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Non-profit Org. U.S. Postage The quarterly newsletter of the Paid Harrisburg, PA Northern Growers Association Permit 951

The NutshellVol. 71.3 2017

2016 Annual Report Nebraska City, NE ers have become increasingly aware ually declined from 4 to 6 percent to gers. Cereal grains or grasses with Orchard Management of declines in health with current less than 2 percent. Use of cover fibrous root systems are good at using Cover Crops to cropping practices. The four basic soil is one of the more practical approach- scavenging excess and nu- health principles are to (1) minimize es to gradually increasing organic trients especially nitrate-N, calcium, Improve Soil Health and disturbance, (2) keep the soil cov- matter content (Table 1: Soil builder). and potassium that might otherwise Pollinator in the ered, (3) increase diversity, and Although plant tops provide organic leach into the subsoil during a fallow Midwestern United States (4) keep growing throughout matter, it is actually the extensive root period (Table 1: Nutrient scavenger). the year to feed the . Following systems that contributes the most Grasses reportedly can take up more J. W. ‘Jerry’ Van Sambeek, Research these four principles helps achieve soil to building organic matter and soil than 75% of the nitrate-N applied in Plant Physiologist, USDA health by minimizing soil erosion, improvement. water within 24 hours. Grains like maximizing organic matter storage, Service Northern Research Station, winter wheat, cereal rye, and even maximizing soil microbial popula- A second more easily observed indi- oats, seeded in the fall can absorb Columbia, MO 65211-7260. tions and diversity, maximizing water cator of good soil health in agricultur- within a three-month period more [email protected] and vansam- infiltration, percolation, and retention al soils is the earthworm population than 70 pounds of N per acre. This N [email protected] in the soil, and minimizing compac- (Fig. 1). A healthy soil can have over a is slowly made available the following tion. The top five reasons give million earthworms per acre or about spring if the cover winter kills or ational initiatives have emerged for planting cover crops include in- two to three earthworms per shovel is terminated with cultivation or her- that could benefit future es- creasing soil organic matter, reducing full. bicides. Grass cover crops have been tablishmentN and management of nut soil erosion, reducing soil compaction, shown to reduce by 75 to 95 percent production orchards. The 2008 and managing weeds, and providing an al- overwinter nitrate losses that occur 2014 Bills put forward agendas ternative N source (Clark 2007). Oth- from fallow fields. to address declining soil health on ag- er benefits include reducing fertilizer costs, increasing water infiltration and Legumes go a step further than ricultural soils by promoting the use grasses because legumes have nodules of cover crops to improve soil health water holding capacity, sequestering nutrients that otherwise would leach on their roots containing bacteria during the fallow period in rotation that can take N from the air and fix it with agronomic crops. Corn, wheat, into the subsoil, adding biological to the cropping system, into forms that the plants can use in and soybean yields have been in- exchange for sugars from the plant. creased by 2 to 4 percent when grown and providing an alternative source of income. Different plant species used Some of that N can escape from living in rotation with cover crops (SARE roots but most is slowly released as 2017). The USDA reported over 10 as cover crops will vary in their ability Plant residues left on the soil to provide these benefits. plant residues decompose. In the million acres were planted with cover surface serve as a mulch or protec- absence of other cover crops and crops in 2012 and has increased to suitability for orchards tive cover. They reduce the impact of weeds, this N can be taken up by over 20 million acres by 2017. Cover is summarized in Table 1 for 70 can- raindrops associated with soil crust- and other plants (Van Sambeek, et al. crops could play an even bigger role didate cover crop species. Agronomic ing and reduce the loss of soil by wind 1986). Decaying biomass is expected in managing soil health in orchards information for these cover crops is and/or water erosion (Table 1: Erosion to make 50% of the bound N available because we can include perennial summarized in Table 2 including how, preventer). In addition, a cover of the first year, 30% the second year, ground covers and because annual when, and where to plant them and vegetation and plant residues decreas- and 10% the third year. cover crops, if not invasive, do not their forage productivity and suit- es the daily amplitude of changes in need to be terminated to establish an- ability. Although many other species soil temperature and moderates sea- Nitrogen fixation rates can range other crop and can grow to maturity. could have been chosen, the final list sonal fluctuations compared to bare annually from less than 50 to over Declining populations of the was selected to include some of the soil. Lower soil temperatures in the 150 pounds of N per acre depending honeybees and the monarch butterfly most frequently used cover crops, summer are beneficial because they on the species (Table 1: Nitrogen have brought national attention to the some ground covers commonly found reduce the rate of microbial decom- source). The amount of N added importance of pollinators and other in orchards (both good and bad), and position of organic beneficial insects. Over 100 agricul- some promising native forbs for creat- matter. Slowly tural crop species in , ing pollinator habitat. decomposing cov- whose fruits and seeds provide over One of the best indicators of soil er crop residues 30 percent of the we consume, also provide a need a pollinator to achieve their full health is the organic matter content. Organic matter is composed of dead long-lasting mulch potential yield. It is easy to envision to control weeds using certain cover crops in orchards plant and animal matter in various stages of decomposition. Without and potentially act that both improve soil health and aid as a slow release in restoration of suitable sup- organic matter, soil is essentially a mixture of ground-up and weathered fertilizer for the porting pollinators and other benefi- trees (Table 1: cial insects. rocks. The importance of organic matter in managing soil moisture Weed suppresser cannot be overemphasized as one and Table 1: Nitro- BENEFITS OF USING COVER pound of organic matter can absorb gen source). CROPS 18 to 20 pounds of water. Under Cover crops can Cover crops have grown in pop- intensive use of agronomic crops, or- also be efficient ularity over the last few years as grow- ganic matter in many soils has grad- nutrient scaven-

