Ground Penetrating Radar and Geomorphic Analysis of Paleo Beach Ridges in Lorain County, Ohio

Home , Lake Maumee, Lake Warren, Lake Whittlesey

GROUND PENETRATING RADAR AND GEOMORPHIC ANALYSIS OF PALEO BEACH RIDGES IN LORAIN COUNTY, OHIO

A thesis submitted To Kent State University in partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts

Christopher R. Nitzsche

May, 2013

Thesis written by Christopher R. Nitzsche B.S., Kent State University, 2002 M.A., Kent State University, 2013

Approved by

______Mandy Munro-Stasiuk, Advisor

______Mandy Munro-Stasiuk, Chair, Department of Geography

______Raymond Craig, Associate Dean, College of Arts and Sciences

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………. 7 2.1 Bedrock Geology………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7 2.2. Preglacial drainage networks…………………………………………………………………………………… 9 2.3 Wisconsin Glacial History of the Great Lakes Region…..……………………………………………. 10 2.3.1 Pre-late Wisconsinan Glaciations………………………………………………………………….... 12 2.3.2 Late Wisconsinan Glaciation……………………………………………………………………………. 13 2.4. Paleo Lake Erie………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 16 2.5. Lake Erie and its contemporary coastal environment………………………………………………. 22

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24 3.2 Subsurface Structural Imaging using GPR…………………………………………………………………. 24 3.2.1 Applications of GPR in subsurface imaging……………………………………………………… 24 3.2.2 Basic principles of GPR in subsurface imaging ………………………………………………. 24 3.2.3 GPR system description…………………………………………………………………………………… 27 3.2.4 GPR Data Collection……………………………………………………………………………...... 28 3.3 Geomorphic Analysis of DEMS………………………………………………………………………………….. 30 3.3.1 Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) high resolution DEM data………………………... 30 3.4 DEM Data Processing and Interpretation………………………………………………………………….. 33

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS AND RESULTS OF GPR AND LIDAR DATA……………………………………………. 34 4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34 4.2 Identification of Radar Facies……………………………………………………………………………………. 35 4.2.1 Common Reflectors of Non-Glacial or Lacustrine Origin………………………………….. 35 4.2.2 Common Radar Facies…………………………………………………………………………………….. 41 4.3 GPR Reflection Profiles…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42 4.3.1 GPR Reflection Profile 00…………………………………………………………………………………. 43 4.3.2 GPR Reflection Profile 01…………………………………………………………………………………. 48 4.3.3 GPR Reflection Profile 02…………………………………………………………………………………. 50 4.3.4 GPR Reflection Profile 03…………………………………………………………………………………. 51 4.3.5 GPR Reflection Profile 04…………………………………………………………………………………. 52 4.3.6 GPR Reflection Profile 05…………………………………………………………………………………. 52 4.4 Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56

CHAPTER 5: DEM ANALYSIS OF PALAEO-COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY…………………………………. 57 5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………...... 57 5.2 Identification of Paleo-coastal features from Lidar-derived DEMs………………………….... 57 5.2.1 Glacial Lake Maumee Stage…………………………………………………………………………….. 60 5.2.2 Glacial Lake Whittlesey Stage………………………………………………………………………….. 66

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5.2.3 Glacial Lake Warren Stage……………………………………………………………………………….. 69 5.3. Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 69

CHAPTER 6: RECONSTRUCTED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS ……………………………………………………. 71 6.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 71 6.2 Reconstruction of shoreline conditions…………………………………………………………………….. 71 6.2.1 Glacial Lake Maumee ……………………………………………………………………………………… 71 6.2.2 Glacial Lake Whittlesey …………………………………………………………………………………… 73 6.2.3 Glacial Lake Warren………………………………………………………………………………………… 75 6.3 Preservation of Palaeo Beach Ridges………………………………………………………………………… 79

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH…………………………………………………………….. 81 7.1 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 81 7.2 Future Research……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 82

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Glacial Map of Northwestern Ohio (Modified from ODNR, Glacial Map of Ohio)………………………………………………..…………………………………...... 2 Figure 1.2 Generalized Beach Ridges of the Glacial Lakes in North Central Ohio (Forsyth, 1959)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3 Figure 1.3 Modified OGRIP image of Study Area showing ridges in red and the site location within Ohio………………………………………………………………………………………. 5 Figure 2.1 Siltsones and shale exposed along the Vermillion River at Bacon Woods in the Lorain County Metroparks……………………………………………………………………… 8 Figure 2.2 Sandstone exposed in an abandoned quarry along Quarry Rd. in Amherst, OH……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 8 Figure 2.3 Geologic Map of north-western Ohio modified from ODNR. The black arrow indicates the location and trend of the axis of the Findlay Arch……………………… 9 Figure 2.4 Modified Teays River Map from ODNR…………………………………………………………… 11 Figure 2.5 Teays River Map modified from fullerton, 1986……………………………………………… 11 Figure 2.6 Modified Table of Wisconsinan Ages Based on Oxygen Isotopes (Fullerton, 1986)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12 Figure 2.7 Modified Late Wisconsinan glacial advance with study Area (Fullerton, 1986)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14 Figure 2.8 Grooves exposed in dolostone at Kelleys Island State Park, Oh……………………… 16 Figure 2.9 History of the Great Lakes. Numbers refer to each of the main glacial lobes which are: 1. The Superior Lobe; 2. The Chippewa Lobe; 3. The Green Bay Lobe; 4. The Michigan Lobe; 5. The Saginaw Lobe; and 6. The Huron‐Erie Lobe. (Images modified from http://www.geo.msu.edu/geo333)...... 17 Figure 2.10 Modified from Forsyth (1959) showing paleo-Lake Erie exposed beach levels marked with red X’s in regards to the study area; units are in feet above sea level……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18 Figure 2.11 Modified from Forsythe (1959) illustrating lake level, radiometric age, chronology, elevation of ridge, and geologic reason for change in level………… 19 Figure 2.12 Paleoshorelines of the Great Lakes (Larson et al. 2001)…………………………………. 19

Figure 2.13 Paleo-lake stages of the Great Lakes Basin (Larson and Schaetzl, 2001)…………. 20 Figure 2.14 Dominant surface circulation patterns in Lake Erie (Saylor and Miller, 1987)…. 23

Figure 3.1 GPR system set up with components on the mobile cart……………………………… 27

Figure 3.2 GPR transect line locations…………………………………………………………………………… 29

Figure 3.3 Collecting GPR data along Middle Ridge Rd……………………………………………………. 29 Figure 3.4 Modified USGS image illustrating the basic components of an airborne lidar ranging system including the laser altimeter, instruments to position 32

location, and down-looking digital camera…………………………………………………… Figure 4.1 Location of GPR lines in the study area (Baumhart Road is the north/south trending road that crosses multiple beach ridges. State Highway 2 is to the north and the Ohio Turnpike is to the south)…………………………………………………. 34 Figure 4.2 Terminology to define and describe radar surfaces, radar packages and radar facies modified from Neal 2004……………………………………………………………………… 36 Figure 4.3 Modified chart that relates GPR reflection configurations to the stratigraphic and lithologic properties of sediments in glaciated terrain (Haeni, 1988)………. 37 Figure 4.4 Common air wave, road surface, and underlying road bed found in radar profiles in the study area. Depth and length is in meters……………………………… 38 Figure 4.5 Common air wave and ground wave reflection that is displayed in the upper most portions of radar grams collected in fields in the study area. Depth is in meters……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39 Figure. 4.6 Generalized Diagram of a Pipe Signature: GPR Record (300 MHz) Showing a Hyperbola from a Buried Pipe, and Computation of Depth and Velocity from that Target. Taken from ASTM D6432, 2011…………………………………………………… 40 Figure 4.7 Common symmetrical parabolic reflectors observed in the reflection profiles that are interpreted as foundations, reinforcement bars (rebar), cables, pipes, tanks, drums, and/or tunnels……………………………………………………………… 41 Figure 4.8 Reflection configurations commonly found in the GPR data in the study area along with potential interpretations for coastal environments………………………. 42 Figure 4.9 Radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd between St Rte 90 and St Rte 2 heading north with intersecting roads labeled………………………………………………. 43 Figure 4.10 View northward of beach ridges along radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd at the intersection with Middle Ridge Rd……………………………………………………… 44 Figure 4.11 View northward of beach ridges along radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd approximately 200 meters north of the intersection with Middle Ridge Rd…… 44 Figure 4.12 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd between St Rte 90 and St Rte 2 heading north with glacial lakes stages labeled……………… 45 Figure 4.13 Location of detailed profile images………………………………………………………………… 45 Figure 4.14 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 00: 900 meters to 1210 meters……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 46 Figure 4.15 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 00: 2440 meters to 2670 meters……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 47 Figure 4.16 View northward off the front side of the glacial Lake Warren stage beach ridge along radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd at the intersection with Whittlesey Rd………………………………………………………………………………………………... 47 Figure 4.17 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 00: 2440 meters to 2820 meters……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 48 Figure 4.18 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 01: 1400 meters, collected east to west on Whittlesey Rd……………………………………………………………………………….. 49 Figure 4.19 View westward on radar reflection Line 01 collected parallel across the top side of a beach ridge under Whittlesey Rd……………………………………………………. 50 Figure 4.20 Topographically corrected radar Line 02: East to West on North Ridge Rd Lake Whittlesey……………………………………………………………………………………………… 50 vi

