INFORMATION TO USERS The most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copysubmitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from arty type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. M148106-1346 USA. 313' 761-4700 800: 521-0600 Order Number 9118058 The syllable-evidence from Icelandic Skaldic poetry Sroka, Nitalu, Ph.D. University of Hawaii, 1990 Copyright @1990 by Sroka, Nitalu. All rights reserved. V·M·I 300 N. Zeeb Rd AnnArbor,MI 48106 THE SYLLABLE - EVIDENCE FROM ICELANDIC SKALDIC POETRY A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LINGUISTICS DECEMBER 1990 By Nitalu Sroka Dissertation Committee: Patricia A. Lee, Chairman Byron W. Bender Patricia J. Donegan P. Gregory Lee David Stampe Kathleen C. Falvey © Copyright by Nitalu Sroka 1990 All Rights Reserved iii Abstract Comparative analysis of the matched words in dr6ttkvcett reveals that the syllable structure necessary to describe alliteration, half rhyme (skothending) and full rhyme (aoalhending) consists of an onset (the prevocalic consonants), a nucleus (the vowels), an offset (the postvocalic consonants), and possibly an intermediate structure consisting of the nucleus with the offset (the rime). This Old Icelandic poetic meter is defined, in part, by patterns of syllable matches. To accurately describe the matches the initial element of each syllabic component must have special status. These elements demarcate the structures in the syllable and define the domains of matches. Alliteration matches the onset initial. Half rhyme compares the nucleus through the offset initial, requiring different nuclei and matching offset initial elements. Full rhyme matches the nucleus thrc~gh the offset initial. The data reveal that these syllabic matches are structural matches. Empty elements match empty elements. If the first element of the onset does not meet the demarcative requirements, it may not be in the onset initial position. That is, if the first element is not a "full" consonant (if it is a glide), the onset initial position is empty, and as such matches other empty onsets (syllables beginning with a glide or a vowel). An empty offset occurs in open syllables, and open syllables with matching vowels form aoalhendings while ones with differing vowels form skothendings. This matching of empty elements is a matching of empty structural positions. iv The parallels between the prevocalic consonantal matches (alliteration) and the postvocalic consonantal matches (the non-vowel facets of half rhyme and full rhyme) provide an explanation for the origin of skaldic rhyme (half rhyme and full rhyme) and hence, of skaidlc poetry. Alliteration predates skaldic rhyme. It is characteristic not only of the older Eddic poetry but also of other Germanic poetries such as the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf. Since skaldic rhyme shares all the structural characteristics of alliteration, it can be described as postposed alliteration. This description facilitates the recognition that skaldic rhyme is derived from alliteration. v Table of Contents Abstract.............................................................................................................. iv List of Tables vii List of Illustrations.. ix List of Abbreviations............................ x Chapter I Introduction................................................................................... 1 Chapter II The Form of Skaldic Poetry and its Consistency through Time.... 16 Chapter III Alliteration and Rhyme Requirements - a Nonsyllabic Analysis. 38 Chapter IV The Traditional Syllable and Skaldic Verse 52 Chapter V The Articulated Syllable and Skaldic Verse 81 Chapter VI Skaldic Poetry and Syllable Structure 92 Appendix A The Computer and the Data 100 Appendix B The Data 104 Appendix C The Analysis 151 Appendix D Matches with j- 184 Appendix E Sample with Equal Number of Rhymes 188 Appendix F Sample with 10% of the lines 191 Notes 266 Glossary 270 Literature Cited 274 vi List of Tables Table I Full rhyme patterns by number and percentage 26 Table II Half rhyme patterns by number and percentage 28 Table III Overall rhyming patterns 29 Table IV Lines off syllable count. 31 Table V Binding patterns as percentages 35 vii List of Illustrations Figure 1. The relationship of skaldic alliteration to skaldic rhyme 1 Figure 2. The "placement" of alliteration and skaldic rhyme in the syllable.... 3 Figure 3. Matching initials in alliteration, skothending / half rhyme, and aaalhending / full rhyme................................................................... 4 Figure 4. Graphic representation of syllable structure 12 Figure 5. Articulated syllable structure in Skaldic Icelandic 13 Figure 6. Graphic representation of alliteration 19 Figure 7. Graphic representation of half rhyme strategies (Sk-) and full rhyme strategies (Aa-) overtime 27 Figure 8. Graphic representation of the utilization of rhyme schemes over time 30 Figure 9. Graphic representation of the frequency of syllable counting "errors" over time 31 Figure 10. Trends in the positioning of alliterating elements over time 36 Figure 11. Graphic representation of rhyme, alliteration positions a. l syllable counting deviations over time 37 Figure 12. Graphic representation of distribution of initial patterns 40 Figure 13. "How far in" does alliteration match? 41 Figure 14. Number of matches per line 43 Figure 15. Distribution of matching skothending elements 45 Figure 16. How far outward does half rhyme / skothending go? 46 Figure 17. j's in the vowel string of skothending / half rhyme 47 Figure 18. Number of lines with one versus otherthan one match per line 48 Figure 19. Distribution of full rhyme / aaalhending lines 49 viii Figure 20. How far outward does full rhyme / aaalhending go? 50 Figure 21. Distribution of j in full rhyme / aaalhending 51 Figure 22. Skaldic matching structures in a traditional syllabic framework 53 Figure 23. The distribution of word initial elements 55 Figure 24. A visual comparison of the predictive accuracy of the syllabification strategies 80 Figure 25. Syllable structure with initial elements 82 Figure 26. Alliteration as the matching of onset initial elements 82 Figure 27. The distribution of word initial elements 83 Figure 28. Syllable structure with initial elements 85 Figure 29. Skaldic rhyme as the matching of offset initial elements 86 Figure 30. Syllable structure and phonological elements 93 Figure 31. Distribution of elements in syllable structures 94 Figure 32. Skaldic rhyme and the rime versus gaps in the matching scheme without a rime 96 Figure 33. Alliteration 98 Figure 34. The "invention" of rhyme 99 ix List of Abbreviations A ----------------------- Adjective Aa---------------------- aaalhending, full-rhyme AaER------------------ half of an End Rhyme pair occurring in a line in which a full rhyme is expected AaM-------------------- full -rhyme with some postvocalic consonants matching AaN-------------------- no match occurs in a line in which a full-rhyme is expected AaY -------------------- full-rhyme which extends through all the postvocalic consonants Bd---------------------- Bound, alliteration pattern BdB -------------------- pattern of alliteration in which the three alliterating elements include the second syllable of the even numbered half line. BdM ------------------- pattern of alliteration in which the three alliterating elements include the last syllable of the first half line and the first syllable of the second half line, and exclude the first syllable of the first half line. BdPr------------------- indicates that there is one alliterating syllable on each half line. BdY -------------------- pattern of alliteration in which the three alliterating elements include the first syllable of each half line and exclude the final stressed syllable of the first half line. Bd± -------------------- pattern of alliteration in which the three alliterating elements include the first and last stressed syllable of the first half line and the first syllable of the second half line. x C ----------------------- Consonant Sk ---------------------- skothending, half-rhyme SkER ------------------ half of an End Rhyme