32 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 33 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 is highly depended on inoculating tilled soil can reduce soil erosion by as (Table 1: Known allelopath). Cereal potentially be reduced by as much as walnut trees in a tall fescue sod to Shade tolerance). Most warm-season seed with the correct rhizobium, the much as 50 percent while no-till seed- rye and to a lesser extent the other 50 percent and still be effective. For start bearing harvestable numbers of grasses exhibit little shade tolerance; amount of forage produced (Table 2: ing of cover crops sometimes reduces cereal grains release toxic compounds multi-species covers, seeding rates are nuts. however, eastern gamagrass may be Productivity), and the crude protein erosion by 90 percent. Plants with as plant residues decompose that usually adjusted proportionately to an exception (Fig. 5). content of that forage (Table 2: Crude deep roots may also penetrate com- can slow the growth of other plants. desired final composition. protein). As a general rule, without N pacted soil layers (Table 1: Rooting Decomposing residues of rapeseed, The USDA Natural Resource Con- fertilization, most legumes fix 60 to depth) improving soil permeability by mustards, radishes, and other Brassi- servation Service (NRCS) is actively 75% of the N needed for their growth producing channels and macropores ca species act as biofumigants if tilled researching the benefits of using with approximately 60 to 70% of their that can be utilized by the roots into the soil and can help manage soil cover crops to improve soil health. N in the aboveground forage. There (Table 1: Subsoil loosening). Cover borne-pathogens and nematodes that For example, the NRCS Plant Ma- should be little net loss or gain of crops that can loosen the subsoil can feed on plant roots. The ARS Cover terials Center in Elsberry, MO has available soil N in the orchard when also capture nutrients and return Crop Chart suggests most annual established demonstration sites for haying legume cover crops. If not them to the topsoil (Table 1: Nutrient species should not be planted back to three years to measure the impact harvested, legumes should provide a scavenger). back. of fall planting date (late July to late net gain as plant residues decompose Cover crops assist with controlling There are conflicting opinions September) on biomass production on into available soil N that trees can weeds by shading the soil, by rapid whether single species or multi-spe- more than 30 cover crop species alone There appears to be a trend for take up (Fig. 2). Information difficult growth out competing the weeds, cies cover crops are better. Cover or in mixtures. In general, cover deeper rooting of the cover crop to to find is which perennial legumes and/or producing phytotoxic com- crops benefits are usually most closely crops seeded in August (6 to 9 weeks reduce compatibility (Table 1: Root- as they mature conserve fixed N and pounds. Erect cover crops typically related to the amount of biomass before first killing frost) produced the ing depth) and a trend for annual which slough off roots and nodules. need to produce more than 3 tons produced. Single species cover crops greatest above-ground fall biomass. cover crops to be more compatible High foliar N in walnut planted with per acre of biomass to suppress weeds tend to produce more biomass per Numerous technical reports have than perennial cover crops (Table 1: crownvetch would indicate fine roots while prostrate (white clover), semi- acre than will a mix of species. Penn been published on the NRCS state Forb type), but not whether they grow and nodules are sloughed off in the erect (cowpeas), and climbing (hairy State University published the re- as winter annuals or grow during Tillage in an orchard is usually and national websites which I have discouraged to minimized damage to dormant period during the summer. vetch) plants require less biomass to sults of a two-year study suggesting heavily utilized to write this article. the cool-season or warm-season of If fertilizer is added to the cover crop be effective (Fig. 3). Productivity is multi-species mixes, however, are the year (Table 1: Growing season). tree roots; however, it should also be when orchards are fertilized, the le- also important because on average, more likely to provide a wider range COVER CROPS AND NUT Somewhat surprising there does not discouraged to maintain soil health. gumes will utilize the available soil N 4 to 4.5 inches of precipitation are of benefits (Finney and Kay 2016). ORCHARDS appear to be a strong relationship Deep tillage for site preparation to and be less likely to form nodules that needed for each ton of forage (Table Their results suggest mixtures of up Nut orchards are usually not between cover crop compatibility and seed a crop or for incorporating fix atmospheric N. 2: Productivity) produced substan- to eight species are likely to produce established on our most productive biomass productivity (Table 2: Pro- green manure crops is discouraged tially diminishing the amount of soil more rapid changes in soil health agricultural lands. As a result, these ductivity), production of phytotoxic as it leads to more rapid turnover of Cover crops also provide oth- organic matter, loss of N through er soil-related benefits. Biological moisture available to the trees. Some and expected benefits of using cover orchards should respond positively compounds (Table 1: Known allelo- cover crops like cowpeas, millet, and crops than single species. Another to use of annual or perennial cover path), or N-fixation rates among the volatilization and , and activity in the soil is greatest if a breaking down soil structure or soil ground cover with living roots is medics use less water per ton of bio- plus is cover crop mixes are more crops. Integrating cover crops into legumes (Table 1: Nitrogen source). mass than heavy users like alfalfa and likely to contain species adapted to an orchard operation can have some Table 1 does not include annual grass- tilth. When surveyed, most grow- continuously maintained without a ers indicated they establish cover fallow period. A noticeable increase cereal rye (Table 2: Water use). the soil, although multi-species covers unique challenges as well as benefits es such as soft chess, annual fescue, not found when using cover crops or cheat grown in the west which crops by lightly incorporating after in biological activity in the soil can be broadcasting seed or drilling in the seen within 2 to 3 weeks after cover in the normal fallow period between ought to be highly compatible with cash crops. Studies show having a hardwood trees. These grasses are seed. It may require several years of crops begin growing. More than 80% no-till following continuous tillage of plants form symbiotic relation- ground cover can reduce hardwood short, drought tolerant, self-reseed- tree growth anywhere from a few ing winter annuals that mature very before improvements in soil health ships on their roots with endo- or and crop productivity are observed. ecto-mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi percent to more than 70 percent early in the spring and tolerate repeat (Van Sambeek and Garrett 2004). It mowing. One source I found estimated it takes make soil nutrients more available to 7 to 9 years of no till to restore soil plant roots. In addition, mycorrhizae is important to recognize that the The amount of sunlight available to degree to which cover crops compete health and soil structure; howev- produce glomalin, a sticky water-in- the cover crop in an orchard depends er, cover crops can jump start the soluble glycoprotein that binds soil with the trees varies substantially. A on row orientation, tree size, and few cover crops result in less than a process reducing the time to 2 to 4 particles together to form the stable tree density. In a nut orchard with years because live roots are continu- soil aggregates needed to improve soil 20 percent reduction in tree growth open-canopy trees (branches not compared to other cover crops, such ally present supporting a diversity of tilth (Table 1: Soil builder). The re- touching), sunlight can be reduced soil microbes. If tillage is necessary, sulting pore space between aggregates as tall fescue, that can result in more by 50 (moderate shade) to 80 (dense than a 50 percent reduction in tree consider conservation tillage using provides an improved avenue for soil shade) percent. Studies conducted equipment, i.e. chisel plows, which gas exchange, water holding capacity, Cover crops especially those with are more difficult to seed and estab- growth (Table 1: Compatibility). Tall by University of Missouri Center very rapid growth quickly shade the lish due to different planting times, fescue, one of the easiest grasses to minimally disturbs the soil and leaves and root penetration (Table 1: Topsoil for (UMCA) growing 30% or more of the soil covered by loosener). soil and change the ratio of red to seed sowing depth, and growth rates establish and manage, on average forages under moderate to dense far-red light reaching weed seeds near (Table 2: multiple columns). The reduces walnut growth by nearly 70 plant residues to minimize water and The upper roots of cover crops shade show some cover crops such wind erosion. An early publication physically hold soil particles in place the soil surface so seeds continue to seeding rates shown in Table 2 are percent (Fig. 4). This means if it takes as Kentucky bluegrass, sweet clo- remain dormant (Table 2: Establish- are rates to quickly establish a single 3 years to put on one inch of diameter on no-till reported that earthworms during storm events reducing sheet, ver, white and red clover have better alone can move more soil in a year rill, and gulley erosion. Estimates ment rate). A few cover crops pro- species, dense stand using the lower growth in a weed-free planting, it will growth under moderate shade than duce phytotoxic chemicals that can rates if drilled in and the higher rates take more than 9 years if growing in than annual tillage with a moldboard suggest it takes approximately 100 under full sun while other cover crops plow. years to replace 1 inch of topsoil lost chemically inhibit seed germination if broadcast seeded (Table 2: Seeding a tall fescue sod. Data is not available such as field peas and oats do poor- and seedling growth of other plants rates). In tree plantings rates can on how long (if ever!) it will take for In an orchard, cover crop to erosion. Planting cover crops in ly under moderate shade (Table 1: options increase because perennial