Figure 4.21 Topographically corrected radar Line 03: North to South in a farm field off North Ridge Rd to the west of Baumhart……………………………………………………..... 50 Figure 4.22 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 04: East to West on Middle Ridge Rd…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 52 Figure 4.23 View southward down the back side of the glacial Lake Warren stage beach ridge parallel to radar transect Line 05 on the farm access rd. south of Jerusalem Rd………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 54 Figure 4.24 View eastward along the top side of the glacial Lake Warren stage beach ridge perpendicular to radar transect Line 05 from the farm access rd. south of Jerusalem Rd……………………………………………………………………………………………… 54 Figure 4.25 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 05: 340 meters to 0 meters on a farm access rd. south of Jerusalem Rd………………………………………………………… 55 Figure 4.26 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 05: 266 meters to 210 meters……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55 Figure 5.1 Loraine county DEM…………………………………………………………………...... 58 Figure 5.2 Common features present along the palaeo coastlines: A. Barrier Beaches; B. Spits; C. Cuspate forelands…………………………………………………………………………….. 59 Figure 5.3 Loraine county DEM with geomorphic features traced (modified from OGRIP)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 61 Figure 5.4 Simplified diagram of glacial and coastal features present in Loraine county. (modified from OGRIP)…………………………………………………………………………………… 62 Figure 5.5 Paleo-shorelines flooded to the levels of the highest stand (A) (Maumee) and next highest stand (B) (Whittlesey) (C) lowest known stand (D) (Warren) and the modern shoreline as a comparison…………………...... 63 Figure 5.6 Flooded lake stages at the site of GPR data collection (oldest to youngest). GPR shown superimposed on D……………………………………………………………………... 65 Figure 5.7 DEM of a sand spit, coastal lagoon, and estuary features present in Lorain county……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 67 Figure 5.8 Long Point spit on Lake Erie……………………………………………………………………………. 68 Figure 5.9 DEM of a prograding beach ridge complex associated with glacial Lake Warren circled. Radar profile Line 05 can be seen in the center of the image crossing the complex……………………………………………………………………………………... 70 Figure. 6.1 Presence of major moraines in the Lake Erie Basin (Modified from www.ngdc.noaa.gov)...... 73 Figure 6.2 Possible buried beach berm (C) with onlapping sediments of Glacial Lake Whittlesey……………………………………………………………………………………………………... 74 Topographically corrected radar Line 03: North to South in a farm field off Figure 6.3 North Ridge Rd to the west of Baumhart………………………………………………………...... 74 Figure 6.4 Modified generalized diagram indicating migration of beach ridges (Nichol, 2002) showing highlighting progradational succession of facies. Not to scale………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 75 Figure 6.5 Modified image (Winchell-Sweeney, 2003) showing the location of glacial Lake Warren’s stages with-in the study area…………………………………………………. 76

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Figure 6.6 Radar Line 05: This transect line is oriented lakeward and Line Lake Warren beach or Dune Complex………………………………………………………………………………… 77 Figure 6.7 Lake Warren beach complex is circled…………………………………………………………… 77 Figure 6.8 Subset of Line 05 that was selected to show more detail in the reflectors. Interpretations of the reflectors are as follows A is dune or swash zone deposits, B is a washover delta and C is washover sheet deposits…………………. 78 Figure 6.9 Modified summary schematic from Neal (2004) that illustrates the development of a Chenier ridge…………………………………………………………………….. 79

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Acknowledgments

First and foremost I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Mandy Munro-Stasiuk who provided me with the guidance to successfully complete this research. Her knowledge, expertise, and patience were instrumental in my success. I would like to thank my family for the support and encouragement to pursue higher academic achievements. I would also like to thank my committee members Dr. Shmidlin and Dr. Sheridan for their help along the way.

Thank you to my Kent State geology professors for inspiring me to be a geologist and ultimately pursue a graduate degree in earth science. It was a privilege to be able to utilize modern technologies to improve upon Jane Forsyth and many others research in delineating the paleo environment in Northern Ohio. In this day and age of increasing climatic change it is so vital to understand the climate of the past to truly make informed and logical predictions about the state of our environment and to make decisions regarding a sustainable future for the generations of children who have yet to be born.

I would very much so like to thank every researcher who has ever spent time trying to understand this world we live in and then took the time to share that new knowledge with the rest of us. One of my greatest desires is that the quest for knowledge will continue into the future on a much larger scale with future generations exploring and mastering the unknown.

This requires the education and inspiration of all people so that they are willing to contribute and build upon the collective body of understanding. This need to understand, share, and make things better is what truly makes humans great.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Northern Ohio’s topography is much like that of the majority of the Great Lakes region, in that it has been directly shaped by multiple glaciations throughout the Pleistocene (Fullerton,

1986). The last of these glaciations, known as the Late Wisconsinan, ended around 14,800 years ago in Ohio, when the Erie Lobe of the Laurentide Ice Sheet retreated northeastward off of the mainland of Ohio and into what is now the Lake Erie Basin (Lowell, 1995). This lobe is directly responsible for the majority of the present day morphology of the landscape in northern Ohio which includes rolling and hummocky moraines, eskers, over-deepened valleys, streamlined hills, and raised shorelines and abandoned lake beds associated with high stands of paleo-Lake

Erie (Fig. 1.1).

While many researchers have studied the region’s glacial history (e.g. Tight, 1903;

Dreimanis, 1982; Lowell, 1995; Szabo, 1997), very little research has been undertaken to help understand the sequence of proglacial lakes and their influence on the landscape in northern

Ohio. Sediments identified as wave planed ground moraine and lake deposits have been mapped and can be seen in Figure 1.1 (medium blue and light blue respectively), and they represent higher stands of Lake Erie, over 60m higher than today (Forsythe, 1959). The most comprehensive work to date was undertaken by Jayne Forsythe (1959) who mapped raised beach ridges in north-central Ohio (Fig. 1.2). However, she presents little detail of the geomorphology, only maps the largest ridges, and presents nothing on the ridge depositional environment. This is because the tools and methods available at the time were limited to topographic maps and field-checking. Other than the beach ridges which are quite obvious on

Study area

Figure 1.1 Glacial Map of Northwestern Ohio (Modified from ODNR, Glacial Map of Ohio).

the ground, all other landforms blend into a seemingly flat landscape. There is therefore a significant gap in the research and literature, and our understanding of the coastal environments of paleo-Lake Erie. This research focuses on that gap with the major goal to gain a better understanding of post-glacial Lake Erie levels and their associated depositional environments.

It is likely that paleo coastal environments were very different from the modern Lake

Erie coastline as they only existed because the retreating Erie ice lobe acted as a dam trapping

Study area

Figure 1.2. Generalized Beach Ridges of the Glacial Lakes in North Central Ohio (Forsyth, 1959)

water in front of it in what is now the Erie watershed (Leverett and Taylor, 1915; Totten, 1985;

Fullerton, 1986; Larson et al., 2001). These coastal waters lapped up against higher more irregular terrains; the weather would have been quite different with cooler temperatures and harsh, cold katabatic winds sweeping off of the nearby Erie Lobe. Under these general conditions the new shorelines formed resulting in and created the beach ridges which, being raised above the surrounding flatlands, now have roads built on them.

There are several different conditions under which modern beach ridges can form: storm surges, long shore drift, or as wind-blown aeolian dunes, but currently we have no

understanding of which (or a combination thereof) of these processes occurred in the past.

Through ground penetrating radar (GPR) and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) analysis, a new geomorphic reconstruction of these environments is presented here.

The study area for this research is a broad swath between Brownhelm Township and the

City of Amherst in Lorain County, Ohio (Fig. 1.3). This was selected due to presence of three of the major sets of beach ridges (Maumee, Whittlesey, and Warren) in one area that are easily accessible because paved roads run along them and across them. This made GPR data collection relatively easy.

The main objectives of this research are therefore to:

1. Collect subsurface GPR reflection data, generate GPR profiles, and analyze those

profiles relative to known modern environments of deposition;

2. Interpret the subsurface structures and reconstruct the depositional environment of

palaeo Lake Erie at the study site;

3. Systematically map raised coastal features from high resolution DEMs in the study

area, and adjacent terrains in Lorain County;

4. Combine the sedimentology (GPR) and geomorphology (DEM) analysis to provide a

comprehensive reconstruction of palaeo-Lake Erie environments.

Importantly, advances in technology over the last few decades allow for a more complete analysis of glacial sediments and geomorphology in general, and in this case a better reconstruction of paleo-Lake Erie’s coastal environments. This study is important because the subsurface GPR data provides structural profiles that help us understand the deglacial environment as well as allow for testing GPR and geographic information system (GIS)

Figure 1.3. Modified OGRIP image of Study Area showing beach ridges in red and the site location within Ohio.

technologies on interpreting geomorphic features. Equally important is the fact that technological advances provided by GPR and GIS have greatly expanded the application potential of digital elevation models (DEMs) to many hydrologic, hydraulic, water resource and environmental investigations (Moore et al., 1991). The availability of new technologies allows for a structural/sedimentological analysis that will illustrate a correlation of the complex subsurface sediment assemblages in northern Ohio with respect to the genesis of the modern topography.

The remainder of this thesis will be divided into the following chapters:

Chapter 2: Background and Literature Review. This chapter will provide the

framework for the rest of the thesis;

Chapter 3: Methodology. This will look at the GPR method as well as DEM analysis;

Chapter 4: Ground Penetrating Radar Analysis and Results. This chapter will present

the data and interpretations of the GPR profiles;

Chapter 5: Geomorphology of the Palaeo-coastal Environment. This chapter will

present a GIS analysis of high resolution DEMs in the study area;

Chapter 6: Reconstructed Coastal Environments. This chapter will discuss both the

GPR and geomorphology analysis and provide some conclusions as the nature of the

coastal environment during deposition.

Chapter 7: Conclusions. This chapter will summarize the findings, discuss

limitations, and provide a direction for future work.

CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter discusses the background of the study area in terms of bedrock geology, preglacial conditions, glacial history, palaeo-lake history, and contemporary lake conditions.

2.1 Bedrock Geology

The bedrock geology is regionally important, as all subsequent sedimentation and erosion was strongly influenced by the geographic extent of the underlying older Paleozoic rocks, as well as the structures contained within them. At the surface Northern Ohio consists of middle to late Paleozoic aged shallow marine siltstones (Fig. 2.1) evaporites, and sandstones

(Figure 2.2) due to successive advance and retreats of the Iapetus Ocean, or Proto-Atlantic

Ocean (Feldmann et al., 1977). Some of the more erosion resistant sandstones have been left as erosional remnants on the modern landscape while the siltstones have been eroded down significantly by advancing ice during glacial times.

