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The syllable-evidence from Icelandic Skaldic poetry
Sroka, Nitalu, Ph.D. University of Hawaii, 1990
Copyright @1990 by Sroka, Nitalu. All rights reserved.
V·M·I 300 N. Zeeb Rd AnnArbor,MI 48106
THE SYLLABLE - EVIDENCE FROM ICELANDIC SKALDIC POETRY
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
LINGUISTICS
DECEMBER 1990
By
Nitalu Sroka
Dissertation Committee:
Patricia A. Lee, Chairman Byron W. Bender Patricia J. Donegan P. Gregory Lee David Stampe Kathleen C. Falvey © Copyright by Nitalu Sroka 1990
All Rights Reserved
iii Abstract
Comparative analysis of the matched words in dr6ttkvcett reveals that the syllable structure necessary to describe alliteration, half rhyme (skothending) and full rhyme (aoalhending) consists of an onset (the prevocalic consonants), a nucleus (the vowels), an offset (the postvocalic consonants), and possibly an intermediate structure consisting of the nucleus with the offset (the rime). This Old Icelandic poetic meter is defined, in part, by patterns of syllable matches. To accurately describe the matches the initial element of each syllabic component must have special status. These elements demarcate the structures in the syllable and define the domains of matches. Alliteration matches the onset initial. Half rhyme compares the nucleus through the offset initial, requiring different nuclei and matching offset initial elements. Full rhyme matches the nucleus thrc~gh the offset initial.
The data reveal that these syllabic matches are structural matches.
Empty elements match empty elements. If the first element of the onset does not meet the demarcative requirements, it may not be in the onset initial position. That is, if the first element is not a "full" consonant (if it is a glide), the onset initial position is empty, and as such matches other empty onsets (syllables beginning with a glide or a vowel). An empty offset occurs in open syllables, and open syllables with matching vowels form aoalhendings while ones with differing vowels form skothendings. This matching of empty elements is a matching of empty structural positions.
iv The parallels between the prevocalic consonantal matches (alliteration) and the postvocalic consonantal matches (the non-vowel facets of half rhyme and full rhyme) provide an explanation for the origin of skaldic rhyme (half rhyme and full rhyme) and hence, of skaidlc poetry. Alliteration predates skaldic rhyme. It is characteristic not only of the older Eddic poetry but also of other Germanic poetries such as the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf. Since skaldic rhyme shares all the structural characteristics of alliteration, it can be described as postposed alliteration. This description facilitates the recognition that skaldic rhyme is derived from alliteration.
v Table of Contents Abstract...... iv List of Tables vii List of Illustrations.. ix List of Abbreviations...... x Chapter I Introduction...... 1
Chapter II The Form of Skaldic Poetry and its Consistency through Time.... 16
Chapter III Alliteration and Rhyme Requirements - a Nonsyllabic Analysis. 38
Chapter IV The Traditional Syllable and Skaldic Verse 52
Chapter V The Articulated Syllable and Skaldic Verse 81 Chapter VI Skaldic Poetry and Syllable Structure 92
Appendix A The Computer and the Data 100
Appendix B The Data 104
Appendix C The Analysis 151
Appendix D Matches with j- 184
Appendix E Sample with Equal Number of Rhymes 188
Appendix F Sample with 10% of the lines 191
Notes 266 Glossary 270 Literature Cited 274
vi List of Tables
Table I Full rhyme patterns by number and percentage 26
Table II Half rhyme patterns by number and percentage 28
Table III Overall rhyming patterns 29
Table IV Lines off syllable count. 31
Table V Binding patterns as percentages 35
vii List of Illustrations
Figure 1. The relationship of skaldic alliteration to skaldic rhyme 1
Figure 2. The "placement" of alliteration and skaldic rhyme in the syllable.... 3
Figure 3. Matching initials in alliteration, skothending / half rhyme, and
aaalhending / full rhyme...... 4
Figure 4. Graphic representation of syllable structure 12
Figure 5. Articulated syllable structure in Skaldic Icelandic 13
Figure 6. Graphic representation of alliteration 19
Figure 7. Graphic representation of half rhyme strategies (Sk-) and
full rhyme strategies (Aa-) overtime 27
Figure 8. Graphic representation of the utilization of rhyme
schemes over time 30
Figure 9. Graphic representation of the frequency of syllable counting
"errors" over time 31
Figure 10. Trends in the positioning of alliterating elements over time 36
Figure 11. Graphic representation of rhyme, alliteration positions a. l
syllable counting deviations over time 37
Figure 12. Graphic representation of distribution of initial patterns 40
Figure 13. "How far in" does alliteration match? 41
Figure 14. Number of matches per line 43
Figure 15. Distribution of matching skothending elements 45
Figure 16. How far outward does half rhyme / skothending go? 46
Figure 17. j's in the vowel string of skothending / half rhyme 47
Figure 18. Number of lines with one versus otherthan one match per line 48
Figure 19. Distribution of full rhyme / aaalhending lines 49
viii Figure 20. How far outward does full rhyme / aaalhending go? 50
Figure 21. Distribution of j in full rhyme / aaalhending 51
Figure 22. Skaldic matching structures in a traditional syllabic framework 53
Figure 23. The distribution of word initial elements 55
Figure 24. A visual comparison of the predictive accuracy of the
syllabification strategies 80
Figure 25. Syllable structure with initial elements 82
Figure 26. Alliteration as the matching of onset initial elements 82
Figure 27. The distribution of word initial elements 83
Figure 28. Syllable structure with initial elements 85
Figure 29. Skaldic rhyme as the matching of offset initial elements 86
Figure 30. Syllable structure and phonological elements 93
Figure 31. Distribution of elements in syllable structures 94
Figure 32. Skaldic rhyme and the rime versus gaps in the matching
scheme without a rime 96
Figure 33. Alliteration 98
Figure 34. The "invention" of rhyme 99
ix List of Abbreviations
A ------Adjective
Aa------aaalhending, full-rhyme
AaER------half of an End Rhyme pair occurring in a line in which a full rhyme is expected
AaM------full -rhyme with some postvocalic consonants matching
AaN------no match occurs in a line in which a full-rhyme is expected
AaY ------full-rhyme which extends through all the postvocalic consonants
Bd------Bound, alliteration pattern
BdB ------pattern of alliteration in which the three alliterating elements include the second syllable of the even numbered half line.
BdM ------pattern of alliteration in which the three alliterating elements include the last syllable of the first half line and the first syllable of the second half line, and exclude the first syllable of the first half line.
BdPr------indicates that there is one alliterating syllable on each half line.
BdY ------pattern of alliteration in which the three alliterating elements include the first syllable of each half line and exclude the final stressed syllable of the first half line.
Bd± ------pattern of alliteration in which the three alliterating elements include the first and last stressed syllable of the first half line and the first syllable of the second half line.
x C ------Consonant
Sk ------skothending, half-rhyme
SkER ------half of an End Rhyme pair occurring in a line in which a half-rhyme would be expected
SkM------half-rhyme with some postvocalic consonants matching
SkN------no match occurs in a line in which a half-rhyme is expected
SkY ------half-rhyme which extends through all the postvocalic consonants v ------VoweI
[ ]------indicate phonetic representations using the symbols of the International Phonetic Association (IPA).
[+cons]------indicates some' sort of distinctive feature designating "full" consonants
[-cons] ------indicates some sort of distinctive feature designating that the unit possessing the feature is not a vowel.
[+syl] ------indicates some sort of distinctive feature designating "full" vowels
[-syl] ------indicates some sort of distinctive feature designating that the unit possessing the feature is not a consonant.
#------designates a word boundary.
$------in quotations, designating a syllable boundary; in the data, designating a rhyme domain determined by a sonority contour.
xi , ------..----- Lift; stressed, metrically heavy beat; ictus
'------Lift, stressed, metrically heavy beat, ictus. Used to indicate the second of two adjacent lifts.
=------designates a stem boundary.
¢------designates a rhyme domain maximizing open syllables.
£------designates a rhyme domain determined by syllabic quantity.
00 ------designates a rhyme domain extending through the first postvocalic consonant. x------Sinking; metrically weak element
xii Chapter I Introduction
Thesis
Skaldic rhyme is derived from skaldic alliteration. The examination of the unusual attributes of both poetic structures reveal that this is the best way to characterize each structure and the relationship between them. Traditional syllable theory, with syllables composed of indivisible onsets and offsets, is inadequate to either describe alliteration and rhyme or to explain the relationship between the two. This paper presents an elaborated syllable structure which is able to describe the facts of skaldic alliteration and skaldic rhyme. This syllable structure recognizes the special status of the first element in the onset and in the offset. Recognizing these initials both captures the essence of the matching strategies and reveals their symmetry. Figure 1 illustrates this.
SYLLABLE 1 SYLLABLE 2
Figure 1. The relationship of skaldic alliteration to skaldic rhyme
The first step in this endeavor is to define drottkveett, the predominant form of skaldic poetry. The second task is to show that that form remains consistent throughout the life of the poetry. Having done that, I will explain the behavior of alliteration and rhyme in a nonsyllabic framework. Next I will show that syllabic theories with indivisible onsets and offsets are inadequate for describing the facts of alliteration and rhyme. Finally I will demonstrate that an articulated syllable - with divisible structures - can capture skaldic matching relationships.
Having finished this exercise, I will be in a position to offer some remarks about the origin of skaldic poetry and its demise. Recognizing the steps that show that rhyme is derived from alliteration reduces the task of "inventing" drottkvestt to a comprehensible level - one that a single person could have undertaken. This argues in favor of the traditional view that one man, Bragi inn gamli, invented skaldic verse. Similarly, the steps that show that the realization of the structures in real language evolved (while the poetic form stayed constant) reveal the typological direction of the changes in the language.
Alliteration and Rhyme
The introduction of the matching characteristics of alliteration to the postvocalic consonants breeds a new matching relationship. Alliteration requires the match of only the first consonant, not the first consonant cluster.
(1) hrafnketill heyra hvi
Skaldic rhyme shares this requirement (postposed) in both skothending / half rhyme (2) and in aoalhending / full rhyme (3) 1
(2) brj6!r ble!uV
(3) moqr Hegna
Alliteration considers words with no initial consonant 2 to alliterate with all other such words.
2 Jllan _Jormunrekkr Skaldic rhyme (skothending / half rhyme (5) and aaalhending / full rhyme (6)) also pairs words without postvocalic consonants. (5) Nl1.. L ~ju (6) frm.. ~vi The direction 0f the relationship between alliteration and rhyme is revealed by the fact that, in Norse poetry, alliteration antedates rhyme. That is, skaldic rhyme could be derived from skaldic alliteration; skaldic alliteration could not be derived from skaldic rhyme.
The recognition of the parallelism between the prevocalic alliteration (binding) and the postvocalic skothending / half rhyme and aaalhending / full rhyme reveals two important features about the syllable structure that the skalds exploited in their poetry. The first feature is the division of syllables into two
SUbcomponents - the onset and the rime (which is subdivided into the nucleus and the offset). The second feature of syllable structure that the skalds exploit is the distinction that is made in the onset and the offset between the first element - called the initial - and all others. These relationships are illustrated below. Figure 2 shows the full exploitation of the onset and rime schematically, and Figure 3 represents the matching of initials in alliteration, skothending / half rhyme, and aaalhending / full rhyme.
alliteration I2l full rhyme bI C;;y~ Nucleus O!f~~t: half rhyme rn ~~ . Onset Rime
Figure 2. The "placement" of alliteration and skaldic rhyme in the syllable
3 alliteration syllable
tillar t i k
skothending aaalhending syllable syllable
syllable syllable
Figure 3. Matching initials in alliteration, skothending / half rhyme, and
aaalhending / full rhyme
Terminology
This study requires the use of technical vocabulary from a wide range of disciplines. To facilitate the discussion, I will present the terminology that I used above and that I will use throughout. The technical areas which converge in this study include poetics, skaldic poetry, typology and syllable theory.
4 The Terminology of Poetics
Allen (1973:104) is the source for the framework in which I describe skaldic poetry. He distinguishes poetic form, structure. composition and performance. Form is the genre - a sonnet or a limerick. for example.
Structures are the strategies and meters which build the form. Examples of structures include rhyme, lines, stanzas, feet, etc. Composition is putting words in the configurations of the structures to make a manifestation of that form. and performance is the specific reading or reciting of that particular poem. Within these distinctions, the designation of specific arrangements of structures as a form is a single act of definition. Another way to look at the interrelationships between the "levels" of a poem is to think of the form as an algorithm tor..a computer program. It is composed of lines, routines, subroutines. etc. These are the structures of the algorithm. Translating the algorithm into a specific computer language is the composition of the poem. and compiling and running the program is the performance of it.
Once a poetic form is defined. that definition stands throughout time. A sonnet by Shakespeare is a sonnet. just as one by Elizabeth Barret Browning is. Inherent in the definition of a form are the phonological and prosodic rules of the language at that time of its definition. The different poems that are composed may show different realizations of the structures. For example. a comparison of the structures of Nursery rhymes such as Hey Diddle Diddle and
Jack and Jill suggests that, in some (possibly earlier) dialects of English, laughed and ~ may rhyme in the first and ~ and aner should rhyme in the latter.
5 Hey diddle diddle the cat and the ~, Jack and Jill went up the bill The cow jumped over the moon. to fetch a pail of water.
The little dog laughed to see such mwl, Jack fell dmm 'n broke his ~ and the dish ran away with the spoon. and Jill came tumbling after.
Similarly, the different performances of the same poem may result from different phonetic and phonologic systems applied to the written or remembered words. (An example of this would be the differences in a speaker of Cockney English and one of Hawaiian English reciting a nursery rhyme.)
The Terminology oiSkaldjc Poetry
Norse poetic literature is divided into two traditions, the Eddic and the skaldic. Eddic poetry, known mostly through the seemunaer Edd(j, or Older or Poetic Edda, is considered to be the older tradition. Icelandic literary tradition claims that the Eddic poems were composed from the ninth to twelfth centuries.
This study covers only skaldic verse.
The dominant meter of skaldic verse is called drottkvastt or 'court verse'.
The drott was a unit of Norse political/military organization. The 'kings' immortalized in the verses and in the sagas were what today would be called
'petty kings'. They travelled, fought and marauded with a small coterie of relatives and followers known as a drott or court. Drottkvastt was the poetry 'fit to be presented' at this court.
6 Skaldic poetry is stanzaic, with its basic unit being a line. One line is divided into two half lines, usually of six syllables (or 9 moras) each. Four lines constitute a prototypic stanza, but single line verses abound. Half lines are joined by a pattern of word-initial segment matching, creating bound verse. This pattern of matchlnq is usually called alliteration. Frank (1978, 35-6) describes the phenomenon:
Lines3 in dr6ttkvEett verse are linked in pairs by means of alliteration or initial correspondence. Each consonant alliterates with itself, while the cluster sp alliterates with sp, st with st, and sk with sk; all vowels alliterate with each other and with words beginning with j. There are two alliterating syllables in the odd and one in the even line. This is the pattern 'Oainn on the gallows reflected when he declared with reference to his acquisition of poetry - ora mer at orai/oras /eitaai - 'one word from another sought a third word for me.' Alliteration may fall on any stressed stem in the odd line, but in the even line only the first syllable (which is always stressed) can alliterate in classical dr6ttkvCEtt. The half lines in drottkvestt verse are characterized by patterns of 'rhyme' or consonance called skothending 'half rhyme' in the odd half line and aaalhending 'full rhyme' in the even. Frank (1978:36) also describes these patterns:
There is also a system of end correspondence or internal rhyme. In each line, the next-to-last syllable -always stressed-ehimes with a stressed or semistressed stem in the same line. In even lines, there is aaalhending or full rhyme: svangr\/ang-, berr\terr-, moet-Ifoet-; in odd lines, skothending or half-rhyme (different vowels followed by an identical consonant): j6r\skoer-, blakkr\bekk-, fakr\dik-. The closest parallel in modern English poetry to skothending is a type of rhyme known as slant rhyme in which consonants after the final vowel of a word must be the same-the triplets Iight\thatltrout and wood\dead\crooked, for example, from Sylvia Plath's Medallion. In dr6ttkvCEtt, the two rhyming or half rhyming syllables of a line tend to be separated by a caesura: "hofurn Iftinndag-slfta."
7 Stanza 11. (c. 925) Lausavfsa by Egill Skallagrimsson illustrates the structures skothending, adalhending, and alliteration as well as marking the caesura (I) and the half line:
ValkQ§!um hlo8k vestan,1 skothending I=half line vangfyr merkistangir; adalhending, alliteration ott vas el pats sottak I skothending I=half line A£!ilsbl'ourn maltri; adalhending, alliteration ham ungr vilt Engla I skothending I=half line ~eifr Primu stala, adalhending, alliteration helt, ne hrafnarsultu, I skothending I=half line HrLr!Jr a vapnapingi. adalhending, alliteration
In addition to the metric structure, skaldic poetry is characterized by two intertwined semantic devices and one syntactic one. The syntactic device is that of interweaving syntactic components so that sentences cannot be fully sorted or parsed until the end of the stanza. Syntactically, the four long lines of a stanza may be four separate clauses, each of which may be either independent or subordinate. Each clause may be straightforward or may be separated and entwined with any or all of the others. Each intertwining creates new allusions to add to, or subtract from, the final denouement. The entire unit functions as a maze which simultaneously distracts and adds commentary, puns, allusion and layers of meaning. This syntactic complexity is intentional each 'dead end' is a layer of allusion to be interpreted by the initiated.
These layers are enhanced by the semantic devices of heiti and kenning.
Heiti are evocative, conventionalized nouns which substitute for frequently
8 mentioned gods, people, places or things. Heiti and kenningar are rarely found in prose writings and, taken together, create a specialized poetic vocabulary. At the same time that this poetic vocabulary sets the skaldic poetry apart from the rest of the Norse literature, it evokes its Indo-European heritage. When the prose and poetic words for an object differ, the poetic word is more likely to be an Indo-European cognate (Frank 1978:40-41). An example of this is the use, by the eleventh century Icelandic skald Sighvatr p6raarson, of the word jar
'stallion'. Frank states that this word is found only in poetry. It is related to the
Indo-European *ekwo- 'horse', which is also related to the Latin equos and the Old English eoh.
Kennings 'to be known by means of another thing' (the other semantic device) are two-part periphrastic constructions. Usually, a kenning consists of two nouns - a head and a genitive case modifier. An example of a kenning would be calling a camel a 'ship of the desert'. Frank (1978:45) gives several examples of this construction which also show the intermixing of heitis and kennings.
New kennings copied older ones, yet the original was rarely repeated word for word. Both parts of a two-element kenning could be expressed by substitute heiti: brimdyr'surf animal' is adaptable as brims blakkr'horse of the surf' or b'oru fakr"horse of the wave', or strengjar jar 'horse of the cable', all meaning ship. Any member of a circumlocution might be expanded by further kennings. Since 'fish' can be paraphrased as 'fjord snake', otne fold 'earth of the fish'='sea' designates the same thing as ljaralinna fold 'earth of the fjord snake'. If fjord is then expanded into skips bekkr, one ends up with skips bekks linna fold 'earth of the snake of the bench of the ship'; and if ship is expressed circuitously the
9 result might look like Haka drrs bekks Iinna fold 'earth of the snake of the bench of the animal of the sea king'.
In a kenning, the first noun is the head and the second is the modifier. This modifier frequently categorizes the head on the basis of family relationships, origin, status, or - if the first noun refers to a man - deeds (Frank 1978:42). The construction, taken together means something different than the parts alone do - much as the word merry-go-round is more than the sum of its parts, - and the whole is never a hyponym of the head noun.
To add another layer of complication, heitis can be substituted for either part of a kenning, for each part, or for the entire construction (as illustrated by Frank above), and a new kenning can be built on each heiti - repeatedly. Each iteration builds on the allusions of earlier levels, and of other poems. These syntactic and semantic structures of skaldic verse are the topic of much research. However, since my study is one of the patterns of matches rather than the content of the poems, I have excluded the semantic and syntactic structures from my study.
The Terminology of Typology
The structures of skaldic poetry mesh very well with the parameters of the Donegan and Stampe (1983) typology (hereafter holistic typology). With that in mind, the terminology of the holistic typology is presented here.
Donegan and Stampe introduce a holistic rhythmic typology. They divide languages into two types - falling and rising languages. Falling languages tend to have an initial focal point - with initial phrase accent,
10 prefixes, dependent-before-head word order, new information first, and alliterative and/or syllable counted verse strategy. Rising languages tend to have a final focal point - with final phrase accent, suffixes, head-before dependent word order, new information last, and rhyming verse strategy.
According to Donegan and Stampe (1983), this rhythmic organization pervades all stages and levels of a language - both when considered synchronically and when considered diachronically. The chart below summarizes the language parameters and the language type with which they are associated.
Initial Rhythm (Falling) Final Rhythm (Rising) modifier-modified =OV/AN/GN modified-modifier =VO/NA/NG new information initial new information final initial phrase accent final phrase accent initial word accent final word accent suffixation, enclisis prefixation, proclisis postpositions prepositions case marking, freer word order fixed word order syllable-timed word-timed long/short syll. distinctions major/minor syll. distinctions vowel harmony reduced vowels alliterative and/or strong stress and/or syllable counted verse rhymed verse
Because skaldic poetry was composed during a period in which Icelandic appears to have been shifting from a falling language to a rising one, the holistic typology provides useful insights into the versification strategies employed by the skaldic poets.
11 The Terminology of Syllable Structure
Traditional syllable structure features indivisible constituents. An example of a theory describing this type of a syllable is Haugen (1958). The Icelandic syllable structure is described as consisting of an onset, a nucleus and an offset, with the nucleus and the offset forming an intermediate structure, a rime.
In a syllable, the onset is the structure containing any and all prevocalic consonants. The nucleus contains the vowels or syllabic core of the syllable, and the offset contains the postvocalic consonants. The rime is an intermediate structure which consists of the nucleus and the offset. h onset nucleus offset
Figure 4. Graphic representation of syllable structure
I will show that this syllable structure is inadequate to describe the behavior of skaldic alliteration and rhyme. In the place of this syllable structure, I will describe an articulated syllable which contains an onset differentiating the initial position from the others, a nucleus, and an offset also distinguishing the first from the following elements. An intermediate constituent, the rime, is composed of the nucleus and the offset. Figure 5 diagrams articulated syllable structure.
12 Figure 5. Articulated syllable structure in Skaldic Icelandic.
Skaldic Research
Skaldic scholarship seeks to settle questions about the historicity of the skaldic poems and to verify or disprove the attributed date of composition and the authenticity of attributed authorship. That is, were the skaldic poems actually written in the Thirteenth century by the authors of the manuscripts in which the earliest written examples appear, or are the poems, as reported, the recording of earlier verbal traditions? Other avenues of research include trying to find archaeological evidence of the reported events and trying to explore the meaning and significance of vocabulary items and poetic forms.
Frank (1985:157-9) provides a glimpse into the diverse arena of skaldic research. She catalogues the topics of research, including matters of meaning, misinterpretation, authorship, topic and dating. The topics include metrical analyses, the proper domain of skaldic rhyme and the appropriate interpretation
13 of various poems. She concludes that research continues in many areas, but that consensus emerges in none and that no theory has ascendancy.
Einarsson (1957:5-8 and references) and Turville-Petre (1953) summarize the theories concerning the origin of skaldic verse. Norse tradition suggests that one person, Bragi inn gamli, invented this poetic form and that he was deified for that accomplishment. One school of skaldic scholarship, represented by Turville-Petre, is skeptical about any form being spontaneously created. This school looks outside Scandinavia for a source from which rhyme could be borrowed. Suggested sources include the professional poetry of
Ireland or the poetry of Wales. The shortcomings of the "borrowing" theory include the lack of concomitant influences in other areas of the language and culture. Another possible source from which Bragi could have borrowed rhymed poetry is East Norse, particularly from the Baltic area, but despite a rich tradition of documenting Eastern sources of sagas, for example, there are few "Eastern" skaldic poems from the earliest periods.
The other school of thought accepts Bragi as the inventor of the form and spends its time seeking the source of his inspiration. Einarsson acknowledges, but dismisses, the theory proposed by Nordal and seconded by Lie that Bragi sought to create a verbal parallel to the Norse art - such as that on shields or on the Oseberg ship. Einarsson notes that the same material which is used to show local inspiration is also used by the other school to prove foreign (East
Norse) influence.
14 The Road Map
The rest of this presentation attempts to take you, the reader, on my voyage of discovery. Chapter II describes the poetry in terms of a poetic metalanguage. It describes the form of the poetry and the structures that build that form. It shows that the form remains constant over the lifespan of the poetry and justifies the use of a single characterization of alliteration and rhyme (two of the structures). Chapter III details the structures of skaldic verse in a nonsyllabic framework. Chapter IV attempts to describe the same structures in different syllabic frameworks. These frameworks make no explicit Claim about the divisibility - or indivisibility of syllable components. In Chapter IV we will assume that the onset and the offset are indivisible. Unfortunately, this assumption renders these frameworks inadequate for describing the skaldic matching strategies. Chapter V demonstrates that distinguishing the initial element of the onset and the offset from the other elements enables a full description of alliteration and rhyme as they behave in skaldic verse, and Chapter VI uses the insights from the previous chapters to draw conclusions about skaldic verse and syllable theory.
15 Chapter II The Form of Skaldic Poetry and its Consistency through Time
Introduction
In this chapter we will describe the various structures of skaldic verse and show that they remained constant during the time that the poetry was composed. We will show that partial matching, in rhyme, of (some) postvocalic consonants versus full matching of (all) postvocalic consonants neither increases nor decreases over time. Therefore we cannot assume that one strategy (matching some consonants) was being replaced by another (matching all consonants). The tables in this chapter will show this material statistically and graphs will demonstrate the trends visually. The data represented in these tables and graphs was sorted and analyzed with the help of a computer. The method used to extract this information is described in Appendix A.
When drottkvestt first appeared, it was a poetry whose form included patterns of alliteration (also called binding), syllable counting and rhyme. When drottkvestt ceased being the dominant poetic form, it still was a poetry whose form included patterns of alliteration, syllable counting and rhyme. The patterns that appeared in the earliest poetry also appeared in the latest. The change in drottkvestt came in the prioritization of the patterns. In the earliest poetry, poetic license (leyfl) was found in skipped rhymes. In the later poetry, the poetic license is found in syllable counting. To facilitate the rhyme, it became acceptable to insert extra syllables.
Demonstrating these consistencies and changes is the first step in showing how skaldic rhyme worked." To analyze the patterns which revealed these insights, a classification system which could be studied quantitatively was devised. Data Source
The requriements of skaldic verse (the structures) include rhyme, syllable counting and alliteration. Together the trends in these elements show that there are eras in the span of skaldic poetry. The tables and graphs in this chapter illustrate that rhymes (both skothending / half rhyme and aaalhending / full rhyme) which matched all the postvocalic consonants increased in frequency over time, those that matched less than the entire postvocalic consonant string became less common, and unrhymed lines essentially disappeared. Throughout the lifetime of the poetic form, rhyme remained an important structure. The tables and graphs also document the increase in the number of syllable counting errors and the relatively consistent placement of alliterative elements.
The symbols in Appendix C and in the discussions of the poetic structures are explained below. The poems from which these data were collected are cited in Appendix B. The number of each entry in these two appendices correlate the analysis to its poem. The poems are from Jonsson (1912, 1915). In sorting the data, I have accepted the dates and transliterations presented in Finnur Jonsson.
Encoding Rhyme
To compare putative rhymes, I began with the assumption that 'rhyming' forms share all consonants after the vowel or have matching vowels and no post vocalic consonants. (1) Maar skyldi po, moldar =SkY megja hverr of begja2 =AaV
17 Those forms which share a continuous subset of the consonants immediately after the vowel or have different vowels and no post vocalic consonants 'might rhyme'. (2) porns veitk at berr Sirni =SkM Saldr rogs soqu skjaldar3 =AaM
Those whose post vocalic consonants do not match 'do not rhyme.'
(3) rosta vara- rranni =SkN Randves hofua-nia-ja,4 =AaN Rhymes were coded Y (=yes), possible rhymes were marked M (=might), and non rhymes became N (=not). I included all apparent matches wherever they occurred. That is, all matches were collected strictly by whether or not there was a formal match.
Encoding Alliteration
In addition to rhyme, skaldic poetry uses patterns of alliteration. I studied these patterns in exactly the same manner as I examined the patterns of rhyme and syllable counting. Since falling lIanguages tend to alliterate and rising ones tend to use this device less (perhaps using rhyme instead), I expected more "failures to alliterate" as time went on. However, this doesn't seem to occur. The rules of alliteration are clear and are regularly obeyed. Secondly, I looked for changes in the alliterative pattern, if a particular pattern could be described. Unfortunately, there doesn't seem to have been any particular pattern of alliteration. Apparently skaldic verse did not require a particular alliterative pattern. Figure 6 represents the traditional syllabic picture of alliteration.
18 onset nucleus offset onset nucleus offset
L ALLITERATION ~
Figure 6. Graphic representation of alliteration
Since alliteration remained unchanged through time, there seemed no advantage in encoding alliteration according to how the alliterating elements matched. Instead, the variable I examined was the position in the line where the alliterating elements occur. There are two alliterating elements in the odd numbered half lines of skaldic poetry and one alliterating element in the even numbered half line. F (=+) indicates that the first alliterating pair includes the first word of the half line and excludes the last word. L (=-) indicates that the first alliterating pair excludes the first word but includes the last. Extending this system, FL (=±) shows that the first word and the last word of the odd numbered half line constitute the first alliterating pair. B signifies that, whatever the alignment of the first alliterating pair, the third element in the structure is not the first word of the even numbered half line (sits aack in the line). This system is illustrated with two stanzas from Raqnarsdrapa by Bragi inn gamli (circa 800
850)
19 3. Knattl ear via- iIIan Jormunrekkr at vakna L(=-) mea- dreyrfaar drattir draum i sversa flaumi; L(=-) r6sta vara- i ranni Randves hofua-nia-ja, FL(=±)
Pas hratnblair hafnC3'u
harma Erps of barmar. L(=-)
9. Bauva su til beyai bosti-Prusr at mati FL(=±) malma manum hilmi
men dreyrugra benja F(=+) sva let EE., pott etti sem orrostu letti, =8 (-) iofrum ulfs at sinna
meD' algifris Iifru. =8 (+)
=1 F(+), 3L (-), 2 FL(±), and 2 B
To differentiate amonq the F's and L's of alliteration, and the V's and M's of full rhyme and half rhyme, a mnemonic is appended. Bd denotes binding or alliteration, Ad denotes Aoalhending or full rhyme and Sk denotes Skothending or half rhyme. The actual summaries of these analyses are in Appendix C. This section presents the rationales that were used in encoding the data and in gathering the data samples. The next section reviews the elements of dr6ttkva9tt meter and introduces the Icelandic terms for these elements. The special features of skaldic rhyme are most easily understood within their native
20 context. The words into which these components are translated are not completely equivalent.
Structures of Skaldjc poetry
Skaldic poetry is intricately structured. Two half lines or visuora form a long line or visufj6raungar. Two long lines form a half stanza or helmingr, and two half stanzas form a stanza or visa. Discussion of skaldic poetry structure is often complicated because both visufj6raungar and vlsuord are sometimes called lines. The two half stanzas are often symmetric, using the comparison between the two to add to the meaning of the stanza 5. A collection of verses is a flokkr 'flock'. A ballad of twenty or more verses is a drepe, and is usually marked by at least one regularly recurring refrain.
The Icelandic terms for the poetic units and relationships described above are illustrated, along with their English counterparts, in the diagrams below. The text is from Stanza 11. (c. 925) Lausavfsa by Egill Skallagrimsson:
vlsuors, 1 vlsutjorD'u ngar ,._'..;.;h.=:;ac:..:...1f...:.:..Ii~ne~'_=__...:...=",,-==;.:..:...:.....:....;.:.;:;=-:..:.....:..-=-~Valkostum h16D'k vestan,_ 2 'long line' = vang fyr merkistangir; 3 helmingr, 6tt vas el pats s6ttak 4 'half stro he' = AiYils bl' um rnasrl: 5 haai ungr via Engla 6 Aleifr Primu stala, 7 visa helt, ne hrafnar sultu, 8 stanza, strophe = Hringr a vapnabmgi.
21 skothending, 1 aa-alhending, 'half rhvrne' = Valkostum hlofJk vestan,_ 2 'full line' = vang fyr merkistangir; 3 I skothending ott vas el pats sottak 4 aa-alhending, Aa-jils b'oum maa-ri; 5 I skothending haai ungr via- Engla 6 aa-alhendinQ, Aleifr Primu stala, 7 I skothending helt, ne hrafnar sultu, 8 aa-alhendino, Hringra vapnap!!lQi.
1 ~alkostum hlofJkyestan, = slu(}lar 'suQPorr! =hljoa-stafir or 2 yang fyr merkistangir; ~.x.;:.===.:.:..--:;:=-.-=h fua-stafr 'base' -=.::=:.:.;-stafir 3 g,tt vas ~I pats sottak - st!Jiilgr l=hljoa-stafir or 4 Aa-jils b'ourn masrl: ~~=~=hofua-stafr___;__---~~-j.stafir 5 ham I,!ngr via- I;ngla = st!JQ:lar l=hIjoa-stafi r 0 r
6 8Jeifr Primu stala, =h.:.=.:=='-'--_---:-fua-stafr ---::=:..:..=..t-stafi 7 helt, ne hrafnar sultu, = stufJIar l=hljoa-stafir or 8 Hringr a vapnapinql. --=~==~=h fua-stafr __:::=~stafir
The rhythm of each line (both half lines and full lines) is developed by patterned sequences of stressed, metrically long beats called lifts (') and metrically weak elements known as sinkings C). A sinking can be long (2 mora) or short (1 mora). However, if two sinkings are adjacent, both of them must be short. Skaldic meter is both syllable counted (having a fixed number of syllables - usually six - in each half line) and strong stressed, having three lifts to the line. The patterns of the line follow those of the Eddic epic measure (with four syllables required) plus a final trochee C "), When two lifts are adjacent, the second lift is marked as a secondary stress C). The secondary stress counts as one of the three lifts, and this syllable can be part of the alliteration pattern as well as part of the rhyme pattern. Stanza 1 from
22 Lausavfsur, attributed to Hallfredr d ttarsson vandreesaskald and dated around
987 demonstrates the notational system 6 representing the stress pattern.
Sva nakkvi verur sakkvis
sannargs troga margra
oogilig fyr augum
allheiiJins mer reiiJi,
sem elftill uti
ails mest via- for gesta
(stcerik brag) fyr buri
burhunsr gamall sturi.
The other syllabic pattern is syllable or mora counting. It is independent from the stress pattern. Arnason (1980:109-14) uses evidence from Snorri Sturluson's 'Hattatal' and from the First Grammatical Treatise to show that the syllable counting characteristic of the drottkveettform is the patterning of heavy and light syllables totalling a fixed number of mora - usually nine (short = 1 mora). A syllable whose nucleus contains a long vowel or a diphthong and whose offset contains at least one element is heavy (long) and counts as two moras. A syllable with a single, short vowel and two or more consonants in the offset also is heavy and counts as two moras. An open syllable or a syllable with a single short vowel and a single consonant in the offset is light and counts as one rnora.? Stanza #2 of Lausavfsa, an Eleventh Century verse which is
23 attributed to Olvir hnuta is used to illustrate syllable (and mora) counting. Heavy syllables are underlined:
=6 syllables and 9 moras =6 syllables and 9 moras skjall valldasar skallda =6 syllables and 9 moras skiiJgariJr saman hvarma; =6 sylables and 9 moras ok bandvanlsr blundar = 6 sylables and 9 moras bekkjar hjortr f rekkju = 6 syllables and 9 moras pvf hefk fyr Gno fuis = 6 syllables and 8 moras =6 syllables and 10 moras
Typology and Change
The holistic typology (Donegan and Stampe, 1983) lists syllable counting as characteristic of verse forms in falling languages. Other characteristics associated with falling languages are the use of alliteration in verse and quantity distinctions in syllables (long/short). On the other hand, rising languages are characterized by the use of rhyme and distinctions in syllable stress (stressed/unstressed).
24 The earliest skaldic poetry features all of the characteristics cited for a falling language verse. It alliterates; it has a fixed syllable count, and it distinguishes between long and short syllables. The poetry which superseded skaldic poetry (rfmur) exhibits the characteristics of a rising language verse. This later poetry uses end rhyme and distinctions between stressed and unstressed syllables. Let us assume that more "errors" 8 will be made in those features of verse which are not characteristic of the language's typical form. For example, more syllable counting errors will occur in the verses of a rhyming poetry. If one finds that the "errors" in a body of verse at one stage are in the structures most closely associated with a falling meter and those at another stage are in those most closely associated with a rising meter, and that in each case the "errors" are not in the structures associated with the opposite type, it suggests that the relative importance of the structures in the form are changing. The fact that the same structures appear (with or without errors) shows that the form has not changed.
Rhyme "errors" and Change
Full rhyme
Under the assumption just stated, a decrease in rhyme errors would be a piece of evidence in favor of a more rising verse type and/or a less falling one. The increase in the use of full (Y) matches and end rhymes (ER) and a decrease in the use of partial (M) matches and non-matches (N) summarized in Table I below could be interpreted as a growing importance for 'rhyme'. Example (4) illustrates end rhyme. (4) Boru avali vfka (vel frak peirn Ifka =ER seggjum SnaVa3ffl)
svers ok herkla3ffl 9 =ER
25 Table I gives the statistics about the relative frequencies of the different rhyme schemes in the complete data selection. As mentioned above, full rhyme is called aaalhending in Old Norse. So, AaV indicates that the match is full rhyme (including the vowel) which extends through all the postvocalic consonants; AaM indicates full rhyme with some postvocalic consonants matching; AaN indicates that no match occurs in a line in which a full rhyme is expected; and AaER designates half of an end rhyme pair. The other half of the end rhyme pair occurs in the half rhyme line. The left half of the table presents the number of examples while the right half gives the figures as percentages.
