IN SEARCH OF A GLOBAL SOUL: AND THE CHALLENGE OF MULTIPLE IDENTITIES Alireza Asgharzadeh*

This article focuses on emerging Azerbaijani identity and its competing versions in the Republic of Azerbaijan, , and in the diaspora. The Republic of Azerbaijan has over eight million people compared with more than 20 million Azeris in Iran. The two groups have ethnic, linguistic, and historical ties but also different experiences, giving them both a common identity contradicted by other factors.

In her valuable book entitled Borders and HISTORICAL OVERVIEW Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity, Brenda Shaffer astutely As a geographic region, Azerbaijan extends observes that: from northwestern Iran to the in the east, with Kurdistan, , and Until the early 1990s, most to the west, and and to the in Iran referred to north. This strategic positioning reveals themselves as Turks. Some researchers Azerbaijan’s geopolitical significance as a and Azerbaijanis themselves refer to gateway to Russia and Turkey and, through this group as the Azerbaijani Turks…. them, to the West. Azerbaijan is divided into The term most commonly employed by two parts: Northern Azerbaijan, which became the Azerbaijanis today, and which is an independent country after the disintegration considered most neutral… is of the in 1991, and southern “Azerbaijani.”1 Azerbaijan, which is part of Iran. The two parts have been divided since the early Since Shaffer’s observation, the debate nineteenth century, with the Araz River as around finding a uniform their border. In addition to the Azeri-Turks, ethnic/linguistic/national identity for the who constitute over 80 percent of the people of Azerbaijan2 has intensified. inhabitants of Azerbaijan on both sides of the Azerbaijanis are now using identity categories river, there are ethnic and religious minorities as diverse as Azeri, Azeri-Turk, Turk, Iranian- such as , , Lezgis, Taleshis, Turk, Azerbaijani-Turk, South-Azerbaijani- Jews, Christians, and Baha’is living in Turk, and North-Azerbaijani-Turk. This rich Azerbaijan. choice shows how confusing the situation has The language of the majority of become. Consensus is nowhere in sight Azerbaijanis is “Azeri” (variously known as regarding a uniform Azeri identity. Azeri-Turkic, Turki, and Azerbaijani), and the Azerbaijanis identify themselves based on of the majority is Shi’a . Of the their experiences within specific overall Azeri population, 20 to 30 million are environments, without being able to connect believed to be living in southern Azerbaijan these various contexts with a more and the rest of Iran,, eight million in the comprehensive general term. Republic of Azerbaijan, close to two million in Turkey, and about two million in Russia, with the rest mainly in Georgia, , and Ukraine.

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Their status in Turkey is interesting and first, the , who were mainly little explored. Similar to the situation in Iran, concentrated in southern Azerbaijan; second, questions around ethnic and national identity the Aran-Albanese, who were living in the in Turkey are highly political and difficult north; and third, the Turks, who have been issues. The history of the Azeri population in living in various parts of Azerbaijan from today’s Turkey can be traced back to the ancient times and whose number constantly earlier periods of the Safavid era in Iran increased due to the migration of Turkic tribes (1501-1722), when their rule extended over from , particularly after the the current Turkish regions of and Islamization of the region.4 neighboring areas. Additionally, in the course Two thousand five hundred and sixty-six of the (1813) and Turkmenchay years ago, Azerbaijan was conquered by the (1828) treaties between Iran and Russia, a Persian emperor Cyrus the Great. Two significant number of Azeris migrated to hundred and twenty-nine years later, Turkey and settled in its eastern regions, defeated the and particularly in and Agri. The conquered Azerbaijan. Three centuries after migration of Azeris to Turkey continued that, it was occupied by the Roman Empire. during the 1920s (as a result of the overthrow Azerbaijan was thereafter ruled by the Roman of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan in Empire, the Persian Empire, and the the north and the suppression of the Shaykh of Caucasian Turks.5 Within Muhammad Khiabani Movement in the the space of 10 years, after the death of south); the late 1940s (after the suppression of Muhammad in the year 632, around 30,000 Mir Ja’far Pishevari’s 21 Azar Movement in Muslim Arabs attacked and conquered Iran, southern Azerbaijan in 1946); the 1980s (as a overthrowing the decaying Sassanid Empire. result of the Islamic Revolution in Iran and the Azerbaijan became a part of the new Muslim subsequent Iran-); as well as in the empire, though resistance against the Arab 1990s, after the disintegration of the Soviet invasion in northern and central Azerbaijan Union and the independence of northern continued throughout the ninth century. Azerbaijan. In general, the Azeri population in In 837, the Arabs conquered the Castle of Turkey is considered well-integrated into Babak, a stronghold for a powerful resistance Turkish society, mainly due to cultural and movement in central Azerbaijan and linguistic affinities between the Azeri and established their dominion all over Anatolian Turks. Nevertheless, differences Azerbaijan.6 The region was Islamized. still remain in the areas of religion (Azeris are Towards the end of the seventh century, a mainly Shi’a, whereas Anatolian Turks are local known as ruled mostly Sunni ), dialect, and self- northern Azerbaijan from 668 through 1539, conception in terms of historical memory and when they were incorporated into the Safavid ethnic/national consciousness. Empire, once more becoming unified with the In The Ancient History of Iranian Turks, south.7 Through this reunification, Azerbaijan Professor M.T. Zehtabi traced the origin of again had economic, cultural, and linguistic current Azeris to ancient Sumerian and Ilamite autonomy as an integrated whole well into the civilizations, dating back over 5,000 years. early nineteenth century. Through archeological and linguistic evidence, In the early nineteenth century, Iran (and Zehtabi has shown that today’s Azeris are the region of Azerbaijan in particular) was remnants of such racial and ethnic components twice invaded by Russia. As a result, the vast as the ancient Ilamites, Medes, and other territory of northern Azerbaijan, or what is agglutinative language peoples such as the now the independent Republic of Azerbaijan, Kassies, Gutties, Lullubies, and Hurraies.3 was annexed to the by way of According to other sources, three different the Gulistan (1813) and Turkmenchay (1828) ethnic components have participated in the treaties. This annexation by no means crushed formation and evolution of the Azeri people: the aspirations of Azeris for independence and