The dominant structure in North-West Ohio is the north-east oriented Findlay Arch which is an anticlinal feature in which the oldest rocks in the region are exposed along its axis and are progressively younger to the east and west away from its axis (Fig. 2.3). Glacial ice was directed down the center of the arch in the form of the Miami Lobe of the Laurentide Ice Sheet.

Figure 2.1. Siltsones and shale exposed along the Vermillion River at Bacon Woods in the Lorain County Metroparks.

Figure 2.2 Sandstone exposed in an abandoned quarry along Quarry Rd. in Amherst, OH.

Figure 2.3. Geologic Map of north-western Ohio modified from ODNR. The black arrow indicates the location and trend of the axis of the Findlay Arch.

2.2. Preglacial drainage networks

The pre-glacial drainage networks in Ohio were very different than those on the modern landscape. Zernitz (1932) suggested that modern drainage in areas subject to glaciation is so heavily influenced by surface sediments that there are no more surface indicators of the underlying structure of the bedrock. Thus the relationship that the underlying bedrock in northern Ohio has with the surface sediments that dictate the present drainage networks is poorly understood.

Prior to glaciation, Ohio’s drainage was dominated by the Teays River System which flowed northwesterly across Ohio and into Indiana, and the Erigan River System which flowed along what is now the Erie Basin and the Ontario Basin. Southward advances of the Laurentide

Ice Sheet during the last glaciation blocked the flow of both, resulting in the formation of large lakes in the valley systems, which were subsequently overridden by the advancing ice. Thus sediments are dominated by both lake sediments and glacial till (Hansen, 1987).

The Teays River system dominated approximately two-thirds of Ohio’s drainage system.

It was created near the end of the Tertiary (Tight, 1903) and had its headwaters in what is modern day North Carolina. The Teays course flowed northward through Virginia, and West

Virginia in to Ohio, then through to Indiana, and Illinois (Figs 2.4 and 2.5). The Erigan River, important for the formation of Lake Erie, is evidenced by drainage channels buried under the surface sediments (Stout et al. 1943). It provided an outlet valley for the Erie Lobe of the last glaciation to move through. The channelization of ice would have deepened and broadened the

Erigan River Valley leading to the formation of the modern Lake Erie Basin.

2.3. Wisconsin Glacial history of the Great Lakes Region

The glacial history of the Great Lakes region is much more complex than previously assumed by early researchers who believed that North America was only affected by four major glacial advances (Fullerton, 1986). Significant research has been undertaken in recent decades to better understand this history, especially in the Great Lakes region (e.g. Totten 1985; Szabo and Bruno 1997; Larsen et al., 2001; and Mothersill and Schurer 2003).

Figure 2.4. Modified Teays River Map from ODNR.

Figure 2.5. Teays River Map Modified from Fullerton, 1986.

In general most researchers still discuss the Wisconsinan as subdivided into three parts: early, middle, and late (Fig. 2.6). Very little geomorphic or sedimentary evidence exists for the Early and Middle Wisconsinan in Ohio.

Informal Time Division Age (yr) 10,000 Late 35,000 Wisconsinan Middle 65,000 Early 79,000

Figure 2.6. Modified Table of Wisconsinan Ages Based on Oxygen Isotopes (Fullerton, 1986.)

The Laurentide Ice sheet extended over a width of 4,400 km across the northern conterminous United States (Richmond and Fullerton, 1986) at its glacial maximum during the latest Wisconsinan and spread into the Great Lakes region as a series of lobes. In the Great

Lakes region, the Laurentide Ice Sheet region has commonly been divided into 6 distinct lobes based on the modern names of the basins in which they moved. The lobe names are, from east to west, the Ontario Lobe, the Ontario-Erie Lobe, the Huron-Erie Lobe, the Huron Lobe, the Lake

Michigan Lobe, and the Green Bay Lobe.

Each Lobe covered a distinct region carving out features and leaving behind tills that are comprised of sand, gravel, and glacial lake deposits. These tills are typically unsorted matrix- supported sediments that often contain clues as to their specific origin in relation to advancing, stagnating, and retreating ice.

2.3.1 Pre-late Wisconsinan Glaciations

The early Wisconsinan (also known as the Altonian) is poorly understood primarily because subsequent advances destroyed or reworked much of the earlier glacial evidence.

Fullerton (1986) noted that early Wisconsinan Huron-Erie lobe tills (Whitewater Till, Mogadore

Till and Millbrook Till) are present in south-eastern Indiana and southwestern Ohio but are not present in northern Ohio, in the current study area. The middle Wisconsinan (also known as the

Farmdalian) left evidence in the form of tills in Illinois and Michigan, but again, even though the ice would have advanced into northern Ohio, there is no physical evidence in the form of sediments (Johnson, 1986).

2.3.2 Late Wisconsinan Glaciation

The Late Wisconsinan (also known as the Woodfordian) spans from 35,000 years ago to

10,000 years ago with a glacial maximum in the Great Lakes area at approximately 20,000 years ago (Richmond and Fullerton, 1986). The Huron-Erie lobe affected Ohio, and is subdivided into sublobes named East White, Miami, Scioto, and Killbuck, and Grand River Lobes based on morphologic and compositional data (Fullerton 1986; Szabo et al., 2006). Early in the late

Wisconsinan around 20-21,000 BP ice streamed down from the north in a southerly direction the Lake Michigan, Huron-Erie, Huron, and Ontario-Erie lobes (Fig. 2.7).

Later the Huron-Erie lobe advanced southerly through the Huron basin north of Lake St.

Clair where it was then diverted westerly by the concurrently advancing Ontario-Erie lobe.

SCIOTO MIAMI SUBLOBE SUBLOBE

Figure 2.7. Modified Late Wisconsinan Glacial Advance with Sudy Area (Fullerton, 1986.). The superimposed square marks the study area.

The earliest late Wisconsinan advance occurred approximately 21,000 BP (Fullerton,

1986), and radiocarbon dates collected by Lowell (1995) suggests that in the study area a glacial maximum occurred around 19,600 BP and that by 14,000 BP most of Ohio was ice free.

Fullerton (1986) noted that the earliest late Wisconsinan advance of the Ontario-Erie ice margin is recorded by intense ice-thrust deformation of early Wisconsinan Titusville Till as well as well as gravel deposits and loess south of Cleveland, Ohio. He dated wood in a palaeosol in the loess that predates the advance and obtained an age of approximately 28,000 BP.

Fullerton (1986) also said that this advance is inferred to have reached the Alleghany Plateau margin south of Cleveland, Ohio.

In the eastern Erie basin ice re-advanced around 15.5 ka BP (Fullerton, 1986) during the

Port Bruce stade. This re-advance incorporated the Ordovician and Devonian shales, as well as the interstadial lacustrine clays into the Hiram and Lavery tills in northeast Ohio (Szabo and

Bruno, 1997). After the initial recession of the Erie-Ontario lobe and the formation of glacial

Lake Maumee I (see below) in the western portion of the basin the ice re-advanced and deposited the Ashtabula till (Fullerton, 1986). A major re-advance by the Ontario-Erie lobe occurred approximately 14.8 ka BP (Fullerton 1986) which had a more westerly trend in the Erie basin. Mothersill and Schurer (2003) dated the last advance into the Eastern Erie basin at 13 ka

BP based on an examination of lithology, paleomagnetic and Mossbauer Effect Spectroscopy log data taken in the western portion of the Erie basin.

As well as glacial deposits, the presence of grooves and s-forms in carbonate rocks in

North-Western Ohio are further evidence of the complex glacial and glacio-fluvial history of the region during deglaciation (Figure 2.8). Munro-Stasiuk et al. (2005) suggest that based on radiocarbon dating from Lowell (1995) the formation of grooves and s-forms is somewhere between 25 ka BP and 14 ka BP years ago and were the result of enormous volumes of water moving subglacial under the Erie Lobe.

Figure 2.8. Grooves exposed in dolostone at Kelleys Island State Park, Oh.

2.4 Paleo Lake Erie

Current lake levels in the Erie basin currently have three controls: postglacial isostatic rebound, regional hydrological and climatic changes, and to a lesser extent, long-term neotectonic movements. All of the Great Lakes have undergone a complex history of lake level fluctuations and periods of stability dating back to the close of the Pleistocene. This is mostly related to the changing configurations of the retreating ice mass which acted as a dam (Fig. 2.9) as well as the position of channels and spillways that controlled lake levels and the pattern of drainage. The greatest evidence for lake level fluctuations is in the form of beach gravels deposited around the coasts of these higher lakes. Figure 2.10 shows the elevation of these deposits in Ohio as mapped by Forsythe (1959) with the major stages in the study area are Lake

Figure 2.9. History of the Great Lakes. Numbers refer to each of the main glacial lobes which are: 1. The Superior Lobe; 2. The Chippewa Lobe; 3. The Green Bay Lobe; 4. The Michigan Lobe; 5. The Saginaw Lobe; and 6. The Huron‐Erie Lobe. (Images modified from http://www.geo.msu.edu/geo333).

Figure 2.10. Modified from Forsyth (1959) showing paleo-Lake Erie exposed beach levels marked with red X’s in regards to the study area; units are in feet above sea level.

Maumee I, II, and III, Lake Whittlesey, Lake Arkona, and Lake Warren (Figs. 2.11 and 2.12).

Fullerton noted that there were two major proglacial lakes that existed in Ohio during deglaciation: Glacial Lake Maumee at around 13,800 years BP and Glacial Lake Whittlesey at around 12,500 years BP. There were several other lake levels as evidenced by the numerous beach ridges and lake floors that are in and around the study site for this thesis.