Table I
Full rhyme patterns by number and percentage
Date Lines AaV AaM AaN AaER %AaV %AaM %AaN o/cA1ffi 800 73 39 30 2 0 53.42% 41.10% 2.74% 0.00% 900 142 104 38 5 0 73.24% 26.76% 3.52% 0.00% 950 172 126 50 4 4 73.26% 29.07% 2.33% 2.33% 1000 1337 962 351 30 1 71.95% 26.25% 2.24% 0.07% 1050 2052 1717 620 18 0 83.67% 30.21% 0.88% 0.00% 1100 607 535 151 1 0 88.14% 24.88% 0.16% 0.00% 1150 290 204 77 6 4 70.34% 26.55% 2.07% 1.38% 1200 1539.5 1237 576 10 4 80.35% 37.41% 0.65% 0.26% 1250 711 514 170 11 10 72.29% 23.91% 1.55% 1.41% 1300 795 662 223 4 0 83.27% 28.05% 0.50% 0.00% 1350 314 253 61 0 0 80.57% 19.43% 0.00% 0.00% 1399 2746 2501 442 7 12 91.08% 16.10% 0.25% 0.44%
Figure 7 presents the information in Table I in the form of a bar graph.
The bars are superimposed over the area graph which represents the half rhyme information summarized in Table II. Viewed together, the behavior of full rhyme and half rhyme show strong parallels. The relative frequencies of
26 definite rhyme (Y) and possible rhyme (M) follow each other very closely. This supports the conclusion that full rhyme and half rhyme are variations of the same type of match, namely rhyme.
100.00% 90.00% 80.00% lB %SkY 70.00% %SkM 60.00% m • %SkN 50.00% ~ %Aay 40.00% • %AaM 30.00% o %AaN 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 800 900 950 10001050110011501200 1250130013501399
Figure 7. Graphic representation of half rhyme strategies (Sk-) and full rhyme
strategies (Aa-) over time.
Half rhyme
The difference between full rhyme and half rhyme is that full rhyme requires the vowels of the matching units to be identical while half rhyme requires that they differ. Norse half rhyme is called skothending. So SkY represents half rhyme with the entire postvocalic consonant string matching; SkM represents half rhyme with part of the postvocalic consonant string matching; SkN represents the absence of a match in a line in which a half rhyme would be expected; and SkER designates half of an end rhyme pair. The other half of the end rhyme pair occurs in the full rhyme line.
27 Table II presents the relative frequencies of the various patterns of half rhyme. The'table is organized like Table I, with the number of instances shown on the left half of the chart and the percentages on the right. This information is presented as the area graph in Figure 7 above.
Table II Half rhyme patterns by number and percentage
Date Lines SkY SkM SkN SkER %SkY %SkM %SkN %SkER 800 73 25 24 24 0 34.25% 32.88% 32.88% 0.00% 900 142 98 38 10 0 69.01% 26.76% 7.04% 0.00% 950 172 133 33 14 4 77.33% 19.19% 8.14% 2.33% 1000 1337 962 280 113 0 71.95% 20.94% 8.45% 0.00% 1050 2052 1769 538 30 1 86.21% 26.22% 1.46% 0.05% 1100 607 545 142 3 0 89.79% 23.39% 0.49% 0.00% 1150 290 234 42 13 4 80.69% 14.48% 4.48% 1.38% 1200 1539.5 1329 465 22 4 86.33% 30.20% 1.43% 0.26% 1250 711 527 156 21 10 74.12% 21.94% 2.95% 1.41% 1300 795 706 169 17 0 88.81% 21.26% 2.14% 0.00% 1350 314 276 38 1 0 87.90% 12.10% 0.32% 0.00% 1399 2746 2446 462 48 12 89.08% 16.82% 1.75% 0.44%
As demonstrated in Figure 7, skothending and aaalhending seem to operate in the same manner except for the presence or absence of matching vowels. Consequently, for the final parameter of structural analysis, the two types of 'rhyme' are combined. Table III shows the number of lines in which all of the postvocalic consonants match (Y), SOME of the postvocalic consonants match (M), none of the postvocalic consonants match (N), and the number of lines in which the postvocalic consonants of the last word on each half line match each other (ER). Again, the number of instances are given on the left and the percentages are given on the right. The %Lines figure represents the percentage of all the lines attributed to that time frame. The other percentages represent the part of the lines in that time frame which follow the given pattern.
28 For example, 1.32% of the full lines of poetry included in the corpus were composed between 851 and 900 AD. That represents 293 tokens of rhyme, and of those 68.94% match all the postvocalic consonants.
Table III Overall rhyming patterns Date Lines Y M N ER %Lines %y %M %N %ER 800 73 63 54 26 0 0.68% 44.06% 37.76% 18.18% 0.00% 900 142 202 76 15 0 1.32% 68.94% 25.94% 5.12% 0.00% 950 172 259 83 18 8 1.60% 70.38% 22.55% 4.89% 2.17% 1000 1337 1894 713 142 2 12.40% 68.85% 25.92% 5.16% 0.07% 1050 2052 3481 1196 48 1 19.04% 73.66% 25.31% 1.02% 0.02% 1100 607 1080 301 4 0 5.63% 77.98% 21.73% 0.29% 0.00% 1150 290 438 119 19 8 2.69% 75.00% 20.38% 3.25% 1.37% 1200 1539.5 2558 1031 32 8 14.28% 70.49% 28.41% 0.88% 0.22% 1250 711 1041 326 32 20 6.60% 73.36% 22.97% 2.26% 1.41% 1300 795 1368 392 21 0 7.38% 76.81% 22.01% 1.18% 0.00% 1350 314 529 99 1 0 2.91% 84.10% 15.74% 0.16% 0.00% 1399 2746 5475 1003 56 24 25.48% 83.49% 15.29% 0.85% 0.37%
The information in Table III is displayed visually in Figure 8. This graph demonstrates that over time the frequency of matching all the postvocalic consonants increases while that of matching some of the postvocalic consonants decreases. The occurrence of non-rhyme diminishes, and end rhyme continues to be a minor strategy.
29 90.00% /.-. 80.00% .,..-e--...... - 70.00% • __._..._"..., .-- 60.00% I ·1- %y 50.00% ·0- %m
40.00% 10.OO%f'.~~1!I 0_0 0.00% l:I_c--=~-':[j=c:C=;::;;;Q==-a~--- . -Q====5==-1:I-1;I- 899111111111 005 0 0 1 1 223 3 3 000050505059 000000009 Figure 8. Graphic representation of the utilization of rhyme schemes over time Syllable Counting and Change Earlier we assumed that an increase in matches which include all the postvocalic consonants indicated a growing facility with "English" 10 rhyme. Rhymes which matched less than the full consonant string were assumed to represent an "error" in the use of "English" rhyme. In the same vein, let us assume that syllable counting represents sensitivity to the syllable as an isochronous unit. Thus, a decrease in consistent syllable counting could indicate a shrinking facility with syllable timing. Table IV presents the details of the syllable counting parameter. 30 Table IV Lines off syllable count Date Lines Syllable count. %Syllable Count %Not Error 800 73 9 6.16% 93.84% 900 142 19 6.69% 93.31% 950 172 39 11.34% 88.66% 1000 1337 285 10.66% 89.34% 1050 2052 512 12.48% 87.52% 1100 607 136 11.20% 88.80% 1150 290 42 7.24% 92.76% 1200 1539.5 412 13.38% 86.62% 1250 711 266 18.71% 81.29% 1300 795 399 25.09% 74.91% 1350 314 194 30.89% 69.11% 1399 2746 1969 35.85% 64.15% 40.00% 35.00% -: 30.00% 25.00% -: 20.00% -: 15.00% _/- 10.00% ____8 /------"• / 5.00% 0.00% I IIII,II 'I 800 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1399 Figure 9. Graphic representation of the frequency of syllable counting "errors" overtime. For example, if a half line is based on six syllables, a count of either five or seven would be an error. Of the 73 full lines composed before 850, nine half lines or 6.16% contain the incorrect number of syllables. This means that 31 93.84% obey the syllable count requirement. The same data is presented as a graph in Figure 9. We can see a rapid increase in errors after 1150. This suggests that syllable counting was becoming a minor structure. Alliteration and Binding Alliteration, what Rask (1843:204) calls 'letter rhyme' and Frank (1978:35) calls initial correspondence, is the matching of word initial elements. Words beginning with j or a vowel are all considered to alliterate one with another. A binding pattern is formed by matching the alliterations in odd- and even-numbered half-lines. The sounds that match in the alliterative pattern are' called stafiror hljoffstafir. On the first half line, there are two stafir, called stuff/ar (sg. stuiJi/~ or 'supports'. Each support corresponds to a stressed syllable. On the even numbered half-line the stafr, called the hofuf)stafr, or 'base' is on the first lift. Verse employing this pattern of alliteration of two matches on the odd line and one at the beginning of the even is called bound verse. Alliteration Patterns Cj.nd Change The holistic typology (Donegan and Stampe, 1983) organizes the rising/falling languages according to rhythmic features. Another way to capture the holistic tendencies they are describing is to say that rising/falling type entities differ by whether their salient position is the back of a unit (rising) or the front of a unit (falling). Within this view, it is enlightening to look at where the alliterating words occur in a full line of skaldic verse. Is the positioning consistent over time, or is there a change in preference? It turns out that there are small changes in the frequency of alliterating patterns, but these changes do not seem to point to any particular trend. Alliteration seems to be realized essentially the same way throughout the history of skaldic verse. 32 In the representation below, ' indicates a lift (a long, stressed syllable), and ~ indicates a sinking (a short, unstressed syllable). Each string of "s and "s represents a half line of poetry. The circles mark the position of the alliterating elements. The chart below details the frequencies of the various changes. In the table that follows, 'BdF', 'Bdl', and 'BdFL' indicate that the patterns of alliteration are as follows: (5) BdB indicates that the pattern of alliteration includes the second syllable of the even numbered half line, as illustrated below. 'BdB' combines BF and BL, illustrated below: (6) 'BdPr' indicates that there is one alliterating syllable on each half line. BdFront combines BdF with BdFL to indicate all lines with the first word of the odd numbered half line in the alliterating group, and BdBack combines BdL with BdFL to indicate all lines with the last word of the odd numbered half line in the alliterating group. The selections from Haqnarsdrapa by Bragi inn gamli, which were presented earlier, are repeated here as an illustration of the marking relationships. 33 3. Knattl earvia i1lan Jormunrekkr at vakna L(=-) =Back mea- dreyrfaar drottir draum f sversa flaumi; L(=-) =Back rosta vars f ranni Randv8s hofua-niBja, FL(=±) =Front, Back Pas hrafnblair hafnlJu harma Erps of barmar. L(=-) =Back 9. Baua-a su til beym bceti-pruiJr at rnoti FL(=±) =Front, Back malma rnaaturn hilmi men dreyrugra benja F(=+) =Front sva let~, pott etti sem orrostu letti, =B (L) =Back jofrum ulfs at sinna mea- algifris lifru. =B (F) =Front = 1 F(+), 3L (-), 2FL(±), and 2 B; =4 Front, 6 Back Table V shows the percentage of lines in which the alliteration pattern includes the first two stressed syllables on the first half line and the first stressed syllable on the second half line (F), the last two stressed syllables on the first half line and the first stressed syllable on the second half line (L), the first and the last stressed syllable of the first half line and the first stressed syllable on the second half line (FL) and Other minor patterns. On the right, the percentages are given for matches which include the first stressed syllable of the first half line (Front) and for matches which include the last stressed syllable 34 of the first half line (Back). The percentages represent the part of the lines in that time frame which follow the given pattern. For example, 41.10% of the 73 lines of poetry composed before 850 AD utilized the F pattern. Table V Binding patterns as percentages Date Lines %BdF %BdL %8c1 Othe- %BclFL o/oBcIFont O/oBcI Bad< 800 73 41.10% 47.95% 10.96% 0.00% 41.10% 47.95% 900 142 60.56% 41.55% 7.75% 0.00% 60.56% 41.55% 950 172 58.14% 48.84% 1.74% 0.00% 58.14% 48.84% 1000 1337 51.23% 49.66% 0.60% 0.07% 51.31% 49.74% 1050 2052 60.62% 48.29% 2.92% 1.85% 62.48% 50.15% 1100 607 67.22% 45.96% 1.98% 1.81% 69.03% 47.78% 1150 290 56.55% 33.10% 10.70% 2.07% 58.62% 35.17% 1200 1539.5 71.45% 44.04% 2.40% 2.14% 73.60% 46.18% 1250 711 62.03% 36.85% 3.66% 1.55% 63.57% 38.40% 1300 795 62.89% 47.67% 0.50% 0.50% 63.40% 48.18% 1350 314 69.43% 30.57% 0.00% 0.00% 69.43% 30.57% 1399 2746 59.32% 42.39% 5.54% 5.03% 64.35% 47.41% Figure 10 represents the results shown in Table V as a graph. We see that binding at the front predominates and that the trends remain relatively constant over time. 35 80.00% ••• %Bound Front ~ %Bound Back ... %Bound Other 20.00% 10.00% 1'1'1,. I't., 't.,. •••""." 't •• , • 't_ I' I' 0.00% I I ·..• ~ +--+--"-1'·;...... ;.;..·;;:: . ·..·1·..• ··"I I .----, 8 9 9111111111 o o 5001122333 o o 0050505059 000000009 Figure 10. Trends in the positioning of alliterating elements over time The Composite Picture When the patterns illustrated above are combined, the trends of change are even more apparent. That is, rhyme is becoming a more important structure at the same time that syllable count is becoming a less important one. Alliteration remains essentially the same throughout time. 36 100.00% CJ 90.00%.I o...... c""- 0 0-0/ 80.00% .l \.. 0 -' o /iii-.""' ...... , "'Cl...... _ .•..," CJ./ 70.00 Yo , ... 0 ';', 0 y.~__y...... <;; yYY.~'_ .' %BdFRONT ·Ow %BdBACK :~:~: n' I "~::-s~~ .» • ~- ; ••• %Syl. off count 40.00% g 0 ...... 0...,- "0""- "'. ~. 30.00% t ...... 0. %Y rhymes 20.00% ...... 10.00% ._...... -.-.-...... =."". 0.00% I IIIIIIIIIII 800 900 950 1000 10501100 11501200 12501300 13501399 Figure 11. Graphic representation of rhyme, alliteration positions and syllable counting deviations over time. Conclusion This chapter has presented the structures of the poetic form dr6ttkvcett. In doing this, we have been able to see that the components that build the poem are the same throughout the time that the poetry was composed. This is what is expected in a poetic genre. To examine how the structures of drottkvesttfunction, it is necessary to demonstrate that a single characterization could capture that function. Since throughout the lifespan of skaldic verse both rhyme patterns (Y- rhymes matching all postvocalic consonants and M rhymes matching some postvocalic consonants) appear as realizations of the same structure, they should both be amenable to a single characterization. That is, if M predominated in the early poetry and then disappeared, while Y was not present in the earliest poetry, but became dominant later, one could say that they might be two different strategies, one of which supplanted the other. This is not the case: both strategies occur throughout, essentially randomly. They appear to be variations of the same phenomenon. 37 Chapter III Alliteration and Rhyme Requirements - a Nonsyllabic Analysis Introduction This study is trying to demonstrate the fact that skaldic rhyme is derived from skaldic alliteration. Chapter II showed that the skaldic form remained constant throughout the six centuries of its composition. This suggested that the structures of drottkveett each could be captured by a single characterization. This chapter discusses three of these structures in more detail: alliteration, skothending / half rhyme and aaalhending / full rhyme. This discussion will be in a nonsyllabic framework. Prevocalic consonants, postvocalic consonants and vowels, will replace onsets, offsets or nuclei. A sample of 10% of the lines in the entire corpus" will be used to demonstrate these matching relationships. The relationships among the three types of matches become clear when we see the similarities and differences between them. Alliteration Alliteration matches the first full 2 consonant in a word. The absence of a full consonant matches any other such absence. Appendix F contains a list of 1174 alliterating groups. This sample represents 10% of the lines included in the corpus and is grouped by half-centuries. It is used to demonstrate the various features of skaldic alliteration: e Only one consonant must match: 399 or 33.99% had a single prevocalic consonant (#CV-). 334 or 28.45% of the matches having more than one prevocalic consonant match only the first consonant. (#CICV-, #CjCV-) 156 or 23.94% of the matches pair prevocalic consonant clusters (#CiCjV-, #CiCjV-). If more than one of the prevocalic consonants in the alliterating elements match, that is a special case of the one consonant match because the second consonants match only if the first ones do, and the third consonants match only if the first two agree, etc. Together, 888 or 75.64% of the alliterating words match one prevocalic consonant. • In fact, only the fim.t consonant must match: There are no examples of alliterating elements in which the second or later element of the prevocalic consonant string match at the same time that preceding elements in the string do not match. • Sp, st, and sk each function as a unit. Of the 112 alliterating groups beginning with 5, 27 or 24.01% begin with an sp, st, or sk. 13 of these matches feature the sp, st, or sk cluster with one or more of the alliterating strings containing another consonant (#sp(C), #st(C), or #sk(C)). 14 of the matches feature one of the clusters sp, st, or sk. None of the matches pair sp, st or sk with anything other than itself. • The absence of an initial consonant matches with any other such absence: 223 alliterating elements (18.99% of the sample) begin with a vowel. 5 or 2.24% of these3 have identical vowels. In other words, 97.76% of the vowel initial words begin with different vowels. 39 • An initial j- does counts as the absence of an initial consonant: 58 or 4.94% of the sample have at least one word beginning with j (#j-) . None of these alliterating groups had an initial j in each word. Only 1 or 0.08% of the entire sample had matching vowels.t Distribution of Initial elements 0.43% .# of single prevocalic consonant 1lII# prevocalic c clusters(no matches) 23.94% EJ# inital vowels (no matches) [J# prevocalicc clusters (matches) 0# no initial c (matches) 28.45% Figure 12. Graphic representation of distribution of initial patterns These statistics are combined in Figure 12. In this figure, "Prevocalic consonant clusters (no match)" indicates prevocalic consonant strings with more than one element in the string. Less than the full string is shared by the alliterating elements. "Prevocalic consonant clusters (matches)" indicates prevocalic consonant strings with more than one element in the string. The full string is shared by the alliterating elements. Vowel initial words and j initial words can be combined and considered to be words with no initial consonant. Words beginning with clusters can also be considered special cases of matching the first consonant, since if the first two 40 consonants match, the first alone necessarily matches. Thus, all of the alliterating elements can be viewed as instances of the initial element matching. Another way to look at alliteration is to see "how far in" the match continues: • 389 or 33.13% of the sample matches include all the consonants, but exclude the vowel f • 15 or 1.28% of the sample match all the segments through the vowel • 770 or 65.59% of the sample match only the initial element. 33.13% • #of match up to vowel (C;J # of match through vowel mJ # INITIAL match Figure 13. "How far in" does alliteration match? To summarize, we see that alliteration involves a single consonant. That consonant is the first consonant of the word; it is never a single consonant other than the first. Initial j counts as the absence of an initial consonant, and the absence of an initial consonant (#j- or #V-) counts as a single state. That is, the "state" of the beginning of a word is either "Filled with a specific consonant" 6 or 41 "Empty." If it is "Filled with a specific consonant," all of the words in its alliterating group must be filled with the same consonant. If it is empty, all of the words in its alliterating group must also have an "Empty" beginning. This is the extent of the required match in alliteration. Any match beyond that required is accidental or extra - an embellishment. Skothendjng Odd numbered vfsuora I half-lines have an internal structure created by what is variously called consonance (Rask 1843:209), end correspondence (Frank 1978: 36) assonance (Rask 1843:209, Hallberg 1962:18)) or half rhyme. In Icelandic, half rhyme is called skothending. In this pattern, two syllables are related by virtue of having matching postvocalic consonants and differing vowels. Stanza 30 from Vellekla by Einarr Helgason skalaqlarnrn (c. 986) illustrates both skothending and aaalhending: Flotta gekk til fretlar =SkV felli-Njoritr aveil, =AaV draugr gat dolga ~u - =SkM dagraitHemns VaB'a, =AaV ok haldbost hildar =SkV hra3gamma sa ramrra; =Aav Tyr vildi sa tyna =SkN teinlautar fjor GauB. =AaV 42 The same sample that we used to describe Alliteration above (Appendix F) is used to demonstrate the various features of skaldic half rhyme / skothending: • One half rhyme per line is the normal pattern. Occasionally more than one formal match appears in a line, but the meter only requires a single skothending / half rhyme. This match appears in the first half of the full line. Figure 14 shows the relative frequency of the number of skothending matches occurring in the odd numbered half line. 2.13% 32.20% • No skothending matches I!ll!! > 1 skothending match lEI 1 skothending match 65.67% Figure 14. Number of matches per line • Only one consonant must match: 234 or 19.93% of the sample have a single postvocalic consonant. 281 or 23.94% of the sample match only the first consonant of a postvocalic consonantal string containing more than one postvocalic consonant. 853 or 53.11 % of the 1606 matches in the sample match a single consonant. This translates to 753 or 64.14% of the lines.? 43 An additional 57 pairs have matches including -sp/st/sk. 55 of these matches have the identical cluster, sp, st, or sk. Two have mismatches (st with zk, and sk with st). Sp, st, and sk rhyme as a unit. This increases the percentage of pairs with a single unit match to 77.51 %. • In fact, only the first consonant of the string must match: 629 pairs (or 39.17% of the sample) match only the first consonant of the postvocalic string. Two examples match the second postvocalic consonant, while the first postvocalic consonants do not match. In neither case is this the only match on the line, and in neither case is it the primary one (matching the penultimate syllable). • The absence of postvocalic consonants matches any other such absence: 17 half rhymes are between strings with no postvocalic consonants. This represents 1.45% of the sample. None of these matches have identical vowels. Excluding the 2.13% of the example which have no match at all and considering the 1.45% of the sample which are open syllables to have "Empty" postvocalic strings, 97.87% of the matches can be described as having the first element of the postconsonantal string match. This 97.87% is the aggregate of these categories: Skothending lines with one consonant match (19.93%), lines where there is more than one postvocalic consonant but only the initials match (44.21 %), and lines in which all postvocalic consonants match (32.28%). Clearly this matching of the first postvocalic elements is the intended strategy. These 44 facts are illustrated in Figure 15. In that figure, "Skothending lines with unmatched consonants" indicates pairs of words with matching postvocalic consonantal strings which are longer than one consonant and which have an unmatched substring of one or more consonants. 1.45% •% skothending lines with no Consonant matches 32.28% IB % skothending lines with one consonant match mJ % skothending lines with unmatched Consonants IlII % skothending lines with 2.13% no rhyme o % skothending lines with all Consonants matching Figure 15. Distribution of matching skothending elements. In the case of alliteration, we saw how far "in" the match went. In the case of skothending, the question is how far "out" the match goes. The answer will help confirm the fact that the intended match is the first postvocalic consonant. Figure 16 presents this information. As with alliteration, in the case where a cluster matches, it is also true that the first consonant matches. In cases where there are no postvocalic consonants, the words can be said to match by virtue of that fact. Thus, 53.11 % of the cases can be said to match only the first postvocalic consonant and 98.43% can be said to match at least the first postvocalic consonant. Apparently, the goal is to match that first consonant. 45 6.15% • % v-ee skothending 39.17% match Is::1 % no skothending match ra % v-c skothending match 53.11% I!lI % v- skothending match Figure 16. How far outward does half rhyme / skothending go? We saw earlier that initial j did not count as a prevocalic consonant. That suggests that it may be part of the vowel string. Skothending / half rhyme features differing vowel strings. If j is part of that string, we should see that fact revealed in skothending pairs which have vowel strings differing only by the presence of j- in one member of the pair and its absence in the other. This selection, from the Tenth Century, by p6rbjorn disarskald, shows matches which may include j: Ball f Keilu kolli K@!!andi brauzt alia, =Aav aa-r drapt lut ok --eia-a lszt dreyra Buseyru, hep1ua- Hengjankjoptu, =SkV Hyrrokkin d6 fyrri, po vas snemr en sarna Svivor numin lUi. Of the 140 skothending pairs in the sample in which the presence of j in one word paired with its absence in the other could potentially be the nucleus 46 distinguisher, (pairs containing a j in at least one of the words), only 10 or 7.14% could be considered to use j- as a distinguishing element. Figure 17 illustrates the frequency of vowel strings which differ only by the presence of j in one and its absence in the other. Most of these actually had a or 0 (the result of u-Umlaut of a) in the one word and jo or ja in the other. Matching a and 0 is a convention rather than a true match, and a and 0 alone form many skothending pairs. Thus it appears that j cannot distinguish one vowel string from another and in fact is not part of the vowel string. j- as vowel string distinguisher 100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% ~ j- not distinctive 50.00% ~ 40.00% j- distinctive 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% . j- not distinctive j- distinctive Figure 17. j's in the vowel string of skothending / half rhyme Aoalhendjng Even numbered half-lines are joined by a different scheme, called aoalhending or 'full rhyme'. In this pattern, syllables match from the beginning of the vowel through the postvocalic consonants. In both skothending and aoalhending, the match is between the final lift (long, stressed syllable) and 47 another lift earlier in the half-line. Once again, the sample in Appendix F is used to demonstrate the various features of skaldic full rhyme/aaalhending: • One full rhyme per line is the norm. 90.72% of the lines in the sample have a single match. This shows that additional matches are embellishments. Figure 18 represents the relative frequency of these patterns. • >1 aClalhending match E) no aClalhending match EJ 1 aClalhending match Figure 18. Number of lines with one versus other than one match per line • Only one consonant must match: 263 or 21.30% of the matches have a single postvocalic consonant. 285 or 22.09% of the pairs match only the first postvocalic consonant even though they have postvocalic consonant strings of more than one consonant. • In fact, only the first consonant of the string must match: 221 or 19.64% of the sample match have consonant strings in which less than the full consonant string. 7 of these are sequences in which one of the pair is -sp/st/sk and the other is -sp/stlsk(C). In all cases, the -sp/st/sk portion of the string matches as a unit. With the 285 which match only one of the consonants, this totals 769 or 63.02% of the matches. 48 460 rhymes match the full consonant string, but none which match the second or later postvocalic consonant while not matching the first. 19 of these matches pair -sp/st/sk, which rhyme as a unit. • The absence of postvocalic consonants matches with any other such absence. There are 31 (2.46%) examples of vowel final full-rhymes. This represents 1.02% of the lines. Figure 19 illustrates these findings as a graph. 1.58% 2.45% • aoalhending with open syllables 35.15% IlII aoalhending with one consonant mJ aoalhending with one consonant match IZI aoalhending with all consonants matching o no matches Figure 19. Distribution of full rhyme / aClalhending lines As with alliteration and half rhyme, checking how far "out" the match goes can confirm that the first consonant is the intended match. Figure 20 presents this information. Open syllables can be considered special cases wherein the absence of a consonant matches other such absences. Together, 45.84% of the pairs match only the first consonant. This time the results show that more pairs match the entire string than do not. When the entire cluster matches, the first consonant must match. If the intention is for the entire cluster 49 to match, then 45.84% of the sample does not conform to that strategy. On the other hand, if the plan is for only the first consonant to match, 98.42% of the sample conforms. Given that the single consonant is the intended match in half rhyme (skothending) and that we have already shown that they behave similarly, I conclude that the single consonant is the intended match. 2.45% •% athalhending with -ve rhyme BJ % athalhending with no 43.39% rhyme 52.57% EI % athalhending with -vee rhyme IlII % athalhending with -v rhyme Figure 20. How far outward does full rhyme / aoalhending go? Earlier, we saw that j did not have a role in alliteration and that it was not regularly used to distinguish vowel strings for skothending / half rhyme. If j is in the vowel, it should be apparent in aoalhending - which requires matching vowel strings. • J is not part of the vowel string to be matched. Of 151 lines having at least one word containing prevocalic j, 93 or 61.54% match the j. This suggests that j is not being regularly matched as part of the vowel string. Figure 21 illustrates these findings. 50 70.00% 61.54% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% +--- j's match in vowel no j match in vowel Figure 21. Distribution of j in full rhyme/aaalhending. Summary This chapter has examined the matching strategies which are structures of skaldic poetry. We have seen that alliteration, skothending and aaalhending all seek to match the first consonant in their respective domains. Alliteration matches the first prevocalic consonant, while rhyme (both full rhyme and half rhyme) seeks to match the first postvocalic consonant. All three matching strategies treat the absence of a consonant in the domain as a state which can be matched, and all three strategies ignore j-. The next chapters will try to account for these same matching strategies as relationships between syllables. 51 Chapter IV The Traditional Syllable and Skaldic Verse Introduction Chapter III described the matching structures of skaldic verse in a nonsyllabic framework. This chapter will attempt to describe the same structures (alliteration, skothending / half rhyme, and aaalhending / full rhyme) as relationships between syllables with indivisible syllable components. The four syllabification strategies examined divide syllables (1) according to their sonority contours, (2) according to syllable quantity canons, (3) according to CV canons, and (4) according to morphological boundaries. These strategies do not claim that syllable components are indivisible. Similarly, they do not claim that syllable components can be subdivided. These strategies do not address this topic. Without the unusual requirements of the skaldic matching strategies, it is not clear why (or how) one would try to subdivide onsets or offsets. However, in order to test whether an indivisible syllable component can accurately describe skaldic matches, it is necessary to assume that the onset and the offset, as defined in each syllabification strategy, is indivisible. This will seek to explain how the matches work when the relationships are taken to be as shown in Figure 22. syllable 1 syllable 2 '------Alliteration syllable 1 syllable 2 ---- Skothending / half rhyme syllable 1 syllable 2 ""----- AaaHiending I fu:: rhyrno Figure 22. Skaldic matching structures in a traditional syllabic framework To see whether the skaldic matching strategies can be described in terms of indivisible onsets and offsets, those components are considered indivisible. Matches between onsets will compare the entire onset and matches between offsets will compare the entire offset. Nonetheless, the task of the syllabification strategies will remain to divide words into syllables in such a way that the resulting syllable is one which a skald could recognize and accept. Words begin where the first syllable begins - there is no word extending before the beginning of the first syllable. Words end where the last syllable ends - 53 there is no word extending beyond the end of the last syllable. On the other hand, words which begin or end in a vowel, may have "space" for syllable components (empty ones) extending before and beyond the boundaries of the nucleus. This assumption may be unstated, but without it, the strategies have no chance to account for the matching of absences in alliteration and rhyme. An Indivisible Onset and Skaldic Alliteration There is no word extending before the beginning of the first syllable, and alliteration is a matching relationship between the beginnings of words between the beginning of syllables, the onsets. Since all the alliterations match the onsets of word initial syllables, there is no difference (for this purpose) between the different syllabification strategies and their ability to handle alliteration. (Each strategy predicts that the onset of a word initial syllable begins at the same place.) This study will make the following assumptions: The onset contains all the prevocalic consonants of the syllable and it contains only the prevocalic consonants of the syllable. The onset exists in all syllables, but it may be empty. Finally, j- is not part of the onset. Under these assumptions, the alliterating groups in Appendix F are distributed as shown in Figure 23. "#CC not match" indicates that the prevocalic consonant string contains more than one element and at least one of those elements does not match. "#CC-match" indicates that the prevocalic consonant string contains more than one element, but all of them match. 