Gendering Literary Creation in Medieval French Culture 1

NOTES

Introduction Authors, Writers, Singers, and Women: Gendering Literary Creation in Medieval French Culture 1 . Epigraphs from Bernard Cerquiglini, In Praise of the Variant (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), p. 8; Nancy Miller, Subject to Change: Reading Feminist Writing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), p. 107; Michel Foucault, “What Is an Author?” in Dits et Ecrits I: 1954–1988 , ed. Daniel Defert, François Ewald, and Jacques Lagrange (Paris: Gallimard, 2001), p. 824 [817–49]; trans. Josué V. Harari in Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979 ), p. 145 [141–60]. 2 . See, for example, Virginie Greene, “What Happened to Medievalists After the Death of the Author?” in The Medieval Author in Medieval French Literature (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 ), pp. 205–27; and Stephen Nichols, “The Medieval ‘Author’: An Idea Whose Time Hadn’t Come?” in The Medieval Author , pp. 77–102. 3 . “The only good auctor was a dead one,” Minnis, Medieval Theory of Authorship: Scholastic Literary Attitudes in the Later Middle Ages (London: Scolar Press, 1984), p. 12. 4 . Minnis, Authorship , p. 94. 5 . Minnis, Authorship , pp. 197–98 (on Jean de Meun), pp. 192, 209 (on Chaucer), p. 204 (on Boccaccio). 6 . On Minnis’ limitations for those who work on the vernacular, see Anne Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain au 13e siècle (Montréal: Institut d’Etudes Médiévales, 1991), p. 24. 7 . However, see R. Howard Bloch’s magisterial The Anonymous Marie de France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003 ), as an example of both the problem and the promise of reading for the author in a twelfth-century text. See further discussion of Bloch’s reading of Marie below. 8 . Nichols, “The Medieval ‘Author’” in The Medieval Author , p. 97. 9 . Greene, “Medievalists After the Death of the Author,” in The Medieval Author , p. 213. 10 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 127; all translations of Berthelot are my own. 204 NOTES

11 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 32. 12 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 33. 13 . Foucault, “What Is an Author?” trans. Harari, p. 160. 14 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 24. 15 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , pp. 19, 27–29. 16 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , pp. 30–87. 17 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain, p. 94. 18 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain, p. 95. 19 . Berthelot claims, erroneously, that women rarely fill the roles she studies, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain p. 297. 20 . On medievalists and the death of the author, see Greene, “Medievalists After the Death of the Author,” in The Medieval Author , pp. 205–27. On the death of the author as it affects feminist criticism, see Elizabeth Grosz, “Sexual Signatures: Feminism After the Death of the Author,” in Space, Time, and Perversion (New York: Routledge: 1995 ), pp. 9–24. 21 . Miller, “The Text’s Heroine: A Feminist Critic and Her Fictions,” Diacritics 12 (1982): 53 [48–53]. 22 . See, for example, Albrecht Classen, The Power of a Woman’s Voice in Medieval and Early Modern Literatures (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2007 ); Peter Dronke, Women Writers of the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Patricia Ranft, Women in Western Intellectual Culture, 600–1500 (New York: Palgrave, 2002 ). 23 . Kamuf, “Writing Like a Woman,” in Women and Language in Literature and Society , ed. Sally McConnell-Ginet, Ruth Borker, and Nelly Furman (New York: Praeger, 1980), pp. 285–86 [284–99]. 24 . Kamuf, “Writing Like a Woman,” in Women and Language , p. 298. 25 . For the dialogue between Kamuf and Miller, see Diacritics 12 ( 1982): 42–53. The very real risk of an approach like Kamuf’s, as Miller points out, lies in its potential to flatten the historical value of women’s writing. We ignore at our peril the difference between a historical woman who examines the implications of her own action in writing, and the sexualized and objectified figure of a woman writer as revealed voyeuristically to us by a man. 26 . Finke, Feminist Theory, Women’s Writing (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 ), p. 30. 27 . Finke, Feminist Theory , pp. 98–99. 28 . Finke, Feminist Theory , p. 99. 29 . Finke, Feminist Theory , p. 104. 30 . Finke, Feminist Theory , pp. 106–07. 31 . Nichols, “Medieval Women and the Politics of Poetry,” in Displacements: Women, Tradition, Literatures in French , ed. Joan DeJean and Nancy K. Miller (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), p. 108 [99–125]. 32 . Nichols, “Medieval Women,” in Displacements , p. 99. 33 . Nichols, “Medieval Women,” in Displacements , p. 108. 34 . Finke, Feminist Theory , p. 99. For a similar approach to women’s songs, see also Anne L. Klinck, “Introduction,” in Medieval Woman’s Song , ed. Klinck NOTES 205

and Ann Marie Rasmussen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002 ), pp. 1–5. 35 . See also Jennifer Summit’s useful overview of how the concept of “author” might apply to medieval women: “Women and Authorship,” in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Women’s Writing , ed. Carolyn Dinshaw and David Wallace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 ), pp. 91–108. As Summit argues, “the idea that authors were the sole originators of their texts is a relatively recent one,” p. 91. Women were able to influence textual culture in many ways, as readers, patrons, collaborators, and writers of works, like letters, that may not allow their composers to claim the status of author (“letters do not have authors, as Foucault insists,” p. 105). 36 . See, for example, Ranft, who states that “women had been participating creatively in the intellectual community throughout the entire Middle Ages,” Women in Western Intellectual Culture , p. ix. 37 . One notable attempt at synthesis has been Michele Szkilnik, “Des femmes écrivains: Néronès dans le Roman de Perceforest, Marte dans Ysaye le Triste ,” Romania 117 (1999): 474–506, comparing two figures of poet heroines. On studies of minstrel figures, both male and female, see chapter one . 38 . Burns, “Sewing Like a Girl: Working Women in the chansons de toile ,” in Medieval Woman’s Song: Cross-Cultural Approaches , ed. Anne L. Klinck and Ann Marie Rasmussen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002 ), pp. 102–03, 107–08. 39 . Burns, “Sewing Like a Girl,” in Medieval Woman’s Song , p. 125. 40 . Smith, The Medieval French Pastourelle Tradition: Poetic Motivations and Generic Transformations (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2009), p. 63. 41 . Smith, Pastourelle Tradition , p. 64. 42 . Smith, Pastourelle Tradition , pp. 105 and 227 respectively. 43 . On the dit ’s discussion of authorship, see, for example, Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Un Engin si soutil”: Guillaume de Machaut et l’écriture au XIVe siècle (Paris: Champion, 1985), esp. pp. 211–21, “Le métier d’écrivain.” 44 . On lyric insertion as a form of citation that is inherently dialogic, see the interesting discussion by Helen Solterer, Acorder li Chans au Dit: the Lyric Voice in French Medieval Narrative (1220–1320) , Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1986 , pp. 1–27. Solterer’s understanding of lyric insertion as the citation or invocation of another voice, and at the same time as a “sign of the act of writing” (p. 13) is relevant for poet heroines, whose imagined voices the text invokes as its lost sources. Solterer also uses Bakhtin as a way of understanding the dialogic nature of such citations. 45 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain, p. 337. 46 . Huot, From Song to Book (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987 ), p. 328. 47 . On the practice of lyric insertion, see also the definitive study by Maureen Boulton, The Song in the Story: Lyric Insertions in French Narrative Fiction, 1200–1400 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993 . Boulton 206 NOTES

mentions that while the practice of lyric insertion is common within the French tradition, “examples from other literatures of the period are rare,” p. 1. Thus, the poet heroine as I define her may be a primarily French phenomenon. However, not all of my chosen texts conform to Boulton’s strictly formalist definition of texts with lyric insertions; for example, she excludes Aucassin et Nicolette , see Song in the Story , p. 3. 48 . Coldwell, “Jougleresses and Trobairitz : Secular Musicians in Medieval France,” in Women Making Music: The Western Art Tradition, 1150–1950 , ed. Jane Bowers and Judith Tick (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986), p. 41 [39–61]. An overview of the texts discussed in Boulton’s Song in the Story yields a similar result. 49 . Coldwell, “Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , p. 41. Furthermore, it’s important to note that the split between performance and composition is especially problematic in the case of music. See Susan Boynton, “Women’s Performance of the Lyric Before 1500,” in Medieval Woman’s Song: Cross-Cultural Approaches , ed. Anne L. Klinck and Ann Marie Rasmussen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), pp. 47–48 [47–65]. Boynton argues that before the advent of polyphony, medieval music was improvised to such a degree that performers should be considered to have been composers. 50 . Primarily or exclusively women engage in composing poetry and singing in Beuve de Hantonne , Sone de Nansay , and Ysaÿe le Triste . Furthermore, pseudo-autobiographical figures of masculine poets arguably display a particular form of literary gender-bending, taking on what is elsewhere a largely feminine role; see part II of the present book for more. 51 . Grosz, “Sexual Signatures,” in Space, Time, and Perversion , p. 21. 52 . Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York: Routledge, 1993): pp. 28 and 16, respectively. 53 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 49. 54 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 29. 55 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 49. 56 . Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender and the Human Body in Medieval Religion (New York: Zone Books, 1991), p. 109. 57. Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , p. 194. 58 . On medieval paradigms of reproduction and the idea of matière as connected with women, see Joan Ferrante, Woman as Image in Medieval Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975), pp. 6–7. The classic example of a female patron who provides matière for the poet is Marie de Champagne in Chrétien’s Charrete : see, for example, Roberta Krueger, “Desire, Meaning, and the Female Reader: The Problem in Chrétien’s Charrete ,” in Lancelot and Guinevere: A Casebook , ed. Lori J. Walters (New York: Garland, 1996), esp. pp. 229–30 [229–45]. 59 . Burns, Bodytalk: When Women Speak on Old French Literature (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993 ), p. xii. 60 . Burns, Bodytalk , pp. 16–17. 61 . For this parallel, see especially Burns, Bodytalk , pp. 7–9. NOTES 207

62 . For the gendering of orality in medieval culture, see Klinck and Rasmussen, ed., Medieval Women’s Song ; and Simon Gaunt, Retelling the Tale: An Introduction to Medieval French Literature (London: Duckworth, 2001), pp. 58–60. For other time periods and cultures, see Oral Traditions and Gender in Early Modern Literary Texts , ed. Mary Ellen Lamb and Karen Bamford (Burlington: Ashgate, 2008 ), esp. pp. xv–xxv; and Carolyn Cooper, Noises in the Blood: Orality, Gender, and the “Vulgar” Body of Jamaican Popular Culture (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995). 63 . Kristeva, Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980 ), p. 133. On the possibility of the semiotic in language, see also Elizabeth Grosz, Sexual Subversions: Three French Feminists (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1989 ). According to Grosz, “the feminine, the semiotic, the abject, although inexpressible as such, are articulated within symbolic representation,” p. 78. 64 . Kristeva, Desire in Language , p. 135. 65 . Foley, “Orality, Textuality and Interpretation,” in Vox intexta: Orality and Textuality in the Middle Ages , ed. A.N. Doane and Carol Braun Pasternack (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), pp. 34–45. “Oral traditional elements” is a term proposed by Foley. 66 . Nichols, “Voice and Writing in Augustine and in the Troubadour Lyric,” in Vox intexta: Orality and Textuality in the Middle Ages , ed. A.N. Doane and Carol Braun Pasternack (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), pp. 139–41 [137–61]. Nichols also refers to Huot’s From Song to Book . 67 . Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 53. 68 . Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 54. 69 . On women’s voices in the chansons de toile , see also Burns, “Sewing Like a Girl” in Medieval Women’s Song . 70 . On the medieval connections between music and the body, see Bruce W. Holsinger, Music, Body, and Desire in Medieval Culture: Hildegard of Bingen to Chaucer (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001 ). 71 . Summit, Lost Property: The Woman Writer and English Literary History, 1380–1589 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000 ). 72 . Summit, Lost Property , p. 205. 73 . Summit, Lost Property , p. 208. 74 . Sedgewick, “Queer Performativity: Henry James’s The Art of the Novel,” GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 1 ( 1993 ): 1–16. 75 . Garber, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Routledge, 1991 ), p. 36. 76 . Garber, Vested Interests , p. 40. 77 . Garber, Vested Interests , p. 40. 78 . Garber, Vested Interests , p. 13. 79 . Garber, Vested Interests , p. 39. 80 . Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , p. 109. 81 . Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , p. 108. 82 . On the feminine Christ see Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women (Berkeley: University of California 208 NOTES

Press, 1987), p. 285; on male religious writers who portray themselves as women see Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , pp. 165–66. 83 . Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , p. 170; see also Holy Feast , p. 291. 84 . Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , p. 170; see pp. 165–66 for specific examples. 85 . Gilbert and Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979 ). 86 . Gilbert and Gubar, “Sexual linguistics: Gender, Language, Sexuality,” New Literary History 16 (1985 ): 515–43. 87 . Schibanoff, “Sodomy’s Mark: Alain of Lille, Jean de Meun, and the Medieval Theory of Authorship,” in Queering the Middle Ages , ed. Glenn Burger and Steven F. Kruger (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001 ), p. 49 [28–56]. 88 . Schibanoff, “Sodomy’s Mark,” p. 50. 89 . Leupin, Barbarolexus: Medieval Writing and Sexuality (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989). See especially chapter three, on Alain of Lille. 90 . Bynum, Holy Feast , p. 290. 91 . I take Bynum’s approach to theory, Fragmentation and Redemption, pp. 31–32, as a model here. 92 . Bloch, Anonymous Marie de France , p. 103. 93 . The other lai that contains an inscribed poet figure is “Chevrefoil,” but it, too, emphasizes a collaboration between two members of a couple. Tristan composes the lai , but he does so according to what the Queen has told him: “si cum la reïne l’ot dit” (110). 94 . All quotations of the Lais are from Jean Rychner, ed., Les Lais de Marie de France (Paris: Champion, 1983). English translations are my own. 95 . Robert Sturges discusses the debate over the title of this lai as exemplify- ing “the difficulty of reconciling two different perceptions of an event. [ . . . ] each [character] finds a different meaning in this story because each situates it in a different context,” Medieval Interpretation: Models of Reading in Literary Narrative, 1100–1500 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991), p. 97. By contrast, Gaunt sees the knight’s proposing of an alternate title as “an appropriation and misunderstanding of the lady’s putative lai ,” Retelling the Tale , p. 65. For Gaunt, this serves as an example of the particularly tenuous hold that female characters in the Lais have over their artistic creations, pp. 60–66. Bloch provides a deconstructionist reading of the lady’s refusal to choose, between lovers, between sorrows, and between names, Anonymous Marie de France, pp. 91–94. For him, “the tale about the resistance to naming a love object also resists naming itself. Marie, like the lady, knows that one loses many in choosing one,” p. 94. 96 . For example, Gaunt, Retelling the Tale , p. 65; Sturges, Medieval Interpretation , p. 97. 97 . Huot, “Troubadour Lyric and Old French Narrative,” in The Troubadours: An Introduction , ed. Simon Gaunt and Sarah Kay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999 ), p. 273 [247–78]. NOTES 209

98 . “The action is consistently diverted onto the nightingale. It is the bird, not the lovers, that dies, sheds its blood and is entombed. It is the bird, not the lovers, that is snared by a jealous husband. It is even the bird, and not a child, whose dead body is flung about. Thus the nightingale, in addition to being an emblem of the Breton tradition, also becomes a repository for Latin mythological associations, which adhere to it in a sort of layering process,” Huot, “Troubadour lyric,” in The Troubadours , p. 271. 99 . On the mirage of lost orality in Laüstic , see also Bloch, whose nuanced deconstructive reading of this text concludes with the insight that “Marie’s understanding of the body (and the voice) is ultimately always deferred by the text that supplants it,” Anonymous Marie de France , p. 73. 100 . Sturges, Medieval Interpretation , p. 89. 101 . On Marie’s historical status, see Matilda Tomaryn Bruckner, Shaping Romance: Interpretation, Truth, and Closure in Twelfth-Century French Fictions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), pp. 178–79. 102 . Griffin, “Gender and Authority in the Medieval French Lai,” Forum for Modern Language Studies 35 (1999 ): 42–43 [42–56]. 103 . Finke, Feminist Theory , pp. 98–99. 104 . Bloch, Anonymous Marie de France , p. 317. 105 . Bloch, Anonymous Marie de France , p. 318. 106 . Griffin, “Gender and Authority,” 42. 107 . Griffin, “Gender and Authority,” 48. 108 . Griffin, “Gender and Authority,” 51. 109 . Griffin, “Gender and Authority,” 53. 110 . Griffin, “Gender and Authority,” 54. 111 . Quoted in Bloch, Anonymous Marie de France , p. 18, n. 60.