The first major proglacial lake in the region was Glacial Lake Leverett, formed in the Erie

Basin about 16,000 years ago (Larson and Schaetzl, 2001). This lake was a little lower than modern Lake Erie, and occupied the entire basin. It drained to the east over the Niagara

Escarpment into the series of river channels in front of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and ultimately out to the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 2.13A). The ice readvanced half way up Lake Erie and destroyed much of the evidence of Glacial Lake Leverett. A new lake, Glacial Lake Maumee, formed at approximately 14 ka BP (Fig. 2.13B) (Larson and Schaetzl, 2001). This lake was significantly deeper, at least 60m higher than current Erie levels (Forsyth, 1959) (Fig. 2.11) and drained west towards Indiana and eventually into the Ohio River (Larson and Schaetzl, 2001). As the water levels in this lake increased, a new short-lived channel opened north towards Lake Huron but

Figure 2.11. Modified from Forsythe (1959) illustrating lake level, radiometric age, chronology, elevation of ridge, and geologic reason for change in level.

Figure 2.12: Paleoshorelines of the Great Lakes (Larson and Schaetzl, 2001)

Figure 2.13 Paleo-lake stages of the Great Lakes Basin (Larson and Schaetzl, 2001).

was soon blocked by advancing ice, forcing drainage back towards Indiana (Larson and Schaetzl,

2001). Evidence of Glacial Lake Maumee is easily observed via the presence of raised beach ridges.

Lake Maumee continued to expand in area as the ice sheet retreated further north and lasted for approximately 500 years when it joined with Glacial Lake Saginaw near the eastern border of Michigan to form glacial Lake Arkona (Larson and Schaetzl, 2001). Eventually, the ice retreated enough to open an outlet into the Ontario basin, allowing water to flow over the

Niagara Escarpment significantly dropping water levels below current Erie levels to form the short-lived glacial Lake Ypsilanti (Larson and Schaetzl, 2001) (Fig. 2.13D). A slight glacial re- advance at 13 ka BP years ago again closed off the outlets for Lake Ypsilanti raising lake levels to form Glacial Lake Whittlesey. Taking much of the same drainage pattern as Lake Maumee, it drained north into Michigan and then west into glacial Lake Saginaw in the Michigan Basin.

Mothersill and Schurer (2003) found glacio-lacustrine clays in much of the western and central portions of the Erie basin which they assumed to be Glacial Lake Whittlesey. Based on paleomagnetic drill cores from those sediments they suggested that ice finally receded out of the Erie basin about 12 ka BP years ago allowing waters to flow rapidly into the Ontario Basin resulting in a substantial drop in lake levels in the central and western parts of the Erie basin

(this is when Niagara Falls formed). The retreat of glacial ice from the Niagara area allowed for the deepening of the Niagara Gorge, due to Lake Erie draining entirely to the east through Lake

Ontario (Forsythe, 1959). Mothersill and Schurer (2003) made no mention of Glacial Lake

Warren which has been mapped by Forsythe (1959) and is evidenced by a major beach complex.

Therefore it is assumed that water levels simply dropped a little from Glacial Lake Whittlesey levels to Glacial Lake Warren levels.

Mothersill and Schurer (2003) also identified evidence for marshy conditions in depressions after a period of sub-aerial exposure and erosion of the former lake bottom and noted that the western basin of Erie was dry until at least 9.5 ka BP. This meant that the waters from Lake Huron basin bypassed Lake Erie through the Kirkfield outlet to Lake Ontario.

Mothersill and Schurer (2003) concluded that in the western portion of the Erie basin which previously was exposed became a shallow lacustrine environment due to stream drainage into that portion of the basin.

Approximately 4 ka BP years BP lake level was about 10m below that of the modern lake surface but rapidly rose by about as much as 6.5m about 2.6 ka BP when the upper Great Lakes began to drain into the Erie basin again following enough isostatic rebound (Fullerton, 1986).

Following this rapid rise there has been a continued slow rise of the water level that has brought

Lake Erie to its current mean level of 174m above sea level.

2.5 Lake Erie and its contemporary coastal environment

Lake Erie water levels are now relatively stable although they are known to fluctuate up to 2m in response to climatic variations over intervals of 10 to 30 years. This is of particular concern for erosion of areas of coastal bluffs that are composed of glacial till (Mickelson et al.,

2004). The most prominent processes currently occurring along the Erie shore is the erosion and transportation sediment by waves (Mickelson et al., 2004) due to large-scale surface currents that are present in Lake Erie. Several large spits exist on the modern Erie coastine

(Point Pelee, Presque Isle, Long Point) and these are all the product of longshore reworking of older glacial moraines with some superimposed aeolian activity (e.g. Davidson-Arnott and Van

Heyningen, 2003). Prominent currents in Lake Erie (Fig. 2.14) are also

Figure 2.14 Dominant surface circulation patterns in Lake Erie (Saylor and Miller, 1987).

responsible for the continual migration of sand across the mouth of Sandusky Bay, which is continuously dredged, and the formation of several bay beaches that are often breached by creek waters or by Lake Erie waters to form freshwater lagoons (e.g. Old Woman Creek)

(http://www.dnr.state.oh.us).

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This study is highly dependent on Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and Geographic

Information System (GIS) technologies and their use in high resolution Digital Elevation Model

(DEM) analysis. Both of these methods are discussed in detail in this chapter.

3.2 Subsurface Structural Imaging using GPR

3.2.1 Applications of GPR in subsurface imaging

GPR is a geophysical method used for imaging subsurface sediments and materials. The use of GPR is well suited for shallow sediment imaging of natural geologic materials near the ground surface and is especially well suited for the imaging of sorted sediments such as fluvial, glaciofluvial, aeolian, or coastal bar deposits (e.g. Froese et al., 2005; Moore et al., 1991). GPR has also been applied successfully to the study of glacier thickness, structure and bed configuration (e.g. Moorman and Michel, 2000), soil water content (Huisman et al., 2001), the structure of karst terrain (e.g. Chamberlain et al., 2000), dune deposits, and water table configuration (e.g. Doolittle et al., 2006; Turesson, 2006).

3.2.2 Basic principles of GPR in subsurface imaging

GPR utilizes interpretations of electromagnetic (EM) energy to generate images of structures, sediment and bedrock below the ground surface. Microwave bands of

electromagnetic radiation are delivered in pulses into the ground which can be absorbed, reflected or attenuated by the subsurface materials. A receiver records the signature and magnitude of the reflected microwave pulses. The pulses of electromagnetic waves emitted by

GPR systems, like all forms of energy, are subject to physical laws and principles of energy transfer which govern all matter. Physical properties of the subsurface materials in conjunction with the selected emitted frequencies determine the measurable strength, speed, reflection, and refraction of the transmitted EM energy. GPR measures the transfer time it takes for a signal to travel from the GPR unit on the surface to an underlying interface and back again. This transfer time can be used to make inferences regarding the physical properties and lithologic structures of the underlying materials based on the absorption, attenuation, and reflection of the EM waves. Subsurface structures and compositions can be identified based on the time and magnitude of the returned signals received by the GPR system. Significant variations in returned signatures are based on the underlying structures and subsequent physical properties of the materials. Velocity (υ) approximation of the EM waves in the subsurface can be obtained in accordance with Maxwell’s Laws:

-1 where c is the speed of light (0.3m ns ) and the relative dielectric constant is εr. The relative dielectric constant also known as the static relative permittivity, is an expression of the extent to which a material concentrates electric flux under given conditions. The relative dielectric constant is the most important physical parameter of the subsurface material being imaged

(Leckebusch, 2003). Due to the different physical properties of materials and subsequent different dielectric constants, emitting waves of EM will transfer through materials at

corresponding velocities. Reflection and refraction seismology is based on similar principles however, in the case of GPR, EM energy differs from the acoustic energy used in seismology in that reflections appear at boundaries with different static permittivities as opposed to differences in acoustic impedances.

Electrical conductivity of the ground and the transmitting frequency of a GPR system limits the effective depth range. Higher resolution results can be obtained by the use of higher frequencies. The depth of penetration is directly related to frequencies and the higher the frequency the shallower the penetration of EM. Although deeper penetration of EM into underlying materials can be expected with a lower frequency the resulting obtained image would have a lower resolution. Depth of EM penetration in dry sandy soils or massive dry materials such as limestone, concrete, and granite is optimal (Leckebusch, 2003). In moist and/or clay laden soils and soils with high electrical permittivity, penetration can be as little as a few centimeters. However, dependent upon antenna frequency and the physical properties of the material being studied with GPR, characterization of sediments and bedrock of up to almost

70 m in depth has been achieved (Smith and Jol, 1995).

In addition, detectable lithologic boundaries can be determined by GPR based on changes in composition and porosity of the underlying soil and bedrock. In soils, changes in compaction of depositional sequences modify porosity, resulting in changes in water content that are detectable. GPR is very successful at imaging structures in fresh water sands and gravels and it is very sensitive to changes in water chemistry, particularly soluble inorganic materials that change conductivity.

3.2.3 GPR system description

The system used for this study is the Pulse EKKO PRO, designed for glaciology, mineral exploration, geotechnical investigations. The system consists of a transmitter and receiver, interchangeable antennae of differing frequencies, a data logger, and a cart that all these components are attached to (Fig. 3.1). The cart can be slowly pushed along relatively flat surfaces. An odometer triggers the system to send a pulse of radar into the ground at set intervals. The mobility of the GPR on the cart allows for timely data collection in open areas, such as fields, and along public streets.

Data Logger

Transmitter

Receiver Wheel-triggered odometer

Antennae

Figure 3.1. GPR system set up with components on the mobile cart.

High resolution horizontal mapping of subsurface features and the creation of topographically corrected data was achieved due to an integrated GPS unit in the system. This allowed for seamless integration into GIS mapping software and high resolution mapping of subsurface features. The software used to examine the data was EKKO_View Deluxe which provides vertical data plotting capabilities either in color or as wiggle traces.