54 1.86% 19.20% &:I Vowel Initial IlIlI J Initial 40.82% 5.29% IE1 #C- E] ICC-not match o ICC-match Figure 23. The distribution of word initial elements Under the assumptions stated above, an indivisible onset can describe 59.18% of the matches (Le. #C- matches and #CC- matches). It will be unable to handle the remaining 40.82% of the matches (those which have some different consonants in the prevocalic strings). This group is exemplified in Example (1) (1) fullar fjollum lli6ts Qyggir Qd6sti blessus 9.D.y-hvfti nga 9!ioti geirporps grj6t Gauta ro6f1 These are the facts of alliteration without reference to any particular syllabification strategy. Two of the strategies make specific claims about the demarcation of the onset of the syllable. Perhaps one of these two strategies can describe or explain the 40.82% of alliterating word groups in which not all members have identical initial consonant clusters. 55 Alliteration and Sonority The first strategy defines the structures in a syllable according to the relative sonority of adjacent segments. Webster (1981:2173b) defines sonority as "the perceptibility or distinctness of speech sounds when spoken in a context in which stress, pitch and sound duration are constant. Donegan (1978) defines sonority as intrinsic intensity. That is, she explains, other things (stress, pitch, etc.) being equal, a more sonorant sound has a higher intensity for a given degree of effort: (l.e, [e] has higher intensity than [i]). The onset (or rise) of a syllable is defined by an increase in sonority (higher position on the sonority hierarchy). The nucleus is defined as the point of maximum sonority in the syllable. This sonority peak carries the stress, if any, of the syllable. The offset (or fall) of the syllable is defined by segments of decreasing sonority to the point of minimal sonority. This "low point" marks the end of this syllable and the beginning of the next. It may be the beginning of the next syllable, it may be the end of this syllable, or it may be ambisyllabic - belonging to both syllables.! According to this strategy, if the point of lowest sonority marks the end of the syllable (or is ambisyllabic), hundra3' 'hundred' would be divided into hund$ raa (hund$ dras). This syllable is composed of an onset which consisted of h, a nucleus which consisted of u and an offset which consisted of the nd. The offset would end after the d because r is higher on the sonority hierarchy than d and an increase in sonority defines an onset, not an offset. If, however, the point of lowest sonority marks the beginning of the next syllable, hundra3' would be devided into hun$ draa- To discuss relative sonority, we must have a sonority hierarchy. Vennemann (1972:6) groups consonants according to a grade of strength, with strength being a measure of a segment's tendency to be assimilated by a 56 following segment. According to this grouping v and j are the weakest consonants and t is the strongest. Amason (1980:38) argues that v,r and j function as a class in Old Icelandic, and Zwicky (1972) argues an accurate set of distinctive features (i.e. for English) is a prerequisite for constructing a sonority hierarchy. The hierarchy he seeks sorts segments on the basis of the sonority intrinsic to their distinctive features. Stampe (1986) claims that sonority comparisons are two-way comparisons between segments (other things being equal, voiced segments are more sonorant that voiceless ones). The hierarchy in (2) is used for this discussion. It is a composite of the discussions in Vennemann (1972), Amason (1980), Stampe (1986), and Zwicky (1972). (2) Vowels € j g v, r (F)o I ~ nasals Q, voiced fricatives ~ voiceless fricatives voiced stops voiceless stops All syllables in Icelandic require a full vowel. Since vowels top the sonority hierarchy, all the elements before the vowel will be in the onset. Given these constraints, I am unable to think of a modification to an indivisible, sonority based onset which will account for the anomalous 40.82% of matches in the sample (those alliterating groups in which some words begin with consonant clusters and others begin with a single consonant and those groups in which the words begin with different consonant clusters). 57 Alliteration and C-V Theory The other theory which describes a strategy for delineating the beginning of the syllable is C-V Phonology. Clements and Keyser (1983:29) propose that the syllables of a language MUST be exhaustively described as one of the following four types: Type I CV Type II CV,V Type III CV,CVC Type IV CV, V, CVC, VC Clements and Keyser contend that no evidence exists for the structural positions onset, offset or rime. In their framework, syllables consist of tiers of structure. The top level is the syllable (c), This level dominates a C-V tier (hence the name C-V phonology) composed of sequences of C's and V's. C and V are structural positions, not shorthand labels for consonants and vowels. C and V dominate phonological segments with which they can be associated in one-to-one relationships as well as in one-to-many or many-to-one relationships. Syllable length or stress is handled by the nucleus tier, and syllable bracketing data - for example ''the first consonant of the syllable" or "the consonants after the nucleus" - account for other phenomena. The nucleus tier, designated v ; is not a "subconstituent" of the syllable. It is a prosodic category - existing on a "prosodic plane". This theory recognizes unattached 58 consonants (ones which belong to no syllable) and ambisyllabic consonants (ones which belong simultaneously to two syllables). In addition to the pattern of C's and V's which define its type, a language may specify the number of constituents which can occur in each position. That is, a language may specify the maximum number of vowels which can occur in a syllable as well as the maximum number of consonants which may precede or follow the vowel. Two universal constraints (Clements and Keyser, 1983:37) define the way elements are parsed into the syllable structure: The Onset First Principle a. Syllable-initial consonants are maximized to the extent consistent with the syllable structure conditions of the language in question. b. Subsequently, syllable-final consonants are maximized to the extent consistent with the syllable structure conditions of the language in question. CV- Phonology explicitly rejects the concept of syllable structure as represented by an onset, nucleus and offset. In the place of these constructs they talk about a syllabic tier consisting of strings of C's and V's which can be associated in the full range of combinations as long as there are no gaps in the lines of association (you can't "skip" a segment) and none of the lines of association cross each other. The net result of these principles and prohibitions is to substitute a C for the indivisible onset. This substitution causes CV- phonology to be unable to describe the facts of alliteration in the 40.82% of the 59 matches which match the first consonant but do not match the entire prevocalic consonantal string. We have seen that those syllabification strategies which feature an indivisible onset are able to account for 59.18% of the alliterating word groups, but they fail to handle the remaining 40.82%. Next we will examine their ability to account for the word pairs of skaldic rhyme. An Indivisible Offset and Skaldic Rhyme I will now examine three syllabification strategies: sonority and quantity based syllabifications and that of C-V phonology. I will also look at the possibility that the domain of rhyme ends at the boundary of the morphological stem. In each of these cases we will continue to assume that syllable components (in this case the offset) are indivisible. Sonority The proposal, tested here, is that a rhyme match domain can be defined as the entire offset of the syllable. Languages vary in the emphasis and distinctions they make based upon the range of phonological features available. I could determine a sonority hierarchy of the sounds in Skaldic Norse based on the behavior of skaldic rhyme. I could, in turn, use that hierarchy to predict the behavior of skaldic poetry. That would be circular. The alternative is to use an independently derived hierarchy - either on the premise that a sonority hierarchy is universal or that a given hierarchy captures the details of the language. 60 The hierarchy I am using is a synthesis. Thus, if in the course of the test, a systematic difficulty arises, it must be noted. If that difficulty skews the results, then a new hierarchy should be substituted, but since those difficulties did not arise, I divided the words in Appendix E according to the hierarchy previously presented: (3) Vowels € j g v, r o I VI ~ nasals ~ voiced fricatives ~ voiceless fricatives voiced stops voiceless stops It is a synthesis of Vennemann (1972), Amason (1980), and Stampe (1986). There are subtleties of Modern Icelandic and, thus, probably of Old Icelandic that are not covered by this hierarchy. For example, where would voiceless I, r, m and n be in the hierarchy. I don't claim to be able to answer these questions in any principled way. Earlier discussion mentioned that the point of lowest sonority could be associated with either or both of two adjacent syllables. In the course of this test both alignments are considered. The first test will assume that, since Skaldic Norse prefers closed syllables, and that stressed syllables in Skaldic Norse are final maximalistic (contain as many segments as are consistent with the phonotactic constraints of the language), the point of lowest sonority is included in the offset of the first of two adjacent syllables. This offset begins at 61 the end of the vowel string. It continues to the point of lowest sonority and ends immediately after that point. The following syllable may begin at the same point of lowest sonority, or it may begin immediately following the end of the previous offset. The sonority framework can either accept extra-metrical elements (elements that are part of the word, but not part of any syllable) or it may claim that the final offset must extend to the end of the word. In the latter case, elements would presumably have their sonority adjusted to come into conformity with the sonority contour. (This would be one explanation for the voiceless consonants mentioned above). I have implemented the sonority hierarchy with possible extra-metrical elements, since the matching problems are one of strings which are too long, rather than strings which are too short. The application of this hierarchy is presented below. $ marks the end of the offset and # marks word or morpheme boundaries in compound words. The rhyme pairs to which this syllabification is applied are listed in Appendix E. In the appendix they are listed in chronological order. Here the sample is separated into two groups, that which the syllabification strategy accurately predicts will match (66 of the 126 pairs) and that which it fails to predict will match. match domain sonority 7. barg $s - marg sar 1. af #gerlJ$um - vat $lJan 8. be[s]t - astsar 2. ak $ta[ts] - sa[k] $t 9. blak $ks - sa[k] $[s]i 3. all #rit $um - hlit $a 10. bU8$r - bruu$i 4. at $s - hi[t]$[s]i 11. brak $s - ja[k] $[s]la 5. av $e - h6[v] 12. Brunn #ak $rs - bek $kjar 6. aU$r-ly8$um 13. B'or $u - tra - "lr $a 62 14. eyk $r - ok 42. rnest $5 - hr~[t] $[s]lu 15. flein #brak $5 - ark] $[s]la 43. mar#blak $ks - sa[k] $[s]i 16. freg $it - seg $fli 44. Mar$f $a - vert $u - mer - hjart $a 17. freg $nk - 6g $nar 45. ny[s]t $r - aust $an 18. g~[v] $u - fr~v $a[ts] 46. ok - blak$ki 19. gall #skyf $lir - gjof#Iastr 47. ok - rnik$lum 20. gr68$r - f~8 $ir 48. or8 - har8$Ia 21. gy8 $ing $r - hei8$ing $i 49. 61 $usk - dal $a 22. Hak$un - ok 50. rm[v] $r #hvossu - bens $~v $ar 23. hav $an - gm[v] $u 51. sm[v] $arinn - mv $i 24. hof$U8#Vit $i - gri8#bit$um 52. sig $goe8$ir - reO' - Si8$an 25. het - sa - yt$a 53. snyr- b'orsurn 26. himin#tung $1 - stung $u 54. son $r - ben $jar 27. hlj6lJ#rau[v] $ar - hay $ar 55. stad $dr - kvad $di 28. h6[v] - hay $a 56. st~r=8u - er - vur=8u 29. it $ran - sit $ja 57. stolJ$ug $r - v~g $inn 30. j6k - sa[k] $[s]i 58. sva - blm $ju 31. kjot $5 - jot $ni 59. tru $a - lo[v] $ar - mv $i 32. kress #tre - Krist $6 60. up $p - skap $tir 33. lond - lof $D'ung $r - pr~nd $a 61. yak $tat - sa[k] $t 34. Leyf $lJr's - styf$lJrar 62. y8$r- ly8$um 35. leyst $sk - List sa 63. 'or $r - ne - eyr $i 36. 1i8 #bals - ve8 #mal $a 64. pu - hja 37. lit $k - Geit $is 65. m - se - sky $jum 38. lit $k - Krit $ar 66. og $Iis - fOg$rum 39. lo[v] $ar - mv $i do not match 40. lo[v] $ask - mv $i 67. bm $um - hav $ar 41. lof - rof$na 68. ban $i - gand $i 63 69. Bla #Iands - stat $i 96. meyj $ar - mesr $i 70. brast - Gi[s]k sa 97. nu - sk6g $i 71. brask - syst $ur 98. 61[t] $[s] - H61 $a 72. eld $s - hOia- $um 99. roerna $r - gam $Ian 73. en - land $i 100. sent - hend$i 74. en - reyna- $isk 101. sja rna- heim $i 75. end $r - hruna- $i 102. skia- #gara- $r - hvarm $a 76. fa3sk - lest $ir 103. skjald #meyj sar - sk6m $a 77. for - gorv $a 104. skjold #ungr - hoia- $um 78. for - gerv $is 105. sva - i-lim $u - Ilk $ams 79. finsk - rnon$num 106. tru - Iya-·um 80. fley - ar $ar 107. ulf #lia-s - mia- $Ii 81. flyj $a - fun $ir - draug $ar 108. un[t] $[s] - sund $i 82. tra - 6r $um 109. ung $r - Ice - laun $at 83. fria- #1a3 - sesv $ar 110. var $r #ba $als - kara- $in $al $i 84. hel[s]k - seld $i 111. veld $r - hoia- $um 85. herm $a - pelr sa 112. vii $Iat - H61m #steinn 86. heyr - jara- $ar 113. vist - dr6s $ir 87. hjald $r - hoia- sar 114. vist - pis $Ium 88. hla3g $ir - ba3j $ar 115. par - barsk - bora- $i 89. hra3 #gam $ms - Sa3V $ar 116. par - fyra- $a 90. hring $s - hond $um 117. par - sa3ra- $a 91. hverr' #s - horsk $r - byrj $ar 118. pa - dreyr sa 92. J6 $an - hav $a 119. ba vas - cev $i 93. lest #und $ir - pes ssa 120. pa va - h'ov $an 94. man $n #dyra- $ir - vand sa 121. pas - hest $ar 95. menj $a - slong $vir 122. pas - la3st 64 125. ~ - eptir #d~m $i 123. pol sa - eld 126. Old - fel $Ii 124. bo - blorn $i (# Matches/126) * 100% =52.38% Sonority and Open Syllables As mentioned above, the point of lowest sonority may be in the following syllable rather than the preceding one. This would match a universal preference for open syllables, and presumably even a language which prefers closed syllables will also use the alternative syllabification in some words. Also, in spoken language, sometimes word boundaries are ignored to facilitate matches. To account for these possibilities, the matches which the sonority framework was unable to accommodate are reanalyzed for potential matches based on the alternative syllabification in which the point of lowest sonority is in the second of the two adjacent syllables and for matches based on match domains which extend beyond the word boundary. Sonority - match (II) 1. b~ $um - ha evar 9. fly ¢ja - fu enlr - drau ¢gar 2. ban $i - gan ¢di 10. fra-6¢rum 3. Bla #Iands - sta ¢Ii 11. fria-#I~ - S~ ¢var 4. en -Ian ¢di 12. her erna- pelr $a 5. en - rayn ¢6isk 13. heyr - jar¢f1ar 6. for - gor¢va 14. hla ¢gi r - b~ ¢jar 7. for - ger¢vis 15. hr~ #gamms - s~ ¢var 8. fley - a erar 16. J6 can - ha eva 65 17. mey ¢jar - m~ eri 27. par- s~r¢lJa 18. nu -sk6 ¢gi 28. pa - drey era 19. sja rna - hei ernl 29. pa vas - ~ evl 20. skjald #mey ejar - sk6 erna 30. pa va - h'c evan 21. sva - i-Ii emu - ll ekams 31. pas - hes etar 22. trti -Iy¢aum 32. po - blo ¢mi 23. ungr -I~ - lau enat 33. ~ - eptir #d~ ernl 24. varr#ba eats - kar ¢8i ena ell 52.38% (#Matches/126)*100% 25. par - barsk- bor ¢6i +26.19% =(% other Matches) 78.57% 26. par - fyr ¢lJa Quantity based Syllable Parallel to the conception of sonority as intrinsic perceptual distinctness is the conception of length as intrinsic perceptual duration. That is, each segment has a "length" which native speakers can "hear" and use in categorization. We will divide each word in the matching pairs in Appendix E according to the conception of long or heavy syllables. Amason (1980:107) lists the following syllable categorizations 2 light (or short) VC fat 'a piece of clothing' heavy (or long) v:c fat 'confusion' VC2 fatt 'erect' (neuter) hypercharacterized (or overlong) V:C2 fatt 'few' (neuter) The words in Appendix E were divided in such a way as to ensure that the offset would meet the minimum criteria for a long syllable. £ marks the end of 66 the offset as determined by the quantity criteria and # marks word or morpheme boundaries in compound words. Under this strategy, vatni 'water (dative)' would be syllabified as vatn£i. This syllable is composed of an onset containing v, a nucleus holding a, and an offset containing tn. In order for a syllable with a short vowel to be long, the offset must contain two or more elements. The list below reports how many of the rhyming pairs this syllabification accurately predicts will match when the offsets are determined according to quantity criteria (55 of 126). match domain - duration 1. akt£a[ts] - sa[k]t 19. het-sa-yt£a 2. all#rif£um - hlif£a 20. himin#tung£l- stung£u 3. ats - hi[ts]£i 21. hljoa#rau[v]£ar - hav£ar 4. av£e - h6[v] 22. h6[v] - hav£a 5. a8£r - ly8£um 23. it£ran - sit£ja 6. barg£s - marg£ar 24. krossstre - Krist£6 7. bliB£r - bru8£i 25. Leyf£fJr's - styf£arar 8. braks - ja[ks]£la 26. lii1#bals - vea#mal£a 9. S'or£u - tra - 'Ir£a 27. Iit£k - Geit£is 10. eyk£r- ok 28. lit£k - Krit£ar 11. flein#braks - a[ks]£la 29. lo[v]£ar - ~v£i 12. g~[v]£u - fr~v£a[ts] 30. lo[v]£ask - ~v£i 13. goll#skyf£lir - gjof#lastr 31. lof - rof£na 14. gr68£r - f~8£ir 32. m~t£s - hr~[t]£[s]lu 15. gya£ing£r - hei8£ing£i 33. Mar£f£a - vert£u - mer - hjart£a 16. Hak£un - ok 34. ny[sl£tr - aus£tan 17. hflv£an - g~[v]£u 35. ora - har8£la 18. hof£uu#vit£i - gria#bit£um 36. 61£[ts] - H61£a 67 37. 6J£usk - dciJ£a 63. bras£k - syst£ur 38. ra[v]£r#hvossu - bens£av£ar 64. Brunn#akr£s - bekk£jar 39. sa[v]£arinn - av£i 65. eld£s - hola£um 40. sig£goe8£ir - reB' - si8£an 66. en - land£i 41. snyr- b'orsurn 67. en - reyna£isk 42. son£r - ben£jar 68. end£r - hruna£i 43. stadd£r - kvadd£i 69. fc:es£k - lest£ir 44. star=6u - er - vur=6u 70. for - gorv£a 45. sva - bla£ju 71. for - gerv£is 46. tru£a - lo[v]£ar - av£i 72. fins£k - monn£um 47. vakt£at - sa[k]t 73. fley - ar£ar 48. varr#ba£aJ£s - kara£in£cil£i 74. fly£ja - fun£ir - draug£ar 49. vfs£t - dr6s£ir 75. fra - 6r£um 50. vfs£t - pis£lum 76. freg£it - sega£i 51. 'or£r - ne - eyr£i 77. fregn£k - 6g£nar 52. par - sar£va 78. friv#lc:e - sa9v£ar 53. pas - Ia!s£t 79. hel[s]£k - seld£i 54. pu - hja 80. herm£a - peir£a 55. a - sa - sky£jum 81. heyr - jara£ar do not match 82. hjald£r - hola£ar 56. af#gera£um - vafa£an 83. hlc:eg£ir - ba9£jar 57. bc:e£um - hav£ar 84. hra#gamm£s - sc:ev£ar 58. ban£i - gand£i 85. hring£s - hond£um 59. be[s]t - as£tar 86. hverr's - hors£kr - byr£jar 60. blakk£s - sa[ks]£i 87. J6£an - havsa 61. Bla#land£s - stal£i 88. j6k - sa[ks]£i 62. brast - Gi[s]k£a 89. kjots - jotn£i 68 90. lend -lof8£ung£r· pran£da 109. ulf#liiJs• miiJI£i 91. lest#und£ir - pess£a 110. un[ts] • sund£i 92. leys£tsk - List£a 111. ung£r - la - laun£at 93. mann#dyr8£ir - vand£a 112. upp - skapt£ir 94. mar#blakk£s - sa[k][s]£i 113. veld£r - hol8£um 95. men£ja - slong£vir 114. vill£at - H61£m#steinn 96. mey£jar - mar£i 115. yiJr- ly8£um 97. nu - sk6g£i 116. par - bars£k - bor8£i 98. ok - blakk£i 117. par - fyr8£a 99. ok - mikl£um 118. pa - dreyr£a 100. roem£iJr - gaml£an 119. pa vas - c:ev£i 101. sent - hend£i 120. pa va - h'ovsan 102. sja rna - heim£i 121. pas - hest£ar 103. ski8#gar8£r - hvarm£a 122. pol£a- eld 104. skjald#mey£jar - sk6m£a 123. po - bl6m£i 105. skjold#ung£r - holiJ£um 124. a - eptir#dam£i 106. sto8£ug£r - vc:eg£inn 125. ogl£is· fogr£um 107. sva - f - Iim£u - Iik£ams 126. Old - fell£i 108. tru -ly8£um (# Matches/126) * 100% =43.65% cv- and the Quantity Domain On the assumption that there is a universal preference for open syllables and that spoken language sometimes alters word boundaries in order to facilitate matches, the words which the Quantity based syllable was unable to accommodate are reanalyzed for potential matches based, fully or in part, on an open syllable canon or on domains which extend beyond the word boundary. 69 Duration - match if CV- syllable division is used 1. af#ger~8um -vaf~uan 23. ok - mikelurn 2. ba£um - haevar 24. roe~£8r - gam~lan 3. ban£i - gan~di 25. skjald#mey~jar - skoerna 4. Blli#land£s - sta~1i 26. sva - i - llernu - llekarns 5. en - lan~di 27. tru - ly~8um 6. en - reyn~msk 28. ung£r - 1m - lauenat 7. for - gor~va 29. vllelat - Hol£m#steinn 8. for - ger~vis 30. par - bars£k - bor~8 9. fley - aerar 31. par - fyr~8a 1O. fly~ja - fu~nir - draueqar 32. pa - dreyera 11. fra - oerurn 33. pas - hesetar 12. fri8#la - sa£var 34. po - bl6~mi 13. hererna - peir£a 35. a - eptir#d~~mi 14. heyr - jar~8ar 36. Og~lis - fog~rum 15. hla~gir- ba~jar match across boundaries 16. hra#gamms - sesevar 37. sja rna -heim£i 17. J6£an - haeva 38. pa vas - av£i 18. j6k - sa[k~sli 39. pa va- h'ov£an 19. leys£tsk - Liseta 20. meyejar - m~~ri 43.65% =(#Matches/126)*100% 21. nu - sk6~gi +31.75% =(% other Matches) 22. ok - blak~ki 75.40% C-V Phonology and Skaldic Rhyme C-V Phonology was discussed above. We saw that the C's and V's of this framework were structural positions in a CV tier. These positions could each be associated on a one-to-one, one-to-many or many-to-one basis with the phonological material which the tier dominated. The restrictions on the lines of association were that they could not "skip" phonological material and that the 70 lines could not cross other lines. The lines of association were assigned between the ev tier and the phonological tier in accordance with the Onset First Principle. The Onset First Principle a. Syllable-initial consonants are maximized to the extent consistent with the syllable structure conditions of the language in question. b. SUbsequently, syllable-final consonants are maximized to the extent consistent with the syllable structure conditions of the language in question. Languages were categorized as one of four types: Type I ev Type II ev, V Type III eV,evc Type IV ev, V, eve. vc Together, these principles and typology are meant to capture the observation that there is a universal preference for open syllables. The paired rhymes in Appendix E were compared after the words had been syllabified under the presumption that open syllables were preferred. The comparison shows that this framework can accurately predict 69 of the 126 matches match domain - ev¢cv 1. af#ger¢6um - vaf¢f}an 3. bescum - haevar 2. all#rf¢fum - hlf¢fa 4. Bla#lands - sta¢li 71 5. braks - ja[ks]¢la 32. krossstrs - Kris¢t6 6. Brunn#akrs - bek¢kjar 33. Iilt#bals - vea-#ma¢la 7. B'ceru - fra - "lera 34. lof - rotena 8. en - lan¢di 35. lo¢[v]ar - m¢vi 9. en - reyn¢msk 36. lo¢[v]ask - m¢vi 10. for - gor¢va 37. meets - hrm[ts]¢lu 11. for - ger¢vis 38. Mar¢f¢a - veretu - mer - hjar¢ta 12. flein#braks - a[ks]¢la 39. meyejar- mm¢ri 13. fley - aerar 40. nu - sk6¢gi 14. fly¢ja - fu¢nir - draueqar 41. ok - blak¢ki 15. fra - oerurn 42. ok - mik¢lum 16. freg¢it - seg¢f)j 43. 6¢lusk - daela 17. friiJ#lm - sm¢var 44. ora- - har8¢la 18. gm¢[v]u - frm¢va[ts] 45. sm¢[v]arinn - m¢vi 19. goll#skyf¢lir - gjof#lastr 46. sig¢goe¢f)jr - reiJ - sl¢iJan 20. gy¢mngr - hei¢mn¢gi 47. sja rna - helerni 21. haevan - gm¢[v]u 48. skjald#mey¢jar - skoerna 22. hO¢fu8'#Vi¢ti - gri8#bi¢tum3 49. stmr=fJu - er - vur=fJu 23. het - sa - y¢ta 50. sto¢fJugr - vm¢ginn 24. heyr - [aresar 51. sva - blm¢ju 25. himin#tungl- stunequ 52. sva - i - liernu - llekarns 26. hlm¢gir - bm¢jar 53. tru - Iy¢aum 27. hlj6iJ#rau¢[v]ar - haevar 54. truea - lo¢[v]ar - m¢vi 28. hrm#gamms - sesevar 55. ungr-Im - lauenat 29. Iteran - siteja 56. varrsbaeals - kar¢m¢na¢1i 30. Jocan - haeva 57. 'orr - ne - ey¢ri 31. j6k - sa[k]¢[s]i 58. pa - dreyera 72 59. pa va - h'oevan 85. finsk - monenurn 60. pa vas - ;:e¢vi 86. fregnk - 6g¢nar 61. par - barsk - bor¢6i 87. gr6m- - fa9¢6ir 62. par - fyr¢l1a 88. Haekun - ok 63. par - smr¢l1a 89. hel[s]k - sel¢di 64. pas - hesetar 90. hsrema - pelera 65. p6 - bl6¢mi 91. hjaldr - hol¢l1ar 66. pu - hja 92. h6[v] - haeva 67. m - eptir#dm¢mi 93. hrings - honedurn 68. m - sa - sky¢jum 94. hverr's - horskr - byr¢jar 69. og¢lis - fog¢rum 95. kjots - jot¢ni do not match 96. lend - lof¢lTungr - pra9n¢da 70. ak¢ta[ts] - sa[k]t 97. lest#un¢dir - pesesa 71. ats - hi[t]¢[s]i 98. Leyfm-'s - styfl1¢rar 72. a¢ve - h6[v] 99. leystsk - Llseta 73. al1r - ly¢l1um 100. Iftk - Gei¢tis 74. baeni - gan¢di 101. litk - Krfetar 75. vargs - rnareqar 102. mann#dyrair - vaneda 76. be[s]t - asetar 103. mar#blakks - sa[k]¢[s]i 77. blakks - sa[k]¢[s]i 104. rnene]a - slonqevir 78. blfl1r - bru¢f}i 105. ny[s]tr - ausetan 79. brast - Gi[s]¢ka 106. 61[ts] - Hoela 80. brask - sysetur 107. ra9[v]r#hvossu - beneseeevar 81. elds - hol¢lTum 108. roernsr - gam¢lan 82. endr - hrun¢f}i 109. sent - hen¢di . 83. eykr - ok 110. skil1#garl1r - hvarerna 84. fa9sk - lssetlr 111. skjold#ungr - hol¢l1um 73 112. snyr - b'oerurn 120. vilelat - H6lm#steinn 113. som - benejar 121. vist - dr6¢sir 114. staddr - kvad¢di 122. vist - plselurn 115. ulf#lius - miu¢1i 123. yB'r -Iy¢aum 116. un[ts] - sun¢di 124. pas -I~st 117. upp - skapetlr 125. poela - eld 118. vak¢tat - sa[k]t 126. Old - fel¢1i 119. veldr - hol¢uum (# Matches/126) *100% =54.76% c-v Phonology and Ambisyllabic Segments According to the C-V phonology framework, Skaldic Norse is a Type IV language with open syllables, closed syllables and vowel initial syllables. This framework allows for the possibility of both unassociated consonants and ambisyllabic consonants. Accordingly, the matches which the presumption of a preference for open syllables could not identify are reexamined for the inclusion of the consonant in the preceding syllable, as an ambisyllabic element. The resulting syllabifications are compared to see how many matches this strategy can accurately predict. C-V matches if ambisyllabic consonants are presumed 1. ats - hi[t]¢[s]i 6. h6[v] - havea 2. av¢e - h6[v] 7. snjr - b'oreurn 3. banel - gan¢di 54.76% =(# Matches/126)*100% 4. Hakeun - ok +5.56% =(% other Matches) 5. harerna - pelrea 60.32% 74 Stems We have used various syllabic strategies to set up the rhyme domain for our skaldic data. It only makes sense to consider that the matching domain may be a morphological one. The stem of a word is the morphologic base to which inflectional endings are added. The following listing attempts to divide the words into stems and endings. Cleasby (1874/1975) is my resource, but I am responsible for any and all misidentification of words and/or morphemes. The assumption is that after the stem has been isolated, an indivisible offset extending from the end of the vowel string to the end of the stem will correctly predict the extent of the matching consonants in the rhyming word pairs. = marks the end of the stem. This strategy accurately predicts 54 of the 126 matches. match domain - stems 1. af#ger=aum- vaf=8'an 12. fregn=k - ogn=ar 2. all#rff=um - hHf=a 13. fri8'#la - sa=var4 3. ats - hi[ts]=i 14. grou=r - fau=ir 4. au=r -Iyu=um 15. gyu=ing=r- heiu=ing=i 5. varg=s - marg=ar 16. hofuu#Vft=i - griu#bit=um 6. be[s]t - ast-ar 17. hel=zk - sel=di 7. bliu=r - bruu=i 18. het - sa - Yt=a 8. B'or=u - fra - 'Ir=a 19. hra#gamms - sa;)=var 9. en - reyn=8'isk 20. Joan - ha=va 10. eyk=r - ok 21. kjot=s - jot=ni 11. freg=it - seg=6i 22. krossstre - Krista 75 23. lond - lofaung=r - prmnd=a 50. par - baresk - bor=f}j 24. Leyf=8r's - styf=8rar 51. pa va - h'o=van? 6 25. leyst=sk- List=a 52. pas - Ims=t 26. Iit=k - Geit=is 53. pu - hja 27. Iit=k - Krit=ar 54. ~ - sa - sky=jum 28. 1iO'#bai=s - veO'#mal=a do not match 29. lof - rof=na 55. aktaz - sa[k]=t 30. 61=z - H61=a 56. ave - ho[v] 31. ny[s]t=r - aust-an 57. b83=um - hav=ar 32. ok - mik=lum 58. banel - gand=i 33. o=lusk - da=la 59. blakk=s - sa[k][s]=i 34. orO' - harO'=la 60. Bla#land=s - stal=i 35. sig#goeO'=ir- reO' - slO'an 61. brak=s - ja[k][s]l=a 36. snyr - b'or=um 62. brast - Gi[s]k=a 37. sonar - ben=jar 63. braesk - syst-ur 38. stadd-r - kvadd=i 64. Brunnsakres - bekk=jar 39. stmr=au - er - vur=au 65. eld=s - hol=aum 40. sto8ug=r - vmg=inn 66. en - land=i 41. sva - blm=ju 67. end=r - hrun=f}j 42. sva - i- lim=u -Hkam-s 68. for - qorva 43. tru=a - lo[v]=ar - m=vi 69. for - gervi=s 44. un[ts] (=und+es) - sund-f 70. fin=sk - monn-urn 45. var=r#baal=s - karB'inal=i 71. flein#brak=s - a[k][s]l=a 46. VIS=t - dros=ir 72. fley -ar-ar 47. VIS=t - pis=lum 73. fly=ja - fUn=ir - drauqear 48. y8=r-lyO'=um 74. fra - or=um 49. 'or=r - ne - eyr=i 75. ? f83=sk - lest=ir 76 76. ? goll#skyflir - gjof#lastr 102. ree[v]=r#hvossu - bensesevar 77. gee[v]=u - freevaz 103. roem=ur - gaml=an 78. ha=van - gee[v]=u 104. see[v]ari=nn - ee=vi 79. Hakun - ok 105. sent - hend=i 80. hermea - peir=a 106. sja rna - heim=i 81. heyr - jaru=ar 107. skia'#garu=r - hvarrn-a 82. himin#tungl - stung=u 108. skjald#mey=jar - sk6ma 83. hjald=r - hol=uar 109. skjold#ung=r - hol=aum 84. hleeg=ir - bee=jar 110. tru -Iyu=um 85. hlj6u#rau[v]=ar - ha-var 111. ulf#lifJ=s - miUl=i 86. h6[v] - ha=va 112. ung=r - lee - launeat 87. hring=s - hcnd-um 113. upp - skapt-lr 88. hverr's - horsk=r - byr=jar 114. ? vakt-at - sa[k]=t 89. rtr=an - sit=ja 7 115. veld=r - hol=aum 90. j6k - sa[k][s]=i 116. ? vill=at - H6lm#steinn 91. lest#undir - bess-a 117. par- fyru=a 92. lo[v]=ar - ee=vi ? 118. par - seer=ua 93. lo[v]=ask - ee=vi 119. pa - dreyr=a 94. meet=s - hree[t][s]lu 120. pa vas - a3=vi 95. man=n#dyrair - vane-a 121. pas - hest=ar 96. marsblakkes - sa[k][s]=i 122. pol-a - eld 97. Marfa - ver=tu - mer - hiartea 123. po - blornel 98. men=ja - slong=vir 124. ee - eptir#deem=i 99. rney-jar - meer=i 125. ogli=s - fogr=um 100. nu - sk6g=i 126. Old - fell=i 101. ok - blakk=i (# Matches/126) * 100% =42.86% 77 cv- and the Morphological Domain Each of the previous tests has considered the claim that there is a universal preference for open syllables. This final, morphological test did not specify how the end of the offset was determined. As in the other tests, prescreening the word on a morphological basis would not preclude utilizing a syllabification strategy of open syllables - at least in some words. Also, when word boundaries are ignored to facilitate matches in spoken language, sometimes morphological boundaries are also ignored. To account for these possibilities, the words which the morphological strategy was unable to accommodate are reanalyzed for potential matches based, fully or in part, on an open syllable canon or on domains which extend beyond the word boundary. Stem match - match if CV- syllable division is used 1. aketaz - sa[k]=t 14. ga!¢[v]u - fra!¢vaz 2. ba!¢um - haevar 15. haevan - ga!¢[v]u 3. baeni - gan¢di 16. hererna - peir=a 4. Bla#land=s - sta¢1i 17. heyr - jar¢a-ar 5. en - lan¢di 18. hlm¢gir - bm¢jar 6. for - gor¢va 19. hlj6i1#rau¢[v]ar - haevar 7. for - ger¢vis 20. Iteran - sit¢ja 8. fin=sk - mon¢num 21. j6k - sa[k]¢[s]i 9. flay -aerar 22. lo¢[v]ar - m¢vi 10. fly¢ja - fu¢nir - draueqar 23. lo¢[v]ask - a!¢vi 11. fra - oerum 24. man=n#dyrair- vaneda 12. fa!sk - lesetlr 25. Maria - veretu - mer - hjar¢ta 13. goll#skyf¢lir - gjof#lastr 26. meyejar - rneserl 78 27. nu - sk6¢gi 37. pa - drey¢ra 28. ok - blak¢ki 38. pas - hesetar 29. roem=8r - gam¢lan 39. po - blo¢mi 30. s~¢[v]ar=inn - ~¢vi 40. ~ - eptir#da:l¢mi 31. skjald#mey¢jar - sk6¢ma 41. Og¢lis - f09¢rum 32. tru -Iy¢aum match across boundaries 33. ulf#1i8=S - mi8¢1i 42. sjarna -heim - f 34. ung=r - Ia! - lauenat 42.86% =(#Matches/126)*100% 35. vak¢tat - sa[k]¢t +33.33% =(% other Matches) 36. par - fyr¢a-a 76.19% Summary I have tried to divide a list of 126 rhyming pairs into the units which define the match. I have used three syllabification strategies and one morphological framework. Each of these frameworks assumed in some fashion or other that the structural position which contained the postvocalic consonants (the offset or the postnuclear C) was indivisible. It could be filled with any number of elements, from none up to the maximum allowed by the phonotactic rules of the language, but the structural position under which these elements were categorized was unitary - indivisible. This assumption results in the frameworks being able to account for only some of the matches. The success rate of the frameworks is presented here and is shown as a graph in Figure 24. 79 Totals(with other matches): Sonority 52.38% 78.57% Duration 43.65% 75.40% CV- 54.76% 60.32% Stem 42.86% 76.19% 140 90.00% 120 80.00% 70.00% 100 60.00% Ii) Unpredicted 80 50.00% lEI Other Matches 60 40.00% III Strict Domain 30.00% 40 .•• %Handled 20.00% 20 10.00% 0 0.00% Sonority Quantity CV- Stems Figure 24. A visual comparison of the predictive accuracy of the syllabification strategies. The next chapter will look at this same list of rhyming words, this time without the assumption that the consonant strings must be characterized as indivisible. 