) in which we found that SNSs inhabited shaping such glocal ethnobotany. Indeed, the for centuries may have a negative effect on local TEK domination contaminated the local dialect, due to their contribution to health and food security. originating phytonyms such as “formosa” (Rubus However, when observing the data from a qualitative idaeus) from French framboise (while in Italian would perspective we found that, surprisingly, Serra San be lampone). However, the fact that some very Bruno does not share many important taxa peculiar uses were recorded only in Serra San Bruno characteristic of Calabrian ethnobotany, such as and not in other areas also dominated by French Foeniculum vulgare, Arbutus unedo, Cichorium argues for the stronger influence of the international intybus, Clinopodium nepeta, and Myrtus officinalis. monastic community. At the same time, it presents some very uncommon uses such as dried flowers of Sambucus nigra as a In addition, the Certosa, located a few hundred seasoning in a special dish called “la pitta china cullu meters away from the town center, has probably pipi di maju", which is a kind of focaccia, filled with contributed to the persistence of old trees around the fresh ricotta, dried elderberry flowers, and bacon. We main religious buildings, thus promoting biodiversity

Ethnobotany Research and Applications 19 as is the case with other SNSs (Frascaroli et al. Authors' contributions: This research paper was 2016). Finally, this SNS is not only a tourist designed by GM, PC, AP, while fieldwork was carried destination (and therefore an economic resource for out by GM. GM analysed the data and drafted the the area) but also an important social space for manuscript with contribution from all the co-authors. meeting, walking, and enjoying the cool shade on hot All authors approved the manuscript. summer days. Acknowledgments Conclusions We are very grateful to all the interviewees who Our study reveals that in Calabria ethnobotanical kindly shared their knowledge regarding wild plant TEK is better preserved when it can contribute to uses. household food security, in contexts of remoteness and extremely poor economic conditions Literature cited (Nardodipace), or when relative well-being allows Amjad, MS, Qaeem, MF, Ahmad I, Khan SU, local inhabitants to spend time foraging as an Chaudhari SK, Zahid Malik N, Shaheen H, Khan AM. integrative and recreational activity (Mottafollone). In 2017. Descriptive study of plant resources in the other peripheral or ultra-peripheral areas which are context of the ethnomedicinal relevance of not as remotely located nor affluent, ethnobotanical indigenous flora: A case study from Toli Peer practices may be considered as taboo- a practice National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. that disadvantaged inhabitants perform due to their PlosOne 12(2) e0171896. lack of (economic) resources. Ballabh B, Chaurasia OP, Pande PC. 2017.

Ethnomedicinal Plants of Western and Central Regarding the correlation between the SNS of the Himalayas. In Ethnobotany of India. Edited by T. Certosa di Serra San Bruno and the richness of TEK Pullaiah, K. V. Krishnamurthy, Bir Bahadur Apple in close and distant sites, we found some uncommon Academic Press. Palm Bay, USA ethnobotanical uses. These uncommon uses may suggest that the religious community which has been Barão MJ, Soveral A. 2010. The ecology and use of inhabiting this site, almost uninterruptedly for many edible thistles in Évora, Alentejo, Southeastern centuries, may have contributed to the creation of a Portugal. Ethnobotany in the New Europe: people, “glocal” ethnobotany by introducing knowledge from health and wild plant resources. Edited by RK Puri, other (more Northern) European contexts. A Pieroni, M Pardo de Santayana. Berghahn Books, New York, USA In conclusion, the “National Strategy for Inner Areas” Bellia G, Pieroni A. 2015. Isolated, but transnational: should target the rich ethnobotanical TK still present the glocal nature of Waldensian ethnobotany, in Calabrian, promoting small-scale business and Western Alps, NW Italy. Journal of Ethnobiology and tourism based on such intangible heritage as it may Ethnomedicine 11(1):37. represent a powerful tool for achieving sustainable Bhattarai S, Chaudhary RP, Taylor RS. 2006. development of peripheral and ultra-peripheral Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Manang areas. district, central Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2:41. Declarations Bonta M, Pulido-Silva MT, Diego-Vargas T., Vite- List of abbreviations: SNS= Sacred Natural Sites; Reyes A, Vovided AP, Cibrian-Jaramillo A. 2019. TEK= Traditional Ecological Knowledge Ethnobotany of Mexican and northern Central Ethics approval and consent to participate: American cycads (Zamiaceae). Journal of Ethical approval granted by the University of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 15:4. Gastronomic Sciences ethics committee. All De la Torre L, Cerón CE, Balslev H, Borchsenius F. participants provided oral prior informed consent 2012. A biodiversity informatics approach to Consent for publication : Not applicable ethnobotany: meta-analysis of plant use patterns in Availability of data and materials : The data was Ecuador. Ecology and Society 17(1):15. not deposited in public repositories. All data are published in the manuscript. European Commission (2015) Territorial Agenda Competing interests: The authors declare that they 2020 put in practice. Enhancing the efficiency and have no competing interests effectiveness of Cohesion Policy by a place-based Funding: This study was funded by the PRIN project approach Volume II – Case studies. Available at ‘Biodiversity and ecosystem services in Sacred https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/policy/ Natural Sites (BIOESSaNS)’, Nr. 2015P8524C, as what/territorial- well as by the University of Gastronomic Sciences of cohesion/territorial_agenda_2020_practice_case_st Pollenzo, Italy. udies.pdf (07/01/2020)

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