3.2.4 GPR Data Collection

Subsurface data was collected using GPR along survey lines which were run along roads, in this case, Middle Ridge, North Ridge, Whittelesey and Baumhart Roads (Fig. 3.2). The first three lines were along the top of ancient beach ridges recognized by Forsythe (1959), whereas the Baumhart road survey cross cut the Beach Ridges and crossed old raised lake plains.

Data were collected using 200 MHz shielded antenna with a trace interval of 0.1 m (the distance between each data point), and a time interval of 100 ns (Fig. 3.3). Profiles were located and topography was recorded using GPS referenced to the nearest control point.

Line_01

Line_05

Line_02

Line_03 Line_00

Line_04

Figure 3.2 GPR transect line locations.

Figure 3.3 Collecting GPR data along Middle Ridge Rd.

The data collected from the radar was processed and topographically corrected using

EKKO View Deluxe. The steps used for data processing were the same for each profile and consisted of:

‘De-wow’ correction - to remove bias in the GPR traces from low frequency.

‘Time-zero’ correction – to ensure proper topographic correction for all traces by

establishing a zero nanosecond start time

Migration – to remove diffractions, distortions, dip displacements, and out-of-line

reflections.

Topographic correction – to move the radar traces up or down correcting for

topographic variation along lines

Display with constant gain control function to boost weaker signals

A radar facies approach (Neal, 2004, and Jol and Bristow, 2003) was then used to examine each radargram.

3.3 Geomorphic Analysis of DEMS

3.3.1 Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) high resolution DEM data

The analysis of morphology using remote sensing was done with the use of high resolution (3m) DEM data obtained from the United States Geological Survey’s (USGS) National

Digital Elevation Program (NDEP). These were Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) derived datasets. Lidar is a technology similar in principal to GPR in that it is an active remote sensing data collection method. Data were collected by airplanes carrying the lidar instrument. Laser light pulses that sense the Earth’s surface and features are emitted to the Earth’s surface and the time that the signal takes to travel back to the sensor dictates the distance of the surface of

the Earth away from the receiver. The precise measurement of reflection time of transmitted laser light from the airplane to the ground and back to determine the distance from the aircraft to the ground surface below (USGS, 2002). The use of GPS to record the position of the aircraft during data collection allows for the transformation of the reflection values into elevation values. The elevation values are then used to generate three-dimensional characterizations of the topography in ArcMap 10. Typical lidar system components used for the collection of topographic data include a laser altimeter and components for precision navigation (Fowler,

2001). These components include a global positioning system (GPS) instrument suite and an aircraft attitude system, in addition to the laser transmitter and receiver (Fig. 3.4).

The data is stored in the National Elevation Dataset (NED) which is derived from 1/9 arc- second lidar data producing DEM images with 3m resolution (USGS, 2010). The dataset allowed for the analysis of morphological features within the study area as well as the surrounding vicinity. Lidar data collection methods and standards used by the USGS are the same for all images within the Loraine dataset and are as follows:

Multiple Discrete Return – allows for 3 returns per pulse.

Intensity values for each return.

Nominal Pulse Spacing (NPS) – an NPS of 1-2 meters.

Uniform Spatial Distribution- ensures uniform densities of at least 90% usable lidar point

cells within each grid.

Scan Angle – 34 degree field of view scan angle within swaths to ensure vertical and

horizontal accuracy.

10% Flight Overlap – ensures no data gaps.

Collection Conditions – cloud free, flood free, and snow free.

Figure 3.4 Modified USGS image illustrating the basic components of an airborne lidar ranging system including the laser altimeter, instruments to position location, and down-looking digital camera.

3.4 DEM Data Processing and Interpretation

DEM data were processed using ArcMap 10 to identify and locate features of interest within the study area. ArcMap 10 was used to analyze, process, and visualize the lidar data. It was necessary for processing of the data to make it suitable for morphological analysis. Since the lidar data was already cleaned by the USGS for anomalies, processing was minimal. First datasets were downloaded and mosaicked to create a seamless dataset for analysis and display.

Color ramps were then added to each dataset to easily visualize elevation changes. Finally hill shades were added to allowing the landforms to stand out on the dataset. Each dataset could be easily vertically exaggerated and enhanced to better illustrate landforms.

DEM datasets were manually interpreted using the standard elements of recognition typically used in visual interpretation of remote sensing datasets: shape, size, pattern, shadow, tone or color (irrelevant in this case since color was artificially introduced), texture, association, and size. These were then identified using modern analogs.

CHAPTER 4

GPR RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction

Six lines of GPR data making up over 6 km of total profiles were collected in the study area (Fig. 4.1). All except lines 03 and 05 were collected over roads. As indicated in the methodology, a GPR radar facies approach (Neal, 2004) should be used in analyzing the GPR profiles. Radar facies represent distinct sets of beds/features that can be interpreted as a specific environment of deposition.

Figure 4.1 Location of GPR lines in the study area (Baumhart Road is the north/south trending road that crosses multiple beach ridges. State Highway 2 is to the north and the Ohio Turnpike is to the south).

4.2.1 Identification of Radar Facies

Interpretation of radar facies from the GPR profiles can help to determine the environment of deposition and formative processes (Neal, 2004). It is especially important to do this carefully and systematically since there is no sedimentary exposure to compare the data to, and thus interpretation can be quite subjective. According to Neal (2004) there are four recommended criteria for interpretation. He suggested that reflection configurations should be described in terms of the shape of reflections, dip of reflections, relationship between reflections, and reflection continuity (Fig. 4.2). He also suggests a labeling system for radar surfaces and radar facies on reflection profiles, which summarizes both their sequence of development and sedimentological interpretation. In this study a modified version of the Neal

(2004) naming system will be used in that radar facies will be given a letter designation and discussed using the terminology in Figure 4.2.

Haeni (1988) provides an method for analysis and interpretation of hydrologic features using GPR (Fig. 4.3). The interpretation methods presented by Haeni are applicable to the study area due to the inherent hydrologic nature of beach ridge complex deposition. Interpretations from Haeni (1988) will also be used in conjunction with Neal (2004) as method to characterize and interpret radar reflection profiles.

4.2.2 Common Reflectors of Non-Glacial or Lacustrine Origin

Interpretation of the data in this study has its limitations in that there is a large amount of anthropogenic disturbances. The majority of data collected were on roads for ease of access and therefore there are common waves that are present in the radar lines due to the

Figure 4.2 Terminology to define and describe radar surfaces, radar packages and radar facies modified from Neal 2004.

Figure 4.3 Modified chart that relates GPR reflection configurations to the stratigraphic and lithologic properties of sediments in glaciated terrain (Haeni, 1988).

anthropogenic disturbances associated with the roads, such as pipes and culverts. The air and ground waves in the uppermost 1 meter of each reflection profile are present (cf. Neal, 2004).

Figure 4.4 shows a representative characterization of the reflectors associated with a paved road in the study area.

Ground wave Airwave Roadbed

Figure 4.4 Common air wave, road surface, and underlying road bed found in radar profiles in the study area. Depth and length is in meters.

Radar profiles collected on field surfaces also display the air wave and ground surface.

However, the portion of the reflection profile influenced by unwanted radar noise is limited to the upper most 0.5 meters (e.g. Fig. 4.5).

Ground wave Airwave

Figure 4.5 Common air wave and ground wave reflection that is displayed in the upper most portions of radar grams collected in fields in the study area. Depth is in meters.

Some features present in the profiles are man-made objects such as pipes and reinforcement bars (rebar) but some of these may also be boulders or glacial erratics. These are characterized by prominent symmetrical parabolic reflections (Fig. 4.6). The presence of buried structures such as foundations, rebar, cables, pipes, tanks, drums, and tunnels under or near the survey line may also cause unwanted reflections (clutter) (ASTM, 2011).

Figure 4.7 illustrates common parabolic reflectors that are identified in the reflection data from this survey and will not be discussed at any further length in this section due to the likely anthropogenic nature of the reflectors. It should also be noted that to the best of my knowledge there is no practical way to interpret parabolic symmetrical reflectors with any degree of certainty in glaciated terrain without trenching. This is impractical in this area due to the road surfaces and high cost of excavation equipment. In addition, areas with a high

Figure. 4.6 Generalized Diagram of a Pipe Signature: GPR Record (300 MHz) Showing a Hyperbola from a Buried Pipe, and Computation of Depth and Velocity from that Target. Taken from ASTM D6432, 2011

Figure 4.7 Common symmetrical parabolic reflectors observed in the reflection profiles that are interpreted as foundations, reinforcement bars (rebar), cables, pipes, tanks, drums, and/or tunnels. abundance of parabolic symmetrical reflectors can be ignored when interpreting beach ridge deposits due to fact that if they are of anthropogenic origin it would indicate disruption of the original sediments, and furthermore if the reflectors are glacial erratics that would rule out the

possibility of the sediments having a beach origin.

4.2.2 Common Radar Facies

Sedimentological features in this study have been identified based on geometry, thickness and relationship to surrounding reflectors. This has been done to serve as a basis for identification of sediment genesis and as a means for interpretation of features. The common radar packages that have been identified in the GPR data are shown in Figure 4.8.

A: Parallel dipping reflectors B: Parallel horizontal C: Offset Swash zone or overwash Longshore or beach ridge Storm or swash zone deposits deposits depending on deposits depending on the orientation profile orientation

D: Oblique Chaotic E: Oblique divergent F: Concave downward Cross-bedded sand and gravel Swash zone deposits Longshore bar or dune deposits

Figure 4.8 Reflection configurations commonly found in the GPR data in the study area along with potential interpretations for coastal environments.

4.3 GPR Reflection Profiles

Reflection profiles are described and discussed systematically from lines 00 through 05.

Since line 00 is significantly longer than all other lines, it is broken down into segments for further discussion.