80 Chapter V The Articulated Syllable and Skaldic Verse Introduction Chapter IV showed that assuming the syllabic structures onset and offset are indivisible results in being able to predict only about 60% of the alliterating word groups and about 80% of the rhyming word pairs. In all instances, the primary difficulty was having defined a match string which was longer than the actual match. Chapter III presented a nonsyllabic framework that predicted alliteration and rhyme without difficulty. A match string consisting of a single consonant was able to describe these matching relationships consistently. For alliteration, the first consonant of the words matched, and for rhyme, the vowels plus the first consonant after the vowels agreed. The first consonant of the word is the first consonant of the onset (except for j initial words), and the first consonant after the vowel is the first consonant of the offset (except for syllables without a postvocalic consonant). This chapter will show that granting special status to the first element in the onset and in the offset (however those structures are determined) will allow us to describe the facts of skaldic matching strategies in a syllabic framework. Syllables with Initial Elements The first element of each consonantal component of the syllable will be designated the initial element. The first consonant of the onset is its initial and the first consonant of the offset is its initial. The resulting syllable structure would be as represented in Figure 25. Initial Initial Figure 25. Syllable structure with initial elements In this framework, if there is an element in the onset or the offset, there is an element in that structure's initial. If there is no element in the structure, there is no element in the initial, and that initial is "empty". Let us look at how this type of element would handle skaldic alliteration. Skaldic Alliteration and Onset Initial Elements According to the framework we just described, alliteration would be schematically represented as shown in Figure 26. Syllable 1 Syllable 2 Initial Initial E~~~~~J ~ T-----Alliteration---T Figure 26. Alliteration as the matching of onset initial elements We saw in the last chapter that the alliterating word groups in Appendix F were distributed as shown in Figure 27. 82 1.86% 19.20% =Vowel Initial III J Initial 40.82% 5.29% 1m #C- El #CC-not match o #CC-match Figure 27. The distribution of word initial elements Defining alliteration in terms of the onset initial element, as described will account for all but the 5.29% of the matches. Those matches had j as the initial element of the word in some, but not all of the alliterating group. In vowel initial words, the empty onset initial elements would match by virtue of being empty initials. In the words with initial consonant clusters, only the first consonant of the cluster would be the onset initial element and thus have to match under this new definition. In all cases the first consonant did match. The presentation can be modified to handle the words which begin with j. The 40.82% of the sample which matched the first consonant in the onset but which failed to match the other consonants in the onset can be described concisely. The first consonant is the onset initial element. The other prevocalic consonants are in the onset, but are not onset initial elements. If j (as a glide) cannot be the onset initial element 1, even when it is the only element in the onset, then the facts of alliteration can be represented completely. Words 83 beginning with j alliterate as they do because all of them have an empty onset initial element, just like vowels do. An alternative solution might be considering j to be included in the onset initial position (because it is not a vowel) and the facts of alliteration to be the result of a convention that ignores j in alliteration. In this case, the distribution of j in alliteration and in syllabification should show certain characteristic distributions. First of all, matches that are the result of convention behave predictably. For example, convention says a matches 0 in an aaalhending. At the same time, a matches a in an aaalhending pair and 0 matches o. Similarly a and 0 also count as matches in skothending pairs. However, a with a, 0 with 0, and 0 with 0 do not count as matches in skothending pairs. If j is ignored in alliteration because of a convention, the distribution of matches should nonetheless show a body of alliterations which matched the j - because whether it was required to alliterate or not, it could alliterate. Of the 55 alliterating groups (containing at least one initial j), not one alliterates on j. Secondly, if j is in the onset initial position, the behavior of intervocalic consonants in Skaldic Norse suggests that sometimes there should be rhymes in which j is in the offset of the preceding syllable, sometimes it should be ambisyllabic and sometimes it should be in the successive syllable. However, j is invariably grouped with the following vowel in the successive syllable. Together, these behaviors refute the suggestion that j is in the initial position and behaves idiosyncratically as a matter of convention and support the suggestion that j is different from other consonants (as would be expected, if j is a glide) and that those differences preclude its inhabiting the onset initial position. 84 Rhyme Domain with Articulated Offsets In the chapters preceding this one, a case has been laid for considering the domain of skaldic rhyme to be through the first postvocalic consonant. Expressed in terms of a syllable like that illustrated in Figure 28, this would result in skaldic rhyme being defined as the matching relationship which pairs the elements of the nucleus and the offset initial. Skothending requires that the nuclei of the matched pairs differ. (This requirement is met, for example, when a long vowel is paired with its sister short vowel.) Avalhending requires that the match extend from the beginning of the nucleus through the offset initial element. (Long vowels cannot make an avalhending pair with a short vowel.) These relationships are illustrated in Figure 29. Initial Initial Figure 28. Syllable structure with initial elements 85 Syllable 1 Syllable 2 Initial Initial Syllable 1 Syllable 2 Initial t Aaalhending J Figure 29. Skaldic rhyme as the matching of offset initial elements. The success of this definition of skaldic rhyme in predicting the matches is tested on the word pairs from Appendix E. 00 marks the end of the offset initial element and # marks word/morpheme boundaries in compound words. This strategy is able to predict 107 of the 126 word pairs. match domain -through offset initial 1. at#gerD'um - vat oovan 7. ban ooj - gan oodi 2. ak ootaz - sa[k] oot 8. var oogs - maroogar 3. all #rit ooum - hlif ooa 9. be[s] oot - as-etar 4. at oos - hi[t] oo[s]i 10. blak ooks - sa[k] oo[s]i 5. av ooe - h6[v] 11. bliit eo]" - bruB'ooi 6. aitoor-Iyitooum 12. S'oroou -fra- 'Irooa 86 13. brak 005 - ja[k] oo[s]la 40. him ooin #tun oogl - stun oogu 14. bras ook - sysootur 41. hjal oodr - hoi oovar 15. bras oot - Gi[s] ooka 42. hl~ oogir - b~ oojar 16. Brunn#ak oors - bek ookjar 43. hlj08#rau[v] ooar - hav ooar 17. el oods - hol ooaum 44. h6[v] - hav ooa 18. en - Ian oodi 45. hrin oogs - hen oodum 19. en - reyn ooaisk 46. hver oor's - hor ooskr - byr oojar 20 en oodr - hrun 006j 47. it ooran - sit ooja 21. eyk oo]' - ok 48. jok - sa[k]oo[s]i 22. f~s ook - les ootir 49. kjot ooS - jot ooni 23. for - goroova 50. kros ooS #tre - Kris ooto 24. for - geroovis 51. Ion ood - lofv#un oogr - pr~n ooda 25. fin oosk - mon oonum 52. les oot #undir - pes oosa 26. flein oobrak ooS - a[k] oo[s]la 53. Leyf oofJr'S - styfoovrar 27. freg ooit - seg oofJi 54. leys ootsk - Lis oota 28. freg oonk - 6g oonar 55. lit ook - Geit oois 29. g~[v] oou - fr~vooaz 56. lit ook - Krit ooar 30. goll #skyf oolir - gjof oolastr 57. 1i8 #bal ooS - veB' #mal ooa 31. graB' oe]' - f~B' ooir 58. lof - rot-sna 32. gy8 ooin oogr - hei8 ooin oogi 59. lo[v] ooar - ~v ooi 33. Hak ooun - ok 60. lo[v] ooask - ~v ee] 34. hav ooan - g~[v] oou 61. meet ooS - hr~[t] oo[s]lu 35. hOfoouB'#vit ooi - griB'#bitooum 62. man oon #dyrfJir - van ooda 36. hel oozk - sel oodi 63. mar#blak ooks - sa[k] oo[s]i 37. her--rna - peirooa 64. Marooia - verootu - mer - hjaroota 38. hat - sa - yt ooa 65. men ooja - sian oogvir 39. heyr - jaroovar 66. ny[s] ootr - aus ootan 87 67. ok - blak ooki 94. vis oot - pis oolum 68. ok - mikoolum 95. yuoor-Iyil'ooum 69. 6loousk-dalooa (6oolusk - daoola) 96. .:Moor- na - ~oo!ooi 70. 61 ooZ - H61 ooa 97. par - bar oosk - bar ooal 71. or ooff - harooma 98. par - fyr oof!a 72. r~[v]oor #hvoS>osu - bens #a3Vooar 99. par - s~rooffa 73. roem oof!r - gam oolan 100. pas - hes ootar 74. s~[v] ooarinn - a3V ooi 101. pas -I~soot 75. sen oot - hen oodi 102. pol ooa - el cod 76. sig#goeil' ooir - reil'- siil'ooan 103. pu - hja 77. skiff#gar oof!r - hvar-erna 104. ~ - eptir #d~ oomi 78. skjol ood #ungr - hoi oofJum 105. ~ - sa - skyoojum 79. snyr - b'or-eum 106. og oolis - fogoorum 80. son ee]" - ben oojar 107. 01 ood - fel ooli 81. stad oodr - kvad oodi do not match 82. steer oof!U - er - vurool!Ju 108. beaum - hav-sar 83. stOfJooug ee]' - v~g ooinn 109. Bla #Iands - stalooi 84. sva - bla3 ooju 110. fley - ar ooar 85. sva - i - lim oou - Ii ookam ooS 111. fly ooja - fun ooir - draug ooar 86. ulf#liff ooS - miil' ooli 112. fra - or ooum 87. un oo[ts] - sun oodi 113. friff #100 - smv ooar 88. up oop - skap ootir 114. hrm #gamms - smv ooar 89. yak ootat - salk] oot 115. J6 ooan - hav ooa 90. varoor#baooaloos - karooaln ooal ooi 116. mey oojar - moor ooi 91. vel oodr - hoi ool!Jum 117. nu - sk6g ooi 92. vii oolat - Hal oom #steinn 118. skjald #mey oojar - skorn ooa 93. vis oot - dr6s ooir 119. tru - Iyffooum 88 120 tru ooa - lo[v] ooar - aav ooj 124. §@ rna - heim ooj 121. un oogr -Iaa - laun ooat 125. M va - nsv ooan 122. pa - dreyr ooa 126. M vas - aav ooi 123. po - blorn ooi ( #Matches/126) * 100% = 84.92% GV- and Skaldic Rhyme The last chapter discussed the possibility that a language could employ more than one syllabification strategy and that spoken language sometimes ignored word boundaries in order to facilitate matches. Consequently, every syllabification strategy was retested for potential matches based, fully or in part, on an open syllable canon or on domains which extend beyond the word boundary. These same assumptions hold for any syllabification strategy, so they should also hold for the strategy which grants special status to the offset initial element. Thus the word pairs which this framework was unable to predict would match are also retested for additional matches. match if CV- syllable division is used 1. bee-urn - ha ¢var 9. mey ¢jar - maa ¢ri 2. Blci #Iands - sta ¢Ii 10. nu - sk6 ¢gi 3. fley - a erar 11. skjald #mey ¢jar - sk6 erna 4. fly ¢ja - fu enir - drau ¢gar 12. tru -Iy¢aum 5. fra - oerum 13. tru ooa - 10 ¢[v]ar - aa evi 6. friiJ#Ia;} - saa¢var 14. un oogr - laa - lau ¢n ooat 7. hraa #gamms - Sa;} evar 15. pa - dray era 8. Jo ooan - ha ¢va 16. p6 - blo ernl 89 match across boundaries 17. ~ mooa- hei ¢mooi 84.92% =(#Matches/126) * 100% 18. 1m v ooa - tD2 ¢vooan 15.08% =+(% other Matches) = 100.00% The Nucleus and Rhyme In each characterization of skaldic syllable structure, because the behavior of skaldic matches provides no evidence about the nature of the structure of the nucleus, it has been portrayed as an indivisible unit Amason (1980) argues that long vowels and diphthongs in Old Icelandic should be characterized as sequences rather than as single units. Certainly, writing diphthongs as multiple letters (ae, oe, ey, au, ei) encourages the hope that the nucleus can be divided into an initial and a following element, like the onset and the offset In that model, the initial element would require a vowel ([+syl, -cons]) element. j would be excluded from the nucleus initial element for the same reason that it was excluded from the onset initial element (because, as a glide, it is [-syl, -cons]). Despite the attractions of extending the articulation of the syllable to the nucleus, the facts of skaldic rhyme do not endorse that option. Both skothending and aaalhending have the same domain of comparison. Both rhyme strategies compare the same units. The offset initial requirements are the same in both cases (they must match), but the nuclear requirements are complementary. Skothending requires that the nuclei of the two syllables differ. Aaalhending requires that the nuclei match. Anything that makes two nuclei differ meets the skothending requirements. Long vowels differ from short 90 vowels (a.a: e.e: 6,0 etc.). Diphthongs with different beginning elements (ae, oe) are as different from each other as diphthongs with different ending elements (ae, au), and both are separate from short vowels. The match domain for skaldic rhyme begins at the nucleus and continues through the offset initial element. Thus it provides no evidence for or against an articulated nucleus. Summary The skaldic poets were matching syllabic domains. Alliteration matched the initial element of the onset and rhyme compared a domain from the nucleus through the initial element of the offset. The skalds were comparing structural positions. The only way to match the "absence" of an element is to have a structural way to describe the expectation that the element be there. The fact that the skalds matched empty initial elements in both the onset and the offset demonstrates their manipulation of an articulated syllable structure. This sensitivity to the structure of their "tongue" is acknowledged in their status as masters of the language.2 The recognition of the syllable structure as the skalds must have known it will allow us, in the next chapter, to draw more conclusions about skaldic verse and about syllable structure. 91 Chapter VI Skaldic Poetry and Syllable Structure Introduction The previous chapters have shown that to describe alliteration, aaalhending and skothending, a syllable must have divisible components. It must be able to give special status to the initial element in the onset and the offset. This chapter will translate these requirements into phonological terms. The symmetry of the poetic structures and the linguistic structures from which they are built argue in favor of recognizing an intermediate linguistic structure the rime. The articulated syllable structure allows a succinct description of the invention of skaldic rhyme. Finally, this description makes it entirely plausible that skaldic poetry was invented by a single person, just like Norse tradition holds. An Articulated Syllable Alliteration gives us information about word-initial syllables. Only the first syllable of a word (including the first syllable of the words in a compound) may count as alliterating in skaldic verse. These alliterating groups give us some information about the onsets of words. For instance, alliteration shows that only a consonant (not a glide) can be the first element of an onset. Alliteration does not provide any information about the onsets of non-word-initial syllables. Presumably, all syllables have the same structures, but the poetic data does not provide information about how the segments are parsed into these elements. Similarly, while the facts of rhyme show that the first element of the offset has special status, the poetic data does not provide information about parsing the other elements in the offset. Finally, the facts of rhyme suggest that Skaldic Norse employs competing syllabification strategies. Old Icelandic preferred closed syllables, but syllabification which associated single intervocalic consonants with the following syllable - creating open syllables - was a viable alternative. The structures of skaldic poetry can be described fairly easily in a syllable with an onset which differentiates the initial element from the others and an offset which also differentiates between the initial and following elements. The initial positions of both the onset and the offset require a consonant (and reject a glide). The remainder of the onset must not be a vowel ([-syl]). The nucleus requires a vowel (not a syllabic consonant), so perhaps it can be characterized as [+syl, -cons], but as mentioned previously, with a domain that extends through the nucleus, skaldic rhyme does not provide insight into the interior of the nucleus. SYLLABLE ONSET NUCLEUS OFFSET i~itial~ ~i1ial~ i~tial "" [+cons] [-syl] [+syll [-cons] [+cons] [-syl] Figure 30. Syllable structure and phonological elements The initial positions of both the onset and the offset may be empty, the nucleus may not be empty. If the initial position of the offset is empty, the entire 93 offset must be empty, but if the initial position of the onset is empty, a glide (j) may still occupy the onset. Onset Nucleus Offset Initial may be empty ..J -..j Initial empty =structure empty ..J -..j Full VIC Initial -..j -..j -..j Empty matches Empty -..j ..J -..j Figure 31. Distribution of elements in syllable structures. The Rime Certain arguments are traditionally given to justify the intermediate syllabic structure rime. These arguments include the tendency for loss of a postvocalic consonant to result in the "compensatory" lengthening of the vowel and the domain of the vowels with the postvocalic consonants in defining syllabic quantity. For example, the loss of a postvocalic consonant was matched with the lengthening of the preceding vowel in Old Icelandic. Icelandic atta 'eight' has an Old English cognate, eahta. The e disappeared (e>j>0) in preliterary times, and the a was lengthened (ae-a) when h>0 (Gordon, 1957: 276-7). On the other hand, loss of the prevocalic j did not result in an adjustment to the vowel. The domain of interaction appears to be the vowel and its postvocalic consonants - the nucleus and its offset (=rime). In Old Icelandic, syllables having a long vowel or a diphthong followed by one consonant (braut'road') are long, as are syllables having a short vowel followed by two or more consonants (land 'land'). Syllables having a short vowel followed by a single consonant are short (af 'preposition, from'). Syllables having a long vowel followed by two or more consonants also counted as long syllables 94 (cf. Amason, 1980:107). The numberof prevocalic syllables, on the other hand, is immaterial in the description of syllable quantity - land has one prevocalic consonant while braut has two and Lit 'out' has none. All of these are long syllables. Similarly, at, bak 'back', and tram 'forward' are all short syllables. The domain for determining syllable quantity is the nucleus plus the offset the rime. Finally, poetic rhyme is often associated with syllabic rime. Unfortunately, each of these arguments is currently out of fashion. The differences amongst alliteration, skaldic half rhyme and skaldic full rhyme can be summarized within a model which contains a rime. This model is represented in Figure 32. Alliteration matches the onsets and not the rimes (nucleus and offset); skaldic rhyme matches the rimes and not the onsets. Within rhyme, full-rhyme matches the nuclei, half-rhyme requires that they differ. It is circumstantial evidence, but if we describe the matches as relationships between parts of three equal divisions within a syllable we have gaps in the possible relationships which we don't have with the rime configuration. 95 alliteration IZI full-rhyme EI half-rhymeOJ nucleus offset onset rime s liable onset nucleus offset alliteration ?? Figure 32. Skaldic rhyme and the rime versus gaps in the matching scheme without a rime As a parenthetical comment, I should like to note that one of the characteristics of language structure is the symmetry that is found at every level. Assuming that this study has accurately described syllable structure, we can see yet another level of symmetry. The onset can contain an element (j) and still have an empty initial position. The nucleus and offset do not have this option. The syllable as a whole acts the same way. In a syllable, the "initial" element, the onset, may be empty (a word may begin with a vowel, for example); the second element, the rime, does not have this freedom. (The "initial" element of the rime - the [+syl] element - must be present in order for there to be a syllable.) The differences in the behavior of the subsyllabic structures themselves, can also be summarized with or without reference to a 96 rime. The lead position of the onset may be empty while the entire onset is not. The first slot of the rime may not be empty when there is material in the structure. The initial position of the nucleus may not be empty at all. The Origin of Skaldic Rhyme One of the unexpected dividends of the research carried out in this study is the insights it offers for some of the questions of skaldic scholarship. A recurring question in skaldic scholarship is the origin of the skaldic form. Skaldic poetry shares alliteration as a binding pattern and kennings as . descriptive riddles with Eddie poetry, but the skaldic poetry differs in having a fixed number of syllables (or moras) as well as in having patterns of full- and half-rhyme. Norse tradition says that skaldic poetry is a uniquely Scandinavian invention, and as such, the theory goes, must have developed from the Eddie. A rival theory (cf. Turville Petre, 1953) suggests that such "spontaneous" acts of innovation are rare, and since other language groups had rhyming poetry composed by professional poets, the Vikings must have borrowed the idea of adding rhyme to define a verse form from another group - such as the Celts, the Welsh; the Irish, or the East Norse (in the Baltic areas). Norse tradition claims that one man, Bragi inn gamli, invented skaldic poetry. The information in this study suggests that this traditional view is plausible. It suggests this by providing an explanation of how he could have invented the verse form. The evidence does notprovide a source for the inspiration - this theory is equally compatible with the inspiration being foreign 97 poetry as it is with the inspiration being visual - the highly complicated, symmetric art on Viking shields. We saw earlier that alliteration, which Eddic poetry also uses, matches the initial position of the onset in two syllables. When this position is empty, it matches other empty initial onset positions (Le. words beginning with j- or a vowel). When this initial position is not empty, it contains a single element (consonant), and the alliterating syllables must contain identical onset initials. Alliteration, we also saw, does not match vowels. Syllable 1 Syllable 2 t~~~~~1 t~...... ~'l T AliiteratiOn---J Figure 33. Alliteration. We have seen that the offset also contains an initial position which can be empty or which can contain a single element. Skothending - half-rhyme matches the offset initial position in exactly the same way that alliteration matches the onset initial position. It is not a large leap, only a small innovation to apply the consonantal match that occurs before the vowel to the consonants after the vowel. Additionally, it is only one more small step to differentiate between those which also match the vowels and those which don't. It would be equally easy for this "matching symmetry" to have been inspired by the intricate 98 visual symmetry of the shields Bragi enshrines in his shield poems as to have been an attempt to apply the rhymes that he heard in foreign poetry to his native words. Figure 34 represents this process. SYLLABLE 1 SYLLABLE 2 Figure 34. The "invention" of rhyme Summary This study started with a corpus of poetry which contained anomalous rhymes. These words were clearly intended to rhyme, but they included monosyllables whose "match" did not include the entire word. In the course of determining how these words "rhymed" we discovered the syllable structure which the skalds manipulated in their poetry. Recognition of this syllable structure revealed that the half and full rhymes of skaldic poetry were derived from alliteration. Showing that rhyme is derived from alliteration reduces the creative task of introducing rhyme to a poetic form to manageable proportions. It becomes conceivable that tradition is right, and that a single person, Bragi inn gamli, could have been the inventor. Discovering the special status that the skalds granted to initial elements becomes the crucial piece in the picture puzzle of related discoveries. 99 Appendix A The Computer and the Data The Data The data listed in the following appendices is listed in one of three formats. Appendix B consists of a full list of the poems in the corpus. Appendix C contains the listings of the structural analyses upon which the graphs and tables in Chapter II are based. The entry number correlates the data to the poem from which they were extracted. Appendices D-F contain word lists extracted from a subset of the poems listed in Appendix B. The word pairs in Appendices D and E are considered to rhyme (either skothending / half rhyme or aaalhending / full rhyme). Appendix 0 contains word pairs in which at least one of the words contains the letter j. 54 of the word pairs come from the ninth and tenth centuries, and 27 of the word pairs come from each of the other centuries included in the study. Appendix E contains 125 "interesting" rhyming word pairs which might pose difficulties for a structural description of skaldic rhyme. These pairs concentrate open syllables, sp/st/sk clusters, and unmatched clusters. The pairs were collected in the order in which they were encountered in the corpus. Appendix F contains entries representing 10% of the poems in Appendix C. The distribution of the entries in Appendix F parallels that in Appendix C. The entries are grouped into half century categories based on the attributed date of composition, and each of these categories in Appendix F has 10% of the number of entries in the same category in Appendix C. Entries list both the alliterating and the rhyming words. The words which alliterate are on the first line, those which form a skothending (half rhyme) are on the second, and those which form an aaalhending (full rhyme) are on the last line. Encoding Structural Data The entries in Appendix C are lists of structural patterns. The first line in each gives the binding pattern. F indicates that the alliterating words on odd numbered half lines include the first syllable in the line. B indicates that they include the last stressed syllable in the line. FL symbolizes that the two alliterating words are the first and the last of the odd numbered half line. Unless otherwise indicated (i.e. by the code B), the third word of the alliterating group is the first word of the even numbered half line. B suggests that the third alliterating word is the second word of the even numbered half line, although it actually only indicates that it is not the first word of that line. PAIR indicates that only two words alliterate and I indicates that the alliterating group includes neither the first nor the last word of the odd numbered half line. The lack of alliterating words is encoded NO MATCH. MIXED indicates that a combination of pairs, no matches and other minor patterns are used randomly. X shows the number of unmatched half lines. These arise from lost lines of poetry. The second line in the entries in Appendix C represents the syllable counting pattern utilized in the poem. Entries have several possible formats: 'X-Y' indicates that X is the number of half lines having Y syllables; 'Z:X-Y' indicates that most half lines have Z syllables, but X half lines have Y syllables; '4&5 SYLLABLES' reveals that about half of the half lines have 4 101 syllables and the remainder have 5; 'ALL X' reveals that all of the half lines have X syllables. The third line of the entries in Appendix C details the patterns of half rhyme matches, and the last line of the entries represents the patterns of full rhyme matches. These two parts of the entries share the same format. Y indicates that all the postvocalic consonants in the matching syllables are identical. M indicates that some of the postvocalic consonants in the matching syllables are identical. N marks the lack of a match on the half line, and ± marks a half line with two syllables on the half line, either of which could be the match for the penultimate syllable. One of these two potential matches would be coded Y and the other would be marked M. Aa marks matching vowels in a half line in which unmatched vowels are expected, and SK marks unmatched vowels where matching vowels are expected. ER announces an end rhyme between the last stressed syllable on each of the two half lines. The number which precedes each of these codes tells the number of instances of that pattern in the poem. Analyzing the Structural Patterns Each of the lines in Appendix C is entered into the appropriate data base. Alliteration patterns, syllable count patterns, half rhyme patterns and full rhyme patterns each form their own data base. Each data base is analyzed on the computer and the resulting patterns are shown in the tables and graphs in Chapter II. 102 Analyzing Word Lists The data in Appendices D-F are word lists. Data bases are created from these word lists. Each group of alliterating words in Appendix F forms an entry in the alliteration data base. Similarly, the words which form a half rhyme constitute an entry in that data base, and those which form a half rhyme are an entry in the third data base. Each appendix has its own set of data bases. For each data base, appropriate search keys were constructed, and patterns were sorted. The results of these investigations are shown in the graphs and statistics given in the text. 103 Appendix B The Data # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 1. 800 Bragi enn gamli boddason Norse Ragnarsdrapa 58 2. 800 Bragi enn gamli boddason Norse Ubestemmelige vers 7 3. 800 Bragi enn gamli boddason Norse Lausavisur 8 4. 933 Haraldr harfagri Norse SnaefriiTardrapa 4 5. 899 AuiTun illsk aida Norse Lausavisur 6 6. 899 Olvir hnufa Norse Lausavisa 4 7. 899 Olvir hnufa Norse Af et digt om Tor 1 8. 933 Harald harfagri Norse Lausavisa 2 9. 899 PjoiTolfr or hvini Norse Haustlong 80 10. 899 PjoiTolfr or hvini Norse Lausavisur 6 11. 899 pornbjorn hornklofi Norse Glyrndrapa 32 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 12. 899 porbjorn hornklofi Norse Lausavfsa 4 13. 934 Skallagrimr kveldolfsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 12 14. 878 Kveldulfr Norse Lausavfsa 4 15. 900 Hildr hrolfsdottir nefju Norse Lausavfsa 4 16. 900 porir snepill ketilsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 2 17. 900 porsteinn tjaldstaeaingr asgrimsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 18. 926 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic A8alsteinsdrapa 5 19. 970 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Skjaldarsrapa 4 20. 975 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Berudrapa 4 21. 923 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 16 22. 924 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 12 105 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 23. 925 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 20 24. 926 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavisur 8 25. 934 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavisur 32 26. 936 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavisur 8 27. 938 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 32 28. 951 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavisur 20 29. 965 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 30. 970 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavlsur 4 31. 978 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 4 32. 980 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic l.ausavlsur 6 33. 980 Egill skallagrimsson Icelandic Ubestemmeligt brudstykke 1 106 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 34. 949 Jorunn skaldmaer Norse Sendibitr 14 35. 936-61 Hakon den gode Norse Untitled 2 36. 999 Gunnhildr konungamo8'ir Norse Lausavlsa 2 37. 999 Goppormr sindri Norse Hakonardrapa 28 38. 962 Eyvindr finnsson Norse Lausavisur 26 39. 965 Eyvindr finnsson Norse Lausavisur 16 40. 970 Eyvindr finnsson Norse Lausavisur 10 41. 950 Glumr geirason Icelandic Kvad am Erik the red 5 42. 970 Glumr geirason Icelandic Grafeldardrapa 41 43. 962 Glumr ~eirason Icelandic Lausavisur 4 44. 960 Kormakr ogmundarson Icelandic Sigura-ardrapa 16 107 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 45. 962 Kormakr ogmundarson Icelandic Lausavisur 246 46. 975 Steingera-r porketilsdottir Icelandic Lausavlsa 2 47. 975 Holmgongu-bersi veleifsson Icelandic Lausavisur 52 48. 975 Steinarr sjonason Icelandic Lausavisur 8 49. 955 porbjorn pyna Lausavisa 4 50. 955 Hromundr haiti Icelandic Lausavisur 8 51. 955 Hasteinn hromundarson halte Lausavisur 32 52. 950 Volu-steinn Icelandic Untitled 4 53. 965 porketill klyppr Pora-arson Norse Lausavlsa 4 54. 949 Helgi trausti olafsson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 55. 950 Tjorvi en haa- sami Icelandic Lausavisa 4 108 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 56. 962 porgrimr gam porsteinsson Icelandic Kvialingr 1 57. 976 Eyj61fr valgeraarson Icelandic Lausavisur 4 58. 977 porhildr skaldkona Icelandic Kvimngr 1 59. 976 Eyjolfr valgeraarson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 60. 978 Gisli sursson Norse Lausavisur 133 61. 