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autonomous nationhood. In the chaotic bases, the new regime suppressed the demands revolutionary atmosphere of 1917 that resulted of various nationalities for cultural and in the Russian Empire’s collapse, Azerbaijanis linguistic rights. Identifying the Persian proclaimed their independence on March 28, language as “the second language of Islam,” 1918. As early as mid-1918, the Azerbaijani the new regime vigorously continued to republic passed a law that provided for enforce the ban imposed on non-Persian democracy through free and direct elections, languages during the Pahlavi era, proportional representation, and universal notwithstanding that its own constitution suffrage, making Azerbaijan the first country allowed for the teaching and learning of non- in the history of Islamic nations ever to Farsi languages. enfranchise women. Teaching and learning the In August 1991, after the disintegration of mother tongue in the school system became the Soviet Union, the formation of an mandatory, and Azeri became Azerbaijan's independent Azerbaijani nation-state was national language. In April 1920, the Red declared north of the Iranian borders. Army occupied Azerbaijan and overthrew the Realizing the importance of such an event to democratically elected Azeri government, the southern Azeris, the Iranian regime putting an end to this brief experience in pursued a hostile relationship with the independent nationhood. Republic of Azerbaijan, seeking to undermine The annexation of northern Azerbaijan by its credibility, image, and achievements at Russia notwithstanding, the southern region of every opportunity--particularly through state- Azerbaijan still continued to enjoy a relatively run media outlets.10 autonomous status, particularly in trade and commerce as well as in culture and language. LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, AND However, with the coming to power in 1921 of IDENTITY Reza and the subsequent establishment of the absolute monarchism of the Pahlavi In present-day Iran, in addition to the three dynasty in Iran, southern Azerbaijan’s Azeri provinces of Ardabil and Eastern and regional, economic, linguistic, and cultural Western Azerbaijan, Azeri-Turkic is also autonomy came to an end. Through Reza spoken in Zanjan, , Arak, Saveh, and Khan's harsh centralization policy, the hitherto northern Khorasan.11 Moreover, Azeri-Turkic independent region of Azerbaijan now became is spoken by the Qashqayi Turks as well as by divided into a number of dependent "Ostans" various other Turkic-speaking peoples or provinces.8 concentrated in the province of Fars and in The ruled in Iran for well central Iran. In addition to the northern over half a century. Throughout this period, a Republic of Azerbaijan, Azeri is also the policy of forced assimilation aimed at the indigenous language of in Iraq creation of a homogeneous Farsi-speaking and Eastern .12 nation. As a consequence, the publication of The origin of written Azeri literature can be newspapers, magazines, and books in the traced back to the famous epic of Qorqut Azeri language was prohibited, and the people Kitabi (the Book of Dede Qorqud), which of Azerbaijan were denied the right to educate originated orally in pre-Islamic Caucasia and in their own language.9 In 1979, the Pahlavi were put into writing in the sixth or seventh regime was overthrown, and subsequently the century. This is how the book introduces itself Islamic Republic was formed. The ’s and its main character: sponsored Persian nationalistic ideology was briefly overshadowed by an emerging “anti- We begin with the name of the Creator nationalist” Islamic ideology with his fall. In and implore his help. Years before the the revolutionary atmosphere of the time, time of the [Muhammad], various ethnic demands and movements began there appeared in the tribe a man to emerge. Yet upon consolidating its power by the name of Qorqud Ata. He was