4.3.1 GPR Reflection Profile 00

Reflection profile 00 was collected on a south to north lakeward direction along

Baumhart Road between Middle Ridge Road and just north of Whittlesey Road (Fig. 4.9). The locations of the roads coincide with regionally high-standing ridges that can be reasonably easily seen on the ground (Figs. 4.10 and 4.11). It crosses what was recognized by Forsythe (1959) as

Lake Maumee I and II, Lake Maumee II, Lake Whittlesey, Lake Arkona, and Lake Warren (Fig.

4.12). Due to the long length of transect Line 00 it has been clipped and enlarged in portions of interest for further analysis and illustration and shown in greater detail in later figures (Fig.

4.13).

S (Landward) N (Lakeward)

North

Whittlesey Rd Middle Ridge Rd North Ridge Rd

Figure 4.9 Radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd between St Rte 90 and St Rte 2 heading north with intersecting roads labeled.

Beach Ridge

Figure 4.10 View northward of beach ridges along radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd at the intersection with Middle Ridge Rd.

Beach Ridge

Figure 4.11 View northward of beach ridges along radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd approximately 200 meters north of the intersection with Middle Ridge Rd.

S (Landward) N (Lakeward)

North

Figure 4.12 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd between St Rte 90 and St Rte 2 heading north with glacial lakes stages labeled.

Figure 4.13 location of detailed profile images

The section of radar reflection Line 00 from 900 meters to 1210 meters (Fig. 4.14) was selected due to the presence of parallel dipping (A), offset downlapping reflectors (B), and concave downwards (C) reflectors. Although this section of reflection profile Line 00 is at an elevation that does not coincide with any previously identified Lake stages (Forsythe, 1959) the reflection profile has features that are indicative of a beach complex. In Figure 4.14 the parallel downward dipping reflectors at (A) and the offset downlapping reflectors labeled (C) are interpreted as swash zone sediments. The concave downward reflectors labeled (C) are interpreted as indicative to bedsets in a longshore bar (cf. Nichols, 2002).

S (Landward) N (Lakeward)

North

C A C

A C F A A

Profile Line 00: 900m – 1210m

Figure 4.14 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 00: 900 meters to 1210 meters.

The section of radar reflection Line 00 from 2440 meters to 2670 meters (Fig. 4.15) is at an elevation that coincides with the Lake Warren stage (Forsythe, 1959) and the topography can be seen in Figure 4.16 below. The reflection profile has the presence of parallel dipping reflectors at locations (A), oblique chaotic reflectors at (D), and offset downlapping reflectors at

(C). There is also a large number of parabolic symmetrical reflectors indicating a high level of anthropogenic influences, however the overall trend is parallel lakeward dipping reflectors is one that is indicative of the swash zones present in beach complex that progrades lakeward.

This interpretation confirms a location and the elevation profile of the Lake Warren stage

(Forsythe, 1959).

S (Landward) N (Lakeward)

North

C D A C A A C

Profile Line 00: 2440m – 2670m

Figure 4.15 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 00: 2440 meters to 2670 meters.

Figure 4.16 View northward off the front side of the glacial Lake Warren stage beach ridge along radar transect Line 00 on Baumhart Rd at the intersection with Whittlesey Rd.

Figure 4.17 is a subset of radar reflection Line 00 from 2440 meters to 2820 meters.

This portion was selected to illustrate the multiple Lake Warren stages as well as the lake plain which appears at the north end of the profile. Present are parallel lakeward dipping reflectors at locations (A), offset downlapping lakeward reflectors underlain by parallel horizontal reflectors at (C), concave downward reflectors at (F) and parallel horizontal reflectors at (B). There is also a large number of parabolic symmetrical reflectors indicating a large anthropogenic influence.

The overall interpretation is that of a beach ridge complex which is prograding lakeward. The parallel lakeward dipping reflectors at (A) are indicative of swash zones, the concave downward reflectors at (F) indicate a longshore bar (cf. Nichols, 2002). The presence of the concave downward reflectors, offset lakeward dipping downlaps, and parallel lakeward dipping reflectors most certainly represent multiple Lake Warren stages. However, the high concentration of the parabolic symmetrical reflectors from anthropogenic influences in conjunction with the road bed in the upper 1 meter of the surface, it is difficult to pin point individual lake stages from the GPR alone.

S (Landward) N (Lakeward)

Whittlesey Rd North

C A A F A C B

Figure 4.17 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 00: 2440 meters to 2820 meters.

4.3.2 GPR Reflection Profile 01

The radar reflection profile Line 01 (Fig. 4.18) is a 1400 meter survey line oriented east to west along Whittlesey Rd (Fig. 4.19). Line 01 was started approximately 600 meters east of

Baumhart Rd and terminated approximately 700 meters west of Baumhart Rd. In general, there was very low reflectance of parallel horizontal reflectors only. Strong reflectors can be seen in the upper 1 meter where the transect line crossed Baumhart Rd. due to the surface and road waves from the road bed. Radar reflection Line 01 is was collected along the beach ridge from glacial Lake Warren.

East West

Baumhart Rd

Figure 4.18 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 01: 1400 meters, collected east to west on Whittlesey Rd.

Figure 4.19 View westward on radar reflection Line 01 collected parallel across the top side of a beach ridge under Whittlesey Rd.

4.3.3 GPR Reflection Profile 02

The radar reflection profile Line 02 is an 1100 meter survey line oriented east to west along on North Ridge Rd (Fig. 4.20). Line 02 was started approximately 350 meters east of

Baumhart Rd and terminated approximately 750 meters west of Baumhart Rd. In general, there was very low reflectance of parallel horizontal reflectors. Strong reflectors can be seen in the upper 1 meter where the transect line crossed Baumhart Rd. due to the surface and road waves from the road bed. The low level of reflectance in radar Line 02 may be due to homogeneity and fine laminations in the sediments along with radar masking from the reflectors road produced by the road bed. Radar reflection profile Line 02 is at an elevation consistent with the glacial stage for Lake Whittlesey (Forsythe, 1959).

East West

Figure 4.20 Topographically corrected radar Line 02: East to West on North Ridge Rd Lake Whittlesey.

4.3.4 GPR Reflection Profile 03

The radar reflection profile Line 03 is a 160 meter long survey line (Fig. 4.21) oriented north to south across a farm field south of North Ridge Rd. and west of Baumhart Rd. This line begins at approximately the 925 meter mark on radar reflection Line 02. The location for Line

03 was chosen due to the unpaved access to the backside of the beach ridge from glacial lake

stage Whittlesey. Line 03 is characterized by (A) steeply lakeward dipping reflections, and

(C)offset lakeward dipping reflectors.

N (Lakeward) S (Landward)

A A A A C A C

Figure 4.21 Topographically corrected radar Line 03: North to South in a farm field off North Ridge Rd to the west of Baumhart.

Reflections present in radar Line 03 are consistent with swash zones (A) and (C) associated with beach ridge sediments and a beach ridge complex. The upper 0.5 meters is masked by the air and ground radar reflections. Strong reflectors are traced and may represent a facies change.

4.3.5 GPR Reflection Profile 04

The radar reflection profile Line 04 (Fig. 4.22) is an 1100 meter survey line oriented east to west along on North Ridge Rd. Line 02 was started approximately 350 meters east of

Baumhart Rd and terminated approximately 750 meters west of Baumhart Rd. Radar reflection

Line 02 consisted of a very low reflectance of parallel horizontal reflectors. Strong reflectors can be seen in the upper 1 meter where the transect line crossed Baumhart Rd. due to the surface and road waves from the road bed. Low reflectance may be due to similar minerologies, fine laminations, low impedence and possibly even settling. Radar reflection profile Line 04 is consistent with the glacial lake stage elevations associated with glacial lake stages Maumee I and Maumee II (Forsythe, 1959).

East West

Figure 4.22 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 04: East to West on Middle Ridge Rd.

4.3.6 GPR Reflection Profile 05

The transect Line 05 (Figs. 4.23 and 4.24) were collected west of Baumhart Rd. on a farm access road to the south of Jerusalem Rd. The high concentration of sand is visible in both images. Line 05 is oriented lakeward in a south to north direction and the topography can be seen in Figures 4.23 and 4.24.

Collection of data on an access road allowed for a less convoluted reflection profile that is relatively free of the symmetrical parabolic reflectors and the reflections from the road bed that were seen in most of the other profiles. GPR reflection Line 05 (Figs. 4.25 and 4.26) did not contain a high degree of reflectance or many strong reflectors past a depth of approximately 2 meters.

GPR reflection profile Line 05 in Figure 4.25 is 340 meters long. The upper 0.5 meters consists of reflectance consistent with the air and ground waves. Below the upper 0.5 meters and extending to a depth of approximately 2 meters Line 05 there are distinct reflectors that are characterized as (E) steeply lakeward dipping divergent, (A) parallel landward dipping , (C) gently landward dipping parallel, and (F) convex down reflectors. The reflective features are interpreted as (E) swash zones, (A) washover delta, (C) washover sheet, and (F) longshore bar deposits. The combination and sequencing of the reflectors is indicative of a progradational

beach ridge and will be discussed further later. GPR reflection profile Line 05 is at an elevation consistent with the glacial Lake Warren stage (Forsythe, 1959).

The radar reflection profile in Figure 4.26 is a 56 meter subset of Line 05 from 266 meters to 210 meters that selected to show more detail within the radar profile. This portion of radar reflection Line 05 is the high standing dominant feature in the reflection profile. Although

Figure 4.26 does not exhibit strong reflectors it is possible to characterize reflective packages

Figure 4.23 View southward down the back side of the glacial Lake Warren stage beach ridge parallel to radar transect Line 05 on the farm access rd. south of Jerusalem Rd.

Figure 4.24 View eastward along the top side of the glacial Lake Warren stage beach ridge perpendicular to radar transect Line 05 from the farm access rd. south of Jerusalem Rd.

S (Landward) N (Lakeward)

North E A

A A E E

C E A E

F E E

Figure 4.25 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 05: 340 meters to 0 meters on a farm access rd. south of Jerusalem Rd.