980 Hallbjorn oddsson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 62. 982 porvaldr koaransson en vi8forli Icelandic Lausavisa 4 63. 984 porarinn svarti porolfsson Icelandic Mahli8ingavisur 6.8 64. 983 Halli berserkr Norse Lausavfsa 4 65. 983 Leiknir berserkr Norse Lausavfsa 4 66. 983 Viga-styrr porgrimsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 109 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 67. 985 porvaldr hjaltason Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 68. 961 Viga-glumr eyjolfsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 4 69. 965 Viga-glumr eyjolfsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 4 70. 980 Viga-glumr eyjolfss.on Icelandic Lausavfsur 2 71. 982 Viga-glumr eyjolfsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 12 72. 984 Viga-glumr eyjolfsson Icelandic Lausavisur 3. 73. 986 Viga-glumr eyjolfsson Icelandic Lausavisur 4 74. 989 Viga-glumr eyjolfsson Icelandic Lausavisur 4 75. 995 Viga-glumr eyjolfsson Icelandic Lausavisur 8 76. 986 Vigfuss vigaglumsson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 77. 986' Vigfuss vigaglumsson Icelandic Digte om Hakon jarl 4 110 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 78. 980 Einarr helgason skalaglamm Icelandic Digte am Harald blatand 4 79. 995 Brusi hallason Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 80. 975 Einarr helgason skalaglamm Icelandic Digte am Harald blatand 4 81. 986 Einarr helgason skalaglamm Icelandic Vellekla 114 82. 986 Einarr helgason skalaglamm Icelandic Lausavfsur 12 83. 990 Bjorn asbrandsson breil1 vikingakappi Icelandic Lausavfsur 24 84. 999 porvaldr enn veili Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 85. 999 Steinunn refsdalksdottir Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 86. 983 Ulfr uggason Icelandic Husdrapa 28 87. 999 Ulfr ugQasson Icelandic t.ausavlsa 4 88. 1010 Njall (brennu-njall porgeirsson) Icelandic Lausavfsa 2 111 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 89. 999 Eysteinn valdason Icelandic Digte am Tor 6 90. 986 porleifr jarlsskald rauafeldarson Hakonardrapa 6 91. 999 GamIi 9naevaearskald Icelandic Digte am Tor 2 92. 1000 Gamli gnaevaa-arskald Icelandic Af et fyrstedigte ef heitedigt 2 93. 990 porleifr jarlsskald rauafeldarson Icelandic Jarlsnia- 2 94. 999 porleifr jarlsskald rauafeldarson Drapa om sven tveskaeg 2 95. 990 porleifr jarlsskald rauafeldarson Icelandic Lausavisur 20 96. 951 !=>orbjorn disarskald Icelandic Digte am Tor 5 9? 951 porbjorn disarskald Icelandic Holy sayings? 2 98. 98? Tindr hallkelsson Icelandic Drapa am Hakon jar) 40 99. 1015 Tindr hallkelsson Icelandic Lausavisur 8 112 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 100. 990 Eilifr goiJrunarson Icelandic Om Hakon jarl 2 101. 1000 Eilifr goiJrunarson Icelandic porsdrapa 80 102. 1000 Eilifr goiJrunarson Icelandic Af et kristeligt digt 2 103. 1000 Olafr tryggvason Norse Lausavfsur 2 104. 999 porarinn Lausavfsa 4 105. 999 Barsra upplendurn Norse Lausavfsa 2 106. 1000 Stefnir porgilsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 4 107. 1000 Oddr breiafiraingr Icelandic Illugadrapa 8 108. 990 Halltresr ottarsson vandraesaskald Icelandic Hakonardrapa 18 109. 996 Halltresr ottarsson vanoraesaskald Icelandic Olafsdrapa 28 110. 1001 Hallfea-r ottarsson vandraesaskald Icelandic Olafrsdrapa erfidrapa 104 113 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 111. 1001 Hallfeor ottarsson vandraedaskald Icelandic Eriksdrapa 1 112. 1007 Hallfreor ottarsson vandraesaskald Icelandic Lausavfsur 106 113. 1001 Griss saemingsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 114. 975 Anonymous Baroardrapa - digt om Baror hallason 1 115. 980 Anonymous About king Harald blatand 4 116. 900 Anonymous Lausavfsur om Herjolfr siguroarson 2 117. 990 Anonymous Norse Lausavfsur om Torf-einar jarl 1 118. 1000 Anonymous Hafgeroingadrapa 3 119. 1000 Anonymous Oddmjor 2 120. 965 Anonymous Lausavfsur om Kormak og Steingard 4 121. 965 Anonymous Lausavfsur om Harald frafeld 1 114 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 122. 975 Anonymous Lausavfsur om Hjaltesonnerne 4 123. 985 Anonymous Lausavfsur om Ingolfr p. 2 124. 996 Anonymous Om Stefnirs skib 4 125. 999 Anonymous En Normand nokkvamaer 8 126. 999 Anonymous Om Tor 2 127. 1000 Anonymous Om Hake 1 128. 999 Anonymous Et jaettelignende vaesen 4 129. 1000 Anonymous Om et mode meliem to troldkyndige 4 130. 1000 Anonymous En troldkvinde 4 131. 1000 Anonymous Et citat at et aeldre digte 1 132. 999 Anonymous Forskelige brudstykker om kampe og mod 8 115 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 133. 999 Anonymous En hojbos klage 4 134. 999 Anonymous Forskelige brudstykker om skaldskab 3 135. 999 Anonymous Forskelige brudstykker om sorejser 6 136. 1000 Anonymous Forskellige brudstykker om koerlighedssorg 1 137. 1003 Havarer haiti isfiraingr Icelandic Lausavisur 54 138. 1003 porhallr vei8imaf>'r Icelandic Lausavisur 8 139. 1003 Helgi asbjarnarson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 140. 1005 Grimr droplaugarson Icelandic Lausavisur 20 141. 1001 Gunnlaugr ormstunga illugason Icelandic Af>'alsteinsdrapa 2 142. 1008 Gunnlaugr orstunga i1lugason Icelandic Lausavisur 48 143. 1006 Hrafn onundarson Icelandic Lausavfsur 12 116 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 144. 1007 Gestr !=Jorhallason Icelandic Lausavisur 6 145. 1010 Eyjolfr daaaskaid Icelandic Bandadrapa 37 146. 1010 Haldorr okristni Icelandic Eiriksflokkr 32 147. 1015 !=Jorkell i hraundal Icelandic Lausavisa 3 148. 1012 !=Jormorar trefilsson Icelandic Hrafnsmal 20 149. 1011 Snorri porgrimsson goai Icelandic Lausavisa 2 150. 1014 purifJr olafsdottir Icelandic Lausavisa 4 151. 1014 porbjorn brunason Icelandic Lausavfsur 16 152. 1099 Gisli porgautsson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 153. 1014 Eirikr viasja Icelandic Lausavisur 28 154. 1015 Snaebjorn Icelandic Lausavfsur 6 117 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 155. 1007 pora-r kolbeinsson Belgskakadrapa 10 156. 1009 pora-r kolbeinsson Icelandic Gunnlaugsdrapa ormstungu 4 157. 1014 pora-r kolbeinsson Icelandic Eiriksdrapa 53 15~t 1024 pora-r kolbeinsson Icelandic Lausavisur 40 159. 1010 Olafr haraldsson en helgi Norse Lausavlsur 16 160. 1029 Olafr haraldsson en helgi Norse Lausavisur 8 161. 1025 Olafr haraldsson en helgi Norse Lausavlsur 8 162. 1028 Olafr haraldsson en helgi Norse Lausavisur 4 163. 1015 Sigvatr porvarson Icelandic Vikingarvlsur 58 164. 1016 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic Nesjavisur 50 165. 1019 Sigvatr porvarson Icelandic Austrfaravisur 84 118 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 166. 1025 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic En drape am kong olaf 2 167. 1025 Sigvatr para-arson Icelandic Vestrfarasvfsur 30 168. 1026 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic Et kvad am erlingr skjaldsson 4 169. 1029 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic Flokkr om erlingr skjaldsson 40 170. 1034 Sigvatr para-arson Icelandic Tryggvaflokkr 4 171. 1036 Sigvatr para-arson Icelandic Et digt om dronnig Astrid 12 172. 1038 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic Knutsdrapa 38 173. 1038 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic Bersoglisvisur 70 174. 1040 Sigvatr para-arson Icelandic Erfldrapa Olafs helga 103 175. 1020 Sigvatr para-arson Icelandic Lausavfsur 32 176. 1030 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic Lausavisur 46 119 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 177. 1036 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic Lausavfsur 46 178. 1045 Sigvatr Para-arson Icelandic Et par halwers af Ubestemmelige digte 2 179. 1030 pormai1r bersasan kolbrunarskald Icelandic Lausavisa 32 180. 1020 Bersi skaldtafuson Icelandic En flak am kong Olaf 12 181. 1025 Bersi skaldtofuson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 182. 1025 pormoi1r bersasan kolbrunarskald Icelandic porgeirsdrapa 60 183. 1016 pormoi1r bersasan kolbrunarskald Icelandic Lausavisa 8 184. 1023 pormoi1r bersasan kolbrunarskald Icelandic Lausavlsa 4 185. 1027 pormoi1r berason kalbrunarskald Icelandic l.ausavlsa 32 186. 1028 pormolJr bersasan kalbrunarskald Icelandic Lausavisa 20 187. 1018 Ottarr svarti Icelandic Olafsdrapa saenska 12 120 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 188. 1023 Ottarr svarti Icelandic Hofu8lausn 72 189. 1026 Ottarr svarti Icelandic Knutsdrapa 39 190. 1023 Ottarr svarti Icelandic Lausavisur 4 191. 1009 Bjorn arngeirsson hitdoelakappi Icelandic Lausavisur 4 192. 1011 Bjorn arngeirsson hitdoelakappi Icelandic Lausavfsur 4 193. 1019 Bjorn amgeirsson hitdoelakappi Icelandic Lausavisur 36 194. 1022 Bjorn arngeirsson hitdoelakappi Icelandic Lausavfsur 26 195. 1024 Bjorn arngeirsson hitdoelakappi Icelandic Lausavfsur 16 196. 1020 Skuli porsteinsson Icelandic Om svolderslaget 12 197. 995 Einarr eyjolfsson pveraeingr Icelandic Lausavisur 4 198. 1020 Skuli porsteinsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 2 121 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 199. 1024 Einarr eyjolfsson pveraeingr Icelandic Lausavisur 4 200. 1025 Helgi dyr skefilsson Icelandic Lausavisa 2 201. 1027 Harskr Norse Lausavisur 8 202. 1025 Skald-helgi para-arson Icelandic Et Ubestemmeligt brudstykke 1 203. 1006 Grettir asmundarson Icelandic Lausavfsur 2 204. 1011 Grettir asmundarson Icelandic Lausavlsur 1 205. 1014 Grettir asmundarson Icelandic Lausavisur 4 206. 1016 Grettir asmundarson Icelandic Lausavisur 8 207. 1021 Grettir asmundarson Icelandic Lausavisur 8 208. 1028 Grettir asmundarson Icelandic Lausavisur 8 209. 1030 Grettir asmundarson Icelandic Lausavisur 4 122 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 210. 1030 Jokull barsarson Icelandic Lausavisur 8 211. 1030 Skapti poroddsson Icelandic Af et religiost digt 2 212. 1030 porfinnr munnr Icelandic Lausavisur 8 213. 1030 Gizurr gullbrarskald (svarti) Icelandic Af et fyrstedigt 2 214. 1030 Gizurr Qullbrarskald (svarti) Icelandic Lausavlsa 4 215. 1099 Hallvarer hareksblesi Icelandic Knutsdrapa 19 216. 1031 Hotqarsa-refr gestsson Icelandic Digte om Gizurr gullbrarskald 8 217. 1031 Hofgaraa-refr gestsson Icelandic Digt om firstegaver 4 218. 1031 Hofgaraa-refr gestsson Icelandic Af et digt om en porsteinn 8 219. 1031 Hofgaraa-refr gestsson Icelandic Et rijsedigt 10 220. 1031 Hofgaraa-refr gestsson Icelandic Af Ubestemmelige digte e. vers 3 123 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 221. 1026 porarinn loftunga Icelandic Hofumausn 1 222. 1031 porur soereksson Icelandic Et digt am Koeingr brusson 2 223. 1031 porur soereksson Icelandic porolgs drapa skolmssonar 14 224. 1031 porur soereksson Icelandic Roaudrapa 4 225. 1031 porur soereksson Iceiandic Lausavfsur og Ubestemmelige brudstykker 7 226. 1040 Magnus olarsson enn goDi Norse Lausavfsa 4 227. 1038 Koigrimr Iitli Icelandic Et digt am Magnus den gode 1 228. 1046 Arnorr poruarson jarlaskald Icelandic Rognvaldsdrapa 5 229. 1046 Arnorr poruarson jarlaskald Icelandic Magnusdrapa 68 230. 1046 Arnorr poruarson jarlaskald Icelandic Et digt am Hermundr iIIugason 1 231. 1046 Arnorr Para-arson jarlaskald Icelandic porfinnsdrapa 82 124 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 232. 1067 Arnorr poriJarson jarlaskald Icelandic Erfidrapa om kong Harald hardrade 61 233. 1046 Arnorr poriJarson jarlaskald Icelandic Vers af Ubestemmelige digte samt en lausavfsa 11 234. 1046 Oddr kikinaskald Icelandic Om Magnus den gode 8 235. 1047 Oddr kikinaskald Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 236. 1030 Haraldr siguriJarson Norse Lausavisur 8 237. 1040 Haraldr siguriJarson Norse Lausavisur 18 238. 1046 Haraldr siguriJarson Norse Lausavisur 4 239. 1049-50 Haraldr siguriJarson Norse Lausavisur 10 240. 1053 Haraldr siguraarson Norse Lausavisur 13 241. 1066 Haraldr siguriJarson Norse Lausavfsur 4 242. 1045 pjoaolfr arnorsson Icelandic Magnusflokkr 91 125 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 243. 1065 PjoiJolfr arnorsson Icelandic Sexstefja 108 244. 1044 PjoiJolfr arnorsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 99 245. 1099 Illugi bryndoelaskale Icelandic Et digt om Harald hardrade 10 246. 1099 Bolverkr arnorsson Icelandic Drape om Harald hardrade 28 247. 1099 Grani skald Icelandic Digte om Harald hadrade 9 248. 1054 Sneglu-halli Icelandic Lausavfsur 18 249. 1099 ValgariJr a velli Icelandic Et digt om Harald hardrade 36 250. 1050 Bjarni hallbjarnarson gullbrarskald Icelandic Kalfsflokkr 32 251. 1051 porleikr fragri Icelandic En flokk om Sven ulfsson 45 252. 1060 porarinn skeggjason Icelandic Et digt om Harald hardrade 2 253. 1064 Halli stiriJi Icelandic Flokkr 24 126 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 254. 1066 Ulfr stallari Icelandic En lausavisa 4 255. 1067 Stufr en blindi poriJarson kattar Icelandic Stufsdrapa stufa 24 256. 1055 Ofeigr skiiJason Icelandic Lausavisur 8 257. 1062 Steinn herdisarson Icelandic Nizarvisur 28 258. 1066 Steinn herdisarson Icelandic Ulfsflokkr 4 259. 1070 Steinn herdisarson Icelandic Olafsdrapa 64 260. 1070 Atli Iitli Icelandic Et digt om kong Olaf kyrre 2 261. 1070 porkell skallason Icelandic Vapjostflokkr 8 262. 1099 Erringar-steinn Icelandic Lausavisa 2 263. 1099 LeiiJolfr Icelandic Af et Ubestemmeligt digt 1 264. 1099 Ormr steinporsson Icelandic Af et digt am en kvinde 10 127 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 265. 1099 Ormr steinporsson Icelandic Af et Ubestemmeligt digt 2 266. 1099 Skaut-oddr Icelandic Af et digt om en kvinde 3 267. 1099 Steinarr Icelandic Af et digt en kvinde 2 268. 1099 Steinporr Icelandic Af et Ubestemmeligt digt 2 269. 1099 Styrkarr oddason Icelandic Af et Ubstemmeligt digt 2 270. 1070 Sveinn Icelandic Norsrsstudrapa 6 271. 1099 porvr mauraskald Icelandic Af et Ubestemmeligt digt 2 272. 1099 poralfr-valdr Icelandic Af et Ubestemmeligt digt 2 273. 1016 Anonymous Icelandic LifJsmannaflokkr 26 274. 1034 Anonymous Icelandic Flokkr om Sven alfifassuon 4 275. 1099 Anonymous Ai et fyrstedigt 2 128 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 276. 1099 Anonymous Af et fyrstedigt (om Knud. d. hellige?) 2 277. 1030 Anonymous Lausavfsur 10 278. 1050 Anonymous Icelandic Lausavfsur 12 279. 1070 Anonymous Lausavfsur 8 280. 1090 Anonymous Lausavfsur 12 281. 1100 Anonymous Lausavfsur 12 282. 1008 Anonymous Dromme 09 varselsvers 8 283. 1014 Anonymous Dromme og varselsvers 4 284. 1020 Anonymous Dromme og varselsvers 285. 1062 Anonymous Dromme og varselsvers 8 286. 1070 Anonymous Dromme og varselsvers 24 129 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 287. 1066 Anonymous Dromme 09 varselsvers 16 288. 1100 Bjorn krepphendi Icelandic Magnusdrapa 34 289. 1100 Eldjarn Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 290. 1104 porkell hamarskald Icelandic Magnusdrapa 18 291. 1094 porkell hamarskald Icelandic Lausavfsur 4 292. 1096 Gisl illugason Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 293. 1104 Markus skeggjason Icelandic Erlksdrapa 98 294. 1107 Markus skeggjason Icelandic Knutsdrapa 2 295. 1107 Markus skeggjason Icelandic Kristsdrapa 3 296. 1107 Markus skeggjason Icelandic Lausavfsur 6 297. 1110 Gullasu porvr Icelandic Vil1 kunnsdrapa 2 130 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 298. 1110 Gullasu pori1r Icelandic Lausavisa 4 299. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Siguri1ardrapa 20 300. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Haraldsdrapa I 8 301. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Haraldsdrapa II 16 302. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Haraldssonakvaeai 6 303. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Siguri1ardrapa 4 304. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Geisli 284 305. 1158 Einarr skulason Icelandic Eysteinsdrapa 6 306. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Ingadrapa 14 307. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Elfarvisur 8 308. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Oxarflokkr 31 131 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 309. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Ubestemmelige verse 36 310. 1120 Haldorr skvaldri Icelandic Uttararkvlsa 34 311. 1137 Haldorr skvaldri Icelandic Haraldsdrapa 14 312. 1120 porarinn stuttfeldr Icelandic Stuttfeldardrapa 25 313. 1120 porarinn stuttfeldr Icelandic Lausavisur 12 314. 1199 porvaldr blonduskald Icelandic Siguretardrapa 4 315. 1151 porgils oddason Icelandic Lausavisa 2 316. 1191 Ingimundr einarsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 6 317. 1140 Kolli en pram Icelandic Ingadrapa 20 318. 1150 Boevarr balti Icelandic Siguretardrapa 12 319. 1151 Arrnosr Icelandic Lausavisur 16 132 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 320. 1163 porvarar porgeirsson Icelandic Untitled 8 321. 1154 Botoltr begla Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 322. 1199 Runoltr ketilsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 323. 1152 Kloeingr Porsteinsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 2 324. 1170 porbjorn skakkaskald Icelandic Erlingsdrapa 12 325. 1199 Hallr snorrason Icelandic At en drape om Magnus erlingsson 2 326. 1180 Jon porvaldsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 2 327. 1199 Hallr snorrason Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 328. 1191 Blakkr Icelandic BreiiJ skeggsdrapa 6 329. 1187 Blakkr Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 330. 1152 Oddi Iitli glumsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 12 133 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 331. 1184 Mani Icelandic Lausavisur 18 332. 1190 Hallbjorn hali lcelancic Lausavlsa 4 333. 1199 Asgrimr ketilsson Icelandic Af et digt om kong Sverre 2 334. 1195 Dagstyggr pora-arson Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 335. 1195 Ogmundr sneis Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 336. 1199 Bjarni ason Icelandic Brudstykkr af digte 7 337. 1197 Magnus pora-arson Icelandic Lausavfsur 4 338. 1199 Gu8lauQr Icelandic tausavisa 2 339. 1199 Hallar steinn Icelandic Rekstefja 170 340. 1199 Hallar steinn Icelandic Digtbrudstykkrog lausavfsur 11 341. 1199 Haukr valdisarson Icelandic Islendingadrapa 103 134 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 342. 1160 Einarr skulason Icelandic Lausavisur 46 343. 1159 Nikulas bergsson Icelandic Joansdrapa postola 12 344. 1159 Nikulas bergsson Icelandic Kristsdrapa 4 345. 1199 Gamli kanoki Icelandic Joansdrapa 16 346. 1199 Gamli kanoki Icelandic Harmsol 248 347. 1199 Eilifr kulnasveinn Icelandic Kristsdrapa 8 348. 1199 Elifr kulnasveinn Icelandic Lausavfsa 2 349. 1199 Skald porir Icelandic Lausavfsa 2 350. 1199 Olafsdrapa tryggvasonar Er Halfredr ort vandraeda skald 110 351. 1199 Anonymous Morginsol 2 352. 1199 Anonymous Kugadrapa 1 135 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 353. 1199 Anonymous Stridkeravisur 4 354. 1100 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 1 355. 1101 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 4 356. 1103 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 8 357. 1119 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 5 358. 1121 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 8 359. 1136 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 4 360. 1137 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 1 361. 1161 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 4 362. 1180 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 2 363. 1197 Anonymous Vers om bestemte personer og begivenhede 4 136 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 364. 1198 Anonymous Vers am bestemte personer og begivenhede 4 365. 1198 Anonymous Vers am bestemte personer og begivenhede 4 366. 1198 Anonymous Vers am bestemte personer og begivenhede 1 367. 1198 Anonymous Vers am bestemte personer og begivenhede 1 368. 1199 Anonymous At vers am ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 2 369. 1199 Anonymous At vers am ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 370. 1199 Anonymous At vers am ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 371. 1199 Anonymous At vers am ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 0.5 372. 1199 Anonymous At vers am ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 373. 1199 Anonymous At vers am ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 374. 1199 Anonymous At vers am ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 137 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 375. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 376. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 0.5 377. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 378. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 379. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 380. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 381. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 382. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 383. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 384. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 385. 1199 Anonymous Af vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 138 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 386. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 387. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 2 388. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 2 389. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 2 390. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 391. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 2 392. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 4 393. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 2 394. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 1 395. 1199 Anonymous At vers om ubestemmelige personer og begivenhede 0.5 396. 1196 Anonymous Drommevers 4 139 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 397. 1200 Anonymous Vers, hentydende til sagn og Iign 5 398. 1199 Anonymous Egilssaga 16 399. 1199 Anonymous Njfllssaga 40 400. 1199 Anonymous Placitusdrapa 196 401. 1199 Anonymous LeiiJarvisan 170 402. 1199 Anonymous Mariuflokkr 6 403. 1199 Anonymous Bjugar vlsur 0.5 404. 1199 Anonymous Andre religiouse vers og herhen horende 7 405. 1199 Anonymous forskellige - ikke sommenhorende vers 20 406. 1208 Kolbeinn tumason Icelandic Jonsvisur 15 407. 1200 Einarr dramr porsteinsson Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 140 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 408. 1202 Eyjolfr forni Icelandic Lausavisa 2 409. 1202 Grimr hjaltason Icelandic Lausavisur 14 410. 1197 Eilifr snorrason Icelandic Lausavisur 10 411. 1203 Heinrekr Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 412. 1227 Guamundr galtason Icelandic Lausavisur 18 413. 1211 Sturia baraarson Icelandic Lausavfsur 10 414. 1228 Sigvatr sturluson Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 415. 1213 Guamundr svertingsson Icelandic Hrafnsdrapa 40 416. 1214 Tannr bjarnason Icelandic Lausavisa 4 417. 1226 Amundi arnason Icelandic Lausavisur 16 418. 1222 Brandr Icelandic Lausavisa 4 141 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 419. 1223 Snorri sturluson Icelandic Hattatal 276 420. 1241 Snorri sturluson Icelandic Af et religiost digt 1 421. 1241 Snorri sturluson Icelandic Lausavfsur 26 -422. 1228 Guilmundr oddsson Icelandic Lausavisur 32 423. 1222 Jatgeirr torfason Icelandic Lausavisa 4 424. 1225 Eyjolfr brunason Icelandic Lausavisur 2 425. 1228 Ormr svinfellingr Icelandic Lausavfsa 4 426. 1228 Ami magnusson oreisa Icelandic Lausavisa 4 427. 1228 Sturia sigvatsson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 428. 1228 Olafr brynjolfsson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 429. 1228 Svertingr porleifsson Icelandic Lausavfsur 8 142 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 430. 1230 Olafr leggsson svartaskald Icelandic En drape om kong Hakon? 3 431. 1230 Olafr leggsson svartaskald Icelandic En drape om kristus? 4 432. 1230 Olafr leggsson svartaskald Icelandic En drape om skuIe jarl 1 433. 1230 Olafr leggsson svartaskald Icelandic Af et kaerlighedsdigt? 2 434. 1230 Olafr leggsson svartaskald Icelandic Lausavlsa 4 435. 1245 Gunnarr Icelandic Lausavisa 4 436. 1244 Ingjaldr geirmundarson Icelandic Atloguflokkr 24 437. 1246 Ingjaldr geirmundarson Icelandic Brandsflokkr 24 438. 1245 Ingjaldr geirmundarson Icelandic Lausavlsa 4 439. 1246 Skald-hallr Icelandic Brandsdrapa 24 440. 1239 Olafr pora-arson hvitaskald Icelandic Et digt om kong Hakon 4 143 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 441. 1240 Olafr pora-arson hvitaskald Icelandic Et hrynhent digt 44 442. 1256 Olafr pora-arson hvitaskald Icelandic Aronsdrapa 8 443. 1269 Olafr pora-arson hvitaskald Icelandic Af et digt om thomas becket 2 444. 1240 Olafr pora-arson hvitaskald Icelandic Lausavisur 8 445. 1253 Gizurr porvaldsson Icelandic En drape om Hakon d. gamle 2 446. 1253 Gizurr porvaldsson Iceiandic Lausavisur 8 447. 1254 Guthormr helgason kortr Icelandic Lausavisa 4 448. 1254 Pall porsteinsson Icelandic Lausavlsa 4 449. 1255 Sturia pora-arson Icelandic pveravisur 2 450. 1255 porvara-rtrefotr Icelandic Lausavlsa 4 451. 1259 Sturla Pora-arson Icelandic porgilsdrapa 12 144 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 452. 1262 Sturia para-arson Icelandic Hrynhenda 85 453. 1284 Sturla para-arson Icelandic Hrafnsmal 80 . 454. 1264 Sturia para-arson Icelandic Hakonarflokkr 44 455. 1265 Sturla pora-arson Icelandic En drape am magnus lagboter 8 456. 1242 Sturla para-arson Icelandic Lausavfsur 12 457. 1261 Sturia pora-arson Icelandic Lausavisur 4 458. 1299 Asgrimr jonsson Icelandic Lausavisa 2 459. 1299 Guaurandr i svolum Icelandic Untitled 3 460. 1299 porkell elfaraskald Icelandic Lausavisa 4 461. 1300 Anonymous Arvekvad am kong magnus lagaboter 12 462. 1205 Anonymous Lese vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 6 145 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 463. 1215 Anonymous Lese vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 4 464. 1220 Anonymous Lese vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 6 465. 1221 Anonymous Lese vers anqasnde bestemte historiske begivenheder 4 466. 1222 Anonymous Lase vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 8 467. 1222 Anonymous tase vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 10 468. 1232 Anonymous tase vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 1 469. 1236 Anonymous Lase vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 4 470. 1236 Anonymous Lese vers anqaenda bestemte historiske begivenheder 8 471. 1244 Anonymous tass vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 4 472. 1257 Anonymous L0se vers anqaende bestemte historiske begivenheder 4 473. 1299 Anonymous Liknarbraut 200 146 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 474. 1299 Anonymous Nikulasdrapa 6 475. 1299 Anonymous Heilags anda visur 65 476. 1299 Anonymous Religious and moralistic verse 61 477. 1299 Anonymous At njalssaga 116 478. 1299 Anonymous At stjornu-oddadraumr 44 479. 1299 Anonymous At bergbuapattr 48 480. 1299 Anonymous At xumblbuapattr 8 481. 1299 Anonymous At draumr porsteins siauhallssonar 12 482. 1299 Anonymous Vers of den raegrt afhandling 27 483. 1299 Anonymous At RagnarssonaPattr 4 484. 1299 Anonymous At sorlapattr 4 147 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 485. 1350 pormoar prestr olafsson Icelandic Et drotkvaedet digt am aron hjorleifsson 24 486. 1350 por~oar prestr olafsson Icelandic En hrynhent digt am Aron 14 487. 1350 pormoar prestr olafsson Icelandic Lausavisa 4 488. 1345 Arngrimr aboti brandsson Icelandic Guemundar kvaeai byskups 260 489. 1345 Arngrimr aboti brandsson Icelandic Af et drotkvaedet digt am gudnumdarason 12 490. 1361 Eysteinn asgrimsson Icelandic Lilja 376 491. 1399 Einarr gilsson Icelandic Om gU8'mund arason bishop 160 492. 1399 Einarr gilsson Icelandic En hrynhent digte am Gudmund arason 68 493. 1399 Einarr gilsson Icelandic Seikollu-visur 84 494. 1399 Arni jonsson abbot Icelandic Guemundar drapa 310 495. 1399 Arni jonsson abbot Icelandic Lausavisur 5 148 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 496. 1399 Anonymous Grettissaga 174 497. 1399 Anonymous Af Harsar saga grimkelssonar 52 498. 1399 Anonymous Af BariJarsaga snaefellsass 8 499. 1399 Anonymous Af poriJar saga hreiJu 48 500. 1399 Anonymous Af FostbraeiJrasaga 4 501. 1399 Anonymous Af Krokarefssaga 12 502. 1399 Anonymous Af Viglundarsaga 92 503. 1399 Anonymous At et digt om Olaf tryggvason 13 504. 1399 Anonymous Lose vers 8 505. 1399 Anonymous Mariudrapa 93 506. 1399 Anonymous Mariugratr 200 149 # Date Poet Origin Title Lines 507. 1399 Anonymous Vitnisvisur af Mariu 104 508. 1399 Anonymous Mariuvisur I 115 509. 1399 Anonymous Mariuvisur II 96 510. 1399 Anonymous Mariuvisur III 111 511. 1399 Anonymous Petrsdrapa 211 512. 1399 Anonymous Andreasdrapa 15 513. 1399 Anonymous AUra postula minnisvisur 65 514. 1399 Anonymous Heilagra manna drapa 78 515. 1399 Anonymous Katrinar drapa 196 516. 1399 Anonymous Heilagra meyja drapa 232 517. 1399 Anonymous Gymngsvisur 27 150 Appendix C THE ANALYSIS # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 1. A1-4 27F 31L B. A6 2F 4-7 2-7 21Y 19M 1BN 2Y 31Y 26M 1N 2Y 2. A4-5 3F 4L 9. A14 41F 3BL 1-7 5-7 3Y 2M 2N 57Y 14M BN 5Y2SK 55Y 24M 1N 3. A5 PAIR 10. A19 5F 1L 4:4-5 3-7 1Y 3M 3N 1Aa 4Y2M 3Y 2M 1N 2SK 3Y3M 4. A5 3F 1L 11. A20 1BF 14L 2-71-5 1-7 3Y 1N 1BY 14M 3Y 1M 27Y5M 5. A6 5F 1L 12. A26 2F 2L 1-7 1-7 6Y 3M 1N 6Y 2Y 1M 1N 6. A6 4F 13. A26 5F3L ALL 6 2-7 4Y BY4ER 3Y 1M 3Y 5M4ER 7. A6 1F 14. A26 4F ALL6 3-7 1N 3Y 1M 1Y 3Y 1M # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 15. A27 2F2L 23. A44-5 14F 6L 2-7 1-7 4Y 15Y 4M 1Aa 3Y 1SKM 15Y5M 16. A29 1L 1PR 24. A45-6 5F3L 2-5 ALL 6 1Y 1M 5Y3M 2M 5Y3M 17. A29 4F 25. A46-7 17F 15L 1-7 2-7 1Y3M 26Y6M 1Y3SK 22Y 10M 18. A30 3F2L 26. A47-8 3F 5L 3-7 3-7 5Y 6Y2M 4Y1M 7Y 1M 19. A42 4L 27. A48-50 19F 13L 1-7 11-7 3Y2M 22Y 5M5N 3Y1M 25Y7M 20. A42 2F2L 28. A50-1 9F 9L 2B ALL 6 7-7 4Y 9Y 6M 5N 4Y 10Y 5M 3N 2SK 21. A42-3 6F 10L 29. A51-2 2F6L 2-7 1-7 9Y 4M 3N 3Y5N 11Y 3M 2N 5Y 2M 1N 22. A43-4 3F 6L 3B 30. A51-2 2F2L 4-7 ALL6 5Y 3M 4N 2Y2M 6Y 4M2N 4Y 152 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 31. A52 1F 2L 1FL 39. A64 10F6L 1-7 3-7 2Y 1M 1N 10Y6M 3Y 1M 14Y2M 32. A52 3F3L 40. A65 6F 4L 1-7 1-7 1-8 3Y3M 8Y2M 5Y 1M 7Y 2M 1N 33. A53 1F 41. A65-6 3F2L ALL 6 ALL 6 1Y 4Y 1M 1M 2Y3M 34. A53-4 10F 4L 42. A66-68 32F9L 4-7 2-7 10Y 4M 36Y3M2N 10Y 4M 39Y2M 35. A54 1F1L 43. A68 3F 1L ALL 6 1-7 2Y 3Y 1M 2Y 2Y2M 36. A54 2L 44. A69-70 10F6L 1-7 4-7 2Y 13Y 2M 1N 2Y 10Y6M 37. A55-6 23F 5L 45. A70-85 116F 130L 1-7 68-72-5 21Y7M 159Y 32M 55N 14Y 14M 174Y 57M 9N 6SK 38. A62-64 13F 13L 46. A85 1F1L 7-7 1-8 ALL6 18Y 7M 1N 2Y 17Y9M 2Y 153 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 47. A86-9 21F 31L 55. A94 2F2L 27-7 2-7 30Y 17M 6N 3Y1M 34Y 16M 2N 3Y1M 48. A89 3F 1L 56. A95 1F 1-7 ALL6 3Y 1M 1Y 4Y 1Y 49. A90 3F1L 57. A95 4L ALL 6 3-7 1Y3M 2Y2N 2Y2M 4Y 50. A90 3F5L 58. A95 1L 2-7 1-7 6Y2M 1M 4Y4M 1SK 51. A91-2 17F15L 59. A95 4L 8-7 3-7 26Y6M 2Y 1M 1N 18Y 14M 4Y 52. A93 1F 3L 60. A96-104 67F 66L ALL 6 25-71-8 4Y 89Y 38M 6N 2Y2M 98Y 34M 1N 53. A93 1F 3L 61. A104 3F 1L 1-7 ALL 6 2Y2M 4Y 3Y1M 4Y 54. A94 3F1L 62. A105 4B ALL6 ALL6 4Y 3Y 1M 4Y 2Y2M 154 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 63. A105-1 09 21F 47L 71. A112-3 5F7L 13-71-8 3-7 53Y 15M 10Y2M 48Y 20M 9Y3M 64. A110 4F 72. A113 1F 2L ALL 6 1-7 4Y 2Y 1M 3Y 1M 2Y 1M 65. A110 4F 73. A113-4 1F 3L ALL 6 1-7 4Y 3Y 1N 3Y1M 3Y 1M 66. A110 2F2L 74. A114 1F 3L 1-7 ALL 6 4Y 2Y 1M 4Y 3Y 1M 67. A111 5F3L 75. A114 5F3L 2-7 1-7 5Y 2M 1N 5Y 2M 1N 6Y2M 5Y3M 68. A112 4L 76. A115 2F2L 1-7 ALL6 2Y 1M 1N 4Y 3Y 1M 4Y 69. A112 2F2L 77. A115 2F2L 1-7 ALL 6 2Y2M 4Y 3Y 1M 4Y 70. A112 2F 78. A116 1F 3L 1-7 1-7 2Y 3Y 1M 2Y 3Y 1M 155 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 79. A116 2F2L 87. A130 1F 3L 2-7 3-7 2Y2M 1Y3M 1Y3M 3Y 1M 80. A116-7 2F 2L 88. A130 1F1L ALL 6 ALL6 ...... 01 ... 