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the wise man of the Oghuz people. He Although Nizami did not produce his work in used to prophesize and bring reports the Azeri language, his narratives are from the unknown world beyond, nonetheless rooted in Azeri culture and having been divinely inspired….13 tradition. Thirteenth and fourteenth century In the course of the past two centuries, the Azerbaijan witnessed the birth of Hasan- book has been translated into many languages. Oglu's famous , Qazi Darir's Yusuf va In 1815, the German scholar H.F. Von Diez Zuleykha, Qazi Burhan ad-Din's , and produced a German translation of the book Imad ad-Din Nasimi's Quatrains. An based on a manuscript found in the Royal outstanding Hurufi philosopher, mystic, and Library of . In 1950, another poet, Nasimi left an inerasable mark on Azeri manuscript was discovered by the Italian philosophy, literature, and culture.16 His scholar Ettore Rossi in the Vatican library. poetry's artistry, depth, and veracity have Following the German, Turkish renditions gained Nasimi a lasting place among the were published by Kilishli Rifat and Orhan pioneering literary figures in the Islamic Saik Gokyay in Istanbul in 1916 and 1938 world. In effect, Nasimi's language marks the respectively.14 Professor Hamid Arasli, a well- emergence of a distinct language and literature known Azeri scholar, published the first full unique to Azerbaijan. In the words of M.F. text of the collection in in 1939, Koprulu, “although Nasimi was not unfamiliar reprinted in 1962 and again in 1977. with the dialect of Anatolia, he used that of the Following Arasli’s version, the famous south Azeri Turkic more often."17 Azerbaijani poet Bulut Qarachorlu--in Koprulu's observation has been confirmed collaboration with Professor Muhammad Ali by M. Ergin, who makes similar remarks Farzaneh--provided a unique rendition of the regarding the language of Qazi Burhan al-Din, book in two volumes in the alphabet a contemporary of Nasimi and another for southern Azerbaijani readers. The first forerunner in the fourteenth century Azeri volume, entitled Sazimin Sozu (Tales of My literary scene. “Qazi Burhan ad-Din's Lute) was clandestinely published in Iran in language," writes Ergin, the 1960s. The second volume, Dedemin Sozu (Tales of my Father) has not yet been does differ from the Anatolian texts published, although it has been widely and bears certain of the distinguishing discussed through various sources.15 features of Azeri-Turkic, which gave Aside from Dede Qorqut Kitabi, there are promise of its becoming a separate other common Turkic works, such as language. In view of this, it is not far Lughat at-Turk written by Mahmud of off the mark to consider it the product Kashghar in 1072-73 and Qutadghu Bilig of the period when the Azeri Turkic written by Yusuf Khas Hajeb in 1077, that dialect was heading straight towards bear witness to the early literary works in the separation.18 . Around the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Azeri language and Devoting his life struggling for freedom of literature flourished under the rule of expression, Nasimi boldly attacked rigid Shirvanshahs. Among the leading regulations and religious bigotry through his representatives of Azeri literature in this poetry. For his pains, he was skinned alive at period were such prominent figures as Qetran the bazaar in the town of Heleb (Aleppo). of , Mekhseti Khanum, of Azeri language and literature continued to , and Nizami of Ganja. Nizami's well- develop and evolve during the fifteenth known Quintuple, Seven Beauties, Khosrow va century, when the houses of Shirin, -Nameh, Tohfatul Iraqein and ruled in southern Azerbaijan (Gifts from Iraq), and other works are among and Iran. To this period belong such literary the Islamic world's classical literary heritage. figures as Jahanshah Qaraqoyunlu (Haqiqi),

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Habibi, and Sheyx Qasim Enver, among many In the seventeenth century, ’s unique others. The sixteenth century saw the genre was taken up by such prominent poets establishment of Safavid rule in Iran. The and writers as Saeb and Qovsi of Tabriz, Shah founder of this new dynasty, Shah Ismail, was Abbas Sani, Amani, Zafar, and many others. a great lover of poetry and literature. Azeri Thus, the development of Azeri literature and was the main language in his court, followed language continued well into the nineteenth by Farsi and Arabic. Under the pen name century, when the ruled Iran. Khatayi, Shah Ismail produced his famous Nineteenth-century Azerbaijan was Divani Xetayi in Azeri-Turkic. Moreover, a characterized by the separation, in 1828, of the unique literary style known as “Qoshma” was northern segment of Azerbaijan and its introduced in this period, utilized and annexation to the Russian Empire. According developed by Shah Ismail and later on by his to a veteran Azeri scholar, Dr. Javad Heyat, successor Shah Tahmasp.19 the separation of northern Azerbaijan did not Paralleling Azeri written literature, various mean the severing of ties among Azeris. Far forms of folk and oral literature were also from it; this separation gave birth to a unique developing during this period. Included in genre of literature and poetry “whose subject Azeri folk literature were numerous forms of is the theme of separation between tales, proverbs, and sayings peculiar to brothers.”23 In his famous poem, “Hesret” Azerbaijan such as Bayati, Sayaji, and Duzgi. (“Longing”), Kamran Mehdi captured the The sixteenth century was characterized by the feelings of Azerbaijanis regarding this forced rapid growth of Azerbaijan's folk literature. separation: “True, the Araz divides a Such famous masterpieces as Kor-Ogli, Esli- nation/But the earth underneath is one!”24 Kerem, Shah Ismail, and Ashiq Qerib were The early twentieth century marked the created during this period. Indigenous beginning of a new national and social Azerbaijani minstrels, bards, and Ashiq poetry consciousness in Azerbaijan. Influenced by also flourished during this time.20 various literary and sociopolitical trends in the Muhammad Fuzuli (1498-1556), the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1905 and renowned Azeri philosopher and poet, the Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1905- emerged at this time. Masterfully building 1911), Azeri writers, intellectuals, and poets upon the legacy of his predecessors, Fuzuli began to revolutionize the Azerbaijani as well became the unrivaled literary figure. His major as the Iranian sociocultural landscape. Fethali works in Azeri include The Divan of Ghazals, Akhundzadeh introduced drama into Iranian The , and the poem Leyla ve Majnoon, literature. Taliboff and Zeynal-Abedin of among others. Fuzuli's poetry manifested the Maragheh laid the foundation of modern spirit of a profound humanism, reflecting the creative prose, social criticism, and literary discontent of both the masses and the poet realism hitherto unknown in Iran. At the same himself towards totalitarianism, feudal lords, time, Jelil Memet Quluzadeh and Aliakber and establishment religion. From a linguistic Saber produced their leading social and perspective, his poetry marked a turning point political satires, widely spread through the in the development of the Azeri language. In now internationally renowned paper, Molla her pioneering work on Azeri literature, titled Nesred-Din.25 Azeri and Persian Literary Works in Twentieth Northern Azerbaijan also produced such Century Azerbaijan, Professor Sakina literary giants as Semed Vurghun, Suleyman Berengian rightly identifies Fuzuli "as both the Rustem, Resul Reza, , and of Azeri literature."21 Enver Memedxanli, and many others. In According to Berengian, it was in Fuzuli's Tabriz, Hasan Rushdiyyeh laid down hands "that the Azeri language was brought to the foundation for modern schooling and maturity and it was in his works that Azeri pedagogy. He wrote and used the first modern classical poetry attained its ultimate textbooks in the , entitled Veten refinement."22 Dili (Language of Homeland) and Ana Dili