34 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 35 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 ground covers can be established ing. Also in some cases, the value crops (Table 2: Productivity). An- likely to increase the mice and vole cover crops also offer some options lacewings, hover flies, and parasit- and maintained. A continuous plant of a cover crop on soil health can be other consideration, especially for populations followed by increased for restoration of suitable habitats that ic wasps. These insects also need cover moderates soil temperatures increased by . Benefits from perennial cover crops, is how well population of snakes. Pecan growers support pollinators and other benefi- pollen and nectar sources during part compared to exposed soil. For walnut grazing, however, need to be weighed they will recover from late fall mow- may not want to mow or harvest the cial insects. The 2008 and 2014 Farm of their life cycle. Preferred growing in grass sods compared to against additional costs for fenc- ing or harvesting when preparing the cover crop from August 1 until shuck Bills contain specific language that colors include purple, violet, yellow, cultivated orchards, average spring ing and fertilizer. In grazed pecan orchard floor for nut harvesting (Ta- split to lessen movement of stink bugs make pollinators a priority of USDA white, blue, and red although hon- soil temperatures are lower and can orchards, fertilizer rates for N and ble 1: Mowing tolerance). Although into the trees. conservation programs and calls for eybees apparently cannot detect red. delay bud burst and flowering by 4 to K should be increased by 30 and 20 Daikon tillage radish can be used to enhancement or restoration of mil- Managing for predatory and parasitic 5 days so new growth is less suscep- pounds per acre, respectively. Animal break up the plow pan found under In Managing Cover Crops Profitably, lions of acres for pollinator habitat. insects should mean the presence tible to late spring frosts. Perennial wastes, i.e., urine and manure, are not many orchards, it is easily pulled up Clark (2007) says there is a cover crop Under the ‘National Strategy to Pro- of fewer destructive insects includ- cool-season cover crops should be a substantial source of N as approx- by mechanical nut harvesters, jam- to fit just about every situation and mote the Health of Honey Bees and ing aphids, slugs, caterpillars, and left to flower, produce seed (unless imately half the N is volatilized as ming the machinery and leaving holes suggests starting by considering the Other Pollinators,’ almost 200,000 grasshoppers. UMCA studies have the cover crop is invasive), and then ammonia back into the atmosphere. on the soil surface. top cover crops species recommend- acres were signed up for planting to a shown that the number and diversity go dormant over the summer to help When cover crops are planted ed for the Midwestern US. These mix of forbs to provide nectar, pollen, of predatory and parasitic insects is conserve soil moisture. Summer into black walnut plantings and to are marked with an * in Table 1 and and nesting sites. It is estimated that greater in a walnut alley-cropping mowing is discouraged because it a lesser extent in pecan and hickory 2. Clark included an example for a approximately 120 crops benefit from practice than in pure alfalfa stands can stimulate regrowth, especially plantings, some consideration should sloping orchard needing a cover crop by native and honeybees (Stamps, et al. 2009). The value of on grasses, and renewed competi- be given to the susceptibility of the to control erosion, contribute organ- with an estimated 3 billion dollars different cover crops for pollinators tion to the trees for available soil cover crop to juglone produced by ic matter and N, attract beneficial annual contribution to the US econ- (excluding bees) and beneficial insects moisture and nutrients. these trees. Numerous lists exist as to organisms, limit rodents and other omy. is summarized in Table 1 (Table 1: what plants are supposedly tolerant pests, conserve soil moisture, and Beneficial insects). An added value of using forage and susceptible to juglone (Table 1: cover crops in an orchard maybe the Juglone toxicity). It is important to Trees and shrubs can provide sig- production of high quality hay for note that by improving soil health, i.e. nificant forage (pollen and/or nectar) (Fig. 6). When grown un- increasing the organic matter and mi- for native bees although walnut, der moderate to dense shade, most crobial populations and diversity, we pecan, and are not usually plants produce less biomass with a lessen the likelihood of juglone toxic- listed. These nut trees, however, add higher quality forage (higher crude ity occurring. The most likely expla- value by making it easier for pollina- protein and less non-digestible nation for the contradictions found tors to fly and visit as well as fiber). Some cover crops like field among the lists of susceptible and serve as buffers to drifting . peas and sorghum x sudan grass tolerant plants likely has to do with Honeybees stop pollinating when it are better suited for harvesting as differences in the biological activity gets too windy and prefer to forage on forage crops (Table 2: Forage value) of a soil. Soils high in organic matter, the lee side of trees. Increases in polli- while others like ryegrass, oats, and When grazing an orchard, follow diverse populations of microbes, and nation efficiencies can extend out into turnips are better suited for grazing the UMCA silvopastoral guidelines to good aeration are unlikely to show the orchard 10 to 15 times the height (Table 2: Grazing value). Some cover minimize compaction and overgraz- toxicity from juglone. leave soil nutrients available during Besides the introduced European of the trees. crops should be grazed with caution ing (Fig 7). Their guidelines suggest key periods of nut development. He honeybee, there are close to 4,000 Legumes are excellent sources of because they can result in bloating, creating multiple small paddocks so Pecan and to a lesser extent wal- recommends selecting a cover crop other mostly native bee species and pollen and nectar for pollinators and nitrate poisoning, or contain toxic livestock can be rotated when forage nut are likely to be planted on sites that does not produce too much N 40 bumblebee species found in the beneficial insects in addition to being compounds (Table 2: Toxicity issues). cover is reduced by two-thirds or subject to flooding. Grass cover crops causing excessive leaf growth, can US (Fig. 8). About 70 percent of the able as cover crops to boost soil fertil- Apparently, the plants to be most plants grazed early in the rotation are more likely to survive extended be a perennial or reseeding annual, native bee species reproduce in tun- ity. Wells (2017) reports that planting concerned about are the vetches and show new growth. To minimize periods of flooding than legumes or is low growing and needs minimal nels in the soil. Most are solitary with legumes in pecan orchards can build- some peas because of toxins present compaction in the orchard, maintain other cover crops. There is consider- management, uses water efficiently, each female locating and provisioning up populations of beneficial insects. in the seeds when the plant matures. some open pasture, so livestock can able variation in sensitivity to flood- releases nutrients during the growing her own nest with pollen before laying When the cover crop dies or goes dor- be removed from the orchard when ing within in both the grasses and season, and harbors or attracts few eggs. Roughly 30 percent of native mant, the beneficial insects are driven soil moisture is near field capacity legumes (Table 1: Flood Tolerance). pests. After considering more than 30 bees nest in woody materials which up into the trees and feed on pecan (Jose, et al. 2017). should be Alsike clover and redtop are two of options, Clark suggested using white can include dead wood or plants with insect pests. Recognize that reaching removed from an orchard about a the more flood tolerant perennial clover or possibly strawberry clover pithy stems. Bee species are attracted maturity or death of the clover is also month before nut harvest to mini- cover crops. (although they attract pocket gophers) to different kinds of flowers depend- likely to drive insect pests into the mize contamination of nuts by dry Integrating cover crops into an mixed with quick-growing reseed- ing on their color, structure, and size tree canopies such as stink bugs that manure during harvesting. orchard can create some unique prob- ing soft brome or annual ryegrass (Table 1: Bee forage value). feed on the immature nuts. Although even though these grasses will likely When choosing a cover crop con- lems (Olcott-Reid and Reid 2007). Adding cover crops to an orchard grass cover crops do not provide nec- Because legumes, especially the require periodic mowing. As alter- tar, they can provide pollen and be an sider how plant residues will impact natives, Clark suggests using reseed- will increase the abundance and the harvesting operation. Plants clovers, aggressively take up P, K, and diversity of insects. In addition to important host for some caterpillars. zinc, orchards may require broadcast ing winter annuals such as crimson Grass pollen is marginally attractive with tall woody stems will make it clover, subclover, one of the vetches, bees, cover crops should increase the difficult to pick up the nuts even if application of PK and foliar abundance of other pollinators in- to bees because it has a lower protein application of zinc. Clover and hairy or an annual medick. content than the pollen of broadleaf In addition to improved perfor- mowed (Table 2: Mature height). Also cluding other insects such as butter- most mechanical harvesters are not vetch plots are attractive to deer and flies, moths, and some beetles and the plants. mance of the animals, benefits of seem to increase browsing and buck COVER CROPS AND POLLINA- grazing an orchard can include pas- designed to handle the large volume diversity and abundance of beneficial of biomass produced by many cover rub problems. Cover crops are also TORS insects such as predatory lady beetles, It is important when managing for ture rent and reduced costs for mow- Along with improving soil health, pollinators to use a mix of species to