3Y 1M 2Y 3Y 1M 2Y 81. A117-24 55F 59L 89. A131 5F1L 14-7 ALL 6 85Y 24M 5N 6Y 85Y 28M 1N 4Y2M 82. A124-5 5F7L 90. A132 3F3L 7-7 4-7 10Y2M 3Y3N 10Y2M 3Y3M 83. A125-6 13F 11L 91. A132 1F1L 4·71-5 ALL 6 17Y 6M 1N 1Y 1M 15Y9M 1Y 1M 84. A127 1F 3L 92. A132 2F 1-7 1-7 4Y 2M 4Y 1Y 1M 85. A127-8 4F 4L 93. A133 2L 1-7 1-7 8Y 1M1N 5Y3M 1Y 1M 86. A128-30 20F 8L 94. A133 2F 2-7 ALL 6 22Y 5M 1N 2Y 19Y9M 2Y 156 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 95. A133-4 11 F 9L 103. A144 1F1L 8-7 1-7 11Y6M3N 2Y 17Y 3M 2Y 96. A135 1F 4L 104. A144 4L ALL 6 ALL 6 3Y2M 2Y2M 5Y 2Y2M 97. A135 2F 105. A145 1F1L ALL 6 ALL 6 1Y 1M 1Y1N 1Y 1M 2SK 98. A135 2F2L 106. A145 17F 23L 4-7 2-7 34Y6M 1Y 2M 1N 26Y 14M 2Y2M 99. A136-8 4F4L 107. A146 5F3L 4-7 1-7 6Y2M 5Y3M 3Y5M 5Y3M 100. A138 2L 108. A146-7 14F 4L ALL 6 4-7 2Y 17Y 1N 2Y 1Y7N 101. A139 41F 39L 109. A147-8 23F5L 7-7 1-7 62Y IBM 19Y9M 61Y 19M 22Y6M 102. A139-44 1F1L 110. A148-50 99F5L 1-7 21-7 1Y 1M 78Y26M 1Y 1M 75Y29M 157 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 111. A150-7 1L 119. A167 1F1L ALL 6 ALL 6 1Y 2Y 1Y 1Y 1M 112. A157 48F 58L 120. A167 3F1L 28-7 ALL 6 84Y IBM 4N 3Y 1N 76Y30M 4Y 113. A157-63 1F 3L 121. A168 1L 2-7 ALL 6 3Y 1M 1Y 3Y 1M 1Y 114. A164 1F 122. A168 4F ALL6 ALL 6 1Y 4Y 1Y 3Y 1M 115. A166 1F 3L 123. A168 1L 1 PAIR ALL 6 ALL 4 4Y 1Y 1M 2Y2M 1N1SKM 116. A166 1F1L 124. A168 4L 1-7 1-71-8 1-3 ER 3Y 1M 1Y 1N 4Y 117. A167 1F 125. A169 2F6L 1-7 2-7 1Y 5Y3M 1Y 3Y5M 118. A167 3F 126. A169 1F1L ALL8 ALL 6 3Y 2Y 3Y 2Y 158 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 127. A171 1B 135. A173 2F3L 1-7 3-7 1Y 5Y1M 1Y 4Y1M 128. A171 2F2L 136. A174 1F 2-7 ALL6 4Y 1Y 4Y 1Y 129. A172 2F2B 137. A175 30F 24L 1-7 7-71-8 4Y 38Y 16M 4Y 40Y 14M 130. A172 3F 1 PAIR 138. A178-82 2F6L 4:1-5 7-7 1Y 1M 2N 6Y2M 2Y2M 7Y1M 131. A172 1F 139. A182 1F 3L ALL 5 ALL6 1Y 3Y 1N 1N 4Y 132. A172 3F5L 140. A183-4 14F6L 2-7 1-7 5Y3M 16Y3M 2Y6M 10Y 10M 133. A173 1F 3L 141. A184-5 2L 2-7 ALL6 3Y 1N 1Y 1M 3Y 1M 1Y 1M 134. A173 3L 142. A185-8 25L23F ALL 6 12-7 2Y 1ER 35Y 13M 2Y 1ER 32Y 16M 159 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 143. A188-9 4F8L 151. A198 9F7L 3-7 2-7 8Y4M 14Y2M 6Y6M 15Y 1M 144. A189-90 4F2L 152. A198 3F 1L 1-7 1-7 5Y1M 3Y 1M 5Y 1M 2Y2M 145. A190-2 27F5L 153. A199-201 7F 20L 1 FL ALL 6 11-71-8 25Y 7M+2Y 1M 21Y 6M 1N 23Y 9M+1Y 1M 21Y7M 146. A193-5 12F 20L 154. A201 5F 1L ALL 6 ALL 6 25Y7M 5Y 1N 21Y 11M 4Y2N 147. A195 3L 155. A202 7F3L ALL 6 ALL 6 2Y 1M 6Y4M 1Y2M 6Y4M 148. A196-7 18F2B 156. A203 4F 5:5-6 ALL 6 9Y 9M 1N 1Aa 2Y 1M 1N 11Y 1M 8N 2Y2M 149. A197 1F1L 157. A203-6 22F 31L 1-5 10-7 1Y 1M 39Y 14M 2N 37Y 16M 150. A197 3F 1L 158. A207-9 20F 20L 3-7 10-7 3Y1M 33Y7M 3Y 1M 27Y 13M 160 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 159. A210-1 3F 8L 5FL 167. A226-8 15F 15L 3-71-8 12-7 1-8 10Y6M 22Y8M 11Y5M 21Y9M 160. A210-12 4F 3L 1FL 168. A228 3F1L 2-7 ALL6 6Y2M 2Y2M 5Y3M 1Y3M 161. A211-12 3F 3L 2FL 169. A228-31 27F 13L 1-7 8-7 5Y 2M 1Aa 33Y7M 4Y4M 27Y 13M 162. A212 4L 170. A231 2F2L 1-7 ALL6 3Y 1M 4Y 2Y2M 4Y 163. A213-6 21 F 37L 171. A231-2 7F5L 6-7 6-7 38Y 19M 1± 8Y4M 41Y 16M 1N 12Y 164. A217-20 18F 32L 172. A232-4 MIXED 10-7 4:17-5 39Y 11M 21Y 12M 3N 2Aa 45Y5M 26Y 9M iN 2SK 165. A220-51 40F 44L 173. A234-9 39F 31L 19-7 22-71-81-9 63Y 20 iN 55Y 15M 67Y 17M 56Y 14M 166. A226 2F 174. A239-45 66FL 37L ALL 6 18-7 2Y 81Y 22M 2M 79Y 24M 161 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 175. A247-8 14F 18L 183. A260-1 5F3L 6-71-8 1-7 21Y 10M 1± 1ER 6Y2M 25Y7M 5Y3M 176. A248-51 24F 22L 184. A261-3 3F 1L 7-7 1-7 40Y6M 4Y 35Y 10M 1N 3Y 1M 177. A252-4 25F 21 L 185. A263-4 14F 18L 11-7 3-7 41Y 3M 2N 17Y 14M 1N 36Y 10M 21Y 11M 178. A254 1F 1FL 186. A264-6 14F 6L ALL 6 7-7 2Y 11Y9M 2Y 12Y 8M 179. A255 14F18L 187. A267 12B 12-72-8 6-6 13-55-4 29Y3M 8Y4M? 25Y7M 10Y 2M 180. A256 6F6L 188. A268-72 40F 31 L 4-7 8-7 7Y5M 63Y9M 11Y 1M 53Y IBM 181. A256-60 4F 189. A272-5 29F 11 L ALL 6 1-7 3Y1M 31Y7M1N 1Y3M 25Y 15M 182. A260 29F 31 L 190. A275 2F2L 6-7 2-8 ALL 6 42Y 15M 3N 4Y 34Y 26M 4Y 162 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 191. A277 2F2L 199. A285 1F 1L 2FL ALL 6 1-8 3Y 1M 3Y 1M 4Y 3Y 1M 192. A277 3F 1L 200. A285 1F1L 1-7 ALL6 4Y 1Y 1M 3Y 1M 2Y 193. A278-80 19F 17L 201. A286 5F3L 10-7 1-7 30Y6M 7Y 1M 27Y9M 4Y4M 194. A280-2 12F 14L 202. A286 1L 8-7 2-7 18Y 8M 1Y 17Y9M 1Y 195. A282-3 7F9L 203. A288 1F1L 4-7 1-8 11Y 5M 2Y 10Y6M 1Y 1M 196. A283 8F 4L 204. A288 1F ALL 6 ALL 6 7Y5M 1M 8Y4M 1M 197. A284 2F2L 205. A288 4F 1-7 1-7 3Y 1M 3Y 1M 2Y2M 3Y 1M 198. A284 1F1L 206. A288-9 2F6L ALL 6 2-7 2Y 6Y2M 2Y 6Y2M 163 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 207. A289 4F 4L 215. A293-4 15F 4L 3-7 2-7 6Y2M 13Y6M 7Y 1M 14Y5M 208. A289-90 5F3L 216. A295 5F3L 4-7 ALL 6 4Y4M 6Y2M 7Y 1M 6Y2M 209. A290 1F 3L 217. A295 1F3L 1-7 ALL 6 4Y 3Y 1M 4Y 4Y 210. A291 5F3L 218. A296 4F4L 2-7 1-7 6Y2M 7Y 1M 7Y 1M 8Y 211. A291 1F1L 219. A296-7 6F4L ALL6 1-7 2M 10Y 1Y 1M 8Y2M 212. A292 4F 4L 220. A297 3F 2-7 ALL 6 5Y3M 2Y 1M 6Y2M 3M 213. A292 2F 221. A298 1L ALL 6 ALL6 2Y 1M 1Y 1M 1Y 214. A293 4L 222. A302 2L 5-7 ALL6 3Y 1M 1Y 1M 2Y2M 1Y 1M 164 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 223. A302-3 7F7L 231. A317-21 51F 31L 2-7 15-7 10Y 4M 63Y 19M 2N 10Y4M 59Y23M 224. A303 3F 1L 232. A322-6 42F 18L +1 1-7 8-7 3Y 1M 48Y 11M 1± 3Y 1M SOY 11M 225. A303-4 4F3L 233. A326 7F4L ALL6 1-7,8:1-7 4Y3M 10Y 1M 4Y3M 8Y3M 226. A304 2F2L 234. A327 SF3FL ALL 6 ALL6 2Y2M 4Y4M 4Y 6Y3M 227. A305 1F 235. A327-8 2F2L 1-7 3-7 1Y 3Y 1M 1Y 4Y 228. A305-6 2F 3L 236. A328 4F 4L ALL 6 2-7 4Y 1± 5Y 2M 1± 3Y2M 7Y 1M 229. A311-15 28F 40L 237. A328-9 4F 14L 6-7 3-7 59Y9M 9Y7M2N 44Y 23M 1N 16Y2M 230. A316 1L 238. A330 4FL ALL 6 1-52-6 1-7 1Y 1Y 3M 1Y 3Y 1M 165 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 239. A330 3F 2L 5FL 247. A357 7F2L 2-71-8 2-7 9Y 1M 8Y1M 7Y3M 8Y1M 240. A331 6F 5L 2FL 248. A358-60 10F 8L 4-71-9 5-7 9Y 3M 1Aa 14Y 3M 1N 13Y 14Y 4M 241. A332 3F 1FL 249. A360-3 23F 13FL ALL 6 10-7 2Y2M 32Y4M 3Y 1M 28Y8M 242. A332-8 46F 45L 250. A363-5 23F9L 18-7 5-7 72Y IBM 1N 27Y5M 72Y 19M 23Y9M 243. A339-46 71F 37L 251. A365-8 20F 25L 19-71-8 7-7 91Y 17M 36Y9M 84Y 24M 37Y8M 244. A347-53 60F 38L +1 252. A368 1F1L 24-71-8 ALL 6 78Y 20M 2Y 81Y IBM 1Y 1M 245. A354 4F5L 253. A370-1 12F 12L 1-7 5-7 4Y 1M 23Y 1M 4Y 21Y3M 246. A355-7 19F9L 254. A371 2F2L 4-7 2-7 23Y5M 4Y 23Y5M 4Y 166 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 255. A373-4 9F 15L 263. A384 1L 5-7 ALL 6 19Y5M 1M 22Y2M 1M 256. A375-6 6F2L 264. A385 4F6L 1-7 7-52-72-49-6 6Y2M 9Y 1M 5Y3M 8Y2M 257. A376-8 16F12L 265. A386 1F1L 4-7 1-7 20Y8M 2Y 22Y6M 2Y 258. A378 4L 266. A386 2F 1L ALL 6 3-7 4Y 2Y 1M 2Y2M 2Y 1M 259. A379-83 41 F 23L 267. A386 2F 1-7 1-7 1-8 53Y 11M 1Y 1M 53Y 11M 1Y 1M 260. A383 1F1L 268. A387 2F ALL 6 ALL6 2Y 1Y 1N 2Y 1Y 1M 261. A383-4 7F1L 269. A387 2F 1-7 ALL6 5Y3M 1Y 1M 6Y2M 1Y1M 262. A384 1F1L 270. A387-8 1F 3L 1FL 2-7 ALL 6 2Y 3Y2M 2Y 3Y3M 167 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 271. A388 2F 279. A396 2F 5L 1FL ALL6 ALL 6 2Y 5Y3M 1M1± 7Y 1M 272. A388 1F1L 280. A396 5F 5L 2FL ALL 6 3-7 1Y 1M 7Y5M 2Y 6Y6M 273. A391 10F 16L 281. A397 7F5L 4-7 3-7 19Y7M 7Y5M 19Y7M 6Y6M 274. A393 2F2L 282. A398-9 3F5L 3-7 1-7 4Y 8Y 3Y 1M 8Y 275. A393 2L 283. A399 2F2L ALL 6 3-7 1Y 1M 2Y2M 1Y 1M 2Y2M 276. A394 2F 284. A399 3F5L ALL 6 2-7 1Y 1M 6Y2M 1Y 1M 5Y3M 277. A394-5 3F 5L 2FL 285. A399-401 i8F 14L 2FL ALL 6 6-7 7Y3M 15Y 7M 2± 3Y7M 17Y 7M 278. A395-6 7F5L 286. A400-1 7F9L 5-71-8 4-7 9Y 2M 1± 9Y 5M 2± 10Y2M 12Y 3M 1N 168 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 287. 404-6 25F 8L 1N 295. A421 5F1L 1-7 ALL 6 32Y2M 5Y1M 26Y8M 3Y3M 288. A407 3F5L 296. A421 1F+1 2-7 1-7 5Y3M 1Y 1M 7Y 1M 1M 289. A407-8 11F 7L 297. A421-2 1F 3L 1-7 1-7 13Y 5 3Y 1M 15Y 3M 4Y 290. A407-8 2F 1L 1FL 298. A423-4 10F10L 1-7 3-7 4Y 15Y 4M 1± 3Y1M 15Y 15M 291. A409-13 PAIRS 299. A424 5F3L 4&5 SYLS ALL 6 NO 4Y4M PATTERN 6Y2M 292. A414-20 78F 20L 300. A425-6 1L15FL 8:3-9 4:2-5 96Y2M 12Y 4M 84Y 14M 8Y8M 293. A414-20 1F1L 301. A426 2F4L ALL 6 ALL 6 1Y 1M 4Y2M 1Y 1M 5Y 1M 294. A420 3F 302. A426 2F2L ALL 6 ALL 6 2Y 1M 3Y1M 3Y 3Y 1M 169 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 303. A427-45 162F 122L 311. A461-3 PAIRS 70-7 1-310-5 219Y 65M 8Y 10M 7N 202Y 83M 10Y 13M 2N 304. A447 5F 1L 312. A463-4 8F4L 2-7 5-7 5Y 1M 10Y2M 4Y2M 6Y6M 305. A448 6F8L 313. A464 2F2L 6-7 2-7 13Y 1M 4Y 9Y5M 4Y 306. A449 4F4L 314. A465 2L 2-7 2-7 6Y2M 1Y 1M 7Y1M 1Y 1M 307. A449-51 19F11L+1 315. A465 3F3L 9-7 2-7 26Y5M 3Y3M 24Y6M 5Y1M 308. A451-4 13F 23L 316. A476-7 13F 7L 8-7 2-7 23Y 12M 1± 17Y3M 21Y 15M 14Y6M 309. A458-60 17F 17L 317. A477-8 7F5L 2-7 ALL 6 27Y7M 11Y 1M 25Y9M 8Y4M 310. A460-1 8F6L 318. A511-2 12F 4L 1-7 8-7 12Y 1M 1± 4Y 4M 4N 4 ER 7Y7M 4Y 4M 4N 4 ER 170 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 319. A514 4F4L 327. A517 3F3L 2-7 3-7 6Y2M 5Y 1M 5Y3M 5Y 1M 320. A513 2F2L 328. A518 1F 7L 1-7 7-7 3Y1M 5Y3M 3Y 1M 7Y 1M 321. A513 2F2L 329. A519 5F7L ALL 6 3-7 3Y 1N 9Y3M 3Y 1M 6Y6M 322. A513 2L 330. A519-20 12F 6L 1-7 2-7 2Y 12Y6M 1Y 1M 14Y 4M 323. A515 8F4L 331. A521 3F 1L 2-7 1-7 9Y3M 3Y 1M 9Y3M 3Y 1M 324. A515-6 2F 332. A521 2F 1-7 ALL 6 2Y 2Y 2Y 2Y 325. A516 2L 333. A522 2F2L 1-7 1-7 2Y 1Y3M 2M 4Y 326. A517 5F3L 334. A522 4F 4L 1-7 2-7 6Y2M 7Y 1M 2Y6M 6Y2M 171 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 335. A523 3F 4L 343. A547 4F ALL 6 2-7 6Y 1M 4Y 5Y2M 4Y 336. A523 3L 1FL 344. A547-8 16F 4:1-7 8:1-71-9 3Y1M 13Y3M 1Y3M 13Y3M 337. A524 1F1L 345. A548-65 166F 82L ALL 6 63-7 2Y 180Y 67M 1Y 1M 164Y 83M 338. A525-34 139F 1L 346. A565-6 5F3L 17-7 2-7 92Y 48M 7Y 1M 99Y 40M iN 7Y 1M 339. A525-34 10F 1L 347. A566 1F1L ALL6 ALL 6 10Y 1M 2Y 5Y6M 1Y 1M 340. A539-45 50F 53L 348. A567 2F 12-7 1-7 68Y35M 2Y 77Y 26M 1Y 1M 341. A545-7 30F 16L 349. A567-74 73F 36L 13-72-8 10-7 35Y 11M 81Y 29M 28Y IBM 73Y 34M 342. A546 7F5L 350. A590 1F1L 2-7 ALL 6 10Y2M 1Y 1? 11Y 1M 1Y 1M 172 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 351. A591 1F 359. A591-7 1F 1-81-9 ALL6 1Y 1M 1Y 2M 352. A591 4F 360. A591-7 3L 1B ALL6 3-7 3Y 1M 1Y 2M 1N 3Y 1M 4Y 353. A591-7 1FL 361. A591-7 2L 1-7 2-7 1Y 2Y 1Y 2Y 354. A591-7 2F 1L 1FL 362. A591-7 1F 3L 3-7 2-7 4Y 3Y 1M 2Y2M 3Y 1M 355. A591-7 2F 5L 1FL 363. A591-7 3F 1L 3-7 4-8 4-9 8Y 4Y 6Y2M 3Y 1M 356. A591-7 3F2L 364. A591-7 2F1L1N 1-7 1-73-84-9 4Y 1Aa 3Y 1N 5Y 3Y 1M 357. A591-7 1F 5L 2FL 365. A591-7 1F 1-7 ALL6 4Y 2M 2N 1Y 4Y 1M 2N 1M 358. A591-7 1F 2L 1FL 366. A591-7 1F 1-7 1-7 4Y 1Y 3Y 1M 1Y 173 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 367. A598 2L 375. A599 1-7 ALL 8 1Y 1M 1Y 1M 1Y 368. A598 1FL 376. A599 1FL ALL6 4 & 5 SYLLABLES 1Y 1M 1Y 1Y 369. A598 1L 377. A599 1FL ALL 6 ALL 6 1M 1Y 1M 1M 370. A598 378. A599 1F ALL 6 ALL 6 1Y 1M 1Y 371. A598 1L 379. A599 1L ALL 6 ALL 6 1YAa 1Y 1M 1M 372. A598 1F 380. A599 1F ALL 6 1-7 1Y 1M 1M 1Y 373. A599 1FL 381. A60D PAIR ALL 6 4 & 5 SYLLABLES 1Y 1Y 1Y 1Y 374. A599 1FL 382. A60D 1L ALL 6 ALL6 1Y 1Y 1Y 1M 174 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 383. A600 1L 391. A601 1F 3L ALL 7 ALL 6 1Y 2Y2M 1Y 3Y 1M 384. A600 1L 392. A601 1L ALL 7 ALL 6 1Y 1Y 1Aa 1M 2Y 385. A600 1L 393. A601 1L ALL 6 ALL6 1Y 1Y 1Y 1M 386. A600 2L 394. A601 1F ALL 6 1-7 1Y 1M 1Y 2Y 1M 387. A600 1F1L 395. A601 ALL 6 ALL 6 2Y 2Y 1Y 388. A600 2FL 396. A602 1F3L ALL 6 1-7 2Y 2Y2M 1Y 1M 3Y 1M 389. A600 1L 397. A602 1F3L1PAIR ALL 6 4-41-7 1Y 3Y 1M 1N 1M 2Y 1M 2N 390. A600 1F1FL 398. A602-3 6F6L ALL 6 3-7 1Y 1Aa 9Y 2M 5N 1Y 1M 10Y 3M 1N 2SK 175 # PAGE 81NDING PAT. # PAGE 81NDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 399. A604-6 11F 21L8FL 407. 849 4F 6-7 2-8 ALL 6 23Y 12M 4N 1AaM 4Y 22Y 14M 1SKY 3SKM 2Y2M 400. A606-22 134F 62L 408. 849 1F1L 27-71-8 ALL 6 132Y 64M 2Y 120Y 76M 2Y 401. A622-3 85F 85L 409. 850 6F8L 55~7 ALL 6 139Y 29M 1N 10Y 4M 121Y 49M 13Y 1M 402. A634 4F2L 410. 851 7F3L ALL 6 1-56-7 5Y 1M 6Y4M 4Y2M 10Y 403. A634 411. 851 2F2L 1Y 1-7 3Y1M 3Y 1M 404. A634-5 5F2L 412. 852-3 11 F 6L 1N 3-7 7-7 6Y 1M 11Y 1M 2 ER 4Y3M 1-Y4M2ER 405. A657-8 13F 7L 413. 853-4 8F2L ALL 6 1-7 18Y2M 5Y 1M 4 ER 15Y5M 4Y2M4 ER 406. 845-9 9F 6L 414. 854 4F4L 5-7 2-7 11Y 4M 8Y 11Y 4M 7Y 1M 176 # PAGE 81NDING PAT. # PAGE 81NDlNG PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 415. 855-7 29F 11 L 423. 893 2F2L 16-7 1-7 28Y 11M 1N 3Y 1M 33Y7M 3Y 1M 416. 858 3F +1 424. 893 1F1L 1-7 ALL 6 4Y 1Y 1M 2Y1M 1Y 1M 417. 858-9 7F9L 425. 893-4 2F2L 3-7 3-7 15Y 1M 3Y 1M 13Y3M 4Y 418. 860 2F2L 426. 894 2F2L 1-7 1-7 3Y 1M 3Y 1M 2Y2M 2Y2M 419. 861-88 181 F 87L 88 427. 894 3F 1L 13-4 28-5 48-7 46-8 4-9 2-7 205 Y 51M 19N 1± 4Y 206Y 61M 9SK 3Y 1M 420. 888 1F 428. 895 3F 1L ALL 6 ALL6 1Y 2Y2M 1Y 4Y 421. 888-90 11 F 15L 429. 895 5F3L 8-7 4-7 19Y7M 6Y2M 23Y3M 7Y 1M 422. 890-2 18F 14L 430. 896 2F1L 11-7 1-7 23Y9M 3Y 26Y6M 2Y 1M 177 # PAGE 81NDING PAT. # PAGE 81NDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 431. 896 3F1L 439. 8102-4 17F 7L 2-7 3-7 3Y 1M 18Y6M 2Y2M 18Y6M 432. 896 1L 440. 8104 1F 3L ALL 6 1-7 1Y 3Y 1M 1M 2Y2M 433. 897 18 +1 441. 8105 30F 14L ALL 6 8-9 2Y 40Y4M 1SK 40Y4M 434. 897 2F28 442. 8108-9 5F3L 2-7 3-7 3Y1M 4Y4M 2Y2M 6Y2M 435. 898 2F2B 443. 8109 2F 3-52-7 4-7 3Y 1M 1Y 1M 3Y 1M 2Y 436. 899-100 10F14L 444. 8109-10 5F3L 3-7 3-7 13Y 11M 5Y3M 17Y7M 5Y3M 437. 8100-2 15F9L 445. 8110 1F1L 4-7 ALL 6 14Y 10M 2Y 11Y 12M 1N 2M 438. 8102 2F2L 446. 8110-1 5F3L 2-7 4-7 3Y 1M 6Y2M 3Y 1M 6Y2M 178 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE 81NDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 447. 8111 1F 3L 455. 8135 4F 4L 1-7 2-7 4Y 6Y2M 2Y2M 8Y 448. 8111 3F 1L 456. 8135-6 7F5L 1-7 4-72-8 4Y 9Y3M 4Y 7Y5M 449. 8112 2F 457. 8136 3F 1L ALL 6 ALL 6 2Y 3Y 1M 1Y 1M 2Y2M 450. 8112 2F2L 458. 8137 1F1L 1-7 ALL 6 4Y 1Y 1M 2Y2M 2Y 451. 8112-3 4F 8L 459. 8137 1F 2L ALL 6 1-7 7Y5M 3Y 7Y5M 1Y1M1N 452. 8113-8 48F 37L 460. 8137 3F 1L 1-780-84-9 ALL 6 83Y2M 4Y 63Y 22M 2Y2M 453. 8126-31 78F 2L 461. 8146 7F 5L 78-52-6 3-9 70Y 10M 11Y 1M 71Y9M 10Y 2M 454. 8132 31 F 13L 462. 8147 2F 3L 1FL 6·7 2-71-8 32Y 11M 1± 4Y2M 27Y 17M 3Y3M 179 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 463. B149-50 1F 1L 2FL 471. B157-8 3F 1FL 2-7 ALL 6 3Y 1M 4Y 2Y2M 4Y 464. B150 4F2L 472. B159 3F1L 3-7 5 5Y 1M 2Y 1M 1Aa 5Y 1M 4Y 465. B150 3L 1B 473. B160-74 127F 73L 2-7 47-7 2Y2M 155Y 45M 3Y 1M 144Y 57M 466. B151 3F 4L 1FL 474. B174-5 3F3L ALL 6 ALL 6 5Y3M 6Y 4Y4M 4Y2M 467. B151 4F 4L 2FL 475. B175-80 35F 30L 3-7 25-71-8 6Y 3M 1Aa 56Y 10M 4Y6M 45Y 20M 468. B152 1F 476. B180-5 23F 38L 1-4 1-6 21-7 19-87-9 1M 44Y 16M 1± 1M 43Y IBM 469. B152 4F 477. B210-19 55F 61 L 2-9 39-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 4Y 94Y 21M 1N 4Y 93Y 22M 1N 470. B152 2F 2L 4FL 478. B222-6 16F 24L 4-7 6-7 3Y 1M4ER 26Y 3M 15N 2Y2M4ER 36Y 6M 2SK 180 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 479. B226-9 25F 23L 487. B371' '. 2F2L 17-71-8 1-7 34Y 14M 1Y 2M 1N 37Y 11M 3Y1M 480. B229-30 2F6L 488. B371-89 182F 78L 1-7 6-6 146-9 18-102- 11 3Y5M 236Y24M 6Y2M 217Y 43M 481. B230-1 5F7L 489. B389-90 4F 8L 2-7 8-71-8 9Y3M 9Y3M 8Y4M 8Y4M 482. B231-6 4F23L 490. B440-61 203F 107L 18-7 180-924-102-11 24Y3M 286Y 22M 2± 21Y6M 279Y 31M 483. B261 1F 3L 491. 8390-416 195F 181L 1-7 286-948-103-11 2Y 1M 1N 364Y 12M 2N 1± 4Y 356Y 19M 1N 484. B262 4FL 492. B418-29 61 F 99L 5 38-72-8 2Y2M 127Y 31 M 2N 1Y3M 108Y 52M 485. B368-9 18F6L 493. B429-34 1F 67L 5-7 31-91-10 15Y9M 62Y 5M 1N 17Y7M 57Y 11M 486. B370-1 12F 2L 494. B434-40 43F 41L 6-9 1-10 21-71-9 14Y 69Y 16M 8Y6M 63Y 21M 181 # PAGE BINDING PAT. # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING AaALHENDING 495. 8461 5L 503. 8494-5 9F4L 3-7 3-7 5Y 12Y3M 4Y1M 6Y7M 496. 8462-76 102F 72L 504. 8495-6 5F3L 89-77-8 5-5 1-7 3-8 5-9 136Y 31M 7N 5Y 1M 2N 131Y 43M 4Y4M 497. 8476-81 28F 23L 18 24X 505. 8496-505 27F 52L 13FL 1 PAIR 34-75-8 59-74-81-9 47Y5M 81Y 11M 1N 39Y 13M 78Y 14M 1N 498. B482-3 SF 3L 8X 506. 8505-19 140F SOL 9FL 9-7 1-7121-947-105- 11 8Y 182Y 15M 3N 7Y 1M 182Y IBM 499. B483-6 25F 23L 507. 8520-6 44F 38L22FL 27-76-82-9 36-73-8 40Y 7M 1N 80Y 21M 3N 39Y 8M 1N 89Y 15M 500. B486 3F 1L 508. 8526-32 49F 50L 16FL 2-9 48-73-8 4Y 89Y 23M 3N 4Y 102Y 13M 501. B487 9F3L 509. 8532-8 44F 23L 16FL 2B 8-71-8 1-4 33-5 38-7 8Y4M 81Y 13M 2N 10Y2M 89Y 7M 502. B488-93 51F36L58 510. 8545-58 56F 30L 12FL 38 63-77-81-9 1-442-547-77-8 72Y 7M 13N 85Y 25M 1N 77Y 11M 3N 1± 89Y 21M 1N 182 # PAGE BINDING PAT. SYL. CNT. SKOTHENDING AaALHENDING 511. B569-82 79F 103L 27FL 101-710-8 75Y 133M 2N 1Aa 162Y 49M 512. B558-9 8F 4L 4FL 14-7 13Y3M 12Y 4M 513. B559-62 43F 18L 4FL 50-74-8 41Y 10M 2N 12 ER 40Y 13M 12 ER 514. 562-9 65F 9L 1B 43-920-10 71Y9M 75Y5M 515. B569-82 160F 33L 2FL 1 PAIR 113-923-103-11 172Y 22M 1N 163Y 33M 516. B582-97 156F 73L2FL 146-923-10 209Y 22M 1Aa 220Y 12M 517. B597-9 11F 5L 11 FL 4-7 19Y 8M 14Y 13M 183 Appendix 0 Matches with j- Ninth &Tenth Centuries 23. fjara-olna skoreurn 1. Njorar joram 24. stafnkvigs jafnan 2. Mjok rekkar 25. arnstalls sjotuI-bjarnar 3. skelfis bjalfa 26. hjalpendr gjalpar 4. hrafnfjoturs hvottu 27. rj66um bl6m 5. brautar Ij6ti 28. orn jornum 6. Ij6s dr6sar 29. sjotul-bjamar Lj6ti 7. !j6st T6st 30. logbrj6tanda m6ti 8. bjugs smjuga 31. orrnalqastan hjorva 9. Fjallgyl6ir fyllar 32. gjold sjaldan 10. umbgjora Jarsar 33. svartbnmurn bjarta 11. fj6n sj6num 34. hlj6tendr grj6ti 12. fats Pjaza 35. 6pj6aar rj6aa 13. pjorhluti . fj6ra 36. bora Fjorau 14. leikblaas fjaarar 37. svellrj6ar flj6m 15. fjalfrs gjalfra 38. flj6tt dr6tni 16. bj6tr jomunprjoti 39. fjora hjor6u 17. year Jaari 40. gj66um pj6mr 18. geaharar jor6u 41. allvaldr slqoldurn 19. nj6ts pj6ta 42. garas Lima fjaraar 20. hofuabaamr [ofra 43. hjors fjorvi 21. jarlmanns Snarla 44. hjarls jarli 22. lindalfs sjolfum 45. jarahlj6tr fjaraar 46. fats pjatsa 70. Ijufs kljufa 47. Ijos kiosa 71. ofJ'gjarn bornurn 48. Njot fljoti 72. rnotrunnr spjota 49. faldin tjald 73. Hrafn jafnan 50. prjotr briotl 74. galdrs skjaldar 51. snyrtl-rnots Fljotum 75. Jarl hjarli 52. sjolfum holtu 76. elmo8ir SvfpjofJ'u 53. grjot slqota 77. hallendr snjallan 54. hjaldr-Ullr gjalda 78. farlands jarla Eieventh Century 79. hjarls jarli 55. NjorfJ' loreu 80. priotr njota 56. snjallr fallinn 81. fljott grjoti 57. Pjoreks storar Twelfth Century 58. imgjarna porbjarnar 82. skjott flotti 59. hlor borva 83. hvaliarsar Gipar8'i 60. vfg-NjorfJ'ungar horfJ'u 84. hjarl jarli 61. hots pjota 85. allvaldr gjalla 62. gjalda aldri 86. snart's hjarta 63. barran hjarra 87. hofufJ'skjoldunga gjoldum 64. fljots pjota 88. malmi hjalmi 65. hara-r NjorfJ'u 89. spjalli snjalla 66. sjalfr gjalfr 90. ails snjallan 67. jafnroskr Hrafni 91. snjallir alia 68. allr fjalla 92. allfrofJ'r pjoa-a 69. gort hjorvi 93. ofrkugi drjugum 185 94. hjaldrgegninn tjaldi 118. allmargs forsnjalli 95. hjaldrs gjalda 119. rnotetlandi splota 96. grjoti Snotar 120. margr bjargar 97. snarlyndr jarli 121. jafnan Hrafni 98. hjaldr skjaldar 122. hots njota 99. folktjald aldri 123. brjot rnotl 100. hart bjartra 124. rnotrunn spjota 1C1. allsrasanda snjalla 125. snjallri falla 102. tornusr stlornu 126. goft pjoftum 103. ornlos ljosl 127. rnalsnlallr kallaftr 104. meginfjollJi holfta 128. fljott drotni 105. hofuftskold jotri 129. bjartr hjarta 106. folkvaldr skjalda 130. valdr skjaldar 107. Horsa jorau 131. old skjoldu 108. ails snjol'urn 132. spier orvar Thirteenth Century 133. skor hjorvi 109. gefTbjartr hjarta 134. valbjor storan 110. narnqjorn stjornum 135. bloftdrykk rjofta 111. 8otolfr tljotu Fourteenth Century 112. grjoti spjot 136. gjalda Rognvaldi 113. oldurn skjold 137. hotat skjoturn 114. Joseppr hvalfjosurn 138. storurn fjorum 115. seimhrjoftandi gofta 139. andar fjandi 116. djarfmaelts arfar 140. moeur fljofta 117. rnotrunnr spjota 141. jartegna hjarta 186 142. 6ua pj68ir 143. Ij6st kj6sa 144. eljangjarn varna 145. yfird6mari Ij6ma 146. grandlauss fjanda 147. jafnst6ra fj6ra 148. raua-snjallr hallir 149. bjalfa slaltan 150. hr6sa Ij6sum 151. sjukir bukum 152. alhr68igr pj6uar 153. jarteinir hjarta 154. fjallit allra 155. fj6rar st6rar 156. sett rjettum 157. gjoru joriTu 158. Ij6st brj6sti 159. jatar lata 160. Ij6tir skj6ta 161. tjalls allir 162. alia fjalla 187 Appendix E Sample with Equal Number of Rhymes (by Half Century) rhyme matches: 21. ulfliiJs - miiJli Ninth Century: 22. nu - skegi 1. meyjar - malri 23. kjots - jotni 2. Brunnakrs - bekkjar 24. en - reynaisk 3. par - barsk - borai 25. Blatands - stall 4. skiiJgariJr - hvarma 26. endr - hrunai 5. Iftk - Geitis Twelfth Century: 6. roemsr - gamIan 27. for- gervis 7. testundir - pessa 28. siggreair - reiJ- siiJan Tenth Century: 29. skjoldungr - holiJum 8. leystsk - Lista 30. fregit - segm 9. ungr - tal - launat 31. manndyrair - vanda 10. brask - systur 32. finsk - monnum 11. gollskyflir - gjoflastr 33. fregnk - egnar Eleventh Century 34. himintungl - stungu 12. braks - jaxla 35. LeyfiJr's - styfiJrar 13. nyztr - austan 36. hverr's - horskr - byrjar 14. hjaldr - holiJar 37. marblakks - saxi i5. viiiat - Holrnstelnn 38. Iitk - Kritar 16. ats - hizi 39. pa - dreyra 17. helzk - seldi 40. pa va- h'ovan 18. sent - hendi 41. Jean - hava 19. ok - miklum 42. gyaingr - heiaingi 20. ok- blakki 43. upp - skaptir 44. afge raum - vafa-an 68. hragamms - savar 45. elds - holaum 69. ci8r-lyaum 46. mats - hreszlu 70. pas -last 47. bliB'r- bruai 71. pu - hja 48. pa vas - avi 72. snyr - b'orurn 49. en -Iandi 73. bezt - astar Thirteenth Century: 74. sja rna - heimi 50. B'oru - fra - 'Ira 75. vfst - plslurn 51. Old - felli 76. fask -Iestir 52. brast - Gizka 77. bani - gandi 53. tru -Iyaum 78. vargs - margar 54. a - sa - skyjum 79. hljoa-raufar- havar 55. olusk - dala 80. lofar - esvl 56. fleinbraks - axla 81. lofask - avi 57. Hakun - ok - veldr - holaum 82. trua - lotar - avi 58. fri8la • savar 83. par - fyra-a 59. hofuavfti - gri8bftum 84. for - gorva 60. 'orr - na - eyri 85. unz - sundi 61. allrffum - hlffa 86. skjaldmeyjar - skorna 62. blakks • saxi 87. pas - hestar 63. vfst - droslr 88. besum - havar 64. varrbaale - karainali Fourteenth Century: 65. lond - lofaungr - pranda 89. staddr - kvaddi 66. IiBbais - veemala 90. sonr - benjar 67. hlagir - bajar 91. jok - saxi 189 92. groa-r - fa3air 109. hrings - hondurn 93. eykr- ok 110. par - sa3ra-a 94. flyja - funir - draugar 111. hat - sa - 0a 95. ga3fu - fra3vaz 112. pola - eld 96. havan - ga3fu 113. ora- hareta 97. olz - Hola 114. yfJr -ly8'um 98. lof - rofna 115. sva - i - Iimu- likams 99. a3 - eptlrdesml 116. vaktat - sagt 100. heyr - jara-ar 117. ave - hof 101. Maria - vertu - mer - hjarta 118. aktaz - sagt 102. sto8'ugr - va3ginn 119. hof - hava 103. itran - sitja 120. krosstra - Krlsto 104. sta3r8'u - er - vureu 121. herma - peira 105. po - blorni 122. Oglis - fogrum 106. s~farinn - a3vi 123. fley - arar 107. ra3frhvossu - bensesvar 124. sva - bla3ju 108. menja - slongvir 125. fra - orurn 190 Appendix F Sample with 10% of the lines (by Half Century) Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme 800-850: 851-900: dreyrtaar drottir draum bandvandiiJr blundar bekkjar xxx xxx bandvaniiJr blundar draum flaumi bekkjar rekkju eUr iIIan Jormunrekkr hefnt hvettimk hugr xxx xxx skj6tt pott hvettimk xxx xxx hugr brugmt goiJ gjalla gjold herkir hyrjar hve xxx xxx herkir serkja xxx xxx valti belti hrafnketill heyra hvf hygg hrafnfjoturs hvottu hvottu xxx xxx pat hrafnfjoturs hvottu hreingr6it steini hlokk rakka meyjar ml:eri mogr ibar bjalfa bjugs meyjar ml:eri skelfis bjalfa mogr Hogna bjugs smjuga rosta ranni Randves kenniseiiJs kunni kleppdogg xxx xxx kennlselss kunni xxx xxx kleppdoggr loggvar pruiJar pengil pj6fs LOgais lagiJa laug xxx xxx LOgais lagiJa pj6fs leyfa laug augna Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme FUll-rhyme Full-rhyme MaiJr moldar megja 901-950: skyldi moldar megja pegja ails ilia akunna ails ilia Nu norar norn akunna hjorrunna Nu eyju grimm snimma ar aura fsarns ar aura CEstisk allra umbgjoru fsarns rlsa xxx xxx xxx xxx arghyrnu arna aptr arghyrnu arna skjall skallda skiugarar aptr skapti skjall valldasar skallda skiugarar hvarma Aualsteinn annat alt's vann annat ver vfB'um vindar la3gra kynfra3gjum StaB'um v!eum vindar linda bragit bruglJit Samar bragu bruglJit pundr prernla parolf Samar fari pundr skyndi parolf toru brjatr bletuu braga-visan brjatr bletuu pung pingi pars braga-vfsan disir pung pingi fangvina ganga es i1t i axi undvargs fox exl undvargs margar 192 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme fald-Gnaar felda fellr vaair vidda vevr tald-Gnaar felda vaair bro8'ur fellr Ellu vevr kvevja fyr fYris fjon '?gs eggju ak fyr fYris Liggja '?gs eggju fjon sjonurn sveigar deiga gjalla goiii geisla porfgi peirar pat gjalla goiii porfgi v~ri pelrar njots pjota ingva hingat hesst hraustum hreinbraut hesst hraustum hreinbraut Avalsteini heitu hrrerikytjur hreggs heitu hrrerikytjur hreggs sleggjur her hyrjar nrannbrjotr her sverjum hyrjar hrannbrlotr konungmanni hjaldr-snerrandi harra hofuUbaamr hjaldr-snerrandi herra hofuUbavmr [otra Sogauv sverriglagva sumbleklu Sogauv sverriglagva sumbleklu herkumbla 193 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme 951-1000: blautr bergit6tar burr blautr bergifotar alfroaull elfar jotna borr perrin alfroaull elfar dolgs folginn blindr branda bfBk blindr branda alhlrnlns utan oss eirar geira panns alhimlns utan lendingar sendu br'ou borginmoua blafjallalIan br'ou borginmolIa Blundr bois bindask blafjallauan gjalla mattlt Blundr undrumk bulka b'oaum benvondr skius b'osurn beit bitri byggving benvondr hondurn Veitk at beit bitri byggving meualdyggvan orr uppi jastrin greppa uppi bellir bragningr biUkat xxx xxx bellir elli biUkat prilIja dag daufJi draugr xxx xxx benja brynjum bugusk draugr bauga benja a brynjum almar talma Doigeisu dlsar drott Doigeisu dlsar bili belva boremcerar drott tlotta bili belva boremcerar ska tcera et akrmurur jokla ol-GerlIr xxx xxx birkihind bundit brums ol-Gerur talar verm birkihind bundit brums sumri 194 Allite ration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme eggskeindar undir obiaingum Fengum . feldarstinga fjora- eggskeindar undir Fengum feIdarstinga obiaingum svia-a fjora- hjorC3'u Einn attan [ofurr ferk fjora fa:! rat Einn drottin attan ferk fjora dyrr fyrra sex vexli en ef ek em atta esat fetla fyllar fullegg xxx xxx svell til fyllar esat tolf es skelfi fullegg gullu endr unda eia-s af fjollum Fyrisvalla fra:! sva endr unda fjollum Fyrisvalla eia-s meiai fra:! a:!vi sr era-groins era-groins folkstrimr Froa-a faglyjaa-ra hlyaia- sr ora-a nu tolkstrfetr Froa-a era-groins vera-a faglyjaa-ra pyja sr ora-a era-groins Fullu fjollum tallsot sr ora-a Fullu fjollum era-groins vera-a tallsol vallar es jara-gofugr oreurn ora- furvi8ir fleiri Fjolnis jara-gofugr oreum furvi8ir fleiri ora- forC3'um pings hingat Eykr ennldukt jar8hljotr tuss forsa fallhadds Eykr ennlduki Heyri forsa jara-hljotr fjara-ar fal!hadds stalla 195 Alliteratio n Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme fyllik flokk fellr grams gamni geirs fyllik flokk stillir grams gamni fellr elli Hamets framai fyrir fj6rir frandr grrpum greipar gunnboriJ fyrir v'orurn par fj6rir grrpum greipar frandr vesndlr gunnboriJ sun nan fyrr feigir tolkn'orunqar grundar Gylfa glaums svfl feigir skalat Gylfa folkn'orungar v'oru glaums tau mar Fyrr Fenris flugvarr gumna gamni gj6iJum Fyrr yarra gumna gamni flugvarr sparra gj6iJum pj6air t'ourn fornra flj6tt gumnum golli Gefnar xxx xxx hollr go iii flj6tt dr6tni Gefnar stefnu gestr gistir gjold gunnar gaukar Gauts margr pars gestr gistir haukr gaukar gjold sjaldan bragiJa sogiJu GlaiJ Gylfa gunnpings hafskri3'a hlceai hlj6tendr tolf Gylfa hatskfsa hlceai gunnpings runnu hlj6tendr grj6ti gollhjoltuiJum galtar gronduiJr haUGeri hv'oru -hlaupsildr gollhjoItu8um galtar hallesrt veldr hv'oru grondui3'r Dana brandi -hlaupsildr gaupna 196 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme harm hvarma hnitvolum hreava haukar hildinga berk harm hvarma gaukr haukar hnltvolurn sitja hildinga vildu hauks handan hafjoll hramstyrandl hra9ra hregna pelr fyr nrafnstyrandl hra9ra hafjoll digulsnjavi hregna fregnask her hreliborvar hlj6ms hrosta horni horns her heeliborvar tjorn i horni hlj6ms skj6ma horns morni hjorr hildiborrum hjarls hygg halfir heptendr hlorr fa9r hildiborrum hygg Iiggi hjarls jarli heptendr eptir Hlakkar hagli hress iIIsogull ytir armlinns Hlakkar stokkinn NYtr iIIsogull ytir hress es armlinns sinnar hllfa hneitiknifum hjaldrgoa-s IImar jalmi aa-r hlifa hneitiknifum IImar jalmi hjaldrgoi1s roenurn ai1r raBinn Hly8i hapta hefk Itr upp of unnsvfn HlyBi beiBis Itr rota mildingar gildi unnsvin minum hnept hvassa hefnendr jara-ar orsurn eynegla-a oss hvassa jara-ar gjora- oreurn hefnendr efni eynegli1a hegl6'u 197 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme joru orsurn endr Lytr longum lands joru oreurn LYtr splotum endr hendi lands randir lauka lindi langs rnalrnhrlsar meiaum moa-r xxx xxx rnalrnhrlsar svall meiaum langs fengit mour bloai leifum Laufa leiksteerir morgum manni - myrkvan leifum vestr pott Laufa vera-r morgum leiksteerir feeri xxx xxx Utt lata tandvorer Meia-r mogum morstelns Utt kv'08'u lata Meia-r eea-ri landvora-r Horsa morstelns fleina litt leiki litvondr mer minnar mogr reekik lltt pott leiki brask systur litvondr fitjar mogr fogru lofs Iysa Ijosgara- mest mfnar - ma3vorum es Iysa xxx xxx Ijosgara- bara-a - ma3vorum seevar Iyngva lengi tatr mildra manna rnareitar Iyngva mens lengi skalk mildra latr atti mareltar leita t.'oturn langra loqsota moa-r rnorqlnbrasar rnor L'oturn nota moa-r rnorqlnbrasar logsota vertoturn m'or b'oru 198 AIliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme FUll-rhyme Full-rhyme Njorar norsarr naddregns oss's 6gnar 6ttalaust Samira NjorB'r norsarr oss's hvessi naddregns pegni 6ttalaust d6ttur Nj6ts nyturn Norsmanna 6stirfinn arfa Eirfks Nj6ts at nYtum pas 6stirfinn arfa Noramanna ranna Eiriks geira oddviti oddum Eyvindar rekr Rakna rymleia oddviti oddum rekr Rakna Eyvindar skreyju rymleia breiaan 6fa:!linn Ala eidraugs runar rfsta - rafJa 6fa:!linn klauf Ala xxx xxx eldrauqs hauga xxx xxx 6folgin ylgjar endr (oa ramrar rik 6folgin ylgjar (oa eru ramrar pj6aar endr hendi rlk f Hki opt arnar ora samtogi sversa svartbrunurn opt kjapta xxx xxx ora Horaa svartbninum hjarta 6r Ekkils eykrfar sex seevask sutlaust Drekkum Ekkils Her hafa peirs sesvask eykriar tifJum sutlaust uti oss aar aldr SiB seggr slikr oss vas aBr markaer SiB fooBask aldr skjoldu slikr riki 199 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Skyldak skerja skfarennandi telgiJu Ullkni tfu Skyldak skerja foldar telgiJu talkni skfarennandi sfuan xxx xxx Snyr Svolnis sva trur tyggja tveim Snyr v'oru trur dyrum inn Finnar skjoldum aldri solspennl svinnan sigrminnigr Ullar allan aldr solspenni svinnan Ullar kjals allan sigrminnigr finna aldr skoldurn sonr svikvinn svik Ullr of alia imunlauks mik hefr sonr of svikvinn Ullr alia svik f pvf kvikvan imunlauks hauka sonr Syrar sannreynis ut of Ekkils Jalks Heyri Syrar ut brautir sannreynis fentanna rncerar toera spapernurn sporna spormjoiJruaum valgrindar vinda veiJrheyjandi spapernurn sporna valgrindar vinda sporfJ'fjoiJruiJum norsan veiJrheyjandi Skreyju svan sveita sara valjariJar vereum veljandi Ut sveita valjariJar veriJum porns mornar veljandi selja svlp-njorsunqar svereurn sartelns Vals v'ofur vatallr svip-njoraungar sversum Vals hefk v'ofur helsis sartelns brustelnurn vatallr skalla 200 Alliteration Alliterati0 n Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme vant vilda veg pegn pagnar plnn heldr vant en vilda hyggi pegn pagnar veg segja plnn mfna varmt viraa valdogg peygi penna pykkjask varmt viraa munt penna valdogg hoggvit pykkjask drykkju veg vappa vftt pung pessar plnn grepp vappa pung gongu vftt hlita pinn minni vel vatna viggriaandi pursa pvlsa plnn rnam vatna pursa tys tra pvlsa viggriaandi biaa plnn g6aan finna v'opn vildu vars pvi paqnar pegna kold vildu ver pagnar fundar skunda pegna fregnum Akkak erfinytja arfa Akkak erfinytja arfa parfan Arm6ai 038'ri ol8'ra Arm6ai 038'ri dregg skegggi pverra peirs pver8'u pingbirtingar pverra pelrs pver8'u pingbirtingar Ingva 201 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme 1001-1050: att sr oddrj6a- att prettum af at Ytar austr oddrj6a- hoddum af hOfa-u austr flausta atta 6tta endr atta 6tta allr orva Englands endr bendak Herr orva Englands pengil Aur arnar i1rj6a-r Aur spornueue arnar allra austan Alraa-r i1rj6a-r Svipj6a-u nyztr austan Alraa-r dvalm austr Elfi Ulfs Sjalfr Elfi alnar ymsum andnesjum mogr fogru gims ymsum andnesjum landi austr unnar Eirekr austr hesti aptr aa-f ari aueveltir Eirekr fleiri hverfkak ari aueveltlr rausan austranvindr at ondri andness austranvindr ondri ar eik en jarlad6ms andness pessa ar dyra jarlad6ms bl6mi aua-s eiga 6a-gjarn I'og eiga armgl6a-ar eyai efni 6a-gjarn bornum armgl6a-ar eyBi efni hefna Balagara-s barai brlmsklsum Balagara-s barai askr aska atjan brlmskfeurn sia-a askr aska atjan mana 202 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme bar bru6i blakkr bjork bolvl bands st6ak rneean bru6i alin bolvi blakkr sprakka bands standa baugs bar6ir borvar Bjorn Birni bl6l1gogl baugs I'ogu par Bjorn Birni borvar orva bl6l1gogl st6au bol1 borsusk boa-sky Bjorn Birni bauga horlt pars borausk Bjorn Birni bol1sky knyja Grund mundum bol1gjornum Bjarna beit Bjorn bratt bralJr boa-gjornum Bjarna Bjorn mornar beit teiti braftr raffl bekkjar bliknat bratt bl6augr Birni bral1gjarn nu bekkjar tre bliknat orn Birni bratt grati braa-gjarn hoful1svoraum berr Birni Baldr boo banna borg porns berr Birni sinn banna Baldr skjaldar borg sorgar Bit bora-a bc:effl brunt branda b16l1 gerau bora-a endr brunt branda bc:em klc:eaum b16l1 Nyjam6au bitr borva brandleikr byggs bitran brunns par borva byggs skeggja brandleikr saman randir brunns runnu 203 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme B'orut bcslar bogmenn einn oru auu-Hlin b'orut fleiri raus husl bogmenn tognum auu-HHn sfnum Ollungis allar atgeir Einramt auan Ulfkell Ollungis allar Einramt aUan atgeir pelra Ulfkell skulfu ollungis ilia ek Eir aura armdags ollungis ilia Eir aura ek reiur gekk skeiuar armdags litfagra Orbeltr uti unnar Eir aura ung Orbeltr uti Eir aura viggs Iiggja ung tungu danskr dorrurn dreif Eius eru erfimeiur altbratt herr pars dorrum Eius eru erfimeisr dreif Aleifi allbratt fallnir Djarft drottlnn dolgstrangr eldskersir ormnn eggleiks neyttir drottinn eldskermr ormnn dolgstrangr langra eggleiks tveggja Efna Yggjar ek em ek ut a eyri alvangs hygg Yggjar nu a eyri heitit feita alvangs ganga Eigi augu undskfus enn eggja almsvells Eigi augu enn sennu undsklss sfuan almsvells fellu gregna 204 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme enn elli rvegstafi fjor f6tum far enn minni sitt 'cttu f6tum fvegstafi segja far sara enn es onnur Aleifr flj6t Frfm fjargvefjar vas enn es onnur reiB' Frfai Aleifr t'olusk fjargvefjar margan enn orkn of ar Fold flaum fl6B'hyrs hofurnk skemB'an Fold skaldi nemr flaum ar sari xxx xxx enn undan allvaldr Freyr fari fregn enn undan runnu tar Freyr fari allvaldr gjalda aueskata dauB'an er jarli oddfeimu fullar fjollum flj6ts er jarli fullar fjollum oddfeimu pelrna flj6ts pj6ta erlendis undan Alfifu Gangs g6ma gl6flytir erlendis undan Gangs sennu Alfffu drffa gl6flYtir nyta eyk en ein jarl garavita germ grundar eyk en ein scektr garavita germ jarl snarlig grundar stundu Finnlendinga fundi fylkis gogn gunni gekk Finnlendinga fundi en gunni niB's priB'ja gekk rekkum 205 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Gefn garm g6B1'ot go iii Galla