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(Mother Tongue) in Azerbaijani schools, Azeri diaspora. With the coming of replacing Koranic and traditional religious independence, the Iron Curtain was lifted and texts.26 Simultaneously, such poets and writers the hitherto isolated Azerbaijani society was as A. Qarajadaghli, M. Hidaji, M. Xelxali, and exposed to the outside world in an A. Nebati promoted the ideals of social justice unprecedented way. As a result, many Azeris and democracy through their works.27 With were, for the first time, accorded the the flourishing of all these literary and cultural opportunity to travel or migrate. productions, it was not surprising that The coming of independence also Azerbaijan became the center of Iran's coincided with the outbreak of war between Constitutional Revolution. Azerbaijan and the Republic of Armenia over This rich literary legacy reached its climax the enclave of Nagorno-Qarabagh. The in contemporary times in Muhammad-Husayn Azerbaijani republic was forced to cope with Shahryar’s (1905-1988) poetry, particularly in about 800,000 displaced persons. In effect, his masterpiece “Heyderbabaya Salam” one out of every ten Azerbaijani citizens (“Greetings to Heydar ”).28 Cherished by became a refugee. A new wave of Azeri both the northern and southern Azerbaijanis, (mass) migration took place during the first this work brings together various cultural and five years of independence, to be followed by literary tendencies in a single genre, future small-scale migrations. emphasizing the common origin of In addition, hundreds of thousands of Azeri Azerbaijani language, literature, culture, and citizens of the former Soviet Union who lived identity. This provided a major building block in Russia, Georgia, and Ukraine were now for the construction of a unified and unifying “immigrants” living in someone else’s identity. country. The continuous development of this literary These issues provide a basis for multiple and cultural tradition, despite interruptions, is potential identities for a people known as a strong indicator of a deep-rooted awareness Azeris (in Arabic sources); Azeri-Turks (in on the part of Azerbaijanis regarding their Turkish sources); or Turks (in , nationality, culture, history, and sources). In recent years, additional heritage. designations have emerged due to the changing geopolitical situation, adding such THE AZERI DIASPORA terms as: Iranian-Turk, Azerbaijani-Turk, North-Azerbaijani-Turk, South-Azerbaijani- The Azeri diaspora is a comparatively new Turk, and Azerbaijani. phenomenon, rooted in a roughly three-decade This situation poses a major challenge to long history of migration. It owes its existence individuals of Azerbaijani heritage in to the 1978-1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran; articulating a common identity applicable both the demise of the Soviet Union, and the to the Azeri people on either side of the Araz establishment of the Republic of Azerbaijan in River and to the Azeri diaspora. Which term, 1991. During and after the Islamic Revolution, which label, which designation best defines waves of mass migration took place, partly such an inclusive identity? Can all of these be because of violations of , used as different manifestations of the same partly as a result of the eight-year war with identity, or is there a need to choose a single Iraq, and partly due to the worldwide impact one? of globalization, along with a whole set of economic and developmental factors.29 This A PAN-ETHNIC IDENTITY: “WE ALL trend still continues, albeit on a much smaller ARE TURKS” scale.30 The demise of the Soviet Union and the In its current usage, the term “Turk” independence of northern Azerbaijan defines the ethnic/linguistic/national identity significantly contributed to the formation of an of the majority of people in the Republic of

