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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses Raster data structures and topographic data Adams, Timothy A. How to cite: Adams, Timothy A. (1982) Raster data structures and topographic data, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7689/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk University of Durham Department of Geography Raster data structures and topographic data A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Science by Timothy A. Adams B.Sc, M.Sc. Graduate Society June 1982 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. ABSTRACT The use of computers to assist in map-making has been growing for two decades; their speed of operation, large data storage capacity and flexibility of usage have been major factors in establishing many development and working computer mapping systems throughout the world. In Britain, the Ordnance Survey has supported a digital solution to the production, storage and display of large scale topographic maps since 1972. Until now, the work of the Ordnance Survey - and, indeed, most topographic map-makers in Britain who are investigating digital techniques - have adopted a vector-based strategy to digital mapping in which the data are held as a series of coordinate-points describing the lines shown on the map images. Comparatively little work has been undertaken in Britain on the use of raster-based methods of data capture and storage in which map images are resolved into arrays of small cells or picture elements by appropriately tuned scanning devices. This alternative strategy is known - from work carried out in other countries, chiefly the United States - to be suitable for some types of data manipulation, although its suitability for Ordnance Survey mapping applications is unknown. Very little investigation has been made anywhere in the world of the manipulation of raster data structures by the recently developed array processor computers; almost all existing work is restricted to the use of traditional serial machines. This thesis reports on a three year study carried out in the University of Durham to investigate the applicability of raster data processing for the work of the British national mapping organisation. In particular, it describes the distinction between vector and raster applications with geographic data and the likely characteristics of suitable raster data structures on both serial and parallel computers. A section is also included which describes the nature of scanning trials carried out on a number of commercial devices; it has thus been possible to assess not only the likely advantages and limitations of handling British large scale map data in raster form but also its technical feasibility. The work reports on the likely volumes of data to be expected and describes parallel algorithms for operations such as polygon creation (and, indirectly, the creation of node and link vector files). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to many individuals and organisations who gave freely of their time and resources to enable me to undertake this research study. Chief amongst them are: The Ordnance Survey and Science and Engineering Research Council for joint financial support under the CASE scheme. Professor D.W. Rhind who has inspired and supervised me throughout the entire project, providing much patience, concern and direction over the last three years. Brigadier C.N. Thompson, Col. S.E.G. Fraser, Messers. P.W. Wesley, I.T. Logan, P.E. Haywood and N.S. Smith of the Ordnance Survey for valuable help and advice on survey, mapping and OS-related technical matters. Dr. J.F. Harris (Oxford University), Mr. C. Lloyd (Kongsberg Ltd.), Dr. W. Pferd (Bell Laboratories), Mr. D.G. Smith (USGS) and Mr. R. Brown (Versatec Electronics) who provided real assistance on the use of their respective systems with data specific to the needs of this research. Dr. R. Harris of the Geography Department, University of Durham, for lengthy discussions on all aspects of the work and for reading preliminary drafts of the thesis text. Messers. M. Munro and N.F. Hall of the Computer Unit at the University of Durham for advice on all aspects of serial computer programming, text-formatting and graphics. Mr. K.A. Smith of the DAP Support Unit at Queen Mary College, London for many hours of help with parallel algorithms and DAP programming. Mr. D. Hudspeth who produced the photo-reductions of my computer plots for inclusion as figures in the thesis. My final and perhaps greatest debt is to my fiancee, family and friends from Scunthorpe for their seemingly endless encouragement during the last seven years. Timothy A. Adams June 1982 i LIST OF CONTENTS 1 THE DIGITAL HANDLING OF TOPOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 1 1.1 The need for topographic mapping 1 1.2 A digital approach to topographic mapping 4 1.2.1 The benefits of digital mapping 6 1.3 User requirements of topographic maps 9 1.4 The role of the Ordnance Survey 11 1.5 The objectives of this thesis 16 2 VECTOR DATA STRUCTURES 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.1.1 The view of the United Kingdom 18 2.2 Spatial data 19 2.2.1 The incorporation of attributes 20 2.2.2 Data capture 21 2.3 Digitising procedures .26 2.3.1 Data validation 28 2.4 Data organisation and storage 31 2.4.1 A suitable data structure 33 2.4.2 Data characteristics 38 2.5 The digital mapping approach of Ordnance Survey . 44 2.5.1 Preparation stage ... ...... 48 2.5.2 Digitising stage ............... 49 11 2.5.3 Edit stage 51 2.5.4 Examination and archiving stage 53 2.5.5 Cartographic enhancement stage 54 2.6 The need for topology in the Ordnance Survey data structure 56 2.7 The restructuring project for Ordnance Survey digital data 58 2.7.1 The file structure of the PMA restructuring process 60 2.7.2 Uses of the restructured low-level data ... 63 2.8 The use of fast-digitising systems at Ordnance Survey 66 2.9 Data base management systems and topographic data . 70 2.10 The United States Geological Survey alternative for vector-based digital mapping 75 2.10.1 The role of the National Mapping Division of USGS and the National Mapping Program 77 2.10.2 The data-structure to be adopted 79 2.11 Conclusions 82 Appendix 2.1 83 3 RASTER DATA STRUCTURES . 87 3.1 Introduction 87 3.2 Raster data representations ............ 89 3.3 The data capture stage 96 3.3.1 The drum-based principle of operation .... 97 iii 3.3.2 The flat-bed principle of operation 98 3.3.3 Appropriate pixel resolution 100 3.4 The implementation of a raster-based data structure 3.4.1 Data compaction methods 103 3.5 Some examples of raster-based applications other than ^mapping Ill 3.5.1 Grid square-based census mapping Ill 3.5.2 Handling multispectral scanner data .... 116 3.6 The revision of a raster-based topographic data structure 120 3.7 Raster data handling appropriate to map data . 122 3.7.1 Basic image analysis for feature recognition 127 3.8 User experience 133 3.8.1 A United States view 135 3.8.2 The European view 138 3.9 Conclusions 141 4 COMPARISONS OP RASTER AND VECTOR REPRESENTATIONS .... 143 4.1 Introduction .......... 143 4.2 The basic characteristics of data handling .... 146 4.2.1 Data entry 146 4.2.2 Data manipulation ..... 160 4.2.3 Data presentation ........ 169 4.2.4 Data storage ................ 174 4.3 Summary and conclusions ...... 176 iv 5 THE MANIPULATION OF RASTER DATA ON A SERIAL COMPUTER . 179 5.1 Introduction 179 5.2 A serial-type computing environment 184 5.3 The development of a vector-to-raster conversion system 187 5.3.1 Design aims 188 5.3.2 Theory 192 5.3.3 Some data transfer considerations 193 5.3.4 Development of the vector-to-raster conversion algorithm 196 5.3.5 Development of associated utility programs . 199 5.3.6 Software tuning 203 5.4 Data compaction techniques for the raster image . 210 5.4.1 Develoment of a coded-delta compaction algorithm 213 5.4.2 Software tuning ..... 220 5.5 The choice of pixel resolution 222 5.6 Work applications related to OS requirements . 232 5.6.1 Some applications toward link and node d©t©CtXOn • • • o • o o « o • a o « • • o • e o 233 5.6.2 Attempts to rebuild the raster data image into a vector file ..........235 5.7 Conclusions ................... 242 Appendxx 5.1 ................... 245 V 6 THE MANIPULATION OF RASTER DATA ON A PARALLEL COMPUTER . 248 6.1 Introduction 248 6.2 An array-type computing environment 250 6.2.1 The vector or pipeline array processor .
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