1 Singing from a Woman’s Body: Minstrel Heroines as Performers and Texts 1 . Two other texts in which the heroine adopts a minstrel disguise are Floovant (late twelfth century) and the Roman de Silence (second half of the thirteenth century). However, these texts are not discussed here because the minstrel heroine is not described as performing a work that is quoted within the text; her role is thus not explicitly that of a literary creator. 2 . Silvère Menegaldo makes a similar argument, Le Jongleur dans la littéra- ture narrative des xiie et xiiie siècles (Paris: Champion, 2005 ), pp. 524–28. On women’s musical education, see Maria Coldwell, “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz : Secular Musicians in Medieval France,” in Women Making Music , ed. Jane Bowers and Judith Tick (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986), pp. 41–42 [39–61]; and Christopher Page, The Owl and the Nightingale: Musical Life and Ideas in France 1100–1300 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), pp. 102–09. 3 . Susan Boynton, “Women’s Performance of the Lyric Before 1500,” in Medieval Women’s Song: Cross-Cultural Approaches , ed. Anne L. Klinck and 210 NOTES

Ann Marie Rasmussen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002 ), pp. 47–65; and Coldwell, “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz, ” in Women Making Music . In addition, see Page, The Owl and the Nightingale , pp. 102–09; and Kimberly Marshall, “Symbols, Performers, and Sponsors: Female Musical Creators in the Late Middle Ages,” in Rediscovering the Muses: Women’s Musical Traditions , ed. Kimberly Marshall (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993 ), pp. 157–65 [140–68]. 4 . The distinction between noble amateur and working-class professional is useful but must be approached carefully, as Boynton shows, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 60. 5 . Coldwell, “Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , p. 41. 6 . Coldwell, “Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , p. 55. 7 . Coldwell, “Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , p. 41. 8 . Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 58. 9 . Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 60. 10 . Coldwell, “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , p. 47. On difficulties of attribution, see Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , pp. 51–53. See also Matilda Tomaryn Bruckner, “Fictions of the Female Voice: The Women Troubadours,” in Medieval Woman’s Song , pp. 127–51. 11 . As Boynton points out, many “women’s songs” are known to have been written by men, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song, p. 60. 12 . See also Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 61. 13 . Coldwell, “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , pp. 46–47; see also Page, The Owl and the Nightingale , pp. 62–63. 14 . Coldwell, “Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , p. 46. 15 . On the woman minstrel in the Prose Tristan , see Coldwell, “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , p. 42. Overall, Coldwell estimates that “perhaps 5 to 10 percent of the traveling minstrels mentioned in the romances are female,” “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , pp. 44, 46. 16 . Sarah Roche-Mahdi, ed. and trans., Silence: A Thirteenth-Century French Romance (East Lansing: Colleagues Press, 1992), pp. 134–35; English translation hers. 17 . Roche-Mahdi, Silence , pp. 134–35. 18 . See also Menegaldo, Le Jongleur , pp. 520–24, who perceives that “étrange- ment, le statut de jongleur semble autoriser une sorte d’hésitation sexuelle,” p. 519. 19 . Butler, Gender Trouble (New York: Routledge, 1990 ), p. 185; see also pp. 175–93. 20 . Butler, Gender Trouble , p. 186. 21 . Garber, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Routledge, 1991 ), esp. pp. 13–16. 22 . Butler, Bodies That Matter (New York: Routledge, 1993 ), p. 123. 23 . The presence of these similarities across four texts is all the more strik- ing because, as Marilyn Lawrence has established, minstrel disguises NOTES 211

in different works are so varied that it may not be possible or useful to “define the minstrel in absolute terms,” “The Protean Performer: Defining Minstrel Identity in Tristan Narratives,” in Cultural Performances in Medieval France. Essays in Honor of Nancy Freeman Regalado, ed. Eglal Doss-Quinby, Roberta L. Krueger, and E. Jane Burns (Woodbridge: D.S. Brewer, 2007), p. 110 [109–19]. Nonetheless, Menegaldo notes the remarkable similarities between minstrel heroine episodes, Le Jongleur , pp. 512–15. 24 . Aucassin is an iconic text about which much has been written. Especially important to the present reading are Kevin Brownlee, “Discourse as Prouesces in Aucassin et Nicolette ,” Yale French Studies 70 ( 1986): 167–82; and the two studies by Eugene Vance, “The Word at Heart: Aucassin et Nicolette as a Medieval Comedy of Language,” Yale French Studies 45 ( 1970): 33–51; and “Aucassin et Nicolette as a Medieval Comedy of Signification and Exchange,” in The Nature of Medieval Narrative, ed. Minette Grunmann-Goudet and Robin F. Jones (Lexington, KY: French Forum, 1980), pp. 57–76. For examinations of the text’s complex treatment of the encounter between Saracen and French cultures, see E. Jane Burns, Sea of Silk (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009 ), pp. 117–36; and Maria Rosa Menocal, “Signs of the Times: Self, Other and History in Aucassin et Nicolette ,” Romanic Review 80 ( 1989): 497–511. Many other studies have centered around the question of parody; for a bibliography of these, see Burns, Silk , pp. 216–17 n. 30. 25 . Brownlee, “Prouesces ,” 176–80. See especially Brownlee’s demonstra- tion that Nicolette’s song “simultaneously recalls and transforms the Prologue,” 179. 26 . I build here on Vance’s insight that Aucassin et Nicolette is a text that “juxtapos[es] incompatible literary styles,” “Word at Heart,” 41, and that “is constituted in large part by stylistic clichés and narrative elements taken from every major genre of later medieval literature,” “Signification and Exchange,” in The Nature of Medieval Narrative , p. 59. On the chanson de femme as a genre, see Anne L. Klinck, “Introduction,” in Medieval Woman’s Song , ed. Anne L. Klinck and Ann Marie Rasmussen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002 ), pp. 1–5. 27 . All quotations of Aucassin et Nicolette are from the Mario Roques edition (Paris: Champion, 1982); the edition and modern French translation by Jean Dufournet was also consulted (Paris: GF Flammarion, 1984). Translations are my own. 28 . For more on the singular importance of Nicolette’s extremities—arms, legs, hands, feet, toes—see Burns, Silk, pp. 131–32. 29 . A further equivocation between Nicolette and the chantefable itself may occur at the end of the prologue, where the adjective “douce” can be read as referring to not only the text, but, obliquely, the heroine. See Brownlee, “ Prouesces ,” 169. 30 . On this episode, see Brownlee, “ Prouesces ,” 171–75. Brownlee further recognizes that the use of two similar episodes is part of a larger pattern within the text: as he argues, Aucassin et Nicolette repeatedly uses “a pattern 212 NOTES

of structural doubling [ . . . ] in which the second element is at once more abbreviated and more explicit than the first,” 170–71. 31 . The term “canbre” referring to this first prison occurs at 4.22, 5.2, 6.2, and 12.78. 32 . In a pendant to this scene, Nicolette then constructs a loge of leaves and flowers that pinpoints her location more precisely (19.12–16). See Brownlee, “Prouesces ,” 171–75. 33 . See Burns, Silk , pp. 128–32, especially 131–32, where Burns compares Nicolette’s leg as healing relic with her leg as priceless object. On Nicolette’s use of money as metaphor in this exchange, see also R. Howard Bloch, “Money, Metaphor, and the Mediation of Social Difference in Old French Romance,” Symposium 35 (1981 ): 24–25 [18–33]. 34 . “Nicolette has refashioned the courtly lady’s coveted and fetishized ‘gent cors’ [ . . . ] into a ‘menbre d’or’ that expresses her incomparable worth precisely because it cannot be assigned a monetary value,” Burns, Silk , p. 129. 35 . On the racial implications of Nicolette’s skin-dyeing, see Menocal, “Signs,” 505–06; and Jacqueline de Weever, “Nicolette’s Blackness—Lost in Translation,” Romance Notes 34 (1994): 317–25. It is nonetheless important to note that skin-dyeing is a trope of minstrel disguise, and is used by several non-Saracen heroines and heroes, such as Silence, Nerones, Tristan, and Renart. See Lawrence, Minstrel Disguise , pp. 26–27; and Menegaldo, Le Jongleur , p. 491. 36 . It is the text of the chantefable that first refers to the heroine in this way, calling her “Nichole li preus, li sage” (37.1) when she first arrives in Cartagena. This, I would argue, marks the beginning of a new, and tem- porary, discursive portrait of the transformed heroine. See also Brownlee, “ Prouesces ,” 176–77. 37 . Brownlee, “Prouesces ,” 179. 38 . For a more positive reading of this moment, however, see Burns, Silk , p. 132, who focuses on Nicolette’s regaining of mobility once Aucassin enters the room. 39 . On these, see also Burns, Silk , p. 127. It is also worth noting that Aucassin also retreats to a “canbre” to pronounce a love lament (60) and the king of Torelore recovers from childbirth in a “canbre”—is this a feminine space? 40 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 187. 41 . On the performative as citation, see, for example, Butler, Bo dies That Matter , p. 232. 42 . Felman, The Literary Speech-Act , p. 94. 43 . Hardly studied today, Beuve was one of the most popular chansons de geste in Europe in its own time, and one of the most widely adapted and rewritten. Not only does it exist in multiple verse and prose versions in French, it was retold in Italian, English, Welsh, and Norwegian, and echoes of it can be found in Romanian and Russian stories. See Marie-Geneviève Grossel, “Le Burlesque et son évolution dans les trois versions continentales de la chanson de Beuve de Hanstone,” in Burlesque et dérision dans les épo- pées de l’occident médiéval , ed. Bernard Guidot (Paris: Belles Lettres, 1995), NOTES 213

p. 255 [255–68]; and Jean Dufournet, Aucassin et Nicolette (Paris: GF Flammarion, 1984), p. 8. Recently, Beuve has begun to receive slightly more critical attention, particularly in its English version. See especially Sir Bevis of Hampton in Literary Tradition , ed. Jennifer Fellows and Ivana Djordjevic (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2008 ). Essays on the Anglo-Norman text are included in this collection, but no essays on the French verse texts that I consider here. Another study of the Anglo-Norman text is Marilyn Lawrence, “Recognition and Identity in Medieval Narrative: The Saracen Woman in the Anglo-Norman Epic Boeve de Haumtone ,” in Recognition: The Poetics of Narrative. Interdisciplinary Studies on Anagnorisis , ed. Philip F. Kennedy and Marilyn Lawrence (New York: Peter Lang, 2009 ), pp. 81–96. Concerning echoes between the minstrel heroine episodes in Aucassin and Beuve , the opening passages of Nicolette’s song and Josiane’s song in version II of Beuve are remarkably similar, although some of the resem- blances are due to their use of formulae from the tradition of the chanson de geste : both begin with an appeal to the audience to listen, and both refer to the heroine’s song as a son . More specifically, however, the two songs echo and invert each other through the terms in which they describe the couple. Nicolette describes Aucassin as franc and herself as prous , while Josiane describes Beuve as vaillant and herself as having a cuer franc . Later in her song, Josiane will call herself “la bele au cors vaillant” ( Beuve II.12827) [the beautiful woman with the worthy body], thus implicitly comparing her vaillance with that of her lover; similarly, the prologue of Aucassin refers to prouesces done by Aucassin. In different ways, then, both songs cast the heroine in an active, knightly role by granting her qualities initially assigned to the hero. Furthermore, while Nicolette’s and Josiane’s poems begin by recounting the stories of both hero and heroine in tandem, both end by focusing specifically on the heroine and her fate, using similar language to claim a lack of knowledge about the hero. “D’Aucassin rien ne savons” (39.23) [We know nothing of Aucassin]; “Mais de Buevon ne sevent il noiant” (II.12849) [But people know nothing of Beuve]. Further linguistic parallels include the fact that both heroines approach the hero as he sits on a perron near his door: “La se sist sor un perron” ( Aucassin , 39.3) “Devant sa porte se siet sor un perron” (Beuve II.12877), and the language describing the heroine’s removal of her disguise ( Beuve II.12987–91; Aucassin , 40.30–38). The relationship between Beuve and Aucassin is mentioned by Dufournet, Aucassin , pp. 24–25. 44 . As classified by the text’s editor, Albert Stimming; however, the dizzying array of important variants painstakingly catalogued in Stimming’s exten- sive notes reveals that each of these versions is in fact a family of versions, diverging at some points and overlapping at others. See A. Stimming, ed., Der festländische Bueve de Hantone, Fassung I, Fassung II, Fassung III (Dresden: Max Niemeyer, 1911–20). Gesellschaft für Romanische Literatur, Bds. 25 (version I text and notes), 30 (version II text), 34 (version III text), 41 (version II notes), and 42 (version III notes). Also extant are an earlier 214 NOTES

Anglo-Norman verse version and a later prose redaction, neither of which I consider here. For the Anglo-Norman version, A. Stimming, ed., Der anglo-normannische Boeve de Haumtone , Bibliotheca Normannica 7 (Halle, 1899); and for the prose version, Marie-Madeleine Ival, ed., Beufves de Hantonne, Version en prose, édition Vérard (Aix-en-Provence: CUER MA, 1984). 45 . All quotations of Beuve de Hantonne are from the Albert Stimming editions. Der festländische Bueve de Hantone, Fassung I, Fassung II, Fassung III (Dresden: Max Niemeyer, 1911–20). Gesellschaft für Romanische Literatur, Bds. 25 (version I text and notes), 30 (version II text), 34 (version III text), 41 (version II notes), and 42 (version III notes). Translations are my own. 46 . Josiane describes Beuve as vaillant and herself as having a cuer franc . Later in her song, Josiane will call herself “la bele au cors vaillant” ( Beuve II.12827) [the beautiful woman with the worthy body], thus implicitly comparing her worth/valor ( vaillance ) with that of her lover. 47 . “Mais de Buevon ne sevent il noiant” (II.12849) [but people know nothing of Beuve]. In a variant, the singer even speculates that the hero may be dead; “morz est ce dient plusor et li auquant [ . . . ] et sil est morz same a ihesu commant” (Bd. 41, p. 307) [many people say he is dead ( . . . ) and if he is, I commend his soul to Jesus]. Along these same lines, the knowledge claimed by Josiane’s song is even more problematic than Nicolette’s: while Nicolette’s song knows too little, falsely stating that the heroine is still imprisoned, Josiane’s song knows more than the character who sings it, revealing the whereabouts of Josiane’s missing son, and mentioning events that have not yet occurred in the narrative. It even goes out of its way to call attention to this discrepancy, illogically having Josiane-minstrel sing: “mes ne le sout la bone dame noient/ sen fust certeine molt eust ioie grant” (II Bd. 41, p. 307) [but the good lady (Josiane) knew nothing about this. If she were certain of it, she would be very happy]. Apparently, neither Josiane nor Beuve comprehend these words, although one sings them and the other listens to them: they are still surprised when they find their missing son several thousand lines later, exactly as the song predicted they would. (On this, see also Stimming, Bd. 41, pp. 306–07.) There could be no clearer indication that Josiane’s song is not “hers” in an autobiographical sense: it anticipates the lovers’ reunion, but its function as a conveyer of knowledge is profoundly illogical, even deliberately so. 48 . Josiane’s purpose in showing herself to the host seems to be to have him evaluate her beauty, to determine how she measures up to her rival (II.13003–05). 49 . In version II, Beuve’s second wife reacts to Josiane with sympathy and generosity, defusing the rivalry (II.13068–72). 50 . In version III, about a third of the invaders are women: twenty maidens with forty knights enter the hall (III.12550–51), then an additional forty maidens with “more than a hundred” knights (III.12562–65). 51 . For more musicians in this scene, see also III.12545–46, 12552, 12597. NOTES 215