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Turkey. It also defines the increasingly popular in Azerbaijan and other ethnic/cultural/linguistic identity of other parts of Iran.35 groups and communities throughout Central Use of “Turk” on an Iranian level has Asia, Caucasia, the Mediterranean, the Middle inevitably linked this identity to the larger East, and the Balkans, who loosely use the ideology of Turkism rooted in an existing term to refer to their ethnic affiliation. One of notion of pan-ethnic/pan-Turkist identity. This the earliest sources that makes mention of the linkage is demonstrated through some term “Turk” is an encyclopedia entitled Azerbaijanis acting as advocates of the former Diwan-i Lughãt at-Turk, written by Mehmud or current Turkish Republic of Kashger in 1072-1073. In this book, the against the demands that certain ethnic groups author traces the genealogy of the word such as the Armenians and the Kurds have “Turk” back to the time of Noah and claims made against them. As a result, some ethnic “Turk” to be the name of one of Noah’s conflicts existing in the Turkish Republic have sons.31 There are also references to “Turk” spilled over to Azerbaijan and are and its variations such as “tu-kiu,” “tur-kiut,” automatically made out to be an Azerbaijani “tur-kiu,” “turku,” “turukh,” “durukh,” and issue. “turuk” in some ancient Assyrian, Chinese, This understanding of pan-ethnic identity and Japanese sources.32 creates hostilities among ethnic groups. In an As far as recent written history is article entitled “A Word with the People of concerned, various sources indicate that the South Azerbaijan,” Alireza Nazmi-Afshar, a majority of Azerbaijan’s inhabitants and well-known Azerbaijani activist, warns that others have consistently referred to themselves southern Azerbaijani independence from Iran as Turks. In , the term Turk would eventually lead to the independence of and the Turks themselves—in fact, everything Kurds from Turkey and be disastrous for Turkic—has been demonized. The Turks have Turks all over the world: been associated with savagery, barbarism, bloodshed, pillage, stupidity, and The Azerbaijanis’ demand for backwardness.33 In the relatively relaxed independence from Iran, no matter atmosphere of recent years, some Azeri how reasonable and rightful, will scholars and activists have started the process legitimize similar demands on the part of reclaiming their Turkic identity. This also of PKK Kurds in Turkey and Dashnak marks the beginning of the usage of “Turk” as Armenians in Qarabagh…. Is this a local identity. really what we want? By saying this perhaps I will be accused of Pan- A LOCAL IDENTITY: “WE ARE Turkism. But if this kind of IRANIAN TURKS” responsibility towards other Turks and their national interests… is Pan- The designation “Iranian-Turk” exists in Turkism… then I am a Pan-Turkist. I the context of Iran and the Persian effort to am a Pan-Turkist. I am a Pan- define ethnic groups as existing in that Turkist.36 country’s context.34 To the extent that the Turkic identity is demonized and dehumanized When Nazmi-Afshar says Pan-Turkist here, in Iran, Iranian Turks built up this identity in it is counterpoised to a Pan-Azeri position, an attempt to counter the attacks leveled which would favor unification. This is an against them. While various assimilatory indication of the complex choices faced by the methods such as the denial of Turkic identity Azerbaijani people. In order to distinguish and conformity to the dominant culture were themselves from the Turks of Turkey, some adopted by some Azeri intellectuals during the Azeris have sought to refer to themselves as Pahlavi regime, the current movement to Azerbaijani-Turk or Iranian Turk, though reclaim Turkic identity is becoming

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these hyphenated-combinations may there. He himself brought a skirt-full themselves be confusing. and poured. All his army personnel and his people each brought a skirt-full and THE AZERI ALTERNATIVE: A piled them there. Soon a gigantic TRANSCULTURAL/DIASPORIC mountain was formed. He named it IDENTITY Azerbaijan, for “Azer” in Turkic stands for height and “Baijan” means “Azeri” is another important designation the elders and lords.41 used as an identity category to represent the Azerbaijani people. This term exists in early “Azeri” and “Turk” have been used Assyrian and Arabic sources, dating back interchangeably throughout most of some 3,000 years. In ancient Assyrian sources, Azerbaijan’s modern history. At least such for instance, there is mention of a city and was the case until an Iranian intellectual region known as “Azari” situated in the named Kasravi published an article in vicinity of “the Lake of Urmu” in western the 1920s to refute this idea. Of Azerbaijani Azerbaijan.37 The inhabitants of this city were origin himself, Kasravi ventured to claim that, referred to as the “Azers/Azerler” who were among other things, Azerbaijan was originally members of the Turkic racial/ethnic group. populated by “Pahlavi/Farsi-speaking” The Assyrian sources document a directive who had later become Turkified due to the issued by the Assyrian king, Sargon II, some and Mongol invasions of Iran in the 2,800 years ago referring to a place called eleventh and thirteenth centuries, respectively; Azari.38 hence, the “invention” of an Indo-European A number of Arab travelers and historians Azari/Azeri language. also made frequent references to “Azerbaijan” Immediately after the popularization of and “al-Azeriyya.”39 Yaqut al-Hamavi, the Kasravi’s theory, the terms “Azerbaijani” and thirteenth century Arab traveler and historian, “Azeri” became highly politicized. The wrote in regards to the language of the dominant Persian group in Iran used the inhabitants of Azerbaijan, “They have a opportunity to advance its agenda of peculiar language called al-Azerriya and no delegitimizing Iran's “non-Indo-European” one can understand it except for ethnic groups. Many linguists, historians, and themselves.”40 social scientists tried to prove that the Azerbaijan being the name of the land, the language spoken in ancient Azerbaijan was Arabs called the vast majority of its exclusively and entirely Persian.42 A number inhabitants and their language “al-Azerriya.” of Western scholars supported these views, This “al-Azeriyya” was insisting that Farsi was “the only” language transliterated/translated into Persian and spoken in all parts of the “Iranshehr” prior to Turkish sources as “Azeri,” which has been the emergence and triumph of .43 used alongside “Turk” to refer to the identity It is now clear that Kasravi’s assumptions of Azerbaijan’s inhabitants. In fact, the two about the Azeri language lack credibility. He terms have been used interchangeably not only publicized such views because he believed by Azerbaijanis themselves, but by Arabs, they would be “good for Iran.”44 It was an era Persians, and Europeans as well. For instance, when monolingualism was promoted and regarding the definition of the term, Borhan-e diversity discarded. Kasravi and his followers Qate’, the great Persian Encyclopedia says: proceeded on the assumption that there was an /Iranian race that could be identified and When the Oghuz came to that region maintained in its “pure” form. Language was [i.e., Azerbaijan], the Lord of Oghuz the main indication of this race’s identity and took a liking to one of its towns called authenticity. In the context of Iran, this Ujan. He asked each of his people to language could not be any other than bring a skirt-full of earth and pour it Farsi/Persian.45