grj6tolnis keyrm or garm go iii Galla g6B1'ot sl6O'ar grj6tolnis skall tolna gekk golf Gramr goO' greppi gort gekk drekka happs greppi Gramr hamrar gort hjorvi glaums grfmu gjarn gram Gunnar galdrs glaums grfmu Enn Gunnar gjarn siO'arla arna galdrs valda gny geira Go8brands grams gumna gunnbraO's tveir geira grams c:att IYtr gumna Go8brands handan gunnbraO's aO'alra6i gny gerva geirs gronum gripa gl6pr herr verva gronum vanr geirs meiri gl6pr hr6pi gny Gunnar glaB'r Grj6tvarar gcetir gunnborvs unnum Gunnar G~6tvarar gcetir glaB'r JaO'ri gunnborvs norsan gny-hvitinga grj6ti geirporps grooUis gl6va gramr gny-hvitinga grj6ti grooUis gl6va geirporps orpit gramr skommu gny-NjorB'u germ geira gumnar gorva geirhrfa- gny-NjorB'u germ hvar gorva stfgs vigi geirhriv meiri 206 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme hafa hola-ar herBimann herd hildar hrfa- vildu hola-ar hord hildar gara-a herBimann gera-um hria- bia-a hafskips huta hum Hoa-r hvfti hlorpeys dreif hafskips hufa Iitt hvfti hum rumurn hjcrpeys meyjar hair hvfti hrafn hefk hlj6tondum heitit hjarls Utt hvfti hlj6tondum heitit etr getnum hjarls jarla hann hefr hovar harr hefnar horvi hlya-a hefr hovar hefnar drifna horvt harr sa b'orur hlya-a pya-ask harsta hira-ar hvert heia-r Hildar hjalms harsta hira-ar heia-r vea-ri , hvert misseri vissu orr sara has'vorum hyrjar hria-mundaBi Heia-s hlj6ai hronn haa-vorum hyrjar HeWs hlj6Bi hrfa-mundaBi pundar hronn argspaaing margan hofn hafna hlyn Helga hendi harar hofn hafna kend hendi xxx xxx harsr megin-Njora-u hoggvinn hylja heiBi Helga hl03gir hug valr hylja vigs hl03gir heiBi breia-a minn inni 207 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Helgi hrorvi hjorr hjor-M6ai hrra-ar hera-andi xxx xxx hjor-M6ai hrra-ar gall valfalli hera-andi sverea her horau hringpollr hjorborgar hvergi Hlokk her skera-andi horeu hjorborgar hvergi hringpollr Dinga Hlokk dokkvar herr hafi hola-s hagvirki hjors heiai hrra- herr svarra aa-r heiai hagvirki fagra hrra- kniau herr harri hraustr hlenna hneigir hjolmum herr per harri vrg hneigir hraustr austan grimt fimta hildar hjarra hrael03kjar hlj6mr's hjorva Hallgrfmr barran hjarra hlj6mr's hjorva hrae lcekjar scekja Hallgrimr tima hinn's heiai hugpl)Iai HI6gu hiraidraugar hilt hinn's sunnan HI6gu hiraidraugar hugpl)Iai fl)lai hlit pvi mil hitt heeru hoddstrlsandi hl6au hira-menn hunskrlpt meir seumk hesru hl6au pruair . hocdstrtaanol biait nunskript Sigtunum hitt heitik herr hlyr hari hrra- vita hitt heitik hlyr fyr hari herr verra hrra- kinnlimasrau 208 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme hnakk Helgu haus hrfu hjorva Hrefn hnakk skalk Helgu lokka gervandi hjorva haus lausan xxx xxx hne hjalms hjalla Hvftings hugr hjona hverr pollr hjalms hjalla Sextan hjona Hvrtings Htlu hverr pverrl hcegr Helga Hrafns Hvat halda helrnarfkr hcegr fagra skyldir halda Hrafns nafni helrnarfkr sllku hcegt hcegu hljou Hvert hrafnar hart hcegt hcegu stefniu hrafnar veiti sveitir hart svarta hresmana h'onurn hildar hvlkrnala hcelir hveimleia-r hresrnana h'onurn ok hvlkrnala hcelir bores morBi hveimleiiJr breiean hreastorsar harsan hjor Hykk hundraa-s-flokki Haralds hresstorsar harean Hykk hundrass-flokkt hjor borvar broiJurson st08'u hrafn hvassast hungrbann iiJrask ef ya-rum elda vissi hvassast iUrask ya-rum hungrbann manna floa-s sj6ai hrafn h'oeum hjaldr laetr Ha-a Iinns br'oa- hoeum eyuandi Ha-a hjaldr skjoldu Iinns kindar 209 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme lands Iysi-Gunnar Htil 16ks Ij6sum Ijufs lands Iysi-Gunnar 16ks rneski litil Uta Ijufs kljufa lautsikjar lekurn Iyngs 1'0 leysti leia- lautsikjar lekum austr leysti Iyngs yngri leia- skeia-ar Leifa Laufa laungogl mestr m6ti m6trunnr Leifa Laufa rnestr m6ti laungogl Beruhrauni m6trunnr spj6ta lind landi landrifs manna mora; mitt lind landi jori1 mara; landrifs handan ran h'onurn lind laufi Hnu-jori1 rnanplnqa muneut merkjendr lind hefr bundit laufi rnanpmqa rnunsut Hnu-jori1 Gori1u m merkjendr serkjar IItt leiki lett margs manna minni Rookik pott litt leiki kank en manna lett pettan minni sinni Ij6st leita landnorsr morg margin malmflaug matar leita her vara- morg margin landnorsr Klifsandi malmflaug Gunnlaugi 16gstafa I'ogu lau8hyrs Mork mundangs-sterkum manni 16gstafa I'ogu Mork mundangs-sterkum lausnyrs dauea manni ranna 210 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme rnork myrkvir mimegg minnisk mistar mots rnork myrkvir traust mistar mimegg tveggja mots botlr menn minna minn Mjok Magnus mannr pann menn minna Mjok rekka jafnoka Hrafni mannr annan menryri minni malgroar rnorevansan myndak meins pvi rnenryrl minni rnorevanean myndak malgroar stala meins beini mer miorar munat rnotstaflr Meita myni mer mjorar at motstatir Meita prlotr njota enn nenna mest rn'ottu menn Maar mitt mjuk neyttu m'ottu Maar leiaa menn sennu mjuk slukrar Meaalraa Mom malma nafn n0kkvi naerstunqa Meaalraa Mom feksk n0kkvi malma galdrs halda naarstunga ungum mik mali mest neytr nytlr naarbings mik sykvinn neytr sa nYtir mest fresti naarbings asra mikit Moaa merki nu nakkvaat nadda strfa Moaa Reka nu nakkveet merki verkjum rogs gnagu 211 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme odda f eyddri Eysyslu orrostur austan 6gnvaldr odda eyddri orrostur austan Eysyslu heyja ognvaldr talvar cestr austan ulfs oru at eigi jafnroskr cestr austan oru vervak fot sota jafnroskr Hrafni of und eggjar oustefnir oss ynais augfogr dyggr eggjar oss missa ovstefnir svefna augfogr haugi of aldr eyjar aurborss ott ordrif ilia xxx xxx ott latit aurborss foriJum ilia milli oflata ttran aUr ott Aleif allsaklausan oflata ltran ott Istu fljott grjoti allsaklausan falla olitill uti [otra pruiJum Portum portgreifar olftill uti mart Portum livs miUIi portgreifar Aleifi ormabes ermar odd-Gefnar randar rjova roomnn ormabes ermar skov rjova odd-Gefnar stefni rceemn foomr Ormstungu engi allr rausn ressls reiv Ormstungu engi pas rausn ressls allr sal fjalla reiv skeleurn 212 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme remmitungls rongum randalfr ser sil1an sCEmeil1r remmitungls rongum pjol1 sil1an randalfr kalfi sCEmeil1r reiai rett rammar rul1r sigr sunnan snjallr xxx xxx Minn sunnan cps skopu snjallr spjalli iYgr rogi runnr sigreynir senar sjalfr iYgr rogi sigreynir senar runnr Gunnr sjalfr gjalfri sa sveigir sara skarpa skoeru Skotborgar'0 sa sa sveigir nCEr skarpa skceru sara ari Skotborgar'0 gotna sanni svinnu siti skemra skyldi Sk'cnunqa sanni svinnu aldr skyldi hann manna Sk'onunga h'onum sok sanna sverl1 Skotit skeptiflettum skjott pann sanna Skotit skeptiflettum sverl1 verl1a skjott splotl seims SCErB'um sunnr sliks sll1an sveres seims Gumi blB'um sil1an sunnr unninn sverss verai Senn svanni sextan slikt snusar sveigar Senn svani ral1 snusar sextan fexti sveigar eita 213 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme slierhugaer siean satt striBbendi standi stalgaldrs slierhugaer siean striBbendi standi satt matti stalgaldrs valda snarr seima sarvcnd striBir stokk st6rgefJr snarr pverrl striBir bUBum sarvond standa st6rgeer 6ru snarr snerru segg sundliri sara svangr snarr snerru sundliri sara segg eggjar svangr Hanga sn6t snerrtlata slapp sundr sHeri SU8'rvik sn6t snerrllata frier slil1ri slapp Hitdcelakappa Suarvik kueri sn6t sva seg suer sufJir segl sn6t sva lati sultr gnauBuBu suBir seg bregfJi hynd ryndu sonr sonnu snjallr sva siean snceridorr minn sonr sonnu sva siean snjallr fallinn snoeridcrr skceru sorg saurgum selrnpollr svanrneerrar svffJa svort sorg saurgum nu's svfea seirnpollr kollu augu bauga stals stri8'ri strong Sveinn siean sannraetnn Hrie strf8'ri flcefJi Svein en slean strong gongu sannraeinn tra lafJi 214 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Sveinn sverja sinar ut enn unga jofra par sverja par Langr enn unga sinar skrini kund sundi s'ousk sversa song Va3gait vendi vea-r pelr sversa va3gBit sveigaum song ganga ott drottinn tolf tvistir tars Va3n verst vin-Getn Hvestum tvistir Va3n launa tars v'oru vin-Getn plnurn Ulfr ennikjalfa egg Vandfcerra varrar varbliks Ulfr ennikjalta Vandfcerra varrar egg leggi varbliks miklu ungr Englum otrau8r veggjar vita viggs ungr konungr Englum xxx xxx otrauer rausar viggs priggja unBi otal Ellu veitk ver vel's unBi Vina-a veitk hljota Ellu fella fallit allir upp or eisu innar Veitk viga Vinaum xxx xxx Veitk mcetir innar kvinna hattr atta , urfresninqar orurn endr vel varBisk vinnask , urfreeninqar orum dyra- varBisk endr rendu vinnask sinna 215 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme vel vissak vapna Aleifs eiaum att hressan vissak reu eiaum Njoru jorau att sattlr ver vapna varu lit allvaldr ekin ver skurir lit rett skj6ta varu harua ekin snekkju vig virua viar pann prrendi preyta bougeruar virua mundit pann prrendi viur priUja preyta skeytum vik vandlangt Visundr pat pj6Uir pegns vik eiki pat vitt kn'ottu hneigUi sveiguan xxx xxx vitt Vini3'a varu pottut pattak perkels vitt fl6tti pottut pattak varu pars barsisk perkels dvelja viu vilja valklifs prit0gt prautar pann pann myndak prit0gt prautar valklifs Iifuak tiu skriua vorur virki veraungar pvlt poettl pogn styrkr vorsr virki pvit pcetti betri veraungar gerai pogn Hogna Aleifs austan elfdr Vast austan efldr skeflua 216 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme 1051-1100: bragna brynjur bua1ungs bragna gognum aldrigi aldins 6tams bua1ungs sungu aldrigi aldins 6tams hramma brj6st bifmsk boesnart Hafmt bifmsk allr oflgum Olatr boesnart bjarta allr stilli Olafr s61u oflgar aldir aa-r vildut aldir ar ungan 6far aB'r vaa-a drengr ungan 6far Morukara 011 Ega-a eggdjarfra 011 stillir attbogi ylgjar 6g6B'r eggdjarfra seggja Svalg ylgjar 6g6a-r bl6m En of England oflugr en England sunnan Austr Engla 6tvlnn herr berjask Austr prYstir 6tvlnn sfnu enn eptir ifIaust enn renni aB'r an oa1ingr ausr iflaust IifB'u aB'r an oa1ingr flcsm aua-r dauB'ri tars-Kostr flj6ta flj6tmaalts hlaut at flj6ta benja bragna b16a- flj6tmaalts vinar J6ta regn benja bragna b16a- 6ffiJ Fell fundi framm Fell stellis borB'vigg breia-an brims-gang 68'u m6B'u tr'oeu breia-an brims-gang langra 217 Alliteratio n Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Fila flotta framr grams galgi gagnprYfianda dr6ttinn flotta dolgum galgi framr ramri gagnprYfianda hlyfia fogr fyrfiar fjolg6iJr grj6t Gauta gl6iJ sverfi fyrfiar fl6 grj6t a Gauta fjolg6iJr bl6Bi heitr sveiti f6r fylka fundusk grceair grcenn grandauknum f6r dyran grceBir raueurn fundusk stundu grandauknum blandinn framm fyrfia fyrr haf heitir Hrafnseyrr xxx xxx skaut heitir fyrr dyrri Hrafnseyrr stafni frana Fj6ni Fj6nbyggva hariJr hjalma hugi trana a Fj6ni malmr hjalma Fj6nbyggva tyggi minn sinni Fylkir flj6tu flaust Has helgan heimtjalds let flj6tu Has rffisi flaust hausti heimtjalds palma Gagn gjafvinr gekk heit heina hyrr Gagn Sygna dvlnusu heina hildr vildra hyrr kyrra glaiJr goiii geirjalm herr hestti hliftrauiJr glaiJr roenurn s6tti herr pars ha3tti geirjalm hjalmi hlfftraufir Iifi 218 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme herr heBra hringlestir jorn a Englum eirlaust glaar heBra pung Englum hringlestir vestan eirlaust meira hinn's hal hreinskjaldaar jora eigi auasott hinn's rnonnum jora verea hrelnslqaldaer aldri auasott drotnns Hlalm'oru heyra hitzi lif lata laus Hlalm'oru heyra spjot at lata hitzi Nizi laus hausum hlaut hafs Halland mannky minnum morgun hlaut utan mannkyn minnum Halland branda morgun borgar hlaut Hallands hratnpartr morg moau menn hlaut til Hallands slqota pjoa moau hratnpartr stafni druknueu suknir Hraua hvergi heiamildr mer mala minni Hraua fl0381 deilask til mala heiamildr skeilJir minni sinni iatt yngvi Upplendinga naar norsan nys Gengr estt pats yngvi naer bore skriau norean Upplendinga brendi nys fYsi jarlar undan air oiii ofrausn orma dunau undan oiii stillis eir pelra xxx xxx 219 Allite ration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme FUll-rhyme Full-rhyme ressls reiBi ronn stals strongu striBir pjou reiBi stals eli ronn manna xxx xxx Rauu ryrt rann storan styri Straum Rauu ryrt varu siuan storan styri rann manna Straum Rauma rau Rauma reiur sund slnu soknorr EymBit nau viu Rauma sund slnu landi reiur meiBir soknorr dorrurn (os roskum Riklundaur Sveinn snekkju saklaust (os roskum visa Gekkat snekkju Riklundaur undir saklaust forhrausti s~r suBir Sik tyggi tyrfings tvesr oUr suBir tyggi eggjar Sik miklu tv~r v~ri sas sinni sask Ungr Usu allnear a ~vi xxx xxx sask haska allneer falla skjaldborg skutar skaut Uppgongu yngvi itr raufsk skutar Uppgongu yngvi hoddqlotusr oddum itr litinn songherftondum sversa Sik viggs vapna varerunar songherftondum sversa viggs glyggvi Sik rneski varsrunar spara 220 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme FUll-rhyme visi vel valfall 1101-1150: visi U su valfall snjallan a urpu endr snorp urpu vitt vollu vargr endr lendir Fellu vollu allvaldr Ega-a aim vargr par bjargask sveigffi Ega-a Olafr uti oslesklnn aim hjalma Veitk Olafr uti oslesklnn ma3ki ara3ffi aaan Eysteins ara3ffi aaan palm panqatkvarna pengils Eysteins treystask pelm mun panqatkvarna einkar pengils lengi austrveg allan stilHr allan pj6a paiJra pusundurn tiar ma3raar-blfffi pj6a paiJra n'oau pusundurn torfusa auffi allvaldr ftrir auffi pruaan itrir sllta boravia breiaan br6air hlyau boravia breiaan br6air 6au broddr brynjur bragningr Dunffi brynjur bragningr magni Eiriks old at engi Eiriks veriJr heyra engi pengil 221 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Elfi austar allvaldr heldr holaum haglig Hraustr austar heldr holaum allvaldr gjalla haglig Agli Fjarri fmBisk flotna hinn hans heiaar-manns Fjarri dyrri hinn engr hans kunnit flotna botni heiaar-manns reiiJa FmBir fremaar-raiJa folar hlyrum hola helmings FmBir fremaar-raiJa hlyrum b'oru vorsu Garaa oddr broddi gauzkr gulri gras hronn hlyr hugprliiJr bolr gulri hronn en stinnu gras prasi hugpruiJr snuaat hagl hringa hne h'ova hverr hrlnqvarpasar strengs hringa h'ova leyfir cevi fera verea hringvarpaiJar kringaum Harra hroarg0 riJ hauklundasan malmsceklr mceki Magnus Harra hroargora dyrri rnalrnsoeklr mceki hauklundasan grundar Magnus gognum hatt hjorr hneit menn rnorsnauks mein hatt sottl menn brynni egg seggja mein steini Horsa harBi hjarl Rcesir roenum Rlnar Horsa harm Rcesir hausi hjarl jarli Rlnar skfna 222 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme sfnar sveitir saman 1151-1200: Vftt dro sfnar sveitir afreksorsa storhugad'r p6rir Eysteinn Heyr afreksorsa sfa-an svikfolks snelli Eysteinn beinna sfa-an eymr ag~tan ftrum kendr lenda Olafi ag~tan ftrum Uppgongu yngvi ftr Olafi solar Uppgongu yngvi Itr Iftinn allri folium ottlaust allri folium Var Vina-a veglig 6ttlaust dr6ttins Var ,yrir Ails engi Inga flaust austan undir engi Inga vara- vfg vellmildr undir grundu vara- pars herjar ~stir vellmildr fellu alt O lafr hraustr ~stir Vestr varga vann O lafr af s61ar Vestr mistir vann bannat alt essnr O latr hraustr ~stir vitr vollu valskan O latr af s61ar stillir vollu brand randir alt esstlr O tatr hraustr ~stir Yngvi ora-stir jofra Olafr af s61ar Yngvi langan alt ~stir sess pessi O lafr hraustr ~stu Olafr af s61ar 223 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme alt astir Olafr aar oraa afskurar hraustr astir aar hlyau (\_16fr...... af solar afskurar hafm alt astir Olafr aar Olafr alkcens hraustr astir aar tfau olafr af solar alkcens bcenir alt ~stir Olafr aar an upp or ulfs hraustr astir aar vfau Olafr solar nistanda kistu alt ok orvir ulfr bel brigau branddrif par fell alt orvir drygau brigau raus daueurn branddrff Iifi aua a urga aim boa bita brynsting Morg urga I~tr bita aim hjalma brynsting Erlingi ausar aumum ungs bOOvar betri brcear ausar beim hvatr betri ungs tungu brcear Q3fJri auafinnondum annars omjos bjartr beilJir baugskjaldar aUafinnondum annars Namt beilJir omjos ljosi baugskjaldar aldri auaur es Ytar jofurs bjartr bjartri berask nlotar ytar sa bjartr tra bjartri [ofurs hofau mannr skyrannl 224 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme FUll-rhyme blindr byrjak blla- drott doglings draum par blindr en byrjak drott rnytr rnattar blla- sla-ar draum Rauma bratt barBisk broddrjoa-r Drott dyran doglings GerB'usk pars baretsk Drott po sveita broddrjoa-r pjoa-ar rfks Hki broBir breia-ar brandeis dyrr drottinn daa-milds broBir minn und breia-ar dyrr let drottlnn harra brandeis randir daa-milds laBi brua-r brauBi brennheitu Dyra- drottins dragisk brua-r brauBi Dyra- Iffitr drottlns Horsa brennheitu leita mrera- hrcersa old at orti Ottarr dyra-ar drottinn daB'vandr spurt orti Veitti drottlnn ottarr drottar daB'vandr anda Old opt enn unnar Eins oiJok allarasanda ens Old mildi Eins bcenir bliks miklum allarasanoa snjalla Old Otafs ora-gnottar elfr unda eltrkold Old Olafs gilda elfr gjalfri oi6'gn6ttar drottin eitrkold heitu doglings dyra-ar daqbols englum 0fri oiJlinga hira- dyra-ar lofaa-r 0fri daqbols stoli oB'linga pingat 225 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme es ag~t ormn eljunhress fr~git fylkis folksterks dyrit ormn fr~git Egita eljunhress pessu folksterks verki es ag~t ormn oBlings fremitar fasta fimm Dyrit ormn Iystr fasta rlks sHku nestr streetls far fremri tcezk fullhugaitr felli folkvaldr gramr fremri am fullhugaitr felli frezk grezku folkvaldr skjalda tornuer fyrnask fjolgour fylgja foldar framlundum tornuer vas fyrnask valdr fylgja foldar fjolgoitr blom framlundum gram mundu FOB'ur fultings trernsar gofgan geisla goits FOB'ur skulu fultings biitoja xxx xxx pjoit goita hallar allii flagits felstan fyldan gofugt geisli gunnoflugr hest felstan [os geisli fyldan an skyldi gunnoflugr miskunnar folk flotta tron getr goita goits hrestt flotta frour goita egg leggja prenning kenna fr~gr flreitar tcrnusr glait Geitis gor's stoit flreuar Sa8\< sveit glait Geitis tornuer stiornu gor's iitfor tfB'um 226 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme gnogt gygjar glaum Greitt gumnum gous gnogt gygjar Greitt letta glaum straumi riuari striiTum gaus gyl8ir gnott Greitt gumnum gous elms gyl8ir Greitt letta gnott drotttr riuari striiTum Greitt gumnum gous grjon gr'onu grjati Greitt letta grj6n g(onu riuari striiTum grjoti snotar Greitt gumnum gous grund grreais gremnga Greitt letta aur grreais riuari striiTum gremnga flre8i Greitt gumnum g08'S Gutthormr gerva grams Greitt letta her Gutthormr gerva riuari stiiBum hroar roiTu Greitt gumnum g08'S Gutthormr grundar gat Greitt letta Reyndi grundar riuari striiTum rett slettan Greitt gumnum g08'S haastr holiTum himins Greitt letta skjoldungr holiTum riuari striiTum vistar kristni Greitt gumnum g08'S h~u hvilir heilagr Greitt Ietta stols hvilir ria-ari strieurn heilagr fagran 227 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme hagliga hugBisk hrakkvlsslss heims heimi heims hagliga hugBisk heims heimi hmkkviseifJ's dekkva heims pelma hann haastri holl heims hvassan hvatir Krists hesstrt pessa hvassan hoI! allir hvatir skatnar hann heifJ'a hrfabl'osnum heiptar hjaldri harfJ'r pjofJ' hann und heifJ'a mildr hjaldri hriabJ'osnum vifJ'a fundu grundar hann hv'oru honurn helgum hetu hofusskold po hv'oru Iytk hetu tjo8i mofJ'ur hofufJ'skold jofri hans hrosa Horsa her hann h'ott rausn hrosa her hann en byrja Horsa jorfJ'u kvaa8i baaBi hefir haldin h'otifJ' hildingi hollJa harfJ'gefJ'r Mildings haldin hildingi hollJa n'otflJ sifJ'an harlJgefJ'r Ari kvefJ'ju hefjum hrofJ'r hygg hitt harra haulJrtjalda hefjum leyfa fyrr vas es harra hygg tyggja hausrtialda daufJ'a heim hjolp harrnskersanda hjalms homi hufJ' heim aumum letulJ hjalms at holmi harmskersanda ferfJ'um xxx xxx 228 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Hlyrsk6gsheim haratengr lnnprcendurn undir almreyrs am- Hlyrsk6gsheifJi lnnproendurn undir har8fengr barfJisk almreyrs deyra hodda heitir Hliu ltr oUlingr ails brj6t heitir itr letri Hliu sfuar grreuari freuask Horn hoffJi hvitings itr O lafr alstyrkan Gofug Horn 6r hoffJi ltr heitir hvftings 1ftIa alstyrkan dyrka hrings heyra hans jarplitaus 'otu arnar hrings drengir Let [arplitass 'otu xxx xxx j6a-s g6fJi hug hreinu h'os jaruar allra 6naufJigr v'on glem- mea- hreinu jaruar fyra-a batnaear vatni 6naumgr daua-a h'or hlyri hagnaa-r lofra ceztrar allsrasanda h'or pvi hlyri baztr osztrar hagnam- gagni allsrasanda hallar Ongulseyjar undreyr [ofurs alia ungs i Ongulseyjar snilli alia undreyr sundi ungs tungu ifIaust efla ossa J6an allrar alpya-u iflaust efla kollurn allrar v'on h'onurn alpyfJ'u hlya-a 229 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Kristr krapti kunn Iyngs lopt latrs Kristr hesstum Iyngs ganga kunn surma stria-andi sia-an Krists kirkju konungs ma3ra- mesttak rnanndyrslr mark kirkju drott mesttak nilJr mia-ri manndyriJir vanda langvia-ris lengi Iifi ma3ra- miklu mattigt langvia-ris lengi ma3ra- varsar pair meiri rnattiqt attar let landfolks Iiknframr ma3ra- mildings mest let ga3tir ma3ra- Horsa Iiknframr himinriki mest fiesta leyndi lofaungr lia-gegn Magnus mora; malsnjaur leyndi lofaungr proonda vara- moriJi lia-gegn snara pegna rnalsnjallr falla lim leysta utrauss Mal maa-r margfria-r Krists leysta Mal hvilir litrauss naueurn margfria-r sia-an lia- lestir linns Margr maa-r marblakks Vist lestir Margr dreyrgu linns minna marblakks saxi Ijes Iiki logskia-s menn minnum meir Ijes visa menn minnum IOgskia-s sia-an meir pelra 230 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme menn m'ol mfn ofkugi [ofra allvaldr menn nemisem innik ofkugi [ofra mfn skfna allvaldr falla mer -mestu maltol okkat amir ungr nYtask -mestu rum arnlr rnaltol skini s61ar ungr sprungu mildr moldu meginfjoliJi oss at 6iJg0riJ ftrgeiJs veitkat mildr moldu oss bessl meginfjolai holiJa itrgeiJs kveiJja mooair mart Maqnuss oss at 0 tats almilds mooair alaiJi oss messu Magnuss bragnar almilds vildi M6iJr margar munnrj6iJr oss innan Olvishauq M6iJr margar daiJir hann speni innan munnrj6iJr kunnar Olvishaug bolvi munn rnalmptnqs Magnus 6iJ Inga yiJvarrar munn malmplnqs kennir drengr berrfyr Inga Magnus fagna yavarrar styiJja m'ol monnum mattigs raun rett ranni sanna monnum raun einu rnattlqs vattar ranni tremsar-rnanna osztr efnask oss rea- ressls rlkr osztr prifnuiJr reiJ efnask reiJ dauai oss krossi rlkr slfkum 231 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme rym rftar ,yr satt's Sygna sa3rendr sveit rttar satt's at drottln ,yr dyrum sesrendr kesran sa sotti sruan ser sendis samdcegris Frett at sottt ond sendis sruan strruar samdcegris framal sa synaum sik sigr slnurn snjallr vanat synaum Raun's sfnum sik miklar snjallr spjalli sagt svanni sunnr Sigurur sm~ggum soknstsrkr Menn svanni SiguriJr hygg sm~ggum sunnr Sk'onunqum kunnir soknsterkr ferverka sannspurt sunnan snjalls Sigvatr segal soknbraus sannspurt sunnan Sigvatr at segUi snjalls alia soknbrass daair satt segai snjallri sinn sigri soknpyur Fegit satt at segUi dag sigri feru beralsk soknpyur PrYuask satt siklingr srn sfnum sekkvir solar satt at bceti Gekk sakkvir mein einum straums drauma Satt's silfri skreytta seggjum Sfuar solar setrs satt's at skreytta heilagsbra solar holls goiii setrs betra 232 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Sj6n seggr su tolf trua; tirbraa-r Sj6n hreinu Reit trua; dyrit fyritum t1rbraa-r it laai sj6nbrautir sinar seggjum ToIf tynir tandrauss sj6nbrautir sinar rn'onasr tynir kunns brunni tandrauss sandi snaka slanqvl slungins umbgeypnandi opnask ails vangs slrangvi umbgeypnandi opnask slungins tungu ails snjollurn stiga standa styrjar upp einum alpyit stiga fagran reis sus fimr himna alpyit hlya;r st'ot striitri stafnbl6i1ug Upp engla iitvandr rauit striitri Upp rann engla skepnu stafnbl6i1ug m6i1u iitvandr pria-ja syndi salvorsr sin upp una; ausar syndl grundar Som yna; sin skina ausar hauitri synt sumri snarfingr Vakit vig vi8lendr Endr synt Vakit freak Stiklar- snarfingr Erlingi viB1endr sia-an teitr togning? tveir val vildra vallrj6itanda teitr vea-ri aldri val vildra tveir pelra vallrj6itanda allra 233 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme vann visi vas 'orr Olafs arms , Fuss visi orr dreyra mestr flestar landa blandinn vas visi vea-rs preklynds prrendir pegnprYB'is Ijos vas visi preklynds prrendir kallaB'isk hallar pegnprYB'is hlya-a ver vorum valaust petr pengils pvl's ver v'crurn pelr Mrera valaust mali syst Iystan verkum visa vigdjarfs pik pelra preksterkr hrosak visa meir hak pfk pelra vigdjarfs arfa prekstsrkr verka vif vargar vinB'versk pjoa- pengill prta sarg vargar pjoa- muna pengill bfa-a vinB'versk ginB'u vetr betra viggara-s varsat vea-reggjandi pjoa-- pengill pvilikr viggara-s varsat pjoa-- freB'isk veB'reggjandi beggja pvilfkr rfki vitnis vatni varmt vitnis vatni varmt karmtar Yfirmanni unnin upp's Yfirmanni unnin mc:era- lc:erB'ra 234 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme 1201-1250: Old upp at ass Old felli 'Ira ~ttlandi austr gunnvita runni B'oru fra 'Ira ~ttlandi branda daatramir dauaa dlartmeslts daatramir dauaa am aEiai einni djarfm~lts skorungs artar am a Eiai nott drotttns Eigua apekt orsvltr Eigua m~gi iltok Jossppr am oravltr for8'um am beia slaan Joseppr halfjosum Eisandi undan um Eisandi undan Bannar byskup berr uar suari Bannar monnum stria pVI vlaa eldskyndlr undan allsvangan eldskyndlr undan bolhnekkjandi blakki bias allsvangan ganga bolhnekkjandi blakki bias Tomasi enn annan enda enn annan beitt brattri Botolfr enda lendir beitt at brattri Botolfr fljotu es Ullr atollu eitrpvenqs Ullr ollu Boanar b'oru bo8it eitrpvengs fyrir-Ieitinn hrosrtk b'oru 015 Foiski eyfiraings orait allmargs par's eyfiraings orait enn Eyfiraingar old allmargs forsnjalli old deildum Eyfiraingar virda 235 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme for fyra-ar fceti gunnmava grennir geUhraustr for fyra-ar heyra gunnmava hni grennir fceti bceta geUhraustr trausti Fera- fleina framm Gua-mundr gorvask glikr Fera- rY rir Ara gorvask framm Glamma glikr riki fria-slit flotnum framm gua-s grei8ir geabjartr fria-slit flotnum r~a-r gua-s grei8ir framm Hvammi geBbjartr snoru hjarta Getk gekk ge8fastr hafnarmark hrefnis happsverk Getk at luta hafnarmark fyr hrefnis ge&fastr helgasta happsverk sterkan glatt grce8i grund hefr hrauabirkis hvarkl hlynr mea-r grce8i hrauBbirkis hvarkl grund bundu hlynr skynjar glaum gcea-a grams heipt hrafn herr Hall trausr gcea-a heipt herrfyr giptu herr Sverris Hall fallinn glymfjoturr Gizka gara- Heyrik Hrafni hyrteslendlr brast Gizka Heyrik fjara-ar gara- bar8i hyrt~lendir ameela glystr gegn Gua-mundr HIifB'u hamri hjaldrbora-s glystr flestu HlifB'u pcefa-ar Gua-mundr stundir hialdrborss forB'um 236 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme hodda hnykkir hringeygr kostr kallaar kyr Sekr gekk hnykkir iIIr kaIIaar hringeygr varpingi kyr Myrum helzti harsan Heljar kynnisk kappgirnu kyr veru harsan kynnisk manna Heljar velja kyr Myrum hraaaisk himna hann Iymsk lam Hnspong hraaaisk PrYai pj6us lam hann annat Hnspong atgongu Hrafn hitta hOggusarr Iyua laal lonqurn S6tti at hitta Iyua lam hoggusarr fari longum kirkju-gongur hregg himna heitbyr margr morgin m6trunnr hregg tyggi skerr margr morgin heitbyr veitti m6trunnr spj6ta Hvart hyggju-bjartir hneppr maar meiddr margr Hvart hyggju-bjartir maar eua oaru hneppr greppum margr bjargar Hvat's hVI heim mer rnastl m6teflandi Hvat's hVI sasta Letat maati sterkr verki m6teflandi spj6ta kl0kkr kjolr kemr mer's mart margrcett klakkr rakkan mer's mart heyrik hregg seggjum margrcett bceti 237 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme rnjott mer mitt okkr eyra erfingi mjott verar mer at hitta naar eyra hof SOBulpofa erfingi hofaingja Myndi mer mikit Rcekir raaki raa- Myndi mer fyr stundu Rcekir frak raaki mikit pikkja raa- daa-a nu nauair narnqjom saa sollin sua- sua- nu nauair fjoll sollin namgjorn stiornum sua- prua-ast nu nokkut nyligs saar suair Sandeyju rekkar nokkut aa-r suair nyligs GrY1u Sandeyju branda Nu nora-an nair sokrennir slna susr spureum ver nora-an sokrennir bjo slna hrafn af tafni drengiligr lengra ofelgrenni unnar eyrum segja slna selmhriosandi elgrenni unnar raun mun slna eyrum heyra selmhrloeandi goa-a ojofnua-r jafnan ilia Ser sigling suiIreysk ojofnua-r gefsk jafnan Ser a ora ilia stillir suereysk pua-ri ok af efnum ails ekki sjalfr systi snarr ok af efnum slfkum reisti systi ails falla snarr harra 238 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme sterkr stoeva stefna 1251-1300: sterkr merki stefna byskups-efni aldir yavart eirarsamt aldir dyrka yavart veldi stcerlr sterkar start eirarsamt peiri stcsrlr sterkar b'orur Allvaldr start Hvarti er ytar 6gnar-braiJs Allvaldr rett ytar heldu storma strfua stund 6gnar-braus lam Iyur sa strfua stund fundar at aldir odd at s6ttusk Sviur sinni sundr odd feruarbroddi xxx xxx sundr grundar aur en Aron undan aur flym und egg int undan fundi und kendu int mintusk bol brunnu bauga-Hlfn Enn mank brunnu Val vims viglundr bauga-Hlin mfnir n'oeurn vims viglundr Guumundi bergstj6ra b'oru blikstriuanda bergstj6ra b'oru vearlostinn vestan veggongr blikstriuanda siiJan aar vearlostinn vestan Rnrn veggongr seggir - -'';' b"'gnnuvarga bj6rstofnandi Borg brennuvarga pjou prottar pings bj6rstofnandi klofna pjou kl~iJum pings hringa bragnar bali brunnit bragnar slegnu brunnit runnu 239 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme FUll-rhyme Full-rhyme brjost brustu brandorpin eldr oldurn allbratt brlost brustu vara eldrfyr oldurn brandorpin skyranda allbratt natta buk bloiJugr brennumenn Elfi austan elris buk snei8bloiJugr rneeklr Gneistum austan brennumenn rennu garmr varma bukarls buBir birkisott Elfi utan auBit vi8a for bukarts buBir mastum helt utan blrklsott drottlr auBit dau8a otdum ofria unnviggs engi jafngo8r aldar oldum guldu8 engi hingat unnviggs Donurn sunnan aldar valdi om ulfa ognar-baru engi J6ta ottalauss sjalfri ulfa engi pengils ognar-baru hofu8 sara ottalauss drottln ort or undum esmu enn orva Eyjolfr brandr undum enn mun sennu bloBi pjo8ar Eyjolfr heyja Eigi jofra esnurn faldin fast fr~gra satueu hneitir faldin hildi eetturn s~ttir fr~gra malma~gis hjalmi eldi ~sikoldum unnar fer8 fl6tta fria-v'on eldi ~sikoldum !itt fl6tta unnar hlunni grana 240 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Fold fregna fagrleit hesrtr hittusk hermenn Fold skal aldri var heettr pars hittusk fa~trleit diguisveita hermenn tvennir For fremi3' tlelnrynr Halland herjat hiri3'menn For Uri storar herjat fteinryrlr styra plnlr slnu geirhrfi3' ga3i3'a getk havar hallir hrygi3'ar-stund geirhrfi3' ga3i3'a fellu hallir getk letjum hrygi3'ar-stund bygi3'um glai3'r Gondlar gnyskeri3'andi holdr hratt hringdrifs glai3'r munat Gondlar ro8la holdr skjoldu gnyskeri3'andi versa hringdrffs Iffi gulli gla3sta Gauta herr hirai hari3'r Austan gla3sta norer for herr hirai styrtr megindyrum hari3'r Eyjalfjari3'ar gunnmildum goldit Gissurr herskips hausum hrygi3'ar gunnmildum goldit Iysa hausum Gissurr vissa hrygi3'ar bygi3'um gyldir greypra grimmrar herm-Baldr hildi hjalmfaldinn gyldir holda herm-Baldr hildi pjoi3'ar meginblom hjalmfaldinn aldar Hasstan hiri3'menn heitan hiri3' Horsa hildingi Hesstan kyndu hiri3'menn traustir hiri3' Horsa eld Dana-veldi hildingi vegmildum 241 Alliterati0 n Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme hira-menn harBir herskips inni 011 at 6gnar-striiJr stira-ar hira-menn harBir mm brenna lengi stengr 6gnar-stria-r sia-u hjorva hesttlr hergara-a jarntaldinn aldar oddr Veitti hesttlr jarnfaldinn aldar hergara-a porvarBi oddr broddi hresddar Hallands hringa k6r6nu kristni kynpryddr ura-u ferBir k6r6nu styrir Baldr valdi kynpr-yddr skrydda hregg hafnak heldr leia-angr litill langa hregg muggu ytum pottlt litill heldr feldum stund grundu hrinda herskips hilmir leia-angr 1j6tan lunda Hrinda brondurn Gautar Ij6tan fr~gr ~gi lunda Mustrarsundi hringr hjorva haratengr Iia- Ij6ma logreitar hringrvar hjorva slenqvi eimr Ij6ma haraiengr drengjum logreitar heitum husum h~ri hallar rneastri mildi malrna sk~riligr h~ri voldugr mildi gandr landi skerBir fera-ar hverrar hornlu hilmis meia-um mistar minning Framla hornlu meia-um gl6a-a pj6a- fr6a-a minning sinna 242 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme mann merkjum rnatrna siuan seglum snarfengr Styrkir gengu menn und merkjum siuan hloi3'u lund grundu snarfengr drengir mer minni minn siuan suer seima kennir minni siuan suUr mea-la6i minn inni stiklir miklum mest mikla manns sja sutir sverss mest hreysti brjotr sja sutir manns kanna sverss vera; naua-a nyjar Nora-manna Sjau soofua sylg nauua suUir hygg liggja Norumanna fyribori3'um sylg ylgi oss Oddrenn alrnskur skjaldar skyri skoqarmanns oss hvassi Freyr skyri alrnskur hjalma skoqarmanns atgnogu ramri rikisvandar reiUivaldr Sonar sex sak grund rlkisvandar Sonar sex okeinum reiUivaldr haldit deiii heila RylTlgaaUir rjoua rikr stalastrfstr styrframr Rymgffi6ir nam rjoa-a aur stalastrlsr rikr brikar styrframr Valshamri seima sffimi3'um sina storlig streetl storsar seima pour sffimaum ollum yta stresti slna ptnurn storsar norean 243 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme svan seUja sars valnistendr vestan vigra glaair sei3'ja valnlstsndr vestan sars vara seii3's heii3'ar sveitar sri3'an s6knar Viljalmr vrgja varrbals prui3'ar nai3'u sri3'an Fra3gjan vrgja strangs land ganga varrbals karainali Syngja snarpir s6knar vra-a vegnir vfga-dr6tt Syngja drengir fellu poliar grfr drffu vrga-dr6tt 1f16tta tveir Uri tafns vii3'a viri3'a va3gi3'arlaust tveir tirl via-a tyndu vira-a kindir tafns hrafnar va3gi3'arlaust austan ut Itra J6ra-'on porgils pj6a-a prekbram ut Itra naai pj6i3'a J6ri3"on st6ran prekbrai3'r raa-a utboi3' a3rin yi3'rir pik porgils pingm6t st6rir a3rin pik sak vekja pegnar hegnir pingm6t sn6tar valgammr vapna varma plnar pj6air punnar sleit at m6ti vfi3'a pj6air braa- raai punnar fYrihlunnum valkastar vestan