52 . Galeran de Bretagne , signed by one Renaut, probably dates from between 1216 and 1220. On the date and the author—whom scholars now agree is not Jean Renart—see Glyn S. Burgess and Karen Pratt, eds., The Arthur of the French (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2006 ), pp. 400–401. For studies, see Margaret Burland, “Narrative Objects and Living Stories in Galeran de Bretagne ,” Yale French Studies 110 ( 2006 ): 32–43; Roger Dragonetti, Le Mirage des sources: l’art du faux dans le roman médiéval (Paris: Seuil, 1987), pp. 229–60; Paul Vincent Rockwell, Rewriting Resemblance in Medieval French Romance: Ceci n’est pas un graal (New York: Garland, 1995), pp. 25–42; and Kathryn M. Talarico, “‘Un merveilleux contraire’: Public and Private Desire in Galeran de Bretagne ,” Dalhousie French Studies 59 (2002): 3–20. 53 . For a nuanced reading of Galeran ’s examination of the significance of rewriting, see Rockwell, Rewriting Resemblance , pp. 25–42. For a list of Galeran ’s sources, see Burgess and Pratt, The Arthur of the French , pp. 401–02. 54 . Renaut, Galeran de Bretagne , ed. Lucien Foulet (Paris: Champion, 1925 ). All quotations of the text are from the Foulet edition; translations are my own. 55 . Maureen Boulton, The Song in the Story: Lyric Insertions in French Narrative Fiction, 1200–1400 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), pp. 121–22 n. 7. 56 . For another reading of this sleeve and its implications, including its resemblance to Fresne’s twin sister Fleurie, see Rockwell, Rewriting Resemblance , pp. 32–34. 57 . “Acts, gestures, and desire produce the effect of an internal core or sub- stance, but produce this on the surface of the body,” Butler, Gender Trouble , p. 185. 58 . My analysis here is indebted to Rockwell’s much more detailed discussion of Galeran ’s examination of the gap between resemblance and adequation. See Rewriting Resemblance , especially pp. 32–34. 59 . Butler, Gender Trouble , p. 184. 60 . The fact that this heckling almost constitutes harassment is revealed by Fresne’s aside to her companion, Rose, “Fresne a Rosain dist ne li poist” (6968) [Fresne tells Rose not to let it bother her]. 61 . On this pun on Fresne’s name, see Rockwell, Rewriting Resemblance , pp. 40–41. Her punning use of her name is all the more significant because she has been using a pseudonym, Mahaut. See Dragonetti, Mirage , pp. 252–53, on Fresne’s pseudonym as a combination of Marie and Renaut. 62 . Her action is justified because Galeran is on the verge of breaking his promise to marry no one but her. 63 . See Dragonetti, Mirage , p. 257, who also draws together these two passages. 64 . This occurs only after Galeran encounters Fleurie, the living portrait of Fresne so to speak; as Rockwell points out, it represents a moment 216 NOTES

of forgetfulness, provoked by an object that was supposed to encourage remembrance, Rewriting Resemblance , pp. 34–35, 38. 65 . Felman, The Literary Speech-Act , pp. 21–22. 66 . On performative utterances and the marriage ceremony, see Eve Kosofsky Sedgewick, “Queer Performativity: Henry James’s The Art of the Novel,” GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 1 ( 1993 ): 3 [1–16]. 67 . On the significance of Fresne’s decision to “engage with” the cloth (40) and her action in cutting apart and resewing the dress (39), see Burland, “Narrative Objects,” who argues that Fresne’s act of remaking the cloth is similar to Galeran’s reworking of its sources, 34, 39–40. 68 . On Gente’s needlework, especially the specific designs and stories that she chooses to include in the blanket, see also Burland, “Narrative Objects,” 32–33 69 . Gente does indeed claim that her words are based on those of clerks and priests (158); when she realizes her mistake, she emphasizes only that she has said what a woman should not [ce que femme ne doit dire” (246)]. 70 . On the medieval science of reproduction as it intersected with perceived gender roles, see Joan Ferrante, Woman as Image in Medieval Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975 ), pp. 6–7. 71 . On this moment, see also Burland, “Narrative Objects,” 41–42. 72 . Or, as Burland puts it, “she is the truth, and the narrative about her is simply a collection of ‘signs’ pointing toward that essential truth,” “Narrative Objects,” 41. 73 . Several of Perceforest ’s other poet heroines will be discussed in chapter five . On the date of Perceforest , see Gilles Roussineau, Perceforest (Geneva: Droz, 2007), I.i.ix–xlvi. Roussineau argues that the romance in its present form dates from the mid-fifteenth century; there is evidence that an earlier fourteenth-century version, now lost, also existed. Christine Ferlampin-Acher has argued more specifically that the Perceforest we now have was composed in Bourgogne in the 1450s, possibly by David Aubert. Ferlampin-Acher, Perceforest et Zéphir: propositions autour d’un récit arthurien bourguignon (Geneva: Droz, 2010). The story of Nerones and Nestor occupies substantial sections of part III of Perceforest . It was republished several times as a stand-alone work by sixteenth-century printers: on the sixteenth-century editions, see Roussineau, IV.i.xxxv. For an important study of Nerones as a figure of a woman writer, see Michelle Szkilnik, “Des Femmes écrivains: Néronès dans le Roman de Perceforest , Marte dans Ysaye le Triste, ” Romania 117 (1999): 474–506. 74 . All references to Perceforest are from Gilles Roussineau’s edition (Geneva: Droz, 1987–2007). Following standard practice for this text, they refer, in order, to part number, volume number within each part, and page numbers. English translations are my own. 75 . While Nerones’ feigned death is obviously comparable to that of Fenice in Chrétien de Troyes’ Cligés , some important differences exist. Fenice stages her own death as a conscious subterfuge, while Nerones attempts to actually die. Arguably, the text presents Nerones as a more virtuous NOTES 217

Fenice (herself billed as a more virtuous Yseut), since Nerones is not actually married but has been abducted against her wishes. Finally, the vio- lence inflicted on Fenice’s body, while gruesome, is not explicitly sexual: Fenice’s doctors beat her and burn her palms with hot lead in an attempt to force her to show signs of life. For the torture scene, see Cligès , ed. Charles Méla and Olivier Collet (Paris: Livre de Poche/Lettres Gothiques, 1994), vv. 5879–45. On Nerones’ similarities to Fenice, see also Szkilnik, “Femmes Ecrivains,” 478. 76 . This scene can also be read as a metaphor of rape. The image of piercing, and specifically of piercing the groin area (the words “thighs,” “sides,” and “lower back” all euphemistically designate the groin in courtly literature) certainly has erotic overtones. Furthermore, the explicit des- ignation of Nerones as a pucelle , her nakedness, and the burning of the erogenous zones of breast and stomach, all contribute to an eroticized voyeurism with which the text titillates readers, encouraging them to imagine a scene of rape. The vividly sexual images that assimilate Nerones’ experience to a form of rape are all the more explicit because of the legal situation in which Nerones finds herself: one of ravissement or raptus . Nerones terms the abduction a ravissement in her poetic retelling of the event (III.ii.352). As Katheryn Gravdal has shown in other contexts, in medieval law the definition of rape was specifically linked to the abduction of a virgin from her father’s house by a would-be suitor turned rapist, but the verb ravir (to abduct a woman) also carried a latent sexual meaning. Gravdal, Ravishing Maidens: Writing Rape in Medieval French Literature and Law (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), pp. 4–6. 77 . See Sarah Kay, “Flayed Skin as objet a : Representation and Materiality in Guillaume de Deguileville’s Pèlerinage de vie humaine ,” in Medieval Fabrications: Dress, Textiles, Cloth Work, and Other Cultural Imaginings , ed. E. Jane Burns (New York: Palgrave, 2004 ), pp. 193–205. 78 . To a modern reader, the association between skin color and gender seems strange. However, it is not without precedent in medieval romance. For example, Silence, a romance heroine who lives as a man, refers to her tanned skin as one of her masculine characteristics (“halle” v. 2827, 3645), while Nature laments that Silence’s transvestism “will ruin her complex- ion” (v. 2280–91). However, Silence later darkens her skin further in order to appear lower class (vv. 2911–12). See Sarah Roche-Mahdi, ed., Silence: A Thirteenth-Century French Romance (East Lansing: Colleagues Press, 1992). There is no indication as to whether Nicolette darkens her skin in order to make herself appear more masculine. More deserves to be done on the complex intersection between skin color, gender, class, race, and disguise. For a fascinating study of skin and hair blackening that touches on these issues, see Damien de Carné, “Toilette et Reconnaissance: Typologie d’un Motif Littéraire (XIIe–XVe siècles),” in Laver, monder, blanchir: Discours et usages de la toilette dans l’Occident médiéval , dir. Sophie Albert (Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2006 ), pp. 117–34. 218 NOTES

79 . Nerones’ new name stands in parallel with the pseudonym used by her lover Nestor, the “Golden Knight.” While Nerones is metallic on her inside, carrying a strong heart within a vulnerable and “split-open” body, Nestor is metallic on his outside, hiding his true identity within a golden shell. Implicitly, too, Nerones’ strength of will matches the Golden Knight’s physical prowess. Indeed, Nerones’ entire process of transformation emphasizes two seemingly contradictory aspects of the heroine: the strength of her courageous spirit, and the susceptibility of her body to being shaped by others; the will to determine her own destiny, and her vulnerability in the face of others’ control of that destiny. If her new name designates her psychological strength, her disguise reminds us continu- ally of her wounded and disfigured body. On Nestor’s unconscious reuse of the name “Cuer d’Acier” to refer to Nerones, see Szkilnik, “Femmes Ecrivains,” 479. 80 . Butler, Gender Trouble , p. 180. 81 . Butler, Gender Trouble , p. 181. 82 . In a closely related analysis, Peggy McCracken uses Douglas and Kristeva as a way of reading Fenice’s torture scene in Cligès— a scene that Perceforest explicitly evokes through Nerones’ torture. McCracken sees Fenice’s torture as an example of “dismemberment,” and emphasizes “the question of the integrity of the female body” (p. 52). “In the Middle Ages the female sexual body is necessarily seen as fragmented in contrast to the prominent patristic ideal of physical integritas . The virginal body is an ideal female body. [ . . . ] The virgin’s body is intact, complete and inte- gral.” McCracken, “The Body Politic and the Queen’s Adulterous Body in French Romance,” in Feminist Approaches to the Body in Medieval Literature , ed. Linda Lomperis and Sarah Stanbury (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), p. 52 [38–64]. Such ideas suggest an association between Fenice’s torture (and, by extension, Nerones’) and a symbolic loss of virginity. 83 . For a different reading of these three dreams, see Szkilnik, “Femmes Ecrivains,” 480–84. As Szkilnik shows, Nerones’ dream fictions are also attempts to render her story “acceptable” to her lover; her narrative art is thus finely tailored to the expectations of her audience. 84 . On the symbolic implications of flaying in another medieval text, see Kay, “ objet a ,” in Medieval Fabrications , esp. pp. 201–02. Kay reminds us that medieval parchment is made of flayed skin, making this material object into a vessel for knowledge and its transmission. As I suggest above, Nerones’ skin may also be assimilated to a writing medium during her torture. 85 . This tear-soaked wimple echoes one that figured prominently in an earlier scene in which, similarly, tears pierced through layers of covering. Nestor covers his face with a wimple before declaring his love to Nerones, who does not relent until she sees that the Golden Knight’s tears have “pierced” the cloth that still covers his face. “[V]ey que les larmes lui avironnoient toute la face tant habondamment que son coeuvrechief en NOTES 219

estoit perché et mouillié” (III.1.115) [She saw that tears covered all his face, so abundantly that his kerchief was pierced and soaked]. For this and other covering cloths and wimples in the story of Nestor and Nerones, see Sophie Albert, “Les Vertus de la bonne laissive . Polysémie des actes de lavage dans le Roman de Perceforest ,” in Laver, monder, blanchir: Discours et usages de la toilette dans l’Occident médiéval , dir. Sophie Albert (Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2006 ), pp. 137–48 [135–51]. 86 . See Jane H.M. Taylor, “Perceval/Perceforest: Naming as Hermeneutic in the Roman de Perceforest, ” Romance Quarterly 44 ( 1997 ), 205 and 212 n. 26 [201–14]. 87 . Comically, Nestor must see his valet naked before he will accept that “he” is a woman–and even then he must be prompted by his mother. “ – Comment! dist la royne, voiez vous point Cuer d’Acier tout nud [ . . . ]? – Certes, madame, dist lors Nestor, je ne suis point sy fol comme vous me tenez, qui pensez que je mescognoisse ung homme pour une pucelle” (III.ii.367) [What! said the queen, don’t you see Cuer d’Acier naked ( . . . )? Certainly, madam, said Nestor, I am not as foolish as you think, that I would take a man for a girl]. For more on the bath scene, see Sophie Albert, “Les Vertus de la bonne laissive ,” in Laver, monder, blanchir , pp. 141–45. 88 . Along similar lines, Szkilnik argues that Nerones’ “effacement” from the story at this point figures a return to “l’ordre romanesque” as imposed by Lidoire, guardian of propriety, whose task is to guide the romance to its successful conclusion, “Femmes Ecrivains,” 475, 487. For more on the Fairy Queen and her importance, see Jane H. M. Taylor, “La Reine-Fée in the Roman de Perceforest : Rewriting, Rethinking,” in Arthurian Studies in Honor of P.J.C. Field , ed. Bonnie Wheeler (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2004), pp. 81–91. 89 . Felman, The Literary Speech-Act , p. 94. 90 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 82. 91 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 96. 92 . Garber, Vested Interests , p. 40. 93 . Garber, Vested Interests , p. 17. 94 . Garber, Vested Interests , p. 37.

2 The Parrot and the Swan: Performance and Composition in Sone de Nansay 1 . At this writing, the only critical edition is Moritz Goldschmidt, ed., Sone von Nausay , Bibliothek des Literarischen Vereins in Stuttgart, 216 (Tübingen, 1899). For a study, see Claude Lachet, Sone de Nansay et le roman d’aventures en vers au XIIIe siècle (Geneva: Slatkine, 1992). For an overview that situates Sone within the larger context of thirteenth-century Arthurian verse romance, see Douglas Kelly et al., “Arthurian Verse Romance in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries,” in The Arthur of the French, ed. Glyn S. Burgess and Karen Pratt (Cardiff: University of Wales 220 NOTES

Press, 2006 ), pp. 393–460. Remco Sleiderink has recently made a con- vincing argument that the romance was composed at the court of Brabant before 1267, under the patronage of Adelaide of Burgundy. See Sleiderink, De stem van de meester: De hertogen van Brabant en hun rol in het literaire leven (1106–1430) (Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003), pp. 69–73. 2 . On Sone ’s unique status as a Grail romance but not an Arthurian romance, see Kelly et al., “Arthurian Verse Romance,” in Arthur of the French , pp. 393, 446. 3 . All citations of the text of Sone are from Goldschmidt, and are identified by line numbers in parentheses, or by page numbers in parentheses in the case of the prose prologue (in these cases, “p.” is specified). Where relevant, I take into account the emendations suggested by Lachet, Sone de Nansay ; Gaston Paris, “Corrections sur Sone de Nansai,” Romania 31 ( 1902): 113–32; and Adolf Tobler, “Zu der Ausgabe des Sone von Nausay ,” Archiv für das Studium der Neueren Sprachen und Litteraturen 107 ( 1901): 114–24. English translations are my own. 4 . Luciane is in love with Sone, and her lai is presented as an attempt to make him love her. Thus, Maureen Boulton calls this brief episode an “unsuc- cessful precedent” to the episode of Odée’s lai , The Song in the Story: Lyric Insertions in French Narrative Fiction, 1200–1400 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993 ), p. 131 n. 18. 5 . See also Lachet, who similarly points out the curious lack of reference to Rommenaus’ singing or composing, and who claims that “Papegai [ . . . ] correspond mieux que Rommenal au personnage traditionnel du ménestrel artiste,” Sone de Nansay , pp. 288, 734 [Papegai ( . . . ) corresponds better than Rommenal to the traditional character of the minstrel-artist]. Further complicating the minstrel’s role, another anonymous male minstrel is said to have made the five different tunics (cottes ) that Sone wears to disguise himself at a tournament: this silent minstrel is a creator of illusion, not a wordsmith (12657–60). 6 . On the generic status of these pieces as women’s songs, see Lachet, Sone de Nansay , pp. 347–49, 741–42. 7 . Boulton, Song in the Story , p. 129. 8 . Lachet denounces what he sees as the traditional superficiality of Yde’s song next to the lai composed by Odée, Sone de Nansay , p. 348. I prefer to see a strictly generic difference: Yde’s song assimilates her to the heroines of the chansons de toile , while Odée’s song, composed in epic meter and treating epic themes, makes her resemble a heroine of the chanson de geste . 9 . God cripples Joseph “in his loins and lower parts” [es rains et desous l’afola, 4775] to punish him for his excessive love of the pagan Norwegian princess whom he marries (see also 4771–76, 4855–56). Antoinette Saly states that Sone is unique among French Grail texts in attributing the Fisher King’s genital wound to excessive love, although a similar situation occurs in the German Parzifal , “Joseph d’Arimathie roi pêcheur,” Travaux de Littérature 5 (1992): 21, 33 [19–36]. NOTES 221