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The definition of “Azeri” currently used as “Azerbaijanis” or “Azeris” rather than stands for the inhabitants of Azerbaijan and Turks, Iranians, Persians, or other their language, which is a Turkic one. It designations.48 One statement observed: alludes to a distinct people living in a distinct land. If we answer Turk or Turkish to this question, we will be considered as THE EMERGING AZERBAIJANI nationals of the Republic of Turkey. IDENTITY And if we reply Persian or Farsi, we will be considered Iranian nationals. In an April 26, 2006 visit to the United Obviously, both responses undermine States, President Ilham Aliev of Azerbaijan our Azerbaijani identity and are, observed: therefore, incorrect…. Let us all come together and announce once [and] for Azerbaijanis live in many countries. all through this census that: We are Recently we had the Second Congress Azerbaijanis and our mother tongue of World Azerbaijanis. And according is Azerbaijani [emphasis in to our estimations, there are more than original].49 50 million Azerbaijanis who live around the world, and about 30 million The idea of an “Azerbaijani” identity in of them live in Iran.46 both southern and northern Azerbaijan was first developed by Muhammad Emin Yet the vision he presented is one based on Resulzadeh in the early twentieth century. At citizenship rather than ethnicity: the time, the Azerbaijanis, together with other Turkic-speaking peoples of the Russian Azerbaijan is a multinational Empire, were commonly identified as country…. We have various “Rusiyye Musulmanlari” (the Muslims of nationalities, various Russia), “Tatarlar” (the Tatars), or “Rusiyye represented, the highest degree of Turkleri” (the Turks of Russia)--much the religious and ethnic tolerance. same way as some Azeris in the south Azerbaijan is a secular country, and currently refer to themselves as “the Iranian not only by its constitution, but by way Turks” or “the Turks of Iran.” While of life.47 acknowledging the existence of certain similarities among various Turkic peoples in It is “Azerbaijani-ness” that binds the the region, Resulzadeh maintained that diverse cultural, ethnic, and religious “Azerbaijan” constituted a distinct society due communities together, even people who are to unique historical, cultural, and social not ethnically Azeri but who are citizens of characteristics shared by its inhabitants.50 Azerbaijan. That is why the designation From this observation, the modern notion of “Azerbaijani” represents a democratic identity. an Azerbaijani identity was born. It is not based on an ethnocentric vision of Similarly, it was during the Democratic solidarity, but on citizenship, land, and Government (1945-1946) of Mir Jafar territory. It is also a way of obtaining the Pishevari that a sophisticated Azerbaijani loyalty of Azeris at home and abroad to the identity was developed in southern country. Azerbaijan. In this period, notions such as Among Azeris abroad, the creation of this Azerbaijani language, Azerbaijani nation, and state has also led to a greater sense of Azeri- Azerbaijani national homeland became based national identity. For example, groups prevalent. This changing and shifting nature of and individuals living in Canada issued a identity formations among the Azeris confirms statement calling on all Azeris there to identify the postmodern and postcolonial definition of themselves on the 2006 Census Questionnaire identity in the sense that identities are not