vea-rbliks plnar pj6air punnar valkastar vestan Snfa-a pj6air vembIiks milku punnar skreia-r und reiai 244 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme 1301-1350: harsan holkni harsa harsan oretnn allar upp elsku-fullrar jungfrU hara-a garm allar elsku-fullrar Maria tarum heilagr holca himinrfkis heilagr holda skyllr allir i1sku-fullir andar himinrlkis Hknar allir ilsku-fullir andar fjandi heilagt hann hnossir hlltar-kaann angr okorku auqna-restr vess hnossir hofuaverkjarins orku hlltar-kssnn vlrkta-baenir auqna-restr bestlr hoskur H6la-biskup hann arnar yB'rat emka hoskur oss H6la-biskup arnar leir fcera hann ervean purftar-manna xxx xxx Itarlig eralt yfirdrottningin blindir beggja b6t ftarlig su er rna veita blindir handa yfirdrottningin gotna b6t f6ta jara-ar er eykrok alia ek ar ora-a ekki jara-ar gr6a-r er eykrok ok fmmr stlrsa ar ora-a kind vinda ekki pekkjaz lata lymsku-flj6tir glmpa-full gjorvoII gangi leikun glmpa-full gjorvoll skrtpl lata lymsku-flj6tir braut prautir sin plnar GUB'mundr gua-doms grandleysis GUB'mundr gua-doms anda grandleysis andar 245 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme IIf leiau Ic:etr Sutaukinn salna scnqva-beskr dausurn aflaz Ilf vim leiau Sutaukinn bestlr Ic:etr rnestra songva-bc:ekr longum Iiggir lagt Iyaum Vendi voldugr vilda Iiggir lagt veggja Vendi andi virkr kirkju piggja tiggi lopts Ij6sa IIfs vlsur vii verkinn Rc:esi Ij6sa vlsur pc:er er ei hrosa styranda dyra verkinn erat kverkum oreurn erei eptirdc:emin Ytar af otlurn 'lsalands orsurn er fyraum ytar sveitum eptirdc:emin hepta 'Isalands prisa Rc:edda reglur raBin petta pvlat pat per Rc:edda Eddu petta pvlat pat vatturn raBin braltast Gultmundur fundit renni rett ramlig at renna rett at sonnu tar viltiltran sara Sc:ettu son s61ar Sc:ettu son pinn Itran pengils engla skuggsja skyra skrautvaxinnar Mc:era skyra skrautvaxinnar brautar 246 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme 1351-1399: astar-orsurn allsvaldanda hra3rftan astar-oreurn a3ptiaf otta 011 allsvaldanda gjalda pvfat natturan otta 011 skjalfandi sjaltr astvlnrinn Jesu er pessi astvlnrinn Jesu Kristf yfirbjoftandi lErua3 eptlrdesrnl vattr rnatti lEru a3 eptlrdesrni yfirbjoftandi landa augu ors at andir gra3mng hlyfta a3tla undan odesmln andir standa fjandr undan oda3min ka3mi auma Evam Eva fyrda3mdir auma Evam efunarlaust lEttim a Jesum mann bannat lEttin drottin efunarlaust trausti austr i offri ungan heim kvarnu af a3tti ek aldri ugglauss ungan mann pann {veg} hreldr sliku ek aldri ugglauss huggi Auftgint Eva at Auftgint pvfEva trum afspringi alt er a3vinliga bl6m soma afspringi fengi a3vinliga ga3fi a8r jafn ok a3rinn a8r po sfftan allar a3ttir a3ttin a3rinn va3ri bansettur a3ttir Krist nisti a8rek Evu esrusnaus aa-rek sveik pau Evu ba38i Almattigr allra yfirbj6ftandi esrusnaua dau8a Almattigr allra stetta yfirbjoftandi pj6fta 247 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme aaren alia joraok bl6m blta bannat aaren fengi p,.yBi sestast at bfta jora gjorBi bannat annat banna blta ba8'um borqar-murr brysti bygu eitt at blta borqar-rnurr hvergi ba8'um raua byga- dygaa batt bolvi bern boa-orBit bliUi byaur sjalfr hann einn pvlat batt bolvl boa-orBit eitt enn bliBi drottinn sin i plnu by8'ur hlya-a beriz bukrinn bia Breytti bra b16a- beriz fast hristiz Breytti hatti 6ttandi dr6ttin hold moldu berr bundinn bifaBiz bryndorn broddum brj6st tyndu er berrvart bundinn sviddu broddum hauer i plnurn dausa meett hatti bj6uaz bl6t byrgjaz buit bolvi baua- bj6aaz eiaar helviti bolvi uti rnutur baua dausa bjug bandi bandi byggir brj6sti blessus sar van per fyr skesru bandi fjanda mar hari blindri bli8'u blekkiz 011 jarnhlia undraz hraUiliga mea bli8'u 011 helvitis skjalfa blekkiz flekkun myrkr styrkra 248 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme ondin afJasu yfirvaldanda drottins d6mi dreifaz· ondin plndurn orsa-hrelmr era d6mi yfirvaldanda landa menn tvenna dag drottins dyra-ar-menn drukna drjugum dopr prettanda drottins augant6ku drukna drjugurn dyra-ar-rnenn styra-u moiJ tara-fl6m dauiJans dreggjar duldiz dumbum daufurn dausurn bruggandi dreggjar blindum hrjufum durnbum daufurn hann manna daueurn krorndum cerum lorndurn dauiJans druknan drepnir dyran drottin deila Reknir druknan cetlar sar dyran drottin menn brenna megni hversuer vegnar djofla diki dyriJ dyri drottinn dugir tceki diki attu drottinn dyriJ styrm feriJ verm d6m daua-a deyr ef efnia- eigi einfalt tva hrcea-umzek ok dausa deyja ef efniiJ eigi margr bjargar einfalt hreinum drag djofla drottinn eigi aliveI engill drag byga-um eigi allvel ncegja bliiJr siiJan engill fengit drottinn dikta duldr eigi orrnrenn agn eitthvatkl6kt drottinn dikta eigi mun nu enn bjugi duldr huldu agn fagna 249 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme eigi upp ur 6brunnit Engi engi jofn eigi pa skyjurn Engi heyrauz engi vursu 6brunnit grunni tfaindi siear eitt er erek a ek engier a oeru en eiHf eitt til pat vii vatta engi van en plnu a gratandi frammi naue dau8inn Ek at eni Ogratandi engill at ei jungfru rett at maatti engill ei muni syngaz o gratandi lata blie smiai ekei at ut inna orsa-snud engli einum erindi Sa ei pann at ut megi inna f6erpers6na engli einum orea-snild peat pr6va vildi byer hlyair eldr okeisa joreok Enn i oeru alls-valdandi sva qelsar pa eisa Enn mun sinni fjoll ollurn alls-valdandi gjald en 011 ur eitt er ollu 6varliga en nu banni full ollu eitt veitti 6varliga pr6var En i andlatt Jasu ess eraf ollum En i andlati Jasu sasta Mektar-fullr erbar ollurn oss krossinn slnurn Engi ek at jara1ig enn er atferain Jasu undarlig Engi tunga er atfer8in bursar halslti stiornu-reitar undarlig varia 250 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme erum allar aldir aida folnar fellr fa3ttaz gild allar aldir folnar skinn fellr enni aida haldin fa3ttaz ma3tti eymd ok6pi oiJrum tclr tosto firriz steypir pa 6pi pystr tostu niiJr fjandann niiJjan hlatr grata fa3riJar f6rnir friiJar foaur fjandann feiknt stjorn-lj6s fa3riJar f6rnir blindan sinn fjandann samband landi ofbeldit kvelr eldi fa3raiz fell fossum Foaura3tt fa finz fa3raiz nesr pa er ur sarum Foaura3tt hanstruig fa munu hitta fossum krossinn m6iJernit pj6aum falli flj6ti fagnaiJar-laug foaurinn fa3ddi fa3ddan jati flj6ti gladdiz mesr er fa3ddi fagnaiJar-laug augum fa3ddan klesddi fant fystu fystan fekk fullu forn Kristur po i fystu alia fullu fystan Iystir Adam kvarnu tavlss feiJgin faiJma Festiz fjuki frost favlss sa pessl Festiz lasta viii spilla frost brjosti faiJrn frfiJa fyriJa Fimm fj6rum fa3ddiz sinn bj6iJandi faiJm enn frfiJa rnanueurn fj6rum siaar fyraa dyraar sveinn hreinni 251 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme finna fognuu fyra-a forni fjandi fa:!ddan gegn munfinna fognuu Undraz enn fjandi fyrua dyruar mann bannat fiska fugla fagran forni fjandi tremdar-snausr hagl fugla stundaUir fjandi pl6g aldinsk6ga frerndar-snausr dauea fjandi fa:!ttiz f61kit foruag fjandann fjolkunnigan Petta hann fjandiat fa:!ttiz kenn mer foruag fjandann hans vansi fjolkunnigan unna tjandlnn frett fa:!ragloggr fra:!gast fa:!rig full fjandinn trettat syndum fra:!gast perfa:!rig ave fa:!ragloggr va:!ri miskunnar brunni fjandinn fystu fea-gin framm fa:!uaz fniin fjandinn sva f blindat guu himnanna framm mun fa:!uaz var dart skfnandi pinu fla:!ruar-fulla fjanda framt freista for8'um 011 fla:!ruar-fu II a treystumz framt freista fjanda standa for8'um orUit flengdu fyra-ar flekklausastr framt freista fla:!r8'um 6ver8'ugan hann flengdu fyra-ar treystiz freista flekklausastr hannvann ekki settr prettum flestir f1y8'u fylgdarmenn frasoqn fa:!ra fogr flestir Kristi mer i frasoqn fa:!ra xxx xxx st6rmerkin verka 252 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Frett freistan fostumoi1s Fyrri fra3ain forn Frett hit at drottins menn kunnu fostumoi1s losturn klok bokum frjalsir frfair fa3rir fyriJa fa3dd fai glaair frfair fyriJa jor8'u fa3rir skesrtr vist misti fulla flestar fundu fYlu frosti fjandr sman pfnur gnfsta frosti fundu stundi fjandr standa Fusir fundu fundinn fYsir framm flein Fusir Jesum fYsir pvl a3sa fundinn bundu flein meini Fyr fai1m fyr Gabriel geisli gleailigur Fyr Marfu dyra Gabriel solar Marfu sara gleailigur meiJri fyr flestra tatt gorvum gla3pum grimmlig afbrigai dygiJa hrop gla3pum tatt vattar sott otta FyrirlatiiJ faair fyrirlatiiJ giptiz guiJdoms goiJu FyrirlatiiJ mer faair sa3ti giptiz krapti fyrirlatiiJ grata g08'u bloai fyrr foldu fa3ddur glerit gegnum geisli aldri var sa fyrr a foldu skygnast erglerit gegnum fa3ddur hreaddumz brar varurn 253 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme gl6anda gulli guai hessmrn heiuri hefr 011 f gl6anda gulli aura meu heiB'ri varig fF.era hefr hann langt efri gl6ar glerinu gleailigt haB'nir hesddu heeddan gl6ar parsot glerinu heilu leiddu heecdu j6u m6aur hesddan raguan sl6gu atklesddu grcanni grundu guus haglig heilags hold samskfnandi granni grundu haglig myndum heilags anda prenning kennaz bein hreinum grcaugi-drep glcapum grefz haleit hlmnassslu hrygain grcaugi-drep glcapum auugum haleit a hlmnaseslu inn stinnum hrygain byguar grimdar galli grenjaai handar hagri hann fullum galli vegsamligr hcagri pj6str brj6sti hann sanna gumna gr$ddi graddi hofginn hagr heims breiddr grcaddi rann sva a penna grcaddi maddi styranda hann skyra guai g6B'um guai Hofuudrotningin harmi hneigu guai unnandi g6aum monnum Hofuudrotningin prunqln Hkjandi slikum lut saturn guus g6i1a gefit holdnu hennar hreinferB'ugra hjalpraai gui1's g6ua innsigli hennar gefit hefai hreinferaugra greina 254 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme horau heyi huldr himna-ha3iJir hof pvf heyi aiJr htrnna-heeetr huldrat kulda bloiJ moaur Heimr hvat Hvar hingat hann helgan hreinferaugastan daufJr raiJa hingat sendi hand anda Hvar bjarga hreinferaugastan la3risveinum heldr heiiJr hosk hjartat hristiz hold heldr meiJ heiiJrvaldi brlost hristiz rfk Ifkjaz klokt snokti henni hra3iJaz hofuiJengillinn hla3gir her hans fyrirbrjoiJandi henni hra3iJaz hla3gir teygjaz horfuiJengillinn lengra hans vansa Herra hverjum himin hneigBi haals hverjum Herra hverjum er dyrri hneigBi Va3g8'i joriJ gjoriJi hverjum er berja herrann heestri heimleiddir holdi hennar hlyiJinnar bauiJ meiJ PrYiJi minn einga-son hennar heimleiddir beimar hlyainnar skrYiJag himininn hvassa hjorn Hra3kjandi hofuiJin heiBingjar pressat hvassa Hra3kjandi pa hofuain skoku nlorn merkistjornur heimngjar leiiJar himna hneigiJ her hreszlan heljar helga dyriJ er jorau flaug bygBir samtengduz menn englar menn spenna 255 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme hrygain hjartaroturn harsan f jungfru ia-rum ein slitr hjartaroturn glaa-rar ia-rum styrk suta-rnyrkrl ein greinar Hvat Helgir Hvert inniz ekki annat tfainda leia-az klokkum ekki Aga3t tfgnarsa3ti gott drottinn Hvat Himnar Hverjum Jesurn engla uppi tfainda bjoa-az Jesurn raslr Hverjum Oss er krossinn nia-ri pria-ja Hvat Hjalpaz Hvf Jordanar a3a-ar Jon trainda Iyair Jordanar a3a-ar hreinar Hvf pvf Jon pjonar Hvat Hrakrt Hverr kesra Kristi kenning trainda fjandinn pessu nesst Kristi vann manna kenning renna hverjum ha3tti henni komnum k6ngi kunnigt Frettir ha3tti sungu k6ngi henni penna kunnigt runnu hvern hugaiz hvekkjum Krists krossinn keyra sla3ga- hugaiz pesstr Krists krossinn hvekkjum biekkja keyra dreyri f einum innan ormi kvenmann kvaddi kvadda fjolkunnigr einum innan Roddengilsins kvenmann kvaddi ormi forma kvadda gladdi 256 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme lat lausnar Iifandi lettan lopti IIfs pinnar lausnar blastr hessta Iifandi anda heitleika sclarrelturn laust lata lamdr Lettliga Ijos lettleika hlaut at lata Lettliga vattan meiddr beiddi lettlelka reiki longum leiddi leiddr lif Ijota lei8a kl~ddan leiddi mitt eitt veit et Ijota leiddr breiddi lei8a rei8i lei8 langan Iifs lif-pjonandi beerisvelna leitar sva heimr urn tima lif-pjonandi bc:erisveina andvani grandi leitar par veitir lei8 Iikams lif lifs leia-um lettliga lei8 ~8ar eigi vi81ifs af leia-um skinanda anda lettliga settir lei8 Iistum loflig ligi it Adam andlits-hvit brjost lei8me8 Iistum eigi Adam deyja or8 skoreurn andlits-hvit eplit bitiiJ Lei8an Ijotum lokkar likama Ijosan lagaz Lei8an at Ijotum raa-um asslz likama Ijosan hann manna minnilig kinnum letrit I~si IinhjartaiJr likams Iygair likam Jesu I~si hugair Iygair linhjarta8r plnurn Ifkam rikrar 257 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Iftilla;)ti lagraustaer manvit manna ma;)Biz fatalaa-r mea- Htilla;)ti Finn manvit manna lagraustaa-r mea- asjan fagra ma;)mz ra;)a-a Htilla;)tis logandi Mariu meyju mestn r6t ilmandi Htilla;)tis fljug seg Marfu meyju logandi anda ma;)tri ga;)ta Ij6s Iifanda Iifanda Mariu miskunn manns heim kasml Mariu fyr dyra Iifanda andir manns sannan Loptin Ij6si legir rnattlnn mildi meiri 011 gyllaz rnattinn plnn enn drottinn grund undraz hann annat Iyktum 16fum lof mam- m6i1ur moldu JEvinliga 16fum Svalia-andi mam- m6i1ur ra;)a-andi ba;)Bi moldu holdi moor m68ir mfnum morgum manni mildin Beim ek plk ok moair sinn manni minum plna mildin vildi ma;)aiz rnosur mj61ku meiri rnesttl mattrinn ma;)aiz haner rnoeur sinnar pottiz pu meiri at rnesttl fa;)ddr kladdiz mattrinn vattar mann moldu mea- Mer miklu rneetr aldri kvaddan moldu Mer virBiz hesra mea- kvea-ju meetr sa;)ti 258 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme mey m6aur mann nesrrl n6gu natturan bam pvlrney m6aur kuguu sva n6gu mann truan sanna nanuran matn meyju rnjukrl Maria nyjung nokkur nalgiz Ok sva veik meyju rnjukn pykki nokkur Marla varum heim beima miklu miskunn mer 6dyguar-brandrinn bjugi beygaiz askig miskunn sva 6dyguar-brandrinn bjugi veitiz leita aptr lpina kjapta min minniz rnlnn offraz ass at Jesus kenz min minniz kaus ass visu mlnn i riki plnu sjalfr hvalf minnaz rna m6air ofsa essturn at minnaz ok rna ek el annat Fystiz astum m6air fl6m at Hkjaz rikum miskunn mikla minn ofveldi oi1laz aura pakkandi mikla meitr ofbeldi oataz vildi minn drottinn pinni aura bam M6air Maria mektar-bl6m og Adam at M6air ass er Maria pessi og teygai mektar-bl6m s6ma hann pat hann bannat m6i1ur-mali meir ok andinn orainn pvflfku m6aur-mali ok pvlllkt meir petr orainn foraum 259 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme ok i ofundar-eitri jafnan remming rai'1a riai Ijotr ofundar-eitri kviaig rai'1a jafnan kafnat rim siB'um ok en undraz orain jungfru renni- raddar-tolurn rettferffiJgt Heyrai oretn mal raddar-tolurn kyrr fyrri rettferB'ugt ivisum sletturn ok unir ilia engill rik reifa rikust svellr ilia po el sva reifa engill fengit moair goi'1a ors ok allar eru roenust rosa runnin ori'1 gorair glmsilig roenust rosa eru kannaear hvers annars runnin brunna ors ok iIIar auamjukliga sesmdarseetl snaui'1 ori'1 gorair pau braut ssemarseef aui'1mjukliga daui'1a snaui'1 daui'1a patuqls PrYai pentat smraiz sonr sannheilug Leii'1 sigrandi pafugls PrYai bmai moair pentat firmanentum sannheilug mann Refsar retturn rikr samangaupnandi slna sannr pelm at retturn dornt samangaupnandi skepnu rikr slika sannr manna Remman rot rann sannr sat sjalft brast kvistu sannr inni rann annars hreinlifit gimsteinn vifa 260 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme sarin syna suthresrancl Sem segir svara Jasusmun pa sarin syna provandl Evu svara suthresrandl plslarteeri skjott drottlnn sarra sata sverBi sendibofn sjaufalds sva po gret nu sata sendibofn anda sverBi heraar greinanda einu sarum sullum svia-rar sex sinnum sex reiSigaii sullurn unrennandi sinnum sviarar iarin grein einum sarurn syndum sendiz Signat sati sannr Iyaakind measarum syndum Ijos sati Jesu sendiz lendum sannr manna satt sja sva sigri seelu sesmd satt prettum eiHfliga sigri salu Jarear enn penna vald aldri soktiz sinum sem silfri seldi sveitum hann sinum gronnum mildan gua via- silfri seldi blyvaraa jaraar sveitum heita Sa sannri sunginn sinar sveitir synda-brjot Sa per dyra mea PrYfn pvl fl9tandi slnar sveitir sunginn tungum synda-brj6t skj6tast seggja sinar soma-orr sitt sjiilfan sa feraum gorair sitt drottin soma-orr dornl sa hangandaa stangaz 261 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme sfO'an sendi su skygnleik skyrurn skipandi ond sendi Na3r ok firr skygnleik skyrum skiljandi vilja skipandi anda SfO'an sigri sunnudag silk sottar-auka sonn SfO'an meO' dauO'a silk sottar-auka sunnudag kunnan sonn monnum sfO'an syndi sva sllku snnaz sjalf anda-gipt pa sfO'an syndi finn ek po f slfku sannaz sva voretnna spadorns-orsa natturan manndorn vattar sfausari synda slungin slnurn sungu dreyrinn 5 fausari slungin sfnum kangum synda yndi sungu tungu sjau sinnum sjau Sonr sonr sonr Umrennandi sinnum Sonr Marfu Sonr enn dyri grein einum menniligr hennar skapaaur skein skaparra stas stundir staai skapaaur gaur PrYai ei purfandl ne stundir nesstr hasstrl haldandi valdi Skopun sklrn skynsemi stilla styra steflig feeaing PrYai pu mer styra full gulli steflig efta skepnan skyld skapari su settum sendiz 011 skyld falla su a tfma minn pinni sendiz hendi 262 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Sva sa3ti synda tarurn tungan taki Sva fYsumz Jasu rigni pagni synda myndir mal salin sva samri sem Tendraz talar tungan Sva greinanda a stundu 011 talar snilli engillinn spillaz min sinum sva saran sina teygai tima tva sva bjeitandi i saran dauua heim tima sma mina jafnaldra i sinu valdi Sva svaraet sem tvennar tvisvar tiu sva fer pat at svaraa Eva tvennar gengu sinnum margbrugainn hugai da3granna ha3gar synda saurgan sviltur ugg etta eitt margfaldri saurgan lettlr etta sviltur kviair mest lesti synda saurgun sannliga ugai at Eva et Hvergi pvlat i saurgan ugai stigaiz sannliga annan neitaai veitoa syni siuan sar urn aldrok a3ti eining guits eingetnum syni siitan lof sa a3ti megjandi ongum va3gja eining greinum Syni svartir seggir urn a at yrkja ytirspennanda Marfu svartir tara stormerkin yrkja seggir dreggjum yfirspennanda prennra 263 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme umsnia-ningar Jesu attl vermeikrinn vis vyr8i urnsnlsninqar Jesu PrY8i vermeikrinn jorau attl vattar vyr8i hlrnna-dyrsar Upp allra ibyggjurum veraugt vc:eri vandat risondum landa per veraugt vc:eri ibyggjurum hryggva vandat handa ut af instum allir Vig8iz vatni valdr ut r6tum Vigmz dOg8iz allir kalla valdr pritugsaldri uti okinni uppi Vindi veslan vart senn verandi inni Vindi anda nimi mia-ju ofbeldit feldan vaxa via-a verri visan ver8i vunnin g6a- vi8a gor8 ver8i verri pverra vunnin munni vorrum varum vor8in vist vald visa skyr vorrum varurn vist astir voretn cr8in visa paradisar Veitt vars veitt vlsu vuxu veltiligir Veitt er pat er vars rnattl sex visu vuxu veitt er er neitti veltiligir slavar-beltt veltuz veslum Vr8a v'lakrinqs vofaum vundin aum veslum heimi velakrinqs atvofsurn strengjum via- si8an opt lopti 264 Alliteration Alliteration Half-rhyme Half-rhyme Full-rhyme Full-rhyme Yfirmeistarinn allra Jesus pessurn pokki pann Yfirmeistarinn Iista ekki pokki gaur pja8ir pann manni yfirmoainginn innan Juuas peygi poldi penna yfirmorainginn innan hiruar kvaldur pold' Juuas nefndr oveent stefndi penna kennir ails f attl pronqurn pyrni pessum f heimi fjandans bornin prongurn byrnl naB'um pessurn spenna blessat ennit Ut af Adams Evu prysvar prennurn pat leiuandi Adams sfB'u hann prennum bratt vattar rett stenurn panqat pau pat purfa pykkjumz pina panqat englum klokkr ok ek pykkjumz bliuan siean pfna mfna pessu pingi prastuqjarn pvf per pronqdr Engi finz pingi pvl Iyt nu at f6tum pr~tugjarn varnar kvaldr taldri 265 Notes Notes on Chapter I 1 The exact definitions of the structures alliteration, adalhending / full rhyme, and skothending / half rhyme are given in Chapter II. 2 Words beginning with j- are considered to have no initial consonant. This topic is addressed later. 3 Frank, 1978 uses 'line' as I have used half line. In the literature, both units are called 'line'. Notes on Chapter II 1 The statistics which are presented in this chapter are drawn from the analyses of the full corpus presented in Appendix B. 2 This selection is from a Ninth Century Lausavfsur attributed to AUdun illskcelda. 3 This selection is from an Eleventh Century Lausavfsur attributed to P6riJr Kolbeinsson. 4 This selection is from Haqnarsdrapa attributed to Bragi inn Gamli, circa 800 850. 5 Frank, 1980:39. 6 Accent grave (') marks secondary accents in syllables which are stressed rather than unstressed, but which are in positions which would place primary accents too near one another. Since the positioning of strong stresses is not among the parameters that I have traced, I have grouped 266 primary and secondary accents together. They are differentiated here merely as an illustration. 7 Amason (1980) argues that the quantity system of Old Icelandic changed around 1250. After that time, he contends, the criteria for counting as two moras changes to closed syllables. Closed syllables count as two moras and open syllables count as one. 8 "Errors" are taken to be deviations from the definitive parameters of a meter: lack of rhyme in an expected position, faulty rhyme, inconsistent syllable count, alliteration in an unexpected position, etc. 9 This selection is from the Twelfth Century poem, Buadrapa, which is attributed to porkell Gislason. 10 I use "English" rhyme to denote a match of the type that English speakers would accept as a rhyme. There is no commonly accepted definition of this type of rhyme. It matches from a stressed vowel through the end of some prosodic unit. That unit may be the word, the foot, the measure, the phrase, or the line. In the poetry that replaced skaldic verse as the dominate verse form (rimur), the matches are between the final words on successive lines. That match runs from the the stressed vowel through the end of the word. Notes on Chapter III 1 This sample is found in Appendix F. 2 Opinions differ about the status of j in the phonology of Old Icelandic. It arises from the breaking of old iV sequences. Many scholars consider j to be a glide [-syl, -cons]. Amason (1980) argues that it is a consonant. The 267 behavior of j in this skaldic data suggests that, in skaldic times, j behaves as a glide. Unfortunately, this difference cannot be settled without the phonetic details of how the skalds pronounced the segment. So, for the purposes at hand. I will have to make a choice. I will consider j to be a glide, [-syl, -cons]. 3 These 5 examples represent 0.43% of the 1174 element in the entire sample. 4 This represents 0.43% of the group having an initial j in at least one of the alliterating words. The remaining 57 have I in initial position in only one of the words and DIFFERENT initial vowels in the other words. 5 This category includes those matches which have only a single prevocalic consonant. 6 In Old Norse sp, st, and sk often behave as single consonants. For discussions of this, see Haugen, 1982. In this data, s is the alliterating element 113 times. 27 or 24.1 % contain sp, st or sk. In each of these 27 instances, the entire cluster alliterates. If these clusters are indeed functioning as a unit, they should also function as a unit in rhyme. There are 89 instances of rhyme pairs (both skothending and aaalhending) with sC in the offset. 83 of these have sp, st, or sk in the offset. All of them rhyme both consonants (and not any others in the string). There are 2 lines which have sC pairs wherein the s matches and the C doesn't. These could be faulty rhymes. 7 This figure results from the 32.20% of the lines having more than one match in the half line. Notes on Chapter IV 1 Skaldic Norse appears to have a strong preference for closed syllables. There are numerous lines in which the penultimate word potentially matches two words on the line - one if the penultimate word is syllabified CVC$ 268 V and the other if it is syllabified as CV$CV. This suggests a war within the language between this preference for closed syllables and the (universal) preference for open syllables. 2 V: indicates a long vowel, which includes long (possibly geminate) vowels and ; diphthongs, and C2 represents two or more consonants, including long consonants (which also may be considered geminates). 3 There are two potential rhymes here, depending on whether the match is a skothending or aaalhending. 4CleasbY,1874/1975: 618. [v] dropped in old and modern usage. 5 ibid., 655. 6 ibid., 319. 7 ibid., 309. Notes on Chapter V 1 This is not surprising, given j's disputed status as a glide or a consonant and its origin as from Germanic i. For discussions of these issues see Gordon 1957, Donegan 1978, and Amason 1980. 2 The First Grammarian (Haugen, 1972:21) says, "The skalds are authorities on all writing or speaking, just as craftsmen on their craft and lawyers on the law." 269 Glossary alliteration - the matching of onsets. aa-alhending - 'full rhyme': a syllable matching pattern in which paired syllables agree from the vowel through the offset.The matching pair include the final stressed syllable and another stressed syllable earlier in the half-line. The aaalhending pattern is used in even-numbered half lines. binding - A pattern formed by matching the alliterations in odd- and even numbered half-lines, with two matches on the odd line and one at the beginning of the even. bound verse - A verse characterized by patterns formed by matching the alliterations in odd- and even-numbered half lines, with two matches on the odd line and one at the beginning of the even. These patterns of alliteration are known as binding patterns. drapa - a composition of at least twenty stanzas, punctuated with at least one refrain. Eddic poetry - composed from the ninth to twelfth centuries, continuing the themes of Common Germanic verse. It is usually composed anonymously. It is simple and terse, carrying forward the Germanic verse traditions. flokkr - 'flock'.: a group of stanza composed on a common theme. fornyraislag - 'the epic measure': a strong stress meter in which the number of beats, but not the number of unstressed syllables, are counted in the 270 meter. The number of unstressed syllables naturally varies, but the total number in the line was always four or more. The epic measure is a short line of two beats which are joined by alliteration. The epic measure is not only the predominant meter of Norse narrative poetry, it is also the meter of the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf. hofuestatr - 'base': the stafir on the even-numbered half-Iine.lt is on the first lift. heitir (sg. heiti ) - 'cognomen': evocative, conventionalized nouns substituted for frequently mentioned gods, people, places or things. Heiti are rarely found in prose writings helmingr - a half-stanza of two long lines (twenty-four syllables) hlj6a-stafir - the sounds that match in the alliterative pattern. These sounds are also know as stafir. kenningar (sg. kenning) - 'poetical circumlocution': two-part periphrastic constructions, usually consisting of two nouns -- a head and a genitive case modifier. For example, calling a camel a "ship of the desert" would be a kenning. The first noun is the head and the second is the modifier. The construction, taken together means something different than the parts alone do -- much as the word merry-go-round is more than the sum of its parts, -- and the whole is never a hyponym of the head noun. lausavfsa - collections of lausavfsu, grouped together by author. lausavfsu • 'loose verse' is a single stanza, independent and standing alone. lift - a stressed, metrically long beat (, ) 271 Ij6vahattr - 'the speech measure': like the epic measure but has more unstressed syllables malahattr - 'the song measure': the most irregular of the forms. It is divided into six-line stanzas which are further subdivided into three-line half-strophes. This form is used mostly for didactic poetry expressing wisdom of the ages, and maxims for daily life. Nucleus - the vowels or diphthongs of a syllable Offset - the consonants of a syllable which follow the nucleus. Onset - the consonants of a syllable which precede the vowel Rime - an intermediate syllable structure consisting of the nucleus and the offset. saga - any story or history sinking - a metrically weak element (x). A sinking can be long or short. If two sinkings are adjacent they must both be short. skaldic meter - both syllable-counted and strong stressed, having three lifts to the line. The patterns of the line follow those of the epic measure (with four syllables required) plus a final trochee (' ~) skaldic poetry - a highly structured poetic form, utilizing meters that feature syllable counting, strong stress, alliteration and two forms of rhyme. The word order is relatively free; the syntax is convoluted and the vocabulary is specialized and obscure. Skaldic poetry includes shield poems, 272 describing the elaborate designs decorating battle shields, verses in praise of kings, epitaphs, genealogies, dream songs, curses, lampoons, poems of abuse (flytings) and -- even though illegal -- love songs. skothending - 'half-rhyme': a syllable matching pattern in which paired syllables agree in the offset. The nuciei of the paired syllabtes differ from each other. The matching pair include the final stressed syllable and another stressed syllable earlier in the half-line. The skothending pattern is used in odd-numbered half-lines. stafir - the sounds that match in the alliterative pattern. These sounds are also know as hlj6vstafir. strophe - stanza stuslar - (sg. stuViIl) 'supports': the two stafir on the first or odd-numbered half-line.. Each support corresponds to a stressed syllable. trochee - a poetic foot of two beats. The first is stressed and the second is weak r ~). visa - a 'stanza' consisting of two half-stanzas. VISU - a grouping of stanzas on a single topic. vlsufj6rfJ'ungar - long lines of poetry consisting of two halves. visuors - a half-line. Two half-lines make a long line. 273 Literature Cited Allen, W. Sydney. 1973. Accent and Rhythm: Prosodic Features of Latin and Greek: a Study in Theory and Reconstruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Arnason, Kristjan. 1980. Quantity in Historical Phonology: Icelandic and related cases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cleasby, Richard, Gudbrand Vigfusson and Sir William A. Craigie. 1874/1975. An Icelandic-English Dictionary. London: Oxford University Press. Clements, George N. and Samuel Jay Keyser. 1985. CV Phonology: A Generative Theory of the Syllable. Linguistic Inquiry Monograph No.9. Cambridge: MIT Press. Donegan, Patricia Jane. 1978. On the Natural Phonology of Vowels. Ohio State University Working Papers in Linguisitics. 23. Donegan, Patricia Jane and David Stampe. 1983. Rhythm and the Holistic Organization of Language Structure. Papers from the Parasession on the Interplay of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax, Chicago Linguistic Society. 337-353. Edda Snorra Sturlusonar: Nafnapulur og Skaldata, 1223?/1976. Introduction by GUdni Jonsson. Reykjavik: lslsncinqasaqnautqatan. 274 Eddukvaedl (Saemundar-Edda). 1223?/1976. Introduction by Guani Jonsson. Reykjavik: lslendinqasaqnautqatan. Einarsson, Stefan. 1957. A History of Icelandic Literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Frank, Roberta. 1978. Old Norse Court Poetry: the Drcttkvestt Stanza. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Frank, Roberta. 1985. Skaldic Poetry. Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide. Clover, Carol J. and John Lindow (ed). Islandica XLV. Ithaca and London:Cornell University Press. 157-196. Gordon, E.V. 1957. An Introduction to Old Norse, London: Oxford University Press. Hallberg, Peter. 1962. Old Icelandic Poetry Eddic Lay and Skaldic Verse. Paul Schach and Sonja Lindgrenson, translators. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Haugen, Einar. 1958. The The Phonemics of Modern Icelandic. Language 34:55-88. Haugen, Einar. 1972. First Grammatical Treatise: The Earliest Germanic Phonology, an edition, translation and commentary. Second, revised edition. London: Longman Group LTD. 275 Haugen, Einar. 1976. The Scandinavian Languages: An Introduction to their History. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Haugen, Einar. 1982. The Scandinavian Language Structures: a Comparative Historical Survey. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Jonsson Finnur. 1912. Den Norsk-Islandske Skjaldedigtning. B Rettet Tekst I Bind. Kopenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel. Jonsson Finnur. 1915. Den Norsk-Islandske Skjaldedigtning. B Rettet Tekst II Bind. Kopenhagen: Gyldendalske Boghandel. Kock, Axel and R. Meissner. 1931. Skaldishes Lesebuch. Halle: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Rask, Erasmus. 1843. Grammar of the Icelandic or Old Norse. London: William Pickering. Sievers, Eduard. 1893. Altgermanische Metrik. TObingen: Max Niemeyer Velag. Skallagrlmssonar, Egill. 1975. Egils Saga. Reykjavik: Skalholt HF. Snorri Sturluson. 1223?/1984. Edda Snorra Sturlusonar. Heimir Palsson, editor. Reykjavik: Mal og menning. Stampe, David. 5 May 1986. Some Notes on Syllables, Sonority, and Related Notions. Unpublished Class Notes. University of Hawaii. 276 Turville-Petre, E.O.G. 1953. Origins of Icelandic Literature. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Vennemann, Theo. 1972. 'On the theory of syllabic phonology' Linguistiche Berichte 18:1-18. Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. 1981. Philip Babcock Gove, PhD., Editor-in-Chief. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Inc. Zwicky, Arnold M. 1972. Note on a Phonological Hierarchy in English. Linguistic Change and Generative Theory. Robert P. Stockwell and Ronald K.S. Macaulay eds. Boomington: Indiana University Press. 275 301. 277