10 . On genital wounds and sexual desire, see Peggy McCracken, who analyzes Perceval’s self-wounding in the French Grail as a symbolic castration and a “penance for sexual desire,” “Chaste Subjects: Gender, Heroism, and Desire in the Grail Quest,” in Queering the Middle Ages , ed. Glenn Burger and Steven F. Kruger (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001 ), p. 137 [123–42]. Conversely, Francesca Canadé Sautman cites the example of Tristan, whose thigh wound represents his excessive desire even as it hints at an underlying male lack, “‘Just Like a Woman’: Queer History, Womanizing the Body, and the Boys in Arnaud’s Band,” in Queering the Middle Ages , p. 174 [168–89]. 11 . On parallel experience as an index of love in another medieval text, see Toril Moi, “She Died Because She Came Too Late: Knowledge, Doubles and Death in Thomas’ Tristan ,” Exemplaria 4 (1992): 105–33. 12 . The lai ’s final affirmation of “truth” becomes even more problematic given its status as part of Papegai/Orvale’s magisterial performance, since, by their nature, performance and the performative do not operate in a discourse of truth or falsehood. See further discussion of performatives below. 13 . Patricia Victorin, “Introduction. Le Conte du Papegau : une curiosité du Moyen Âge tardif,” in Le Conte du Papegau , ed. Hélène Charpentier and Patricia Victorin (Paris: Champion, 2004 ), pp. 41–47 [9–56]. For more on parrots in the Middle Ages, see Bruce Thomas Boehrer, Parrot Culture: Our 2,500-year-long fascination with the world’s most talkative bird (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004 ), pp. 23–49. 14 . On parrots in bestiaries, see Willene B. Clark, A Medieval Book of Beasts: The Second-Family Bestiary (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2006 ), pp. 169–70; and Wilma George and Brunsdon Yapp, The Naming of the Beasts: Natural History in the Medieval Bestiary (London: Duckworth, 1991 ), pp. 162–64. On parrots as poet figures, see Victorin, “Introduction,” in Le Conte du Papegau , pp. 47–48; and Elizabeth Eva Leach, “‘The Little Pipe Sings Sweetly While the Fowler Deceives the Bird’: Sirens in the Later Middle Ages,” Music and Letters 87 ( 2006 ): 188, 198 [187–211]. On the parrot’s association with love and the god of love, see Victorin, “Introduction,” in Le Conte du Papegau , p. 48. See also Meradith T. McMunn, “Parrots and Poets in Late Medieval Literature,” Anthrozoös 12 (1999): 68–75. 15 . Victorin, “Introduction,” in Le Conte du Papegau , pp. 48, 52. See also Boehrer, Parrot Culture , pp. 37, 39, on the bird’s association with the Virgin Mary and women more generally. Intriguingly, while Machaut describes Toute Belle as wearing garments on which doubled parrots figure prominently, Boehrer confirms the realism of this detail, stating that “in the fragments of medieval fabric that still survive, doubled parrots abound, comprising a standard motif of medieval textile manufacture,” p. 48. The fragment of textile shown in figure 10, p. 48, depicts “twin parrots, back to back, regarding each other in calm and contemplative fashion,” while Toute Belle’s garments are ornamented with twin parrots looking outward as if guarding her honor. 222 NOTES

16 . I substitute “dont” for “que” following Paris, “Corrections,” 125. 17 . I substitute “qu’a” for “que” following Tobler, “ Sone von Nausay ,” 118. 18 . On the reading of “celui” versus “celi” in this passage, see Paris, “Corrections,” 125, and Lachet, Sone de Nansay , pp. 38–39. 19 . See Lachet, Sone de Nansay , p. 39. 20 . For these etymologies, see Frédéric Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française (Paris: E. Bouillon, 1880 –1902), t. 5, p. 646. It is also worth noting that Orvale shares her name with the heroine of C.S. Lewis’ Till We Have Faces , Orual, similarly known for being strikingly ugly; the echo on Lewis’ part may be deliberate. 21 . Orvale is in fact a manifestation of the trope of the “loathly lady,” a figure who is not only repulsive, but strikingly wise and eloquent. Elizabeth Passmore argues that the loathly lady often serves as “a counselor to the protagonist” (p. 3), and that her counsel often owes much to the “mirror for princes” genre; this is also Orvale’s function with respect to both the king of France and Sone. See Passmore, “Through the Counsel of a Lady: The Irish and English Loathly Lady Tales and the ‘Mirrors for Princes’ Genre,” in The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs , ed. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, 2007 ), pp. 3–41. Thanks to the anonymous reader for Palgrave for pointing out this connection. 22 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 232. While performance is not the same as performativity, Butler nonetheless argues for a link between “the embody- ing or performing of gender norms and the performative use of discourse,” Bodies That Matter , p. 231. 23 . As Derrida affirms, the performative is by definition a citation, Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 226, citing Derrida. 24 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 226. 25 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 226, for the quoted terms. 26 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 227. 27 . See Eve Kosofsky Sedgewick, “Queer Performativity: Henry James’s The Art of the Novel,” GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 1 ( 1993 ): 3 [1–16]. 28 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 83. 29 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 129. 30 . Paris, “Corrections,” 118. 31 . Surprisingly, while a historical identity for the lady of Beirut has never been seriously investigated, Branque’s historical reality has occasionally been accepted as a given. Lachet notes that both Goldschmidt and Krueger Normand treat Branque as a historical figure, although Lachet himself is more cautious, Sone de Nansay , pp. 42, 52. However, the name may be a joke. In what may be a tantalizing reference in Perceforest , a wicked character named Branque, lord of a castle of “Baruch,” makes a brief appearance (Roussineau ed. III.ii.257–61); according to Roussineau, the name “Branque” means “mauvais sujet” [rascal] in Rouchi (Roussineau ed. IV.ii.1180). NOTES 223

32 . For the text of the prologue of the Charrette , see Chrétien de Troyes, ed. and trans. William Kibler, Lancelot, or The Knight of the Cart (New York: Garland, 1981), p. 3. On the long-standing debate surrounding these lines and their implications for Marie’s role in Chrétien’s work, see Kibler, Lancelot , pp. 297–98, and Roberta Krueger, “Desire, Meaning, and the Female Reader: The Problem in Chrétien’s Charrete ,” in Lancelot and Guinevere: A Casebook , ed. Lori J. Walters (New York: Garland, 1996), pp. 229–45. It is likely significant that one of Sone ’s characters is in fact a Countess of Champagne. The only figure besides Yde and Odée to sing a song that is quoted in the text, the countess also harbors a discreet love for Sone, and is a powerful single woman with refined tastes and social flair. See Lachet, Sone de Nansay , pp. 283–87 on this character. Lachet speculates that Marie de Champagne herself could have inspired the character, Sone de Nansay , p. 57. 33 . See Joan Ferrante, To the Glory of Her Sex: Women’s Roles in the Composition of Medieval Texts (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997 ), pp. 130–34 on the roles and identities of the female patrons of Cléomadès and Escanor . 34 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 78. 35 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 79. 36 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , pp. 82–84. On these patrons, see also Ferrante, To The Glory of Her Sex , pp. 130, 134; and Roberta Krueger, Women Readers and the Ideology of Gender in Old French Verse Romance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993 ), pp. 248–50, 253. 37 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 84. 38 . Ferrante, To The Glory of Her Sex , p. 107. 39 . Ferrante, To The Glory of Her Sex , p. 108. 40 . Ferrante, To The Glory of Her Sex, pp. 108, 117. 41 . Ferrante, To The Glory of Her Sex , p. 135. 42 . Summit, “Women and Authorship,” in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Women’s Writing , ed. Carolyn Dinshaw and David Wallace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 ), p. 103 [91–108]. 43 . Summit, “Women and Authorship,” in Cambridge Companion , p. 104. 44 . Krueger, Women Readers , p. 3. 45 . Krueger, Women Readers , p. 3. 46 . Krueger, Women Readers , p. 12, for commentaries on Huchet and Leupin. In addition to the sources discussed above, a useful summary of medieval women’s patronage is June Hall McCash, “The Cultural Patronage of Medieval Women: An Overview,” in The Cultural Patronage of Medieval Women , ed. June Hall McCash (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996 ), pp. 1–49. 47 . See Lachet, Sone de Nansay , pp. 77, 615–20, for a family tree. 48 . After Elias the Swan Knight and his brother the swan leave Elias’ wife, they “arrive in Beirut, at the door of my lady, who was still living there and who had three sons” [si arriva a Baruch, au port me dame qui i manoit encore, et avoit .III. fieus (p. 554)]. After a great battle against the pagans, Elias is mortally wounded, and the swan “brings him back to die in the 224 NOTES

arms of my lady” [se desrompi Elyas et la ramena chis chinnes, sez frere, par mer morir entre les bras me dame (p. 554)]. 49 . Lachet speculates that Fane of Beirut and her three unnamed sons may stand in for Yde, daughter of the Swan Knight in the romance tradition. Like Fane, Yde has three sons, one of whom is Godefroy de Bouillon, Sone de Nansay , p. 615. Fane’s sons remain unnamed, nor is Godefroy mentioned in Sone . 50 . Sleiderink, Stem van de meester , pp. 69–73. 51 . See Lachet, Sone de Nansay , pp. 619–20. 52 . For yet more local connections to the Brabant region, see Lachet’s discussion of the location of Nansay, Sone de Nansay , pp. 65–70. 53 . Lachet, Sone de Nansay , p. 50. 54 . Lachet, Sone de Nansay , pp. 53–61. Lachet finally proposes a date range of between 1267 and 1280, with 1282 as a terminus ad quem, p. 61, but nothing in his analysis seems to me to preclude a date of before 1267. 55 . See W.H. Rudt de Collenberg, Familles de l’Orient latin, XIIe–XIVe siècles (London: Variorum, 1983), IV, pp. 135–36. In an unpublished paper, Keith Busby has similarly suggested that it would be worthwhile to seek a connection between Sone and the Lusignan-Ibelin dynasties of the cru- sader kingdoms. “The Arthurian Periphery,” Kalamazoo, 2010; thanks to Professor Busby for generously sending me a copy of his work. 56 . Rudt de Collenberg, Familles , IV, p. 136; René Grousset, Histoire des croisades et du royaume franc de Jérusalem (Paris: Plon, 1936), III, pp. 665–66. See also P.M. Holt, “Baybar’s Treaty with the Lady of Beirut in 667/1269,” in Crusade and Settlement , ed. Peter W. Edbury (Cardiff: University College Press, 1985), pp. 242–45. 57 . Rudt de Collenberg, Familles , IV, pp. 135–36; Grousset, Histoire, p. 666. However, assertions that Isabella conducted a notorious affair with Julian of Sidon and was rebuked in a papal bull are apparently unfounded, as the bull in question instead references Isabella’s mother-in-law, Plaisance of Antioch, Rudt de Collenberg, Familles , IV, p. 135 n. 59. 58 . In spite of her many marriages, Isabella died childless (a fact that distin- guishes her from Fane of Beirut, who, exactly like Adelaide of Burgundy, is said to have three sons), and was succeeded by her younger sister, Eschiva, who would preside over the fall of Beirut to the Mamluks in 1291— at a moment when Eschiva herself was, coincidentally or not, between husbands! Rudt de Collenberg, Familles , IV, p. 137. 59 . Clark, Medieval Book of Beasts , pp. 171–72; Isidore of Seville was the first to associate cignus and canendo , Clark, Medieval Book of Beasts, p. 171, n. 247. 60 . On swan songs in Antiquity, see A.M. Keith, The Play of Fictions. Studies in Ovid’s Metamorphoses Book 2 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), p. 137; on medieval swan songs, see June McCash, “The Swan and the Nightingale: Natural Unity in a Hostile World in the Lais of Marie de France,” French Studies 49 ( 1995): 395 n. 25 [385–96]. Medieval writers who refer to the swan’s song include Isidore of Seville, Alain of Lille, Richard de Fournival, Brunetto Latini, and Chaucer. On one interesting case of NOTES 225

the myth’s transformation from Antiquity to the early modern period, see also Florence McCulloch, “The Dying Swan—A Misunderstanding,” Modern Language Notes 74 ( 1959 ): 289–92. 61 . Heroides 7.1–2, in which Dido compares herself to the dying swan; The Legend of Good Women 1355–57; Anelida and Arcite 346–48. On the interreferential- ity of these three swan passages, see Lee Patterson, Chaucer and the Subject of History (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), pp. 68–70. 62 . See n. 31. 63 . However, Godefroy cites numerous examples of the word “vaissiel” being used to designate a coffin in various Old French legal documents and chronicles, although not in romances, Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue fran- çaise (Paris: Sciences et Arts, 1938), t. 8, p. 137. The association between the Grail and a holy tomb is not, of course, unique to Sone : it occurs in other texts, and is already implicit in the figure of Joseph as guardian of both the Holy Grail and the Holy Sepulcher. On the links between the Grail and the tomb, and on altars as similar to tombs, see Emma Jung and Marie-Louise von Franz, “The Central Symbol of the Legend. The Grail as Vessel,” in The Grail: A Casebook , ed. Dhira B. Mahoney (New York: Garland, 2000), pp. 158–59 [149–73]. 64 . For another discussion of the image of enclosing poems in a medieval French text, see Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Fullness and Emptiness: Shortages and Storehouses of Lyric Treasure in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries,” Yale French Studies 80 ( 1991): 224–39. She has traced the repeated action of putting poems into boxes through the works of Jean Froissart, arguing that this is a gesture of both preservation and entomb- ment. For her, the poet’s box is, like a book, “a form concealing a content,” a vessel that allows him to simultaneously protect and compile his work, “Fullness,” 237. 65 . Fane furthermore begins her prologue with a reference to the human female vessel par excellence: the Virgin, carrier of Jesus, herself assimilated to the Holy Grail elsewhere in medieval French literature. Famously, for Villon, “vierge portant, sans rompture encourir / le sacrement c’on cel- ebre a la messe,” Le Testament Villon , ed. Albert Henry and Jean Rychner (Geneva: Droz, 1974), ll. 890–91. The Virgin carries the Eucharist as she carried Jesus [vous portastes ( . . . ) Jhesus regnant,” Testament , ll. 903–04]; implicitly, her womb is assimilated to a Grail. On Grails and wombs, see also Rosalyn Rossignol, “The Holiest Vessel: Maternal Aspects of the Grail,” Arthuriana 5 ( 1995): 57–58 [52–61].

3 Competing Perspectives: Guillaume de Machaut’s Voir Dit 1 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 77. 2 . On Machaut’s introduction of the figure of the writer into his dits , see Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Tension sociale et tension d’écriture au 226 NOTES

XIVe siècle: les dits de Guillaume de Machaut,” in Comme mon coeur désire: Guillaume de Machaut, Le Livre du Voir Dit, ed. Denis Hüe (Orléans: Paradigme, 2001 ), p. 109 [109–19]. 3 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 94. This is not to say that we can accept the term “modern author” unproblematically. For example, Minnis argues that Chaucer describes his own role primarily as that of compiler, Authorship , pp. 192, 209. 4 . For a definition of pseudo-autobiography, a term first coined by G.B. Gybbon-Monypenny in an attempt to establish the genre of the Voir Dit , see Laurence De Looze, Pseudo-Autobiography in the Fourteenth Century (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997), pp. 21–22. 5 . As Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet has shown, very few French narrative texts before the Voir Dit include letters, and only one, Jacquemart Gielée’s Renart Le Nouvel , combines narrative verse, lyric, and prose letters. The Voir Dit is the first French verse narrative to contain an entire correspon- dence. Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Un engin si soutil”: Guillaume de Machaut et l’écriture au XIV e siècle (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1985), pp. 40–41; for more on the Voir Dit ’s mixing of genres, see also Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , pp. 32–49. 6 . For more on the social implications of Machaut’s innovation of placing the figure of a writer-clerk at the center of his dits , see Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Tension sociale,” in Comme mon coeur désire , pp. 109–19. She argues that the position of lover is for Machaut a “strategic” one occupied alternately by the knight (prince) and the clerk (poet), p. 113. In the Voir Dit , she maintains, Toute Belle occupies the position of the knight vis-à-vis the clerk-narrator: “la gageure du Voir Dit est donc de masquer une opposition sociale clerc-chevalier sous une opposition amoureuse,” p. 117. For a further discussion of the ways in which the Voir Dit self-reflexively explores the process of its own writing, see Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Théorie de l’écriture,” Engin , pp. 203–43. For the Voir Dit ’s intentional blurring of the boundaries between the real world and the textual one, see Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , pp. 159–200; and De Looze, Pseudo-Autobiography , pp. 89–101. 7 . Brownlee, Poetic Identity in Guillaume de Machaut (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), p. 3. 8 . Brownlee, Poetic Identity , p. 94. 9 . Cynthia Brown, Poets, Patrons, and Printers: Crises of Authority in Late Medieval France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), p. 212. 10 . Elizabeth Eva Leach, Guillaume de Machaut: Secretary, Poet, Musician (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011 ), p. 116. 11 . “Un chevalier doit être clerc au xive siècle (c’est-à-dire instruit), un clerc ne peut être chevalier,” Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Tension sociale,” in Comme mon coeur désire , p. 118 [a knight must be a clerk in the fourteenth century (that is to say educated); a clerk cannot be a knight]. 12 . On the advent of polyphony as it affected women, see Coldwell, “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music, p. 43. According to Coldwell, NOTES 227