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necessarily fixed and unchanging Diversity: Aryanist Racism, Islamic phenomena.51 Fundamentalism, and Democratic Struggles As the Republic of Azerbaijan becomes (Palgrave Macmillan, July 2007). more integrated into the world community, the prospect of accepting the Azerbaijani/Azeri designation becomes more practical in both NOTES southern and northern Azerbaijan. For all intents and purposes, the international community has already accepted “Azeri” 1 Brenda Shaffer, Borders and Brethren: Iran and/or “Azerbaijani” as the legitimate and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity ethnic/linguistic/cultural/national identity of (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002), p. xii. the Azerbaijani people. Compared to their 2 In this article, as in contemporary scholarly rival terms such as Turk, Azerbaijani-Turk, literature, the terms “Azeri” and “Azerbaijani” and Iranian-Turk, the “Azeri” and are used interchangeably to represent the “Azerbaijani” designations are more inclusive, majority Turkic-speaking population living in more familiar, and much more transparent. the northern Republic of Azerbaijan and in This makes them suitable identity categories southern Azerbaijan--the northwestern section for the twenty-first century. of Iran--as well as in the diaspora. The term Azerbaijani also indicates non-Turkic citizens CONCLUSION of the Republic of Azerbaijan as well as the non-Turkic residents of southern Azerbaijan In the modern world, identities are who may choose to identify as Azerbaijanis. articulated within a variety of shifting social, 3 M.T. Zehtabi, Iran Turklerinin Eski Tarixi political, economic, cultural, and discursive (Tebriz: Artun, 1999). contexts. Such understandings can and often 4 Rahim Rayees-Nia, Azerbaijan dar Seir-e do have exclusionary consequences, Tarikh-e Iran, 2 volumes (Tabriz: Nima particularly in pluralistic environments. Publishers, 1990). For this case, there are multiple identities 5 Audrey L. Altestadt, The Azerbaijani Turks: of Azerbaijan which continue to oscillate, Power and Identity under Russian Rule conditioned by the experiences of individuals, (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1992); groups, and communities. Such identity R.G. Suny (ed.), : categories as “Turk,” “Iranian-Turk,” “Azeri,” and Social Change: Essays in the History of and “Azerbaijani” are based on different Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia (Ann social, cultural, political, and economic Arbor: Michigan Slavic Publications, 1983). conditions in Iran, in the Republic of 6 Keith Hitichins, "The Caucasian Albanies Azerbaijan, and in the Azeri diaspora. A local and the Arab Caliphate in the Seventh and version of a “Turkic” identity has been Eighth Centuries," in R. Savory (ed.), Iran forming in Iran since the 1978-1979 under the Safavids. (Cambridge: Cambridge revolution, in reaction to non-Iranian identities University Press, 1980), p. 4. of Turk and Azerbaijani, on the one hand, and 7 Vladimir Minorsky, A History of Sharwan to exclusionary definitions of Persian primacy and Darband in the 10th-11th Centuries on the other. Simultaneously, a more flexible, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, inclusive “Azerbaijani” identity has been 1958). evolving in the Republic of Azerbaijan. 8 Richard W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (: University of Pittsburgh Press, *Alireza Asgharzadeh teaches the sociology of 1979). knowledge, the sociology of education, and 9 Javad Heyat, “Regression of Azeri Language comparative educational systems in the and Literature under the Oppressive Department of Sociology at York University. Period of Pahlavi,” paper prepared in advance His latest book is Iran and the Challenge of for participants of The First International

16 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 11, No. 4 (December 2007) Alireza Asgharzadeh

Conference on Turkic Studies, (Indiana 20 Asgharzadeh, “The Rise and Fall of South University: May 19-22, 1983); Javad Heyat, Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.” “Azerbaycanin Adi ve Serhedleri,” Varliq, 21 Sakina Berengian, Azeri and Persian Vol. 15, No. 90 (1993), pp. 3-13; Alireza Literary Works in Twentieth Century Asgharzadeh, Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijan (New York: New York University Diversity: Islamic Fundamentalism, Aryanist Press, 1992), p. 19. Racism, and Democratic Struggles (New 22 Ibid. York: Palgrave Macmillan, July 2007). 23 Heyat, “Regression of Azeri Language,” p. 10 Shaffer, Borders and Brethren; 14. Asgharzadeh, Iran and the Challenge of 24 Kamran Mehdi, Edebiyyat ve Incesenet Diversity. (Baku: ChicheklerYayini, 1980). 11 This section on Azeri literature is a revised 25 Asgharzadeh, “The Rise and Fall of South version of part of the author’s article entitled, Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.” “The Rise and Fall of South Azerbaijan 26 Berengian, Azeri and Persian Literary Democratic Republic (1945-46): A Look at Works. Hegemony, Racism, and Center-Periphery 27 Heyat, “Regression of Azeri Language.” Relations in Contemporary Iran” (2000), 28 Mohammed Hossein Shahryar, published online at the Virtual Azerbaijan Heydarbabaya Salam (Tabriz, 1957). website: 29 Alireza Asgharzadeh, “Islamic http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:0LbLq47 Fundamentalism, Globalization, and 9fEJ:www.zerbaijan.com/azeri/AlirezaAsghar Migration: New Challenges for Canada,” in zadeh.htm+alireza+asgharzadeh%2Bthe+rise+ Rose Folson (ed.), Calculated Kindness: and+fall&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1. Global Restructuring, Immigration and Some parts of this section have also been used Settlement in Canada (Halifax: Fernwood by Wikipedia, under the heading “Azerbaijani Publishing, 2004), pp. 130-50. Literature:” 30 Asghar Fathi (ed.), Iranian Refugees and http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aze Exiles Since Khomeini (California: Mazda rbaijani_literature&diff=52451658&oldid=52 Publishers, 1991); Asgharzadeh, “Islamic 451375. Fundamentalism, Globalization, and 12 Zehtabi, Iran Turklerinin Eski Tarixi; Migration.” Heyat, “Regression of Azeri Language.” 31 Mahmood Kashgari, Divan Lugat et-Turk, 13 E.M. Demircizade, Kitab-i Dede Korkut translation by M. Siyaqi, (: Dastanlarinin Dili (Baku: 1959); Geoffrey Pajuheshgah-e Olum-e Ensani ve Motaleat-e Lewis (ed.), The Farhangi, 1073/1996). (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974). 32 A.N. Kononov, Opit analiza termina 14 Demircizade, Kitab-i Dede Korkut; Lewis, “Turk,” (SE, No 1, 1947); Zehtabi, Iran The Book of Dede Korkut. Turklerinin Eski Tarixi. 15 Mohammedali Farzaneh, Dede Qorqud 33 Chafi Javadi, Tabriz ve Piramun (Tehran: (Tehran: Entsharat-e Farzaneh, 1978). Nahsr-e Diba, 1971); Enayetullah Reza, Iran 16 R.F.K. Burrill, The Quatrains of Nesimi: va Turkan dar Ruzgar-e Sasanian (Tehran: Fourteenth-Century Turkic Hurufi (The Sherket-e Entsharat-e Elmi va Farhangi, Hague: Mouton, 1972), p. 87. 1986). 17 M.F. Koprulu, Azeri Edebiyati (Istanbul, 34 Asgharzadeh, Iran and the Challenge of 1958), p. 118. Diversity. 18 Muharrem Ergin, Turk Dili ve Edebiyati 35 Alireza Asgharzadeh, “The Anatomy of Dergisi (November 1950), p. 287. Iranian Racism: Reflections on the Root 19 Javad Heyat, Azerbaycan Edebiyyat Causes of South Azerbaijan’s Resistance Tarixine bir Baxish (Tehran: Sazman-e Chap-e Movement,” Baku Today, May 28, 2006, Khajeh, 1990). http://www.bakutoday.net/view.php?d=21507.