36 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 37 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 assure flowers are present throughout to maintain plant diversity. If strips Partridge pea is an especially prom- (Apr-May), nine-bark (Apr-May), Midwest. Green Cover Seed (Blad- G.T.; and Christensen, L.P., eds. 1998. most of the growing season (Table 1: include wildflowers and grasses, use ising native prairie plant for estab- raspberries (Apr-Jun), (Mar- en, NE; http://greencoverseed.com) Cover cropping in : a grow- Bloom period). Preference should be bunch grasses like orchard grass or lishing between trees leaving alleys May), pawpaw (Apr-May), sassafras specializes in designing custom seed er’s handbook. Publ. 3338. University given to species with long flowering little bluestem. Permanent wildflower within the orchard available for agro- (Mar-May), elderberry (May-Jul), lilac mixes to match grower’s goals, plant- of . 162 p. periods. The NRCS recommends a strips provide undisturbed areas for nomic or low growing cover crops. It (May), and willow (Apr-May). Be- ing dates, and locations. A search on Johnson, H. and Liebig, M. 2016. mix of at least 10 species with one ground nesting bees to excavate their can fix its own N, has a relatively long cause of their sensitivity to juglone, the internet produces a list of other Cover Crop Chart. Version 2.1. bunch grass or sedge species and underground tunnels along with a blooming period, attracts pollinators (Mar-May), blueberries (Apr- dealers that also offer seed for most of USDA-ARS Northern Great Plains a minimum of 3 species flowering temporary source of pollen and nec- to both the flowers and extra-floral May), grapes, blackberries (Apr-Jun), the species listed in Table 1. Most of Research Laboratory. 61 pp. On line at during the spring (March-May), tar through the growing season when nectaries at the base of the leaves, and or basswood (May-June) may not these dealers have prepared mixtures http://www.mandan.ars.usda.gov. summer (June-August), and fall cover crops are not flowering. has weak stems that can cover and be good choices in a black walnut or can do custom mixes designed to (September-November). They suggest smother other weeds. orchard. address specific soil or grazing needs. Jose, S.; Walter, D.; and Kumar, managing for at least one plant spe- Some websites also have decision B.M. 2017. Ecological considerations cies (could be a weed if not noxious Another species to consider adding SOURCES FOR ASSISTANCE tools to aid in creating specialized in sustainable silvopasture design and or invasive) that flowers very early as to any permanent wildflower strip or Adding cover crops into a farming mixes. Whatever dealer you decide to management. Agroforestry Systems. food source for pollinators emerging border are native milkweeds although or orchard operations is estimated use, be sure to purchase the appropri- DOI: 10.1007/s10457-016-0065-2. from hibernation and one species that they are considered to be unpalatable to cost between $20 and $50 per ate seed inoculum(s) for the legumes Mader, E.; Spivak, M,; and Evans, E. flowers very late as a food source as by livestock. Milkweeds are the sole acre per year. With a little creative in the mix. Some companies are fea- eds. 2010. Managing Alternative Pol- pollinators go into winter dormancy. source of food for caterpillars of the thinking, orchard managers can take turing an inoculum with a broad mix linators: A Handbook for Beekeepers, NRCS emphasis is on using native monarch butterfly and support a wide advantage of several government of rhizobial strains suitable for nearly Growers, and Conservationists. SARE wildflowers or forages because they range of pollinators with abundant programs to offset costs associated all the legume cover crops. If possible and NRAES. 162 pp. are less likely to become invasive high-quality nectar and pollen. with use of cover crops and creat- purchase inoculums that also contain (Table 1: Can be invasive) and because Missouri has 18 species of milkweed ing pollinator habitat. Under the a mix of mycorrhizae to increase the MCCC. 2014. Midwest cover crops of their tolerance for lower fertility that are adapted to a range of soil Conservation Reserve Program, the effectiveness of rhizobial strains and field guide. ID-433. Midwest Cover soils and lower water use per ton of conditions, so one or more species USDA Farm Service Agency plans to aid non-leguminous plants in taking Crop Council. 161 pp. biomass. Also, native wildflowers should be adapted to our orchard enroll nearly 270,000 acres of private up available soil nutrients. Olcott-Reid, B. and Reid, W. 2007. seldom require use of pesticides. Cover crops and forbs of high value soils. Common milkweed may be the lands in a special pollinator-specific In closing, I want to acknowl- Fruit and Nut Production. Stipes Pub- In a nut-producing orchard, cover to pollinators and beneficial insects easiest to establish because it is the initiative. The Monarch Butterfly edge the contribution of numerous lishing, Champaign, IL. 597 pp. crops should be chosen that will not include annuals such as buckwheat, only milkweed that occurs naturally Habitat Development Project and the growers who have asked questions, SARE. 2015. Cover Cropping for be in flower when insecticides are to hairy vetch, rapeseed, crimson clover, in cultivated fields. Environmental Quality Incentives discussed these ideas, and pushed me Pollinators and Beneficial Insects. be applied to control insects such as phacelia, sunn hemp, and sunflowers; A third option for improving polli- Program (EQIP) both funded by the to develop this paper over the last 40 Sustainable Research and the pecan weevil. Alternatively, man- biennials such as partridge pea, sweet nator habitat is interplanting flow- USDA-NRCS will provide cost-share years. Finally, I wish to express my Education. 16 pp. agers could mow the cover crop or clover, forage radish, and turnips; and ering shrubs and small trees within funding to landowners to carry out appreciation to Steve Shifley, Doug perennials such as alfalfa, kura clover, management practices that include Wallace, John Kabrick, Nadia Na- SARE. 2017. 2016-2017 Cover Crop spray half or less of the area at a time the rows between the nut trees. In Survey Annual Report. Sustain. so insects can leave the area or have white clover, red clover, sainfoin, and addition to being sources of pollen both using cover crops and establish- varrete-Tindall, Jerry Henkin, and the tick trefoils (Table 1: Bee forage ment and improvement of pollinator Gina Zimbardi for their technical Agric. Res. And Educ. https://www. time to move back into the treated and nectar, they can also be a source SARE.org/2017covercropsurvey. areas, respectively. Other options are value and Table 1: Beneficial insect of additional revenue to the orchard and butterfly habitat. comments and reassuring me the to spray early in the morning or late value). Many of these same plant spe- manager if the fruit is harvested. information will be useful to those Stamps, W.T.; McGraw, R.L.; God- in the evening when bees are least cies also provide important benefits Most can be pruned to single stems When current growers of cover interested managing nut orchards and sey, L.; and Woods, T.L. 2009. The active and when insecticides are less for improving soil health as N sources and allow for mechanical nut harvest- crops were asked where they purchase integrating nut trees into different ecology and economics of insect pest likely to volatilize or drift. When (Fig. 10). ing. The list of native woody species their seed, most listed companies agroforestry practices. management in the Midwestern Unit- possible, avoid the use of systemic in the Midwest includes a few legume specializing in cover crop seeds, ed States. Agriculture, Ecosystems, insecticides which are absorbed and or actinorhizal shrubs capable of fix- followed by agricultural retailers, PRIMARY SOURCES OF INFOR- and Environment 131: 4-8. move through the plant injuring both ing atmospheric N. None of the native and then commodity seed dealers. MATION USDA-NRCS. 2017. PLANTS data- Seed of the most agronomic crops the target pest as well as pollinators woody species I have tried added Barickman, G. 2004. Pollinator base. Online at www.plants.usda.gov. and beneficial insects foraging pollen like wheat, cereal rye, oats, soybeans, sufficient N to change foliar N levels Biology and Habitat. Illinois Biology Vaughan, M. and Black, S.H. 2008. and nectar. The systemic neonic- in intercropped pecan, so it unlikely clovers, and ryegrass can usually be purchased from a local farm supplier. Technical Note No. 23. Xerces Soci- Native Pollinators: How to protect otinoid insecticides are especially native woody N-fixers can improve ety and USDA-NRCS. 34 pp. harmful because they can persist in Some of these species have been bred and enhance habitat for native bees. nut production although I did not Native Plants 9: 80-91. the environment and be taken up measure nut production. to improve their performance as a Belcher, E. 2014. The cover crop years later by other plants attractive cover crop such as Fixation balansa specialists guide. Center Seeds. 36 pp. Van Sambeek, J.W. and Garrett, to pollinators. If soils are not well drained and clover, AC Greenfix chickling vetch, Clark, A., ed. 2007. Managing H.E. 2004. Ground cover manage- An easy second option for res- are low in organic matter, shrubs or grazing corn and are available only Cover Crops Profitably. 3rd edition. ment in walnut and other hardwood toration of pollinator habitat is to will need to be selected that tolerate from companies that specialize in Network, plantings. Pp. 85-100 in USDA FS establish permanent native wildflower the accumulation of juglone in black cover crop seed. I obtained valuable Beltsville, MD. 246 pp. Gen Tech Rep NC-243. strips in the orchard within the tree Buckwheat is one of the best cover walnut orchards. Pollinator-friendly information for this paper from the Finney, D.M. and Kay, J.P. 2016. Van Sambeek, J.W.; Ponder, F., Jr.; rows or wider strips along the borders crops for attracting bees and benefi- species tolerant of juglone and their following companies that specialize Functional diversity in cover crop and Rietveld, W.J. 1986. Legumes in- and fence rows (Fig. 9). The NRCS cial insects. It grows rapidly, smoth- bloom times include witch hazel (Jan- in cover crops. Center Seeds (Min- increase multifunction- crease growth and alter foliar nutrient recommends strips 30 feet wide along ering other weeds, and is easily killed Mar), hazelnuts (Mar-Apr), redbud ster, OH; http://www.centerseeds. ality of an agricultural system. Jour- levels of black walnut saplings. Forest field borders to facilitate periodic by mowing when seed is still imma- (Mar-Apr), service (Mar-Apr), com) is a nationwide distributor of nal of Applied Ecology 54(2): 509-517. Ecology and Management 17: 159-167. mowing or patch burning needed ture so it does not become invasive. plums (Mar-May), (Mar- only cover crop seeds with a network May), pecan (Apr-May), persimmon of dealers located throughout the Ingels, C.A.; Bugg, R.L.; McGourty. Wells, L. 2017. Clover management