only those specially trained in cathedral schools and universities (i.e., men) would have been able to compose polyphonic music. 13 . Coldwell, “Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music, p. 46. 14 . Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 59. 15 . Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 59. 16 . Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , pp. 59–60. 17 . Paula Higgins, “Parisian Nobles, a Scottish Princess, and the Woman’s Voice in Late Medieval Song,” Early Music History 10 ( 1991): 161–62 [145–200]. 18 . Higgins, “Parisian Nobles,” 169–70. 19 . Higgins, “Parisian Nobles,” esp. 167. 20 . See also Higgins, “The ‘Other Minervas’: Creative Women at the Court of Margaret of Scotland,” in Rediscovering the Muses: Women’s Musical Traditions , ed. Kimberly Marshall (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), pp. 169–85, especially her argument that “poems by women survive among the many courtly texts in a neutral voice,” p. 179. 21 . Boynton, “Women’s Performance,” in Medieval Women’s Song , p. 59. 22 . Leach, Machaut , pp. 115–16. 23 . Leach, Machaut , p. 116. 24 . Such a double vision of Toute Belle owes much to the work of Deborah McGrady, who has recently elucidated the differences between the narrator’s expectations of Toute Belle, and her presentation of herself: “where Guillaume prefers to see Toute-Belle as his student, muse, and most importantly as a submissive and admiring reader, she presents herself as an active reader intent on fulfilling the dual role of co-author and editor of the Voir dit ,” Controlling Readers: Guillaume de Machaut and His Late Medieval Audience (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006), p. 52. See McGrady’s full discussion of Toute Belle’s attempt to participate in the Voir Dit writing process, pp. 52–55. Unlike McGrady, however, I look at the narrator’s view of Toute Belle specifically as it is gendered, embodied, and reminiscent of the poet heroine tradition. I also examine Toute Belle as a poet rather than, as McGrady does, as a reader of the narrator’s works—although, as McGrady shows, literary creation and reading are closely related. 25 . Other critics have also observed that Toute Belle’s views are distinctly different from the narrator’s. Notably, Sarah Jane Williams shows that “part of the realistic effect of Toute Belle’s letters stems from the fact that they express opinions and make demands seemingly at variance with Machaut’s musical practice,” “The Lady, the Lyrics and the Letters” Early Music 5 (1977): 466 [462–68]; particularly noticeable, Williams shows, are the lady’s interest in singing and demands for music, “Lady, Lyrics, Letters,” pp. 466–68. Along the same lines, Maureen Boulton argues that “the creation of Toutebelle is perhaps Machaut’s greatest innovation in this genre. Never simply the projection of the poet’s desire, she exists as a force— the moving force—in the narrative. And because her letters and songs 228 NOTES

are quoted, her voice speaks directly and not through the filter of the poet’s consciousness,” “Guillaume de Machaut’s Voir Dit : The Ideology of Form,” in Courtly Literature: Culture and Context , ed. Keith Busby and Erik Kooper (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1990), p. 46 [39–47]. See also McGrady, n. 24. 26 . On the “hapless narrator,” William Calin has shown that the narrator’s limited perspective, including his incomprehension of Toute Belle, plays an important role in the Voir Dit . “Pour la première fois dans l’histoire de la littérature française, la perspective limitée du narrateur joue un rôle important dans l’intrigue. [ . . . ] L’ambiguïté de la perspective est la clé de la structure du récit,” “Le Moi chez Guillaume de Machaut,” in Guillaume de Machaut, Poète et compositeur. Colloque-Table Ronde , ed. Jacques Chailley, Paul Imbs and Daniel Poirion (Paris: Klincksieck, 1982), p. 250 [241–52] [For the first time in the history of French literature, the narrator’s limited perspective plays an important role in the plot. ( . . . ) The ambiguity of perspective is the key to the story’s structure]. 27 . Julia Kristeva describes the Menippean text as follows: “put together as a pavement of citations [ . . . ] it includes all genres (short stories, letters, speeches, mixtures of verse and prose). [ . . . ] Literature becoming ‘thought’ becomes conscious of itself as sign . Man, alienated from nature and society, becomes alienated from himself, discovering his ‘interior’ and ‘reifying’ this discovery in the ambivalence of Menippean writing,” Kristeva, “Word, Dialogue, and Novel,” in The Kristeva Reader , ed. Toril Moi (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), pp. 53–54 [34–61]. Kristeva nonetheless employs the Middle Ages as a useful Other with the blanket statement, “in the Middle Ages, Menippean tendencies were held in check by the authority of the religious text,” p. 55. Such a position is surprising, given Kristeva’s own work on the fifteenth-century Petit Jehan de Saintré (Le Texte du Roman ). 28 . Kristeva, “Word, Dialogue, and Novel,” in The Kristeva Reader , pp. 36–37. 29 . M.M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination , ed. Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981 ), pp. 291–92. 30 . Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination , p. 292. 31 . Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination , p. 300. 32 . On the reversal of master-student roles in this process, and the threat to the narrator that this creates, see McGrady, Controlling Readers , p. 53. 33 . Boulton, The Song in the Story: Lyric Insertions in French Narrative Fiction, 1200–1400 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), p. 163. See also Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin, p. 32, on the generative role of lyric texts in general in the Voir Dit . 34. Lachet, “Les lettres dans Le Livre Du Voir Dit de Guillaume de Machaut: une recherche esthétique,” in La Lettre et les lettres, entre-deux , ed. Claude Lachet and Laurence Richer (Lyon: C.E.D.I.C., 2006 ), p. 70 [65–81]. 35 . On Machaut’s poetics of sentement , see Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , pp. 195–97; Valérie Fasseur, “Apprendre l’art d’écrire: Sens de la relation didactique NOTES 229

dans le Voir Dit de Guillaume de Machaut,” Romania 124 ( 2006 ): 165–66, 171–72 [162–94]; and Leach, Machaut , pp. 102–03, 123–24. 36 . All citations of the text of the Voir Dit are from the Paul Imbs and Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet edition (Paris: Livre de Poche, 1999). Parenthetical references specify line number for verse and page number for prose letters. English translations, except where indicated, are by R. Barton Palmer. Parenthetical references following the English translations refer to line numbers or page numbers from the Daniel Leech-Wilkinson and R. Barton Palmer edition (New York: Garland, 1998). Where important to my readings, I occasionally propose a more literal English translation of my own 37 . On these lines in the Remède de Fortune ; see Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , p. 196 n. 30; and Leach, Machaut , p. 124. On the meaning of the term contre- faire , see Leach, Machaut , pp. 110–12. 38 . On the trio of sens , matière, and sentement , and its links to Machaut’s “Prologue,” see Fasseur, “Relation Didactique,” 165 n. 8. 39 . For a similar reference to a lady’s power to “faire et deffaire” in the Louange des dames , see Leach, Machaut , p. 128. 40 . A similar idea is expressed again at p. 730. These statements, it should be noted, finally serve to emphasize the difference between the author in the book and the author of the book: between the narrator’s two announce- ments that he has left off all writing, two hundred pages of accomplished verse and subtle allegories intervene. Matere is one component of the trio of sens , matere, and sentement that the narrator describes himself as lacking before he meets Toute Belle (l. 62). 41 . Ferrand, “Au-delà de l’idée de progrès: la pensée musicale de Guillaume de Machaut et le renouvellement de l’écriture littéraire dans le Voir Dit ,” in Progrès, réaction, décadence dans l’occident médiéval , ed. Emmanuèle Baumgartner and Laurence Harf-Lancner (Geneva: Droz, 2003), p. 239 [231–49]. See also Bruce Holsinger’s exploration of the relationship between music and the body in medieval culture, Music, Body, and Desire in Medieval Culture (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001 ). 42 . H e is often very specific in his musical directions to her, as if worrying that her performance will fail to reflect his intentions for his text or music; on this, see McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 68–69. 43 . Catherine Attwood further shows how this passage contains echoes of the Voir Dit ’s first portrait of Fortune, creating a link, “through the movement of the dance, between the volatile lady and unstable, restless Fortune,” “The Image in the Fountain: Fortune, Fiction and Femininity in the Livre du Voir Dit of Guillaume de Machaut,” in Fortune and Women in Medieval Literature , ed. Catherine Attwood. Nottingham French Studies 38 ( 1999 ): 138 [137–49]. 44 . Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet has analyzed the truth-value of the body in Machaut’s writing, arguing that Machaut makes the lyric into a locus of truth specifically through its use of musical rhythms and its implication of a living voice. “Syntaxe et syncope: Langage du corps et écriture chez Guillaume de Machaut,” Langue Française 40 ( 1978 ): 60–74; see also Engin , pp. 186, 190–91, 199. 230 NOTES

45 . Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , pp. 194, 197. 46 . Leach, Machaut , pp. 115–16. 47 . McGrady sees this scene as the end of Toute Belle’s poetic career: Toute Belle’s “lyrical voice dissolve[s] into unintelligible tears and moans, never to reassert itself,” Controlling Readers , pp. 69–70; indeed, this is Toute Belle’s last poem but one in the Voir Dit . See also Fasseur, “Relation Didactique,” 177. However, as I will examine in more detail later, Toute Belle’s career as a letter writer, and her literary dispute with the narrator, is still not over. 48 . The narrator claims that his information about the composition of the first complainte comes from the eyewitness account of the lady’s chambermaid (ll. 1353–55) but does not explain how he knows about the other two. From the perspective of a historical reading of the text, it is interesting to note that the first two of these three poems have been identified as certainly by Machaut and not by a hypothetical second poet, the first because it occurs elsewhere in the Machaut corpus and the second because of its content and form. See Leech-Wilkinson and Palmer, “Introduction,” pp. xli–xliv. 49 . For readings of this pivotal scene, see William Calin, A Poet at the Fountain: Essays on the Narrative Verse of Guillaume de Machaut (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1974), pp. 190–91; Robert Sturges, Medieval Interpretation: Models of Reading in Literary Narrative, 1100–1500 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1990), pp. 119–20; and Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , pp. 134–35. 50 . Nicole Lassahn has made a similar argument: “si [Toute Belle] ment, cela signifie que la poésie amoureuse et sa qualité n’ont pas de rapports avec les sentiments et l’expérience amoureuse,” “Vérité historique et vérité fictionnelle dans le Voir Dit de Guillaume de Machaut,” in Comme mon coeur désire: Guillaume de Machaut, Le Livre du Voir Dit, ed. Denis Hüe (Orléans: Paradigme, 2001 ), p. 275 [257–80] [If Toute Belle is lying, that means that love poetry and its quality has no relationship to emotions or to the love experience]. On the meaning of contrefait , however, see Leach, Machaut , p. 110, who argues that the term has many meanings, but “generally referred to the copying of the outer appearance of a thing (rather than its inner essence).” 51 . Kristeva, “Revolution in Poetic Language,” in The Kristeva Reader , p. 94 [89–136]. 52 . Elizabeth Grosz, Sexual Subversions: Three French Feminists (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1989 ), p. 44. 53 . Kristeva, “Revolution in Poetic Language,” in The Kristeva Reader , p. 94. 54 . K risteva, “Revolution in Poetic Language,” in The Kristeva Reader , p. 97. 55 . See, for example, Maria Margaroni, “‘The Lost Foundation’: Kristeva’s Semiotic Chora and Its Ambiguous Legacy,” Hypatia 20 ( 2005 ): 79–80, 94–95 [78–98]. 56 . By contrast, the narrator’s practical concerns for his writing, when they do appear, tend to center around anthologizing and collecting his works, NOTES 231

along with the related issue of control of his pieces, which he does not want released without his permission. See Sarah Jane Williams, “An Author’s Role in Fourteenth-Century Book Production: Guillaume de Machaut’s ‘Livre ou je met toutes mes choses.’” Romania 90 ( 1969 ): 433–54; Sylvia Huot, From Song to Book (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987 ), p. 283; and McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 67–75. 57 . On this passage, see also Ferrand, “Pensée musicale,” in Progrès , pp. 242–43, who notes that Machaut discusses a similar problem in his prologue, finally rejecting the idea that “tristes cuers doit miex faire/ que li joieus,” p. 234. 58 . Cerquiglini-Toulet cites another passage, “je ne més nulle différence entre vous et moi” (448) [I recognize no difference between you and me], as evidence that the narrator draws similar comparisons between the lovers, cultivating an “androgynat symbolique,” Engin , p. 152 [symbolic androgyny]. However, the larger context of the narrator’s statement, that she should be happy because of his good fortune, emphasizes not the similarity of the lovers’ situations but the assimilation of her emotions into his. 59 . Because of Toute Belle’s masculine characteristics, Cerquiglini-Toulet argues that she “tient la place du chevalier” [occupies the position of the knight], being “belle, jeune, active, [ . . . ] hardie, [ . . . ] noble” [beautiful, young, active, ( . . . ) brave, ( . . . ) noble] “Tension sociale,” in Comme mon coeur désire , pp. 116–17, see also p. 119. 60 . On this episode, see McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 56–57, who analyzes the lords’ attempts to control the narrator’s writing and dissuade him from the book project commissioned by Toute Belle. Boulton similarly notes that “having preached secrecy, Machaut is in fact the first to violate it,” “Ideology of Form,” in Courtly Literature: Culture and Context , p. 44. However, as Boulton correctly asserts, such revelations are unavoidable for someone in the narrator’s position, “a direct consequence of his position as a court poet,” p. 44. 61 . The narrator continues such revelations at p. 448. 62 . What this statement actually means—that Toute Belle will be shamed in the case of a breakup no matter who is at fault—is spelled out on p. 672, where we learn that an estrangement initiated by him is assumed by everyone to be her fault. 63 . As McGrady argues, in forbidding Toute Belle to show his writings to anyone, the narrator “seeks to maintain authority over his text but also over its delivery,” Controlling Readers , p. 69. 64 . See McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 52–55, for a further analysis of these moments. On the reversal of the teacher-student relationship, see also Fasseur, “Relation Didactique,” 164. 65 . On this passage, see also Fasseur, “Relation Didactique,” 168, who argues similarly that Toute Belle here wants to “be” the narrator: “la dame [ . . . ] ne cherche pas une manière propre, mais bien celle du poète qu’elle a choisi pour maître” [the lady ( . . . ) is not seeking (to develop) her own style, but that of the poet whom she has chosen as a master]. 232 NOTES

66 . McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 8–9. 67 . On the generic status of epistres , see Lachet, “Lettres,” in La Lettre , p. 66; on the use of the artes dictaminis in the Voir Dit letters, see Lachet, “Lettres,” in La Lettre , p. 73. 68 . According to McGrady, “her success is manifest in the Voir Dit . The intri- cate intertwining of the couple’s works renders impossible the disasso- ciation of author and student,” Controlling Readers , p. 55. Here, however, I emphasize Toute Belle’s success in commenting on and editing the narrator’s writings. 69 . Leech-Wilkinson and Palmer attempt to explain this discrepancy in historical terms in a note, p. 748. See also McGrady, Controlling Readers , p. 55. 70 . McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 69–71, argues that the narrator manages to resume control of the book project by redefining Toute Belle’s role in it, assigning her to menial editorial tasks; I would conversely emphasize the extent to which he excludes her altogether. 71 . Renate Blumenfeld-Kosinski has discussed the Voir Dit ’s mythological sequences, showing how they allegorize the struggle between the text’s two poet figures, Reading Myth: Classical Mythology and Its Interpretations in Medieval French Literature (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997 ), pp. 154–67. Similarly, Katherine Heinrichs has shown that, in the con- cluding sequences of the Voir Dit , the narrator’s interpretations of allegorical exempla should not be taken at face value, and that “the mythological material [ . . . ] is not really digressive, but is intended to further and finally to conclude the debate about love that is the raison d’être of the entire work,” The Myths of Love: Classical Lovers in Medieval Literature (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1990), p. 164. Lassahn takes a different tack, arguing that the Voir Dit ’s allegorical exempla bring the work’s discussion of lying to a new level, because the characters are able to exploit them to “prove” anything they like: “les exempla peuvent être interprétés de façon à signifier exactement ce que l’on souhaite,” “Vérité,” in Comme mon coeur désire , p. 278. 72 . Palmer translates the manuscript subheading of this section in BN ms. fr. 1584, “lymage de vraie amour” as “The Image of True Friendship,” p. 503, and consistently translates “amour” as “friendship” or “affection” throughout the passage. This does not, however, capture the underlying ambiguity of the allegory: the term amour ostensibly refers to the lord’s friendship for the narrator, while really applying to Toute Belle’s love for the narrator. 73 . On the color green in the Vo ir Dit , see Attwood, “Fortune,” in Fortune and Women , pp. 143–44, who notes its “connotations of spring and renewal as well as of change,” p. 143. See also Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , pp. 168–71. 74 . Palmer translates amour as “friendship” or “affection” throughout this passage; it could more literally be translated “love.” 75 . See Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Polyphème ou l’antre de la voix,” in Comme mon coeur désire: Guillaume de Machaut, Le Livre du Voir Dit, ed. Denis Hüe NOTES 233