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36 Alireza Nazmi-Afshar, “Sokhani ba http://www.cfr.org/publication/10547/convers mardom-e Azerbaijan Janubi,” Shams Tabriz, ation_with_ilham_aliyev_rush_transcript_fede May 13, 2006, ral_news_service_inc.html. http://www.shamstabriz.com/nazmi- 47 Ibid. name.htm. 48 “Hamvatanan-e Aziz-e Azerbaijani,” Shams 37 G.B. Lanfranchi and S. Parpola (eds.), State Tabriz News, May 9, 2006, p.1, Archives of Assyiría, Vol. V, The http://www.shamstabriz.com/kanada- Correspondence of Sargon II: Letters from the sarsomary.htm. Northern and Northeastern Provinces 49 “Hamvatanan-e Eziz.” (Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus 50 Mahammed Amin Resulzade, Azerbaijan Project, 1990). Problemi (Ankara: Azerbaycan Kultur 38 Lanfranchi and Parpola, State Archives of DernekiYayinlari, 1920/1996). ; Firidun Agasioglu, Azer Xalqi 51 See for example, Salman Rushdie, (Baki:Chashioglu Neshriyyati, 2000), pp. 16- Imaginary Homelands (London: 17. Granta/Penguin, 1991); Homi Bhabha, Nation 39 See for example Ibn Howqal, Surat al-Arz and Narration, (London: Routledge, 1990); [Face of the Earth], J. Shoar (ed.) (Tehran: Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture, -e Farhang-e Iran, 1966); A.A. al- (London: Routledge, 1994); Gayatri Mas’udi, Kitab al-Tanbih wal-Ishraf, Chakravorty Spivak, A Critique of Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, VIII, Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the M.J. de Goeje (ed.) (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1894); Vanishing Present (Cambridge: Harvard S. al-Muqaddasi, Ahsan ut-Taqasim fi University Press, 1999); Edward Said, Ma’rifat ul-Aqalim, Bibliotheca (New York: Vintage Books, Geographorum Arabicorum, M.J. de Geoje 1979). (ed.), (M.J. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1906); Yaqut Hamavi, Kitab Mo’jam al-Buldan, Vol. 1, F. Wustenfeld (ed.) (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1866). 40 Hamavi, Kitab Mo’jam, p. 102. 41 M. Khalaf-Tabrizi, Borhan-e Qate’, M. Moin (ed.) (Tehran: Ibn-e Sina, 1983), p. 24. 42 Mahmood Afshar, “Aghaznameh”Ayendeh, Vol. 1, No. 1, (1925), pp. 5-6. 43 Joseph Marquaurt, Eransahr nach der Geographie des Ps. Moses Xorenac’i (Berlin: Weidmann, 1901); Gordon V. Childe, The Aryans: A Study of Indo-European Origins (London: Kegan Paul, 1926). 44 Asgharzadeh, Iran and the Challenge of Diversity. 45 , Tarikh-e Hejdah Saleh-ye Azerbaijan (Tehran: Taban, 1941); Ahmad Kasravi, Azeri ya Zaban-e Bastan-e Azerbaigan, (Tehran: Taban, 1938); Ahmad Kasravi, Shahryaran-e Gomnam, (Tehran, 1929); Yahya Zaka, Maqalat-e Kasravi, (Tehran: Nahsr-e Danesh, 1955). 46 Ilham Aliev, “A Conversation with Ilham Aliyev,” Federal News Service, April 26, 2006,

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