38 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 39 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 in pecan orchards. UGA Coop Exten- A = less than 20%, B = 20-40%, C = deep seed should be drilled or incor- earthworms are an easily observed in- sion Bulletin 1360. 15 pp. 40-60%, D = 60-80%, and F = more Column 22 (Pollinator value) and porated (generally 2 to 4 times the di- dicator of a healthy agricultural soil. Yatskievych, G. 1999-2013. Steyer- than 80% reduction in biomass. Flood column 23 (Beneficial insects) indi- ameter of the seed) into the soil which Figure 2. Walnut seedlings in sec- mark’s Flora of Missouri. Volumes tolerance values rate the plants as to cates the value of flowers as pollen is heavily dependent on soil type, soil ond year of growth with 1-3. Missouri Botanical Press. their ability to survive partial inun- and nectar sources to bees and the moisture, and seed size. Column 10 using only chemicals (left) or only 3,460 pp. dation where A = more than 3 weeks, value of pollen, nectar, and forage (Days to emerge) provides the aver- a hairy vetch living mulch without B =1 to 3 weeks, C = up to a week, to other beneficial insects including age number of days before seedlings chemical weed control (right). D = for a few days, and F = listed as butterflies, moths, predatory, and par- emerge from the soil if planted at intolerant of flooding. The next two asitic insects from A (excellent) to F recommended depth (column 11) and Figure 3. Excellent cover of hairy EXPLANATIONS FOR VALUES IN columns give values for the plants (very poor). Bloom period is the time soil temperatures (column 9). Col- vetch, an excellent nitrogen fixer, TABLES ability to tolerate drought and low interval when the species is in flow- umn 13 (Establishment rate) assigns in a black walnut orchard that will Table 1 compiles information for 70 fertility soils on a scale of A = excel- er. Most plants flower heavily in the values from A = very rapid and suppress weeds and slowly release N of the most common cover crops or lent, B = very good, C = good, D=fair, first or second month of the reported excellent for weed suppression to F = as forage decomposes. ground covers that could be plant- and F= poor. Mowing tolerance rates ranges but will flower over a longer slow taking more than one growing Figure 4. Twenty-year-old walnuts ed in an orchard either as single each species on the same scale as to period if mowed or grazed. The last season and normally established with on an excellent site with very poor species or part of a mix to form a how well they tolerate (recover) fall column list how far north a plant will a rapidly growing smother crop for growth in response to the tall fescue living mulch. This table lists growth mowing prior to nut harvest (Septem- survive overwinter based on the plant weed control. Column 14 (Growth ground cover that invaded the plant- characteristics, tolerance to stressors, ber for Chinese chestnut, October for hardiness zone maps (http://plan- rate) assigns values from A = very ing. suitability as cover crops and value walnut, and November for pecan). rapid once initiated and excellent for thardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/ Figure 5. Eastern gamagrass, a to pollinators and other beneficial Juglone tolerance rates species as to Default.aspx). weed suppression to F = slow and insects. Blank cells means insuffi- whether the cover crop is listed as may require management of other shade-tolerant warm season grass, cient information was found in the tolerant (T), susceptible (S), or results Table 2 provides agronomic infor- vegetation if it is to survive. Column growing within a black walnut al- literature I reviewed for me to make are mixed (M). The twelfth column mation to aid in establishing 70 cover 15 (Moisture use) assigns values of ley-cropping practice. even an educated guess. An orchard (Known allelopath) indicates whether crop species (column 1) listed in the how efficiently the cover crop uses soil Figure 6. High quality eastern manager must decide which species these plants produce chemicals that same order as in Table 1. Blank cells moisture to produce a ton of biomass gamagrass hay harvested from a pe- will work best toward meeting their can slow the growth of other plants means insufficient information was ranging A (less than 3” of precipita- can orchard. goals for producing nuts, alternative and potentially trees as Y = yes and found in the literature I reviewed tion) to F (over 4” precipitation per Figure 7. Feeder cattle have grazed income, improving soil health, and N = not reported to be allelopathic to for me to make even an educated ton of forage produced). Column down the grass cover crop in a pecan creating pollinator habitat. other plants. guess. Column 2 (Plant architec- 16 (Productivity) provides expected orchard and are ready to be moved to ture) describes if stems are primarily Column 1 (Species) gives a fre- Column 13 lists an average max- cumulative forage yields in air-dried a new paddock. erect (E), semi-erect (SE), prostrate tons per acre if harvested one or more quently used common name although imum rooting depth on deep soils. (P) or climbing vines (V). Column Figure 8. One of almost 4,000 spe- many of these species go by multiple Most grasses have shallow dense fi- times at early to mid-bloom. Annual 3 (Mature height) describes how tall forage yields and water use can be cies of bees that can be found forag- common names. Column 2 (Forb brous root systems and compete more the plant is normally when flowering. ing for nectar and pollen in the US. type) indicates whether the species is vigorously for soil water and nutrients substantially less for some crops if not Column 4 (Acceptable soil pH range) harvested and left to mature. Column Figure 9. Photo of a five-year old na- an annual (A), biennial (B), or peren- than do most broad-leaved plants that gives average ranges found in the tive wildflower border with minimal nial (P); and whether the species is tend to have taproots with less fibrous 17 (% Crude protein) provides an literature; however, if range is below average percentage for crude protein management taken in July that was a grass (G), legume (L), or a non-le- root systems. pH 6 for legumes, they may be able to seeded without native grasses. gume, broad-leaved forb (B). Column in forages harvested for hay around Columns 14 to 20 describe the value grow but will show little N-fixation. early flowering. The product of crude Figure 10. Excellent stand of Kura 3 (Growing season) indicates if the Column 5 (Times to seed in the Mid- species is normally grown as a winter of each species as a cover crop. As protein times productivity gives an clover established in a young pecan nitrogen sources, an A means plants west) gives the appropriate seasons to estimate of potential input of N into orchard as an N source, for weed annual (WA), a cool season (CS), or a seed in plant hardiness zones 5 and 6 warm season (WS) forb. can fix more than 150 pounds, B = the soil as forages decompose (N-fix- suppression, and for hay. 100-150 pounds, C = 50-100 pounds, and is shown as early (E) or (L) spring ation in legumes normally stops at Column 4 (Compatibility) is (Sp), summer (Su), fall (F), or winter early flowering). Column 18 (Forage one of the more important columns D = less than 50 pounds actual N per acre, and F = a non-nitrogen-fixing (W). Column 6 (Fall seed) indicates value) and Column 19 (Grazing value) for orchard managers as it indicates when to seed in the fall for maximum indicate value from A (excellent) to F how likely a cover crop will be to cover crop. Values as a nutrient scav- enger, soil builder, subsoiler, topsoil cover crop benefits as the number of (very poor) for each species to live- decrease tree growth when compared weeks before first fall frost (approx- stock if harvested for hay or grazed, to trees grown in orchards without loosener, erosion preventer, and weed suppressor are rated as A = excellent, imately mid-October in Missouri). respectively. Column 20 (Toxicity a ground cover where A = less than Column 7 (Soil temperature) provides issues) indicate if precautions must be 20%, B = 20-30%, C = 30-40%, D = B = very good, C = good, D = fair, and F= poor based primarily on values information on either the minimum taken to prevent bloat (B) or nitrate 40-50%, and F = more than a 50% soil temperature for germination or poisoning (N) when grazing, to reduction in tree growth. assigned by Clark (2007), the Midwest Cover Crop Council (MCCC 2014), optimum soil temperature for rapid prevent poisoning from cyanide or germination. Column 8 (Seeding The next seven columns rate and my knowledge of the species. prussic acid (P) in improperly cured Column 21 (Can be invasive) indi- rate) lists averages of low and high hay, or to prevent poisoning from each species as to tolerance to various rates found in the literature for estab- stressors. Shade tolerance indicates cates if a species can become invasive toxic chemicals (T) present in the for- (Y = yes) and should be terminated lishing a pure stand with the lower age or seeds or chemicals created with the reduction in biomass produced rates recommend if seed is drilled or under moderate shade in an open before they produce mature seed improper drying of the forage. unless we want it to reseed itself in incorporated and the higher rates if productive orchard compared to bio- broadcast over disturbed soil. Col- FIGURE LEGENDS mass produced in open fields where future years. umn 9 (Sowing depth) indicates how Figure 1. Abundant populations of