(Orléans: Paradigme, 2001 ), pp. 221–33. On Polyphemus and the problem of the borgne narrator, see also Julie Singer, Blindness and Therapy in Late Medieval French and Italian Poetry (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2011 ), pp. 179–83. 76 . On the name Caneüs, see Claudio Galderisi, “ ‘Ce dient nobles et bourjois’: la destinée poétique de Canens/Caneüs dans Le Livre du Voir Dit ,” Moyen Français 51–53 (2002–03): 291–303. Galderisi also postulates that Caneüs celebrates a link between women and poetry, 299. 77 . Ovide Moralisé , ed. Cornelius de Boer, vol. 5 (Amsterdam: Müller, 1938), XIV, 2743–50. 78 . Renate Blumenfeld-Kosinski has discussed this passage, arguing that Canens, the feminine Orpheus, may be a figure of the poet’s own feminine side; Circe, representing destructive feminine passion, symbolizes the danger that Toute Belle poses to the androgynous poet, Reading Myth , pp. 161–62. On the symbolic implications of Circe, see also Heinrichs, Myths of Love , p. 169. Attwood also suggests that Circe, adept in “en chant- emens,” may be read as the inverse of chant , “Fortune,” in Fortune and Women , 139. 79 . On this episode, see Blumenfeld-Kosinski, Reading Myth , pp. 163–64; and Heinrichs, Myths of Love , pp. 170–73. See also Cornelius De Boer, “Guillaume de Machaut et l’Ovide Moralisé ,” Romania 43 ( 1914 ): 335–52, who calls this “le seul exemple d’une histoire plus développée dans Guillaume que dans la grande compilation,” 351 [the only example of a story more developed in (Machaut) than in the great compilation (the Ovide Moralisé )]. 80 . Machaut takes special care in developing and revising his source: at several points, his version improves on the literary quality, sequencing, and suspense of the Ovide Moralisé . Indeed, a comparison of the Voir Dit and the Ovide Moralisé reveals numerous changes. Machaut tightens the story line and heightens the tension, for instance, by delaying the description of the deformed child’s serpent feet to the moment at which the box is opened and the secret revealed. While developing certain passages, such as the meditation on the repercussions of truth telling, he excises others, in particular those that might interfere with the unity of the narrative, such as the raven’s narration of her attempted rape by Neptune ( Ovide Moralisé II.2283–2321). 81 . Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Polyphème,” in Comme mon coeur désire , pp. 233–34. 82 . Similar language is used to describe Polyphemus, who is repeatedly referred to as “li mauffés” (ll. 6782, 6789, 6869, 6912) and once as “li anemis” (l. 6836). Despite the negativity of the figure of Vulcan, it is interesting to note that Machaut does change his attempted rape of Pallas in the Ovide Moralisé to a simple excess of passion [fu ( . . . ) si eschaufés,” l. 7830]. Such a transformation makes the character less aggressive, and thus, perhaps, easier to identify with the timid and passive narrator. 83 . On the motherless child as a figure of the book, both here and in the frame tale, see Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , pp. 152–55; and Leach, Machaut , 234 NOTES

p. 260. Blumenfeld-Kosinski sees the motherless child as a figure of writing that excludes women, “the writing out of the mother” from the text, Reading Myth , p. 164. 84 . Trans. Leon Golden, in O.B. Hardison and Leon Golden, Horace for Students of Literature: The “Ars Poetica” and Its Tradition (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995), p. 7. Thanks to Stephen Wheeler for pointing out this potential connection. 85 . The stated message of this Ovidian sequence both resonates with and challenges the Voir Dit ’s central project: “tous voirs ne sont pas biaus a dire” (l. 7779) [not all truths are pretty to tell (translation mine)]. Strikingly, the Voir Dit complexifies the Ovide Moralisé ’s portrayal of “truth” throughout the tale, emphasizing the untrustworthiness of reports and the challenges of establishing any truth at all in the midst of rumor (ll. 7977–82, 8046–47). By the end of the tale as Machaut reframes it, both Coronis and the crow are paradoxically guilty of lying: the narrative says that Coronis “lied” to Phébus (l. 8082), but also denounces slanderers who, like the crow (and perhaps the Voir Dit narrator), “amour ( . . . ) deffont / par faus et par mauvais rappors” (ll. 8086–87, emphasis mine) [destroy love ( . . . ) / through false and malicious gossip (ll. 8159–60)]. 86 . On the significance of Fortune as a “patroness of rhetoric,” see Attwood, “Fortune,” in Fortune and Women , p. 139. This sequence also completes the text’s dismantling of the concept of truth. In the refrain of the first portrait of Fortune, “s’il est voirs ce qu’on m’en a dit / autrement ne di je en mon dit” (ll. 8179–80) [if it is true what I have been told, I say nothing else in my dit (translation mine)], true utterance finally becomes hearsay, as the narrator admits that his own “dit” amounts to no more than a repetition of the words of others [ce qu’on m’en a dit]. There is no longer any way of distinguishing between true and false: all that is certain is the “dit” of each individual, the lady’s word against that of her detractors. As De Looze also argues, by the end of the book, “the narrator cannot know whether his lady is faithful or unfaithful; there are only competing narratives, her letters versus the messengers’ reports,” Pseudo-Autobiography , p. 95. 87 . On this passage, see Cerquiglini-Toulet, who affirms, “une lettre n’est vraie [ . . . ] que parce qu’un messager certifie qu’elle correspond bien aux sentiments, à l’état d’esprit de celui qui l’a écrite,” Engin , p. 194 [a letter is only true ( . . . ) because a messenger indicates that it corresponds to the emotions and the state of mind of the person who wrote it]. 88 . Catherine Attwood sees tears, both in this passage and elsewhere, as having a creative significance. “Tears [ . . . ] constitute the lady’s own ‘fountains’ which, like those of the narrator and Fortune, in turn produce text. [ . . . ] What is more, the narrator, whose neurotic self-doubt makes him generally incredulous of any affirmatory signs of his lady’s love and fidelity, never fails to accept her tears as intrinsically truth- ful,” “Fortune,” in Fortune and Women , pp. 147–48. On the function of tears as signs belonging to the “language of the body” for Machaut, see NOTES 235

Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , p. 190. “Le corps offre, selon le poète, un langage de la vérité: langage direct et qui traduit le ressenti. [ . . . ] Ce langage [ . . . ] met en circulation un intérieur du corps. La description de la ‘montée’ des larmes témoigne de cette conception.” [According to the poet, the body offers a language of truth: a direct language that translates feelings. ( . . . ) This language ( . . . ) puts the interior of the body into circulation. The description of the “rising” of tears testifies to this idea]. 89 . Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination , p. 264. 90 . Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination , p. 270. 91 . Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination , p. 308. 92 . For arguments in favor of a historical Toute Belle, see especially Williams, “Lady, Lyrics, Letters”; and Leech-Wilkinson and Palmer, Voir Dit , “Introduction,” pp. xxvi–l. Georg Hanf, however, argued forcefully that the lady and the affair were completely fabricated: “Sur le Voir Dit de Guillaume de Machaut,” in Comme mon coeur désire: Guillaume de Machaut, Le Livre du Voir Dit, ed. Denis Hüe (Orléans: Paradigme, 2001 ), pp. 7–61. Following him, many important Machaut critics have taken as their starting point the assumption that the narrative is entirely fictional, choosing to focus instead on the literary value of the text: see, for example, Calin, Fountain , Cerquiglini-Toulet, Engin , Brownlee, Poetic Identity , and De Looze, Pseudo-Autobiography . McGrady’s view is more pragmatic: “whether a real woman penned the letters and poems attributed to Toute-Belle is beside the point because when Machaut orchestrates a book version of the affair, those writings become fodder to be manipulated by the poet,” Controlling Readers , p. 68. For another attempt at a pragmatic approach, see my “What’s in a Name? Machaut, Deschamps, Peronne, and the Uses of Women for Writers in 14th Century France,” Women in French Studies 18 (2010): 14–28. Finally, Lassahn uses still another tactic, approaching “truth” in poetic rather than historical terms, “Vérité,” in Comme mon coeur désire , esp. pp. 257–59. 93 . In a statistical comparison between the narrator’s letters and Toute Belle’s, Noël Musso finds that the “variety and richness of vocabulary” in the narrator’s letters contrasts markedly with the “lexical sobriety” in the letters of the lady. Noël Musso, “Comparaison Statistique des lettres de Guillaume de Machaut et de Péronne d’Armentière dans le Voir Dit,” in Guillaume de Machaut, Colloque-Table Ronde , ed. Jacques Chailley, Paul Imbs, and Daniel Poirion (Paris: Klincksieck, 1982), p. 193 [175–92]. See also the rest of his article, especially the table of words, pp. 181–83. Similarly, Sarah Jane Williams argues that most of the poems attributed to Toute Belle are formally less complex, with rondeaus predominating rather than ballades, and that certain of them contain technical irregularities or formal flaws that mark them as different from Machaut’s verse. Sarah Jane Williams, “Lady, Lyrics, Letters,” 463–64. 236 NOTES

4 A Contemporary Reaction to the Voir Dit: Deadly Words and Captive Imaginations in Jean Froissart’s Prison Amoureuse 1 . Findley, “What’s in a Name? Machaut, Deschamps, Peronne, and the Uses of Women for Writers in 14th Century France,” Women in French Studies 18 (2010): 21 [14–28]. 2 . Findley, “What’s in a Name?” 20, 22. 3 . Moi, “Desire in Language: Andreas Capellanus and the Controversy of Courtly Love,” in Medieval Literature: Criticism, Ideology and History , ed. David Aers (Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1986), pp. 19–20 [11–33]. 4 . For more on the relationship between the Prison and the Voir Dit , see Anthime Fourrier, La Prison Amoureuse (Paris: Klincksieck, 1974), pp. 15–16; De Looze, Pseudo-Autobiography , pp. 115–16; and McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 170–71. 5 . On female readers in Froissart in general, see Philip Bennett, “Female Readers in Froissart: Implied, Fictive and Other,” in Women, the Book and the Worldly , ed. Lesley Smith and Jane H.M. Taylor (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1995), pp. 13–23. Bennett largely focuses on Froissart’s other dits . The Prison , however, is something of a special case, for in it reading and interpretation are explicitly forms of literary creation. On this, see Laurence De Looze, “From Text to Text and from Tale to Tale: Jean Froissart’s Prison amoureuse ,” in The Centre and Its Compass: Studies in Medieval Literature in Honor of Professor John Leyerle , ed. Robert A. Taylor, James F. Burke, Patricia J. Eberle, Ian Lancashire, and Brian S. Merrilees (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute, 1993 ), p. 89 [87–110]; and De Looze, Pseudo-Autobiography , p. 127. 6 . All references to the Prison Amoureuse are from the edition by Laurence De Looze (New York: Garland, 1994), and specify line number (l.) or page number (p.), since this hybrid text contains both. English translations are my own. 7 . De Looze, trans., Prison , pp. 27, 29. 8 . De Looze, “Text to Text,” in The Centre and Its Compass , p. 90. Boulton, Song in the Story , p. 217, seems to be following De Looze when she speaks of a virelai “composed by someone else” and the narrator’s “pangs of jeal- ousy when his lady sings it.” Michel Zink similarly misinterprets the primary reason for the narrator’s distress when he states that “the narrator is distraught to hear the virelai he composed for his beloved, who had learned it by heart, being sung, quite well in fact, by a young woman in whom he has no interest, while the one he adores prefers to sing something else,” “Meliador and the Inception of a New Poetic Sensibility,” in Froissart Across the Genres , ed. Donald Maddox and Sara Sturm-Maddox (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998), p. 161 [155–75]. Nevertheless, the narrator clearly states that he takes offense at the content of his lady’s poem; NOTES 237

he never mentions any disappointment that she has not sung his poem instead. 9 . Claire Nouvet, “Pour une économie de la dé-limitation: La Prison amoureuse de Jean Froissart,” Neophilologus 70 ( 1986): 344 [341–36]. McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 171–79 also recognizes that the lady uses this virelai to reply to the poet. 10 . On this passage, see also McGrady, Controlling Readers , p. 178. 11 . As De Looze remarks of the Chroniques , “Froissart [ . . . ] is aware of the power of the interpreter who, in rereading, can completely rewrite events,” Pseudo-Autobiography , p. 115. 12 . McGrady, Controlling Readers , p. 171. 13 . On interpretation as a form of literary creation in the Prison , see McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 185–87; De Looze, “Text to Text,” in The Centre and Its Compass , p. 89; and Pseudo-Autobiography , p. 127. 14 . Jean Froissart, ed. Anthime Fourrier, L’Espinette Amoureuse (Paris: Klincksieck, 1963 ), pp. 72–73. 15 . For other readings of this scene, see Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Fullness and Emptiness: Shortages and Storehouses of Lyric Treasure in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries,” Yale French Studies 80 ( 1991): 236–37 [224–39]; De Looze, Pseudo-Autobiography , pp. 119–20; and McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 180–85. 16 . McGrady, Controlling Readers , pp. 180–83. 17 . De Looze, “Text to Text,” in The Centre and Its Compass , p. 93. 18 . Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Fullness,” 237. 19 . De Looze, “Text to Text,” in The Centre and Its Compass , p. 90. 20 . McGrady, Controlling Readers , p. 182. 21 . Metamorphoses XI.1–66. On Ovid and the Prison in general, see Fourrier, Prison , pp. 17–19, and Kevin Brownlee, “Ovide et le moi poétique ‘moderne’ à la fin du Moyen Age: Jean Froissart et Christine de Pizan,” in Modernité au Moyen Age: le défi du passé , ed. Brigitte Cazelles and Charles Méla (Geneva: Droz, 1990), pp. 156–61 [153–73]. 22 . Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Fullness,” 237. 23 . Kristeva, “Revolution in Poetic Language,” in The Kristeva Reader , p. 94. 24 . Kristeva, “Revolution in Poetic Language,” in The Kristeva Reader , p. 95. 25 . For other readings of this episode—one of the most discussed in the Prison — see Blumenfeld-Kosinski, Reading Myth , pp. 167–70; Brownlee, “Ovide,” in Modernité au Moyen Age , pp. 156–61; Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Fullness,” 234–35; De Looze, Pseudo-Autobiography , pp. 120–25; Huot, From Song to Book , pp. 312–15; and Nouvet, “Pour une économie,” 349–51. 26 . See De Looze, “Text to Text,” in The Centre and Its Compass , p. 89; and Pseudo-Autobiography , p. 127. 27 . On the importance of the laurel, see Sylvia Huot, “The Daisy and the Laurel: Myths of Desire and Creativity in the Poetry of Jean Froissart,” Yale French Studies 80 ( 1991): 246 [240–51]. On the substitution of Phoebus, god of poetry, for Venus in the Pygmalion story, see Brownlee, “Ovide,” 238 NOTES

in Modernité au Moyen Age , p. 161; and Huot, “The Daisy and the Laurel,” 244–46. 28 . Machaut, Voir Dit , ll.2409–42. 29 . See Douglas Kelly, “Les inventions ovidiennes de Froissart: Réflexions intertextuelles comme imagination,” Littérature 41 (1981 ): 89 [82–92]; and Brownlee, “Ovide,” in Modernité au Moyen Age , p. 159. 30 . As De Looze puts it, speaking of the Voir Dit scene, “to imprint the marks of love (the kiss) on a feuille (leaf, but also a piece of paper or parchment) is to prefer the act of signifying love on a folio (that is, writing) to the act of love itself,” Pseudo-Autobiography , p. 90. 31 . Machaut, Voir Dit , ll. 2441–42. 32 . “Et de lettre fu moult bien duis / Car tel l’edefia Nature / Qu’il congneut plus de l’escripture / Que nuls poëtes a son tamps” (ll. 1319–22). [He was very well educated in letters. For Nature made him so that he knew more about writing than any other poet of his time.] The Prison repeatedly refers to Pynoteüs as “li poëte” (ll. 1322, 1587, 1658, 1921). 33 . Brownlee, Poetic Identity , p. 7. 34 . Brownlee, Poetic Identity , pp. 7–9, 19–20. 35 . See Nouvet, who describes Neptisphelé as a “création qui nie le processus créateur” [creation that denies the creative process], “Pour une économie,” 351. For a more positive interpretation, see De Looze, Pseudo-Autobiography , pp. 122–24. However, De Looze’s assertion that “at no point does the ‘real’ Neptisphelé return” ( Pseudo-Autobiography , p. 124), while it may conform to common sense, f lies in the face of the text’s repeated insistence that this is none other than the “real” Neptsiphelé. 36 . As demonstrated by Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Fullness,” 237. 37 . Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Fullness,” 235. 38 . Douglas Kelly, Medieval Imagination: Rhetoric and the Poetry of Courtly Love (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978 ), p. 26. This definition highlights two themes that are crucial in the Prison : that of the (feminine) image, and that of imprisonment. As Kelly goes on to explain, for medieval writers the term imagination typically designates the initial step in the creative process: only after imagining does the poet proceed to verbal- ize and arrange his idea, Imagination , p. 32. Kelly also examines the uses of imagination in the Prison , Imagination , pp. 155–69. 39 . For a more detailed analysis of enclosure in the Prison , see Keith Busby, “Froissart’s Poetic Prison: Enclosure as Image and Structure in the Narrative Poetry,” in Froissart Across the Genres , ed. Donald Maddox and Sara Sturm-Maddox (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998), pp. 90–93 [81–100]. For Cerquiglini-Toulet, the gesture of locking a poem in a box “actually represents the emergence of writing as a profession,” “Fullness,” 226; she cites the poet’s obsession with having finished pieces ready for the patron, and with preventing unwanted dissemination of his texts. 40 . Bakhtin, “The Dialogic Imagination,” p. 292. 41 . Kristeva, “Word, Dialogue and Novel,” in The Kristeva Reader , p. 37. NOTES 239