S (Landward) N (Lakeward)

A A A

C A

Figure 4.26 Topographically corrected radar transect Line 05: 266 meters to 210 meters.

and make interpretations in the upper 2 meters. Figure 4.2.18 below illustrates the individual reflectors that were interpreted as (A) swash zone deposits and washover deltas and (C) is washover sheet deposits. The lack of parabolic symmetrical reflectors should be noted and will be discussed in greater detail in the next chapter.

4.4 Summary

This chapter described the results of the GPR analysis. In general some results appear to be useful in determining sedimentation processes. This will be discussed further in Chapter 6.

Unfortunately in several cases there are too many anthropogenic features such as ditches and culverts which prevent detailed interpretation of the paleo coastal sediments.

CHAPTER 5

DEM ANALYSIS OF PALEO-COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

5.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the geomorphology of the paleo-coastal features in the study area. The study area is expanded to several km beyond just that studied via GPR, to include all of Lorain County in order to fit the GPR analysis into a broader regional context (Fig. 5.1). Raised and abandoned coastal features are identified and patterns are analyzed based on recognition and comparison to modern coastal features. To the best of my knowledge, no-one has examined these features in detail until this study. This is partially because high resolution data has not existed until recently, and allows researchers to identify and analyze geomorphic features that would not normally be identifiable using aerial photographs, topographic maps, or even satellite imagery. This is mostly due to land cover obscuring landforms making it difficult to see relict features. The DEM data has only elevation present and thus land cover is not an issue.

5.2 Identification of Paleo-coastal features from Lidar-derived DEMs

Applying color ramps and hillshades, the Lidar-derived DEM was displayed in ArcGIS.

Displaying all of Lorain county, larger modern and ancient coastal configuration was easily observed on the DEM (Fig. 5.1). At the larger scale, the stranded shorelines that the GPR data were collected on are barely visible. Easily observed are a series of depositional coastal landforms including extensive raised shorelines, spits, bars, barriers, tombolas, and cuspate spits

(Fig. 5.2).

Vermillion Lorain

GPR Transects

Figure 5.1 Loraine county DEM.

Figure 5.2. Common features present along the palaeo coastlines: A. Barrier Beaches; B. Spits; C. Cuspate forelands.

ArcGIS was used to visualize and locate geomorphic features directly on the DEM (Fig.

5.3). All major features are shown superimposed on the DEM in Figure 5.3 and seperated into their own map in Figure 5.4. The coastlines mapped by Forythe (1959) are also labeled. Two sets of geomorphic features can be seen on Figures 5.3 and 5.4: 1. Those in the northern half of the county which are dominated by palaeo-lake shores and their associated estuaries, lagoons, sand spits, headlands, long shore bar deposits, and multiple beach ridge complexes; and 2.

Those in the southern half of the county associated with glacial conditions including hummocky terrain, streamlined terrain and moraines. A coastal transition northward is illustrated as an irregular, barrier and spit-dominated coast at the Lake Maumee Stage, a headland and barrier dominated coast at the Lake Whittlesey Stage, and a cusped coastline at the Lake Warren Stage.

To try to highlight the nature of each coastline as levels dropped in Palaeo Lake Erie the

DEM was “flooded” to the respective levels of each major lake stage as identified by Forsythe

(1959) (Figs. 5.5 and 5.6). The results are remarkable and show how the interaction between the palaeo-lakes and differing terrains is quite different as lake levels drop. The following sections outline the major features for each stage and discuss coastal conditions for each stage.

5.2.1 Glacial Lake Maumee Stage

Glacial Lake Maumee which flooded the landscape to a height of 240m (66m above modern Lake Erie) had a much more complex coastline than modern Lake Erie (Figs. 5.5A and

5.6A). The coastal topography was much more variable and the coastal waters would have lapped up against hummocky glacial topography and bedrock remnants in places. Longshore drift from west to east was prominent in this environment and created significant barrier beaches that connected adjacent higher terrains. Extremely prominent is the present of

Cusped Coastline Glacial lake stages Headland dominated Warren

Whittlesey

Maumee

Defiance Moraine

Figure 5.3 Loraine county DEM with geomorphic features traced (modified from OGRIP).

Lake Erie

Headlands

Glacial lake stages

Long shore bar

Sand spit

Lagoon Estuary

Defiance Hummocky Moraine terrain

Figure 5.4 Simplified diagram of glacial and coastal features present in Loraine county. (modified from OGRIP).

Figure 5.5 Paleo-shorelines flooded to the levels of the highest stand (A) (Maumee) and next highest stand (B) (Whittlesey) (C) lowest known stand (D) (Warren) and the modern shoreline as a comparison.

Figure 5.6. Flooded lake stages at the site of GPR data collection (oldest to youngest). GPR shown superimposed on D.

multiple palaeo lagoons which were enclosed by the barrier beaches. Coastal lagoons are areas of relatively shallow water that have been partly or wholly sealed off from the ocean, and in this case, the lake, by the deposition of sand in the form of spits or barriers (Bird, 2008). The barrier beaches are well developed with steep lakeward and landward slopes. This strongly suggests that these were built in storm environments when sand and gravel were thrown up onto the top of the barrier, but erosion resulted in the over-steepening of the lakeward side of the barrier also.

A major feature observed is a large spit, over 4km long that can clearly be seen in the center of Figure 5.5A. Figure 5.7 shows a detailed view of this spit and shows that it and its associated forms are quite complex. The spit formed from north to south following a major embayment that existed during the existence of Glacial Lake Maumee. This embayment may simply have been a large inlet, or it may have been the mouth of an estuary entering into Glacial

Lake Maumee. Since some of the landscape has been eroded away by the modern river, it is difficult to definitively determine the origin of this embayment. Like most modern spits along

Lake Erie (e.g. Long Point, Fig. 5.8), this spit curves at the end showing a dominant southward growth, and thus dominant southward wave activity producing longshore drift. Interestingly, the spit first formed as a single bar (C), which was abandoned and protected by the growth of the later multi-ridged spit (B).

5.2.2 Glacial Lake Whittlesey Stage

Glacial Lake Whittlesey had an elevation of 224m above sea level which is 50m above modern Lake Erie. Like the older Maumee stage, this shoreline irregular and is dominated by multiple barrier beaches and lagoons, but also by a handful of rocky headlands/islands

C D

Figure 5.7 DEM of a sand spit, coastal lagoon, and estuary features present in Lorain county.

Figure 5.8. Long Point spit on Lake Erie

comprised of dolomite. The small islands are attached to the mainland by spits and barrier beaches, and these appear to have been made, like the Maumee features, by a dominant west to east longshore current. In addition, there are headlands that show erosion on both their east and west sides, and tombolos (spits that connect islands to the mainland) (Fig. 5.6A). The presence of both of these landforms demonstrate that there was more than just an easterly longshore current, that locally waves broke against the shoreline from different angles and directions. In both cases, the landforms resulted from refracting waves on either side of the headland, or in the case of the tombolo, a small island. In the case of the tombola, the waves were refracted around the small island and met to deposit a ridge of sand that ultimately attached the mainland to the island. In the case of the headlands, the refracted waves predominantly resulted in erosion of the headland instead of deposition. In both cases, the resulting landforms are a result of refracting waves although in one case the wave is predominantly eroding, and in the other it is predominantly depositing. This is entirely related to the steepness of the terrain in the inshore area (the terrain that a wave will travel over). In

the case of the headlands, the inshore area was steeper resulting in a taller wave which would have collapsed or plunged against the shoreline causing erosion; in the case of the tombolos, the terrain had a lower angle slope and waves were small, typically only moving a small volume of sediment to accumulate as the tombolo, producing no or little erosion (cf. Haslett, 2009).

5.2.3 Glacial Lake Warren Stage

Glacial Lake Warren water levels were up to 207m above sea level (33m above modern

Lake Erie levels). Unlike the two higher coastlines, Glacial Lake Warren had a more regular shaped coastline with a well formed smooth cuspate foreland. The cusps are broad (8-12km across) and follow the form of the higher headland landscape associated with the Glacial Lake

Whittlesey shoreline. It is likely that the headlands associated with Whittlesey produced nearshore bars and shoals which then became exposed as land once lake levels dropped. The overall coastline associated with Lake Warren is much smoother as it is essentially a raised lake bed that was reworked as the coastline (combined Maumee and Whittlesey lake beds). In addition, rather than single barrier beaches, the Warren coastline is dominated by multiple smaller berms (Fig. 5.9) indicative of a prograding beach shoreline associated with lowering water levels (Bird, 1986).

5.3. Summary

Three major sets of shorelines are associated with the higher levels of palaeo-Lake Erie.

The two highest (Maumee and Whittlesey) have complex shorelines that are irregular in shape with headlands, islands, and well-developed large barrier beaches and spits that enclose lagoons

Figure 5.9 DEM of a prograding beach ridge complex associated with glacial Lake Warren. Radar profile Line 05 can be seen in the center of the image crossing the complex.

and bays. Longshore currents were prominent, driving sediment from the west to the east.

Many of these beaches are tens of kilometers long several meters high and very steep. This is indicative of high waves, both tossing sediment high onto the beaches while eroding away the beach faces the same crashing waves. Duck (2012) indicated that such forms (barriers and lagoons) are associated with rising water levels.

In contrast, the Warren shoreline records more quiescent conditions and gradually dropping water levels detailed in the multiple berms of its coastline.

CHAPTER 6

RECONSTRUCTED COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

6.1 Introduction

As discussed in chapter 5, each of the palaeo coastlines of Lake Erie have different geomorphic expressions, and are therefore indicative of differing depositional environments.

The older shorelines of Glacial Lake Maumee and Whittlesey are more irregular in shape with variable coastal topography and the presence of major embayments. Both have headlands, islands, and well-developed series longshore barrier beaches, spits and lagoons indicative of major longshore current movements. In contrast, geomorphically speaking, the Glacial Lake

Warren shoreline is less complex, and in the study area shows little evidence of longshore currents.