40 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 41 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 Hardy thru zone thru Hardy Table 1. 8 6 6 8 9 6 5 8 7 9 7 4 5 3 9 7 9 6 4 5 5 4 3 5 4 5 4 2 2 4 8 6 5 8 7 5 9 6 2 2 3 6 3 9 8 9 8 8 9 3 4 7 4 4 2 5 2 3 5 2 2 4 3 2 —Traits of possible cover

Bloom period Bloom crops when grown as Jul-Oct Apr-Jul Apr-May Apr-May Aug-Sep May-Sep Mar-Jun May-Jun Apr-Jul Jul-Sep May-Jun May-Jul Jun-Aug Jul-Sep Jul-Aug Mar-Apr Aug-Oct May-Jul May-Sep May-Sep May-Oct Jun-Sep May-Aug Jun-Aug Jul-Aug Apr-Oct May-Oct Apr-Oct May-Jul Jul-Aug Apr-Sep May-Sep May-Aug May-Sep Apr-Jun Apr-Jul Apr-Sep Jul-Aug Aug-Sep Aug-Oct Jun-Aug Aug-Oct May-Jul Apr-Jun Jun-Aug Jul-Oct Aug-Sep Jun-Jul Aug-Sep May-Jun Jun-Oct Jul-Aug May-Jun May-Jun Apr-Jun May-Jun May-Jun Jul-Aug May-Jul Aug-Sep May-Jun Jun-Aug May-Jun May-Jun Aug-Sep Apr-Jun May-Aug on

Beneficial insects Beneficial compatibility D C C B C B A B C A B A C B C A A C A B C B C C C C B A C A B A B A B B A A A A A D D D D B D D D C D D D F F F C D D F Bee forge value forge Bee with trees,

tolerance D B A B C B C D B A C A C A C B B A B A B B A B B A B B A A B A B A A A A A A B A A A F D D F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Can be invasive be Can to various

stresses, Y N Y N N Y Y N N N N Y N N N Y N Y Y N S Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N N Y Y N Y Y N Y N N Y N N N N Y N N Y Y Y N N Y N Y Y Y Y Y N Weed suppresser suppresser Weed rooting