5 Verbal Prowess: Women’s Artistry and Men’s Chivalry in Perceforest 1 . The dwarf Tronc, an apparent exception to this rule, will be discussed in chapter six . 2 . On late French romances’ transformations of Arthurian material, see, for example, Norris Lacy, “The Evolution and Legacy of French Prose Romance,” in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Romance , ed. Roberta Krueger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), esp. pp. 176–78 [167–82]. On the use of Lancelot in Ysaÿe le Triste , see Michelle Szkilnik, “L’Ombre de Lancelot dans Ysaÿe le Triste ,” in Lancelot-Lanzelet: Hier et aujourd’hui , ed. Danielle Buschinger and Michel Zink (Greifswald: Reineke, 1995), pp. 363–69. 3 . See, for example, Anne Klinck, “Introduction,” in Medieval Women’s Song , pp. 1–5. 4 . The chora is for Kristeva a prelinguistic “place” between mother and child, location of the semiotic, Grosz, Sexual Subversions , p. 43. According to Margaroni, Kristeva uses the chora to approach the “problem of the beginning,” Margaroni, “Lost Foundation,” p. 80. Grosz, however, cautions that the “archaic” character of the maternal as Kristeva posits it is not real, but is an idea that is associated with the feminine, Sexual Subversions , p. 81. On Kristeva’s problematic status for feminists, see, for example Margaroni, “Lost Foundation,” pp. 79–80, Grosz, Sexual Subversions , pp. 91–96, and Moi, Kristeva Reader , pp. 9–12. 5 . While Perceforest has sometimes been dated to the fourteenth century, and there is evidence that a fourteenth-century version of the romance existed, I follow the more recent arguments of Gilles Roussineau and Christine Ferlampin-Acher, who place the version that has come down to us in the mid-fifteenth century. Roussineau argues that the romance in its present form dates from the mid-fifteenth century; Ferlampin-Acher, through a carefully researched network of references, locates its composition more specifically in 1450s Bourgogne. See Roussineau, Perceforest , première par- tie (Geneva: Droz, 2007), t. I, pp. ix–xlvi; and Christine Ferlampin-Acher, Perceforest et Zéphir: propositions autour d’un récit arthurien bourguignon (Geneva: Droz, 2010). 6 . At this writing, only the first four parts of the text have been edited, by Gilles Roussineau (Geneva: Droz, 1988–2007). An earlier edition of the beginning of part I, edited by Jane H. M. Taylor, also exists (Geneva: Droz, 1979). For a book-length study of this rich and complex text, see Sylvia Huot, Postcolonial Fictions in the Roman de Perceforest : Cultural Identities and Hybridities (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2007). 7 . Jeanne Lods has collected twenty of Perceforest ’s longer poems in her anthology, Les pièces lyriques du Roman de Perceforest (Geneva and Lille: Société de Publications Romanes et Françaises, 1953 ), but many shorter verses also exist, often taking the form of inscriptions on monuments. Of the lyric pieces collected by Lods, seven are composed by women (6, 7, 8, 240 NOTES

9, 11, 12, 15); another is spoken by the goddess Diana (2) and another in a female voice that pronounces judgment in a jeu parti (16). However, Lods, with one exception (10), does not include inscriptions on monuments in her collection. While some of Perceforest ’s inscriptions are anonymous or seem not to have a human author, many more are implicitly authored by the romance’s female characters, who are also frequently the builders of the monuments on which they appear. On Perceforest ’s monuments, see Sylvia Huot, “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance: Orality and Writing in the Roman de Perceforest ,” in Vox Intexta: Orality and Textuality in the Middle Ages , ed. A.N. Doane and Carol Braun Pasternack (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), pp. 207–10 [203–23]; and Brooke Heidenreich Findley, “Haunted Landscapes: Human Encounters with the Environment in Perceforest ,” Cahiers de recherches médiévales et humanistes 21 (2011): 185–99. 8 . See Jane H.M. Taylor, “The Sense of a Beginning: Genealogy and Plenitude in Late Medieval Narrative Cycles,” in Transtextualities: Of Cycles and Cyclicity in Old French Literature , ed. Donald Maddox and Sara Sturm-Maddox (Binghamton, NY: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1996), pp. 93–123. As Taylor argues, Perceforest ’s structure is both cyclical and repetitive, bearing a distinct resemblance to medieval historical writing. 9 . Huot, “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance,” in Vox Intexta ; and Michelle Szkilnik, “Le clerc et le menestral: prose historique et discours versifié dans le Perceforest ,” Cahiers de recherches médiévales 5 (1998): 87–105. Also relevant here is Christine Ferlampin-Acher’s argument that women are the guardians of collective memory in Perceforest: “[Les femmes] sont le fondement de l’Histoire. [ . . . ] Ce sont elles qui assurent la continuité de la mémoire: après la destruction de l’Angleterre par les Romains dans le livre IV, tous les chevaliers sont morts, seules les femmes conservent le sou- venir du passé,” “Le rôle des mères dans Perceforest ,” in Arthurian Romance and Gender , ed. Friedrich Wolfzettel (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995), p. 284 [274–84] [Women are the foundation of history. ( . . . ) They are the ones who guarantee the continuity of memory: after the destruction of England by the Romans in part IV, all the knights are dead, and only women pre- serve the memory of the past]. 10 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 123. Francesca Sautman uses Butler’s ideas in this essay to discuss the paradoxical position of medieval women, “Just Like a Woman,” in Queering the Middle Ages , p. 171. 11 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 132. 12 . Bloch, Medieval Misogyny and the Invention of Western Romantic Love (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991 ), p. 109. 13 . Bloch, Medieval Misogyny , p. 133. 14 . On Lidoire and her aims, see Jane Taylor, “La Reine-Fée in the Roman de Perceforest : Rewriting, Rethinking,” in A rthurian Studies in Honor of P.J.C. Field , ed. Bonnie Wheeler (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2004), pp. 81–91. As Taylor argues, Lidoire plays a role similar to Merlin, arranging and carefully NOTES 241

timing fortuitous unions in order to craft an illustrious line of descendants; unlike Merlin, however, she legitimates marriage rather than adultery. 15 . In another intriguing episode, Blanche uses embroidered objects to com- municate with her lover Lionel when Lidoire expressly forbids her to speak with him (II.ii.119–29). As will be discussed further in the second part of this chapter, women’s textile arts also figure prominently in Perceforest . 16 . On the “Lay secret,” see also Huot, “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance,” in Vox Intexta , pp. 212–15. Huot shows how the “Lay secret” is personal, experiental, and evolving, unlike the public, static chronicle. However, she does not explore the specifically gendered implications of the text, or its use of the conflicting discourses of prowess and veiling. 17 . Citations of parts I–IV of Perceforest will be from the edition by Gilles Roussineau (Geneva: Droz, 1988–2007). Roussineau’s edition divides each of the romance’s four parts into 2–3 volumes; my parenthetical citations follow standard practice for Perceforest in referring first to part number, followed by volume number within the part, page number—and, only for those lais whose lines are numbered in the edition, line number. For part VI, I cite the Arsenal manuscript (Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal 3493–94). English translations are my own. 18 . Roussineau suggests “manifester ouvertement” as a translation of “lire” (III.i.400); one might also translate “interpreting” as closer to “reading,” and as suggestive of the action that will be required of the knights who are the recipients of the poem. 19 . I translate “attaindre” as “achieve,” taking it as a variation on the verb’s more common meaning “to attain a difficult goal.” On this, see Frédéric Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française (Paris: E. Bouillon, 1880 –1902), vol. 1, p. 460. Roussineau, conversely, suggests “comprendre avec sagesse” as a translation for the phrase “par sens attaindre” (III.i.400). I find this problematic: such a reading would change the meaning of the stanza, making the feat of prowess one of subtle reading rather than subtle composition. Yet not only is it a stretch to translate “attaindre” as “comprendre,” but the problem that the stanza poses, and that the women themselves face, is that of how lovers can express their woes [se plaindre] in the face of the threat posed by the mesdisans . Thus, while the knights’ act of interpretation is indeed important, and may be suggested by the stanza’s obscure reference to “reading,” it is primarily the act of skilful composition that is in question here. Such a reading is further substantiated by the parallel discussion in the “Lay de confort,” below, in which the threat that slanderers pose to women who wish to speak publicly about love is again in question, this time in less obscure terms. 20 . Solterer, The Master and Minerva: Disputing Women in French Medieval Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995 ), p. 11. 21 . Solterer, Master and Minerva , pp. 11–12. 22 . Solterer, Master and Minerva , p. 190. 23 . Nonetheless, the romance offers no help with some parts of the lay: the opening and closing stanzas pose particular challenges. For an attempt to 242 NOTES

explicate the first stanza, see Lods, Les pièces lyriques , p. 103; and Roussineau III.i.399–400; for the last stanza, see Roussineau III.i.402. 24 . This also involves the opposite of the practice of “mise en prose” studied by Christine Ferlampin-Acher in relation to Perceforest . See Ferlampin-Acher, “Le conte de la Rose de Perceforest et l’effet mise en prose,” in Mettre en prose aux XIVe–XVIe siècles , ed. M. Colombo Timelli, B. Ferrari, and A. Schoysman (Turnhout: Brepols, 2010 ), pp. 129–36. 25 . Huot suggests “she could recover her wits” as a translation of the final line of the stanza, Postcolonial Fictions , p. 111. 26 . Huot, Postcolonial Fictions , p. 111. 27 . Huot, Postcolonial Fictions , pp. 109–11. 28 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 123. 29 . Lionel at III.i.280–82; Estonné at III.ii.21–22; and Le Tor at III.ii.27–28. It’s interesting to note that the forest is the knights’ private space, the castle garden the women’s. Both Estonné and Le Tor must hear a second performance of the lay before being able to explicate “their” stanzas. Lionel, who has already understood “his” stanza, welcomes the second performance as an opportunity to understand more of the lay, saying “quant elle le chanta, oncques n’en entendy que ung seul vers” (III.ii.15) [when she sang it, I only understood one stanza]. The episode of reperformance comments on the reception of complex songs, which clearly require several hearings to be fully appreciated even by those who have the interpretive tools to understand them. 30 . Bloch, Medieval Misogyny , p. 109. 31 . Szkilnik uses a discussion of prophetic inscriptions to make a similar argument that poetry in Perceforest looks both forward and backward: “Le clerc et le menestral,” 101–02. 32 . See Taylor, “The Sense of a Beginning,” in Transtextualities , esp. pp. 98–99 on historiography, and p. 100 on the competing circular and linear models of history that structure Perceforest . 33 . Huot, “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance,” in Vox Intexta , p. 215. 34 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 132. 35 . Huot discusses the “Lay de confort” and its companion piece, the “Lay de complainte,” as examples of “the great importance of the oral tradition for both public and private communication,” “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance,” in Vox Intexta , p. 210 (pp. 207–10); however, she does not consider its specifically gendered implications. 36 . Huot, Postcolonial Fictions , p. 112; see also pp. 111–13. 37 . Huot points out an interesting parallel between the rhetoric of revela- tion used in the “Lay de l’ours” and that employed by Marie de France, “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance,” in Vox Intexta , pp. 211–12. 38 . The first replaying of the lay in this context is at III.i.71. 39 . Huot has argued that the twelve women’s desires for material objects sub- limate their desire for marriage. “It is in getting to marry her beloved that the desire of a pucelle is truly gratified, and these ornamental objects are clearly a kind of place-holder, a symbolic fulfillment until the longed-for NOTES 243

sexual fulfillment can finally be articulated and granted,” Postcolonial Fictions , p. 106. This is indeed one way of interpreting the Dauphin’s role, borne out by later episodes in which he fulfills the more explicitly sexual desires of other maidens, and after his death comes to be known as the “god of desire.” 40 . “Puis moult fu en cours en Angleterre” (I.ii.848) [afterward it became very common in England]. 41 . Garber, Vested Interests , esp. pp. 36–40. 42 . See Bullough, “Cross Dressing and Gender Role Change in the Middle Ages,” in Handbook of Medieval Sexuality , ed. Bullough and James A. Brundage (New York: Garland, 1996 ), pp. 234–35 [223–42]. Bullough notes that, although men cross-dressing as women were generally regarded with suspicion, it was sometimes permitted within a comedic or carnev- alesque situation. Bullough cites a “report in the thirteenth century of Cypriot knights fighting in tournaments while dressed as women,” p. 234, as well as the case of Ulrich von Lichtenstein, author of Frauendienst . “One of the most remarkable of Ulrich’s adventures took place in 1227 when he, in order to honor his lady and all women, disguised himself as the goddess Venus and as such engaged in a number of jousts,” p. 234. Bullough speculates that such cases were tolerated because of their element of comedy, along with the fact that it was evident that the cross-dressers were men, precisely because they were engaging in the masculine activities of tourneying and jousting. These cases are intriguingly close comparanda for the Perceforest tournament described here. 43 . On these birds as probable references to the Voeux du Paon , one of Perceforest’s sources, see Ferlampin-Acher, Perceforest et Zéphir , p. 118. 44 . “Sur chacun floron de la fleur avoit ung oyselet de fin or ouvré par telle maistrie que ja sy pou de vent ferist es becqz qu’ilz ne jectassent son selon la maniere de loiselet sur qui il estoit figuré. Sy devez sçavoir qu’il n’estoit plus de melodie que de les oÿr, car il n’y avoit celluy qui ne jectast son sy propre au chant de l’oisel dont il estoit fait que qui ne les veist et oÿst iceulx, sy deist il: ‘celluy est ung frion et celluy ung rousseinollet et celluy ung cardonnerel’” (I.ii.859–60) [On each petal of the flower was a little bird of fine gold, so masterfully worked that if even a tiny breath of wind passed its beak, it would emit a sound appropriate to the kind of bird that it represented. And you should know that no melody was better than hearing (these birds), for each one gave out a sound so like the song of the bird that it was made to represent, that whoever heard and saw them would have said: “this one is a bunting and that a nightingale and that a goldfinch”]. 45 . “Et sachiez qu’il ne fut plus de doulceur a oÿr que le son des oyseletz qui estoient sur le cercle tresjectez de fin or, car il estoit adviz a tous ceulx et celles des hourdeiz qu’ilz fussent en ung grant bois aourné de toutes manieres d’oyseletz esmeuz a chanter” (I.ii.861) [And know that there was nothing sweeter to hear than the sound of the birds on the circlet forged of fine gold, for everyone in the stands felt as if they were in a great forest ornamented with all kinds of singing birds]. 244 NOTES

46 . This Blanche is not the same as Blanche, daughter of Lidoire and composer of the “Lay de confort,” discussed above. 47 . Szkilnik, “Le clerc et le menestral,” 98–100. 48 . See Szkilnik’s discussion of the passage from orality to writing and from lyric to prose, “Le clerc et le menestral,” 98–100. 49 . See Huot’s discussion of Old French romance as “a coming together of oral and written traditions,” “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance,” in Vox Intexta , p. 204; and Szkilnik’s argument that, in Perceforest , “prose et vers ne s’opposent pas mais se renforcent,” “Le clerc et le menestral,” 96. 50 . While, according to Huot, “the production of French literature is a collective enterprise involving both knights and clerics,” “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance,” in Vox Intexta , p. 218, I see the clerk as fulfilling a compara- tively minor role compared with that of the composers of lays. 51 . Similarly, as Huot argues, Perceforest ’s oral tradition is “alive and evolving,” insofar as a lay “triggers memories [ . . . ] raises interpretive questions, starts discussions, inspires chivalrous action, prompts the composition and dissemination of new lais,” while the chronicle represents “closure and stasis,” “Chronicle, Lai, and Romance,” in Vox Intexta , p. 215.