This chapter looks at the relationship between the geomorphology presented in Chapter

5 and the GPR facies presented in Chapter 4 and attempts to reconstruct, at least locally, the environment of deposition for each lake stage, starting with the oldest.

6.2 Reconstruction of shoreline conditions

6.2.1 Glacial Lake Maumee

Glacial Lake Maumee which stood 66m above modern Lake Erie was the most complex of all the shorelines. The ice that dammed the lake sat somewhere in the center of modern Lake

Erie, meaning that Glacial Lake Maumee only occupied part of the Central Erie Basin and the

Western Erie Basin. The irregular-shaped coastline was the direct product of lake waves lapping up against variable relief topography. In places this resulted in steep shorelines that under windy conditions would have produced tall crashing waves. These waves would have

simultaneously thrown sediment up onto beaches, building them up, and over-steepened the beach fronts through erosion. Considering the steepness of many of the beach fronts, this was probably a coastline dominated by high winds and many storms. This is not unusual since the glacial ice would have been sitting close by producing strong, down slope flowing katabatic winds that would have blown over the Lake Maumee surface.

Longshore drift was very prominent during the Maumee stage, producing barrier beaches, enclosing small lagoons, and in some cases producing very large spits. Of note is the spit extending 4km long south from the modern city of Lorain. No other large feature was observed anywhere else in the dataset. If is fortunate that this section of coastline has an enormous sediment budget provided by the presence of sediment deposited in the Pelee

Moraine, which is prominent on the floor of Lake Erie (Fig. 6.1). This combined with major longshore movement and the presence of a large palaeo-embayment set up perfect conditions to form the spit. When the longshore current traveled from east to west, it turned into the embayment transporting sand and forming the spit. The spit can provide some sense of how long waters remained at the Lake Maumee stage. Most spits of this nature grow by 40-200m a year (Davidson-Arnott and Van Heyningen, 2003). Using this calculation, the palaeo-spit may have taken anywhere from 20 to 400 years to form. While these seem like a broad range, this is an extremely short time geologically speaking.

GPR profile line 00 crosses the Maumee shoreline and GPR profile 04 runs along the shoreline. Unfortunately neither provides additional information regarding deposition of the sediments associated with this shoreline.

6.2.2 Glacial Lake Whittlesey

Like Glacial Lake Maumee, the shoreline of Whittlesey was complex. Terrain relief along the shoreline was less extreme since this coast was a partial reworking of the older Maumee shore and nearshore environment. While no large spits are present, like Maumee, longshore drift from west to east is prominent and storm-related barrier beaches and enclosed lagoons are common. The presence of a tombolo is likely quite unique as is it the only geomorphic feature present that is not related to

* Study site

Figure. 6.1. Presence of major moraines in the Lake Erie Basin (Modified from www.ngdc.noaa.gov).

extreme wave and thus storm events, and it is also not related to longshore drift. This is therefore representative to normal sedimentation along the shore and shows that waves along the shore broke against the shore from multiple directions.

GPR line 00 crosses the shoreline on Baumhart Road, line 03 crosses the backshore environment of this shore and line 02 is along the major beach ridge on North Ridge Road.

While there is little evidence of the main shoreline in terms of sediments on line 00, at 1020m there is a dipping reflector at C (Fig. 6.2) which may be a buried beach berm with onlapping sediments at A which is representative of rising lake levels, most likely of Glacial Lake

Whittlesey.

IN GPR line 03 (Fig. 6.3), all dipping reflectors (A) are pointing towards the lake and are indicative of rising water levels with a prograding beach front that eventually culminates in the deposition of the major storm ridge that is now North Ridge Road.

Figure 6.2 Possible buried beach berm (C) with onlapping sediments of Glacial Lake Whittlesey.

N (Lakeward) S (Landward)

A A A A C A C

Figure 6.3 Topographically corrected radar Line 03: North to South in a farm field off North Ridge Rd to the west of Baumhart.

6.2.3 Glacial Lake Warren

Glacial Lake Warren has the simplest of the shorelines observed in the DEM data. There are smaller beach ridges and multiple complexes of smaller ridges that decrease in elevation lakeward. This is typical of beach-ridge systems, highlighting the role of swash processes, high sediment supplies and falling relative water levels (cf. Nichol, 2002) (Fig. 6.4).

Forsythe (1959) described the Lake Warren stage as a period that was “strikingly sandy,” and that sand was so abundant that sand dunes are more common than beach ridges. She also stated that Lake Warren was rather shallow and as a result many patchy areas of dunes and beaches occur in offshore positions. The location of the Lake Warren stages in the study area can be seen below in modified Figure 6.5 from Winchell-Sweeney (2003).

Figure 6.4 Modified generalized diagram indicating migration of beach ridges (Nichol, 2002) showing highlighting progradational succession of facies. Not to scale. 75

Lorain

Vermillion

Figure 6.5 Modified image (Winchell-Sweeney, 2003) showing the location of glacial Lake Warren’s stages with-in the study area.

GPR Line 05 (Fig. 6.6) was run across a particularly sandy farm field just south of

Jerusalem Rd. This location was selected due to the apparent presence of a beach ridge complex identified on satellite imagery and lidar data (Figure 6.7). During collection of radar Line 05 it was observed that the farm field traversed consisted mainly of sand. The GPR profile for Line 05 indicates multiple steeply lakeward dipping divergent reflections. For the most part is radar

Line 05 has a low reflectance between layers. This may be due to fine laminations but also is most likely due to the high homogeneity of the sandy layers. The exception to this is the area labeled as A and B in Figures 6.6 and 6.8 below. Radar Facies A in are steeply lakeward dipping reflectors and are interpreted as swash zones, or even possibly offshore dune or bar deposits consistent with those described in Forsythe (1959). Radar Facies B is interpreted as washover delta deposits as described by Neal (2004) due to the steeply landward dipping reflectors which

were then overlain by facies C which is interpreted as washover sheet deposits due to the low angle landward dipping reflectors.

A B

B A B A

C A B A

A A

Figure 6.6 Radar Line 05: This transect line is oriented lakeward and Line Lake Warren beach or Dune Complex.

Figure 6.7 Lake Warren beach complex is circled.

B A

B C

Figure 6.8 is a subset of Line 05 that was selected to show more detail in the reflectors. Interpretations of the reflectors are as follows A is dune or swash zone deposits, B is a washover delta and C is washover sheet deposits.

Figure 6.9 below is a modified summary schematic from Neal (2004) that illustrates the development of a Chenier ridge due to the presence of a marsh on the landward side of the ridge. Lake Warren’s description by Forsythe (1959) discussed that many of the beach ridges or dune complexes were formed offshore. This offshore description inconjunction with reflectors

A, B, and C present in radar transect Line 05, the multiple shore parallel ridges on the lidar data, and an elevation just below the Lake Warren highstand of 207 meters lead to the possible interpretation that are around Line 05 just south of st rte 2 is an offshore ridge complex deposited during Lake Warren stage.

Figure 6.9 is a modified summary schematic from Neal (2004) that illustrates the development of a Chenier ridge.

6.3 Preservation of Paleo Beach Ridges

Nichol (2002) pointed out that because of the interaction between sand supply and vegetation growth within a beach-ridge and foredune complex that the development, formation, and ultimate preservation of a ridge and swale topography requires that sediment

supply be intermittent to periodic. This is important to note due to the intermittent nature of the Lake Erie post glacial coastal system. The high stands of the various post glacial lakes followed by periods of glacial retreat would have allowed for vegetation growth that is commonly associated with sub-arctic climate regimes and subsequently transitioning to the modern climate of Ohio. Although the climate immediately following glaciation was harsh, over time vegetation took root. This allowed for the dramatic development, formation, and preservation of the modern beach ridge complexes present today.

The lack of parabolic symmetrical reflectors in radar profile lines 05 is noteworthy as an indicator of the nature of the parabolic symmetrical reflectors present in Line 00, Line 01, Line

02, and Line 05. Parabolic asymmetrical reflectors are often of anthropogenic origin but can also be glacial erratics or boulders. Due to the highly glaciated history of the study area it is important to determine whether or not these reflectors are of glacial origin or man-made. The presence of the symmetrical reflectors on radar reflection profile that were collected on road would indicate that they are pipes, and rebar and not glacial boulders. This determination is significant in that the reflection packages can be more confidently interpreted as lacustrine in origin.

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

7.1 Conclusions

The application of GPR in conjunction with GIS data is a good methodology to use for interpretation of geomorphologic features, characterization of sediments, and ultimately the reconstruction of paleo depositional environments. In this study paleo-lake levels were easily identified in DEMs. A reconstruction of Late Wisconsin paleo-lake depositional environments was created based on both geomorphology and radar facies interpretations.

The DEM analysis produced a visualization of the paleo landscape, one that has never been seen before. While the DEMs are high resolution, the visualization still only provides a

“big picture” view. This big picture included locating the presence of lagoons, spits, beach ridge complexes, estuaries, tombolos, headlands, and islands. The use of lidar-derived DEMS is therefore a successful method to identify the type and location of coastal features present during the end of the Late Wisconsin glaciation.

A further understanding was gained into the complex glacial and glacio-fluvial processes that led to the formation of the geomorphology of modern Northern Ohio. Characterization of sediments however, was somewhat limited by the presence of too many anthropogenic features such as roads, and pipes causing unwanted reflection noise. Prograding beds and possibly overwash deposits were identified.

7.2 Future Research

Future research in the area could be done involving additional GPR data collection along features identified by this research. For example, GPR analysis of the large spit associated with

Glacial Lake Maumee may give us a better understanding of the duration of the lake. The collection of core samples would verify the GPR analysis. Coring of the identified lagoons and inlets would be particularly useful as these would preserve more quiescent conditions, perhaps even preserving annual layers of sediments (varves) which would definitely provide an understanding of the duration of each lake stage. A luminescence study could be performed using core samples to date the last exposures of the sediment to u.v. rays at the ridge sites to more accurately determine ages of the paleo Lake Erie stages.

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