B B B B C B B B B A C C D B C A A A B B B A A A C B B B B B B A B A B C B C C C A C A B A C B B B B A B B C B B B D A B C C C C B B A A C depth, ability Erosion preventer Erosion to improve

C B B B D C C C B B C C C B D B A C B B B B A A C B B B B B D C B B D B D C C A A C C C A A A A A A A A A A A A B B A B B A A A A soil health, Topsoil loosener Topsoil invasiveness, C A A B D C C B C B B D D B A C C B B B B B B B B B C B C B A A B C B D D B C C C C B C B B B A B C C A B A B C and value for

Subsoiler* pollinators D C C D D C F D C D D C D A C A A D B A C D C B B D F A D D C A A B B A B C D C D C F C C D C C C B A D B B A A B D Soil builder* Soil and beneficial

insects. An * C A A A D C C C A C C B D B D B A A A A C C B B C B C B B B C B C B C C C C D A A B B B B B C A A B B B B B B A B B B A B B A A A Nutrient scavenge Nutrient marks the top

C B B C C D D B C C D D C C D C C D C D B B C B D C D C A B C B B A B B A A B A B A A A A A C B A B B B B B B B B B B B B D cover crop Nitrogen source Nitrogen species for the

C B A A C C B A B B A B B C B B A A C A A B A B D B A B B D B F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Midwest. Rooting depth (ft) depth Rooting

1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 3 8 1 3 4 4 5 2 2 3 4 2 1 4 2 2 3 3 8 4 3 7 4 7 2 2 5

1 2 2 1 2 4 4 1 2 2 2 1 4 7 1 6 4 3 3 4 9 2 2 *Editor’s Known allelopath Known note: It is

surprisingly N N N N N N N N Y N N N N N Y Y N N Y N N N N N N N N Y N N Y N N Y N Y N Y N Y N N Y N N N Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N Y N N Y Y Juglone tolerance Juglone difficult to

S T M M T T T M S M M T T T T T S S T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T print tables . Mowing tolerance tolerance Mowing For a digital

D B A B A C C B A B F B C D C B B F D C B B D A C D D D C A A C D D D D D D D D C A A C B C B D D A B D A C version of these Low fertility soils fertility Low tables, please

A D A C C C B B B A D D C C B B B B A D C B B B C B A D D B B B D D C C C C B D B B C A D B C A B C C D C B B B C C C D B B C C A A C B see ourwebsite Drought tolerance Drought or contact me B C C B D C A D C D C A B B B B B A A C B A C C C C B B B D D C C C C A B D A B B D B A B A B A D A A A C B B C B B C A C B C B B D at nngaeditor@

Flood tolerance* Flood gmail.com D D B C C D C D D D D D D C B D D B C A A D D B C B B D D B D D D D B D D D D D C C B C C C D A C D D D B C C D B C C D D D C B A B B C Shade tolerance* Shade

D D B C D C C B C C D B B D A D B C D D D A C C B B D D A C C C C D C C B C C C C B D D D F D D D D C D C D B B B C B C B C D C C Compatibility

C B A B B B A A B B D C A C B C B C C C A F D D B A B D A F F B C B B D B C C B B F C Growing season Growing

WS CS CS WS WS WS WA WA WA WS CS WA CS WS WS WS WS WA CS CS CS CS CS CS WS CS CS CS CS WS CS WS CS CS WA CS WA WS WS CS WS WS WS WA WA WS WS WS WS WS CS WS WS WS CS WA WA WS CS WS CS WS CS CS CS CS WS CS CS Forb type Forb AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL AL BL PL PL PL PL PL PL PL PL PL PL PL PL AB AB AB AB AB AB AB AB BB PB PB PB AG AG AG AG AG AG AG AG AG AG AG AG AG AG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG Species lespedezaAnn. clover Arrowleaf Balansa clover Berseem clover bean hay Black medic *Black Burclover vetch Chickling clover *Crimson Cowpea peaField vetch *Hairy Lentil pea Partridge Soybean Subclover hemp Sunn pod vetch Woolly *Sweetclover Alfalfa clover Alsike trefoil Bird-foot Crownvetch pea Flat IL bundleflower clover Kura Ladino clover *Red clover Sainfoin trefoil Tick clover White *Buckwheat radish Forage Kale Mustard Phacelia Rapeseed Safflower Sunflower turnip Forage Goldenrod Milkweed aster Perennial ryegrass*Ann. *Cereal rye corn Forage Foxtail millet Grain sorghum Japanese millet Pearl millet *Spring oat *Sorgh x sudan Sudan grass lovegrass Teff Triticale *Winter barley Winter wheat Bermuda grass Brome grass E. gamagrass blue grass KY Little bluestem Orchard grass ryegrass Per. Red fescue Redtop Switchgrass fescue Tall Timothy

42 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 43 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 Toxicity issues Toxicity

B B T B T T N B T B B T P T B B T B B P P P P P T N N N P N N K P P N N N B N T T T T Table 2. — Grazing value* Grazing Agronomic

B B A A B B B F A C B D C C C B D B D A B B C A A A B A A C A F C C C D B C B A C F D B B B B B A A A B A C B B B B B A A C B B C C B C B information Forage value Forage of candidate

C B A B B C C D A B A D C C C B D B D A B C D C C B D A A C C F B C D D D B D F D D D C C C B B B B B A B A C B C C A B B D B A D C C C C cover crops % Crude protein Crude % as to growing

13 20 25 30 20 18 30 21 20 14 16 14 17 28 30 17 15 18 20 18 18 24 25 15 17 25 5 28 20 12 14 12 12 16 13 9 10 15 18 13 12 18 11 14 13 12 10 7 15 17 8 12 16 9 19 11 season,

tons per acre) per tons form, height,

Productivity (dry (dry Productivity acceptable soil 1-2 2-3 2-4 3-5 2-4 1-2 1-3 2-3 2-4 2-3 1-3 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-4 2-3 4-6 1-2 2-4 2-4 1-4 1-2 1-3 3-5 1-3 1-2 2-4 2-4 2-4 1-2 1-3 2-3 2-4 3-5 5-7 1-2 3-4 1-2 2-6 1-4 4-5 2-6 2-4 1-5 2-4 4-6 2-4 3-5 2-4 2-5 5-9 2-4 2-4 Moisture use Moisture pH ranges,

A C C A C B C A B A B B A C C A B B C F F B C C C C C D A C B F C D B C F D F C C F F A C B A C C B C F A D C F F B A D D C C B B planting Growth rate Growth information,

rate B B A A A B B C C A B B B A B A A B B C B B C C C B B B B C A B A B A A A C A A C B B A A A A A A A A A A B B B B A A C B B B C A A A C time to Establishment Establishment

B C A C B A C D B B C B C C D B D D C D D D B C B D A A A A C B C B B C C B A A B B A B B A A A D B B B D C D D D B B C C C B B emergence,

growth rates, Days to emerge to Days 7 7 9 4 7 7 8 9 5 9 5 3 6 8 7 4 7 6 4 7 6 4 7 7 7 6 5 9 14 14 10 12 12 12 10 10 10 10 10 18 10 13 12 13 13 moisture use, productivity, and feed value

(in) for primarily Sowing depth depth Sowing

0.3-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.0 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.5 0.1-0.3 1.0-1.5 1.0-2.0 1.0-1.5 1.0-1.5 0.2-0.7 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.5 0.5-1.5 0.5-1.5 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.4 0.1-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.0 0.2-0.5 0.3-0.5 1.0-1.5 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.0 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.5 0.2-0.7 0.2-0.8 0.2-0.7 0.1-0.5 0.2-0.6 0.5-1.0 0.1-1.0 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.8 0.5-2.0 1.0-1.5 0.8-1.2 1.0-2.0 0.5-0.8 0.8-1.5 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.5 0.5-1.0 0.1-0.2 0.7-1.5 0.7-2.0 0.7-1.5 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.6 1.0-1.5 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3 0.2-0.5 0.3-1.0 0.2-0.5 cattle. An

* marks

acre) the highly 4-8 1-4 1-4 4-8 3-7 3-5 2-4 5-7 3-6 Seeding rate (lb/ rate Seeding 9-11 5-10 5-10 5-15 8-12 5-12 3-10 4-15 5-10 5-10 8-15 7-10 8-20 5-20 2-10 5-10 0.5-1

15-20 40-60 10-15 20-25 30-40 15-25 20-30 40-90 25-45 10-15 10-30 40-60 20-30 15-20 30-60 10-15 10-20 15-20 20-35 20-40 25-35 15-25 60-99 20-30 10-20 12-20 20-25 40-90 10-20 15-50 40-70 60-90 50-99 10-20 10-20 10-15 15-30 15-40 10-25 recommended

15-30

F) (

o Midwestern

Soil temperature temperature Soil species.

42 65 45 45 42 58 41 60 40 70 60 38 68 60 42 34 65 68 68 41 40 41 68 40 50 45 45 40 37 41 40 70 45 40 34 65 65 60 38 65 65 65 38 38 38 65 65 59 50 40

(weeks) (weeks) Fall seed seed Fall

---- 4-8 5-8 5-6 ------2-6 6-8 6-9 ---- 4-8 4-7 1-4 ------2-6 7-9 1-2 >6 4-8 6-8 8-9 ---- 1-2 2-6 5-6 0-2 2-6 2-6 ---- >8 >8 3-9 3-4 4-8 5-7 4-6 ------3-9 ------3-9 0-5 ------6-8 6-9 6-9 4-9 4-9 3-9 0-4 ---- 5-7 ---- 2-6 0-2 4-8 4-8 0-2 6-7 ---- 0-4 2-6

the Midwest the Times to seed in in seed to Times

W, Sp W, LSu, EF ESp, LSu ESp, LSu ESu ESp LW, LSu-EF ESp ESp, LSu W, LSp, ESu ESp, LSu LSu, EF ESp, EF ESp-LSp LSp, ESu ESu, LSu ESu LSu, EF Sp, Su W, ESp, LSu, EF Sp, Su W, Sp, F Sp, ESu ESp, F ESp, LSu ESp, LSu ESp, LF ESp, LSu Sp, EF Sp, LF Sp, EF LSp, ESu ESp, LSu Sp. LSu Sp, LSu ESp, F Sp, LSu, F ESp, LSu Sp - ESu Sp – Lsu ESp, LF EW LF, EW LF, ESp, LSu LSu – F LSp, ESu ESu, EF LSp, ESu ESu ESu, LSu Sp, EF LSp, ESu LSp, ESu LSp, ESu ESu, Su, F Sp, LSu, EF Sp, LSu, EF Sp ESp, EF ESp W, ESp, EF Sp, LF W, ESp, EF ESp, LSu ESp, LSu ESp, LSu, EF LSp ESp, F Sp, LSu, EF

pH range pH Acceptable soil soil Acceptable

5.0-7.0 6.0-7.5 4.5-8.0 5.5-7.8 5.5-7.2 6.0-8.0 5.5-8.2 5.5-7.5 5.0-7.5 4.5-7.5 5.0-7.0 5.5-7.5 4.4-8.2 5.5-7.5 5.5-7.8 5.0-8.0 5.5-8.4 6.0-7.5 6.0-7.5 6.0-8.5 5.5-7.5 5.0-7.0 5.5-7.7 5.5-8.0 5.5-7.0 5.5-7.0 5.5-7.0 5.5-7.5 6.0-8.5 5.5-7.0 5.5-7.0 5.0-7.0 6.0-7.5 5.5-7.2 6.0-7.5 6.2-8.0 5.5-7.5 5.5-6.5 5.5-7.5 5.4-6.7 5.0-7.5 5.5-7.5 5.0-7.5 5.0-7.8 5.0-8.0 5.5-7.5 5.0-7.0 5.5-7.5 4.7-7.4 4.8-7.5 4.5-7.5 5.5-7.0 6.0-7.0 5.5-7.0 5.2-7.1 6.0-8.5 6.0-8.0 5.0-8.5 5.5-7.5 5.1-7.0 5.9-8.0 5.5-7.5 5.5-8.0 5.0-8.0 5.0-7.5 4.5-8.0 4.5-7.5 4.7-9.0 5.2-7.5

(inches)

Mature height height Mature 6-24 8-20 6-12 6-12 3-18 6-48 6-18 4-12 15-20 30-40 12-36 12-20 30-36 12-24 24-48 18-24 18-48 24-72 12-30 24-36 24-36 36-99 18-24 18-90 18-42 24-48 18-27 12-48 24-54 40-50 48-72 12-36 18-36 36-72 24-60 12-18 12-30 24-60 36-60 12-48 36-72 18-48 24-72 18-56 15-36 36-72 48-72 24-60 18-36 24-48 36-72 24-60 54-96 54-96 20-50 18-50 18-36 24-48 24-48 12-48 15-30 24-48 24-48 12-30 16-40 20-36 36-72 24-54 24-42

architecture Plant Plant P P P P E E V V V E E V E E E V E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E SP SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE Species Ann. Lespedeza Arrowleaf clover Balansa clover Berseem clover Black hay bean *Black medic Bur clover Chickling vetch *Crimson clover Cowpea Field pea *Hairy vetch Lentil Partridge pea Soybean Subclover Sunn hemp pod vetch Woolly *Sweet clover Alfalfa Alsike clover trefoil Bird’s-foot Crownvetch bundle flower IL Kura clover Ladino clover Flat pea Red clover Sainfoin trefoil Tick White clover *Buckwheat Forage radish Kale Mustard Phacelia Rapeseed Safflower Sunflower Forage turnip Goldenrod Milkweed Perennial aster *Ann. ryegrass *Cereal rye Forage corn Foxtail millet Grain sorghum Japanese millet Pearl millet *Spring oat *Sorgh x sudan Sudan grass lovegrass Teff Triticale *Winter barley Winter wheat Bermuda grass Bromegrass E. gamagrass bluegrass KY Little bluestem Orchard grass ryegrass Per. Red fescue Redtop Switchgrass fescue Tall Timothy

44 The Nutshell, Fall 2017 45 The Nutshell, Fall 2017