6 Women Writers and the Monstrous Author in Ysaÿe le Triste 1 . On the date of Ysaÿe , see André Giacchetti, Ysaÿe le Triste (Rouen: Publications de l’Université de Rouen, 1989), p. 26; and Patricia Victorin, Ysaÿe le Triste, Une Esthétique de la Confluence: Tours, Tombeaux, Vergers et Fontaines (Paris: Honoré Champion, 2002), pp. 10–12. 2 . On Ysaÿe ’s female poet figures, see Marilyn Lawrence, “Yseut’s Legacy: Women Writers and Performers in the Medieval French Romance Ysaÿe le Triste ,” in Acts and Texts: Performance and Ritual in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance , ed. Laurie Postlewate and Wim Hüsken (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007 ), pp. 319–35; and Michele Szkilnik, “Des Femmes écrivains: Néronès dans le Roman de Perceforest, Marte dans Ysaye le Triste,” Romania 1999 (117): 474–506. 3 . On Tronc, see Anne Martineau, “De la laideur à la beauté: la métamorphose de Tronc en Aubéron dans le roman d’ Ysaÿe le Triste, ” in Le Beau et le laid au Moyen Age (Aix-en-Provence: CUERMA, 2000), pp. 371–81; Michele Szkilnik, “Deux héritiers de Merlin au XIVe siècle: le luiton Zéphir et le nain Tronc,” Moyen Français 1999 (43): 77–97; Patricia Victorin, “La fin des illusions dans Ysaÿe le Triste ou Quand la magie n’est plus qu’illusion,” in Magie et Illusion au Moyen Age (Aix-en-Provence: CUERMA, 1999 ), pp. 571–78. 4 . Victorin has also argued that women in Ysaÿe are the guardians of memory, forming links with the past, while the male characters tend toward amne- sia and are focused on the present. Victorin, Ysaïe le Triste , pp. 385–90. 5 . On the possible relationship between the Voir Dit and Ysaÿe , see Victorin, Ysaïe le Triste , p. 396. Intruiguingly, André Giacchetti has shown that NOTES 245

Marthe employs unique verse forms similar to those practiced by Machaut. Giacchetti, “Une nouvelle forme du lai apparue à la fin du 14 e siècle,” in Etudes de Langue et de Littérature du Moyen Age offertes à Félix Lecoy (Paris: Champion, 1973), pp. 149–50 [147–55]. 6 . On Tronc as an author figure, see also Martineau, “Laideur,” in Le Beau et le laid , p. 374; Szkilnik, “Héritiers,” 94–97; and Victorin, “Fin des Illusions,” in Magie et Illusion , p. 577. 7 . Kristeva, “Stabat Mater,” in The Kristeva Reader , p. 182. 8 . On Yseut’s role in Ysaÿe , see Patricia Victorin, “La Reine Yseut et la Fée Morgue ou l’impossible maternité dans Ysaïe le Triste ,” in La mère au Moyen Age , ed. Aimé Petit (Lille: Centre d’études médiévales, 1999), pp. 263–68 [261–75]. 9 . All quotes of Ysaÿe are from the edition by André Giacchetti (Rouen: Publications de l’Université de Rouen, 1989). English translations are my own. Giacchetti’s modern French translation (Rouen: Publications de l’Université de Rouen, 1993) was occasionally consulted. 10 . Similarly, Victorin argues that Yseut’s book “legitimates” her child, “Impossible maternité,” in Mère au Moyen Age , p. 264. 11 . On the generic conventions of medieval confessional narrative, see Jerry Root, “ Space to Speke”: The Confessional Subject in Medieval Literature (New York: Peter Lang, 1997 ). 12 . As Victorin also argues, “ce livre joue le rôle de l’écrit qui autorise la fiction à venir,” “Impossible maternité,” in Mère au Moyen Age , p. 264 [This book plays the role of a writing that authorizes the fiction that follows it]. Victorin further suggests intriguing comparisons between Yseut’s inscribed book, and the inscribed books that appear at the beginnings of the prose Merlin and the Histoire du saint Graal , “Impossible maternité,” in Mère au Moyen Age , p. 264 n. 8. See also Victorin’s discussion of the presence of a “source” [spring] in the episode, in the form of the fountain beside which Yseut gives birth. “La source est dotée symboliquement d’un caractère féminin car elle est matière cosmique fondamentale; elle assure la fécondation et la croissance des êtres,” “Impossible maternité,” in Mère au Moyen Age , pp. 265–66 [The spring is symbolically given a feminine character, because it represents fundamental cosmic matter; it guarantees the fertility and growth of beings]. 13 . Kristeva, “Stabat Mater,” The Kristeva Reader , p. 182. 14 . Victorin similarly argues that Yseut’s project apparently “fails,” as her son’s narrative turns out to be quite different from his father’s, “Impossible maternité,” in Mère au Moyen Age, p. 266. Yseut thus serves as “le témoin ultime de la fin d’un univers littéraire,” “Impossible maternité,” in Mère au Moyen Age , p. 264 [the last witness to the end of a literary universe]. On the marginalization of love discourse in Ysaÿe , see also Victorin, Ysaïe le Triste , pp. 389–90; and Victorin, “Les Voeux du Butor dans Ysaïe le Triste : à la conf luence du romanesque et de l’épique,” in Le romanesque dans l’épique , ed. Dominique Boutet (Paris: Centre des Sciences de la Littérature, 2003), pp. 189–90 [179–97]. 246 NOTES

15 . On Marthe, see the two articles by Marilyn Lawrence, “Yseut’s Legacy,” in Acts and Texts ; and “Oral Performance of Written Narrative in the Medieval French Romance Ysaÿe le Triste,” in Performing Medieval Narrative , ed. Marilyn Lawrence, Nancy Freeman Regalado, and Evelyn Birge Vitz (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2005 ), pp. 89–102; and Szkilnik, “Femmes écrivains.” 16 . On Marthe’s letter writing, see Anne Martineau, “Les lettres dans Ysaÿe le Triste ,” in La Lettre et les lettres, entre-deux , ed. Claude Lachet and Laurence Richer (Lyon: CEDIC, 2006 ), pp. 93–94, 102–03 [83–104]. 17 . Skilnik, “Femmes écrivains,” 493. Lawrence, however, examines Marthe’s performances in detail, ultimately arguing that “in Ysaÿe le Triste , the woman character’s most effective compositions require a separation between the writer and performer,” “Yseut’s Legacy,” in Acts and Texts , p. 326. As Lawrence notes, Marthe either performs her songs in private or disguised as a minstrel while pretending to be someone else. Her written works are consistently performed by Tronc for Ysaÿe. 18 . On breastfeeding in Ysaÿe , see Victorin, “Impossible maternité,” in Mère au Moyen Age , pp. 271–73. 19 . On Marthe as minstrel, see Lawrence, “Oral Performance,” in Performing Medieval Narrative , pp. 91–94. 20 . On these moments, see Michele Szkilnik, “The Grammar of the Sexes in Medieval French Romance,” in Gender Transgressions: Crossing the Normative Barrier in Old French Literature , ed. Karen J. Taylor (New York: Garland, 1998), pp. 78–79 [61–88]. Szkilnik argues that “by revealing everything about herself [Marthe] is actually shielding herself most efficiently. Her supreme trick is to use the truth to mislead people and protect herself,” p. 79. 21 . See Szkilnik, “Grammar of the Sexes,” in Gender Transgressions , p. 77. 22 . See Bullough, “Cross Dressing and Gender Role Change,” in Handbook of Medieval Sexuality , pp. 228–29. 23 . See Victorin, Ysaïe le Triste , p. 211 n. 30 ; and Szkilnik, “Femmes écriv- ains,” 493–94. 24 . On this text, see the masterful analysis by Victorin, Ysaïe le Triste , pp. 391–411. 25 . The parallel is mentioned by Lawrence, “Yseut’s Legacy,” in Acts and Texts , p. 329. 26 . On Tronc’s misogyny in this scene, see Szkilnik, “Grammar of the Sexes,” in Gender Transgressions , p. 80. 27 . Szkilnik discusses the effacement of Marthe’s voice, which she places in parallel with that of Neronés, “Femmes écrivains,” 475, 502. 28 . Simple arithmetic reveals that Marc’s future wife is at least three years older than his mother: Marthe was fifteen when she conceived Marc (488), which must have been after she returned from this six-year language exchange. 29 . Marc does later pronounce an isolated battle poem; this seems to recall the voeux scene, as he is about to fulfill his vow at the time (294). On Marc as a poet, see Szkilnik, “Femmes écrivains,” 504–05. NOTES 247

30 . See Victorin, “Voeux,” in Romanesque dans l’épique , p. 189. 31 . On this episode and its intertexts, see Victorin, “Voeux,” in Romanesque dans l’épique ; and Michele Szkilnik, “Le Restor d’Alexandre dans Ysaÿe le Triste,” in The Medieval Opus: Imitation, Rewriting, and Transmission in the French Tradition , ed. Douglas Kelly (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996 ), pp. 181–95. 32 . Szkilnik, “Restor,” in Medieval Opus , p. 182. 33 . Victorin, “Voeux,” in Romanesque dans l’épique , p. 186. 34 . Szkilnik, “Restor,” in Medieval Opus , p. 184. 35 . Szkilnik, “Restor,” in Medieval Opus , p. 185. 36 . Victorin, “Voeux,” in Romanesque dans l’épique , pp. 195–96 and n. 44. See also the intriguing heron/peacock switch that Victorin describes in n. 45. 37 . Victorin, Ysaÿe , p. 282. 38 . Victorin, “Voeux,” in Romanesque dans l’épique , p. 193. In another ironic echo of the scene, Victorin shows that the first episode of voeux in Ysaÿe , taken on a limousin , ends in disaster, “Voeux,” in Romanesque dans l’épique , p. 191. 39 . The romance specifies that Ysaÿe le Triste’s name is chosen to echo those of both his parents (Yseut and Tristan), but the fact that his son is named Marc, undoubtedly reminding readers of King Mark in the Tristan romances, is never explained. Anne Martineau has developed a convinc- ing anagogical reading of the romance, in which Ysaÿe and Marc would be figures of the Old Testament prophet and the New Testament apostle, “Laideur,” in Le Beau et le laid , pp. 379–80. 40 . Literally a rotuengue is a term for a “chanson à refrain” [song with a refrain] (Godefroy, Dictionnaire , vol. 7, p. 245), assimilating Tronc’s soporific monologue to the performance of a long and repetitive poem. 41 . Anne Martineau, Patricia Victorin, and Michelle Szkilnik have all discussed Tronc’s status as author figure, n. 6. Occasionally, we see Tronc spinning oral narratives that echo the romance we are reading: he diverts a chambermaid by telling her “the adventures of a knight named Ysaÿe le Triste” (439); or he amuses Marc with similar stories [“avoit Marc grant plaisanche de oïr Tronc raconter lez aventures Ysaÿe,” 389] 42 . Martineau, “Laideur,” in Le Beau et le laid , p. 373, notes that “cette méta- morphose finale engage le lecteur à une relecture complète du roman” [this final metamorphosis demands that the reader completely reread the romance]. 43 . Victorin uses this scene to demonstrate Tronc’s role as an illusionist, “Fin des illusions,” in Magie et Illusion , p. 576. 44 . Referenced in Martineau, “Les lettres,” in La Lettre , p. 97. 45 . Tronc has a further physical tie to the couple: every time Ysaÿe and Marthe sleep together, the fairies beat Tronc. 46 . Szkilnik, “Héritiers,” 96. 47 . Furthermore, as this episode suggests, Tronc’s facility in adopting other voices is related to his facility with other languages: as he elsewhere claims, he can read, write, and speak “all languages” (462–63). Szkilnik argues 248 NOTES

that Tronc’s status as author figure is related to his ability to adopt other languages and voices: “il sait en effet trouver le langage adapté à toute situation,” “Héritiers,” 94 [in sum, he is able to find the words suited to every situation]. 48 . On Tronc’s indeterminate gender, see also Szkilnik, “Grammar of the Sexes,” in Gender Transgressions , p. 63. 49 . Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , pp. 170–71. 50 . Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , p. 175. 51 . Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , p. 166.

Conclusion: What about Christine? 1 . On Sebille and figures similar to her in Christine’s other works, see Thelma S. Fenster, “Introduction,” in Christine de Pizan, trans. Thelma S. Fenster and Nadia Margolis, The Book of the Duke of True Lovers (New York: Persea Books, 1991 ), pp. 20–27. For a close reading of Sebille and her aims, see also Tracy Adams, “‘Pour un petit de nice semblant’: Distance and Desire in Christine de Pizan’s Le Livre du Duc des vrais amans ,” French Forum 28 (2003 ): 1–24. 2 . “Christine’s Vision,” trans. Christine Reno, The Writings of Christine de Pizan , ed. Charity Cannon Willard (New York: Persea Books, 1994), p. 17. 3 . On a related note, just as Christine does not develop figures of other poets in her works, she does not develop figures of other heroines . Thelma Fenster discusses the surprising lack of memorable heroines in Christine’s works: “which of Christine’s female depictions can we name, as we can the canonical Enide, Iseut, or Lienor?” (p. 115). As Fenster ultimately argues, Christine herself is finally “her own best heroine” (p. 123). Fenster, “Who’s a Heroine? The Example of Christine de Pizan,” in Christine de Pizan: A Casebook , ed. Barbara Altmann and Deborah McGrady (New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 115–28. 4 . Citations are from Le livre du duc des vrais amans , ed. Thelma Fenster (Binghamton, NY: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1995). English translations are my own, but the translation by Thelma Fenster and Nadia Margolis was consulted with profit. 5 . Krueger, Women Readers and the Ideology of Gender in Old French Verse Romance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993 ), p. 228. 6 . Krueger, Women Readers , p. 239. 7 . For a full discussion of the intersecting voices of this text, and the ways in which Christine uses them to criticize romance conventions, see Krueger, Women Readers , pp. 224–44. 8 . Richards, “Rejecting Essentialism and Gendered Writing: The Case of Christine de Pizan,” in Gender and Text in the Later Middle Ages , ed. Jane Chance (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996 ), p. 97 [96–131]. 9 . Richards, “Rejecting Essentialism,” in Gender and Text , pp. 102–06. 10 . Richards, “Rejecting Essentialism,” in Gender and Text , p. 98. NOTES 249

11 . See Bynum, Fragmentation and Redemption , pp. 170–75. 12 . See Solterer, The Master and Minerva . 13 . Burns, Bodytalk , p. 249 n. 1. 14 . Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination , p. 292. 15 . Bunch, “Not by Degrees: Feminist Theory and Education,” in Feminist Theory: A Reader , ed. Wendy Kolmar and Frances Bartkowski (New York: McGraw Hill, 2010 ), p. 13 [12–15]. 16 . Nussbaum, “The Professor of Parody: The Hip Defeatism of Judith Butler,” New Republic , February 22, 1999: 37–45.

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INDEX

Adelhaide of Burgundy, 76–7 as feminine in medieval gender Alexander cycle ( Voeux du Paon, Parfait systems, 11–12 du Paon, Restor du Paon ), 182–3 feminine poetic speech as mediated archaism, see nostalgia by, 11–13 , 32 , 66 , 92 , 95 Arthurian tradition, 139–40 , 173 , 182 inexpressibility of, 14 , 71–2 Aucassin et Nicolette , 23 , 29 , 33–8 , minstrel heroine’s, as work of art, 43–4 , 47 , 58 23 , 32–8 , 43–4 , 46–7 , 49 , Nicolette (minstrel heroine), 32 , 50–2 , 57–8 , 189–90 33–8 , 39 , 45 , 50 , 57 , 70 , monstrous, of author figure, 24 , 198 , 199 168 , 188–90 Austin, J.L., 46 , 71 music, dance as related to, 13–14 , author, the 86–7 , 91–2 , 96 , 174–5 author figures v. writer figures, trace of within the text, 11 , 13 , 95 , poet figures, 3–4 112 , 147–8 death of the author, 4 , 11 , 193 , Burns, E. Jane, 8–9 , 12 , 35 , 198 , 200 204 n. 20 Butler, Judith, 11 , 14 , 17 , 32 , 38 , 44 , feminist perspectives on authorship, 52 , 55 , 59 , 70 , 72 , 142 , 148 , 4–8 , 11 , 205 n. 35 150 , 154 , 200–1 medieval theories of authorship, Bynum, Caroline Walker, 11–12 , 1–3 , 6–8 , 16 15–16 , 17 , 190–1 , 198

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 6–7 , 88 , 114 , 118 , chanson de femme , see women’s song 135 , 200 chanson de toile , 7 , 8 , 10 , 13 , 30 , Berthelot, Anne, 2–4 , 6 , 9 , 13 , 59 , 220 n. 8 74–5 , 83 childbirth, see mothers Beuve de Hantonne , 23 , 29 , 33 , 38–42 , chivalry, see prowess 212–13 n. 43 chora , 96–7 , 127–8 , 140 , 239 n. 4 Josiane (minstrel heroine), 32 , 38–42 , Chrétien de Troyes, 2 , 3 45 , 50 , 57 , 58 , 70 , 199 Le Chevalier de la Charrete , 74 Bloch, R. Howard, 18 , 21 , 143 , Cligès , 216 n. 75 149 , 154 Christine de Pizan, 4 , 6 , 9 , 10 , 14 , b ody, the 25 , 84 , 86 , 140 , 169 , 178 , beauty, ugliness of, 45 , 66–72 180 , 190 , 193–8 , 201 embodied performance, 66–72 , Le livre du duc des vrais amans , 194–7 86–7 , 91–2 reaction to poet heroine, 193–8 264 INDEX

citation Felman, Shoshana, 38 , 46 , 58–9 as mode of feminine speech, 70 Finke, Laurie, 5–7 , 21–2 performative discourse as, 38 , 70 Foucault, Michel, 1 , 3 , 4 , 6–7 collaboration, as model of literary Froissart, Jean, 5 , 9 , 10 , 25 , 84 , 195 creation, 18–20 , 73–4 , 119 , 130 L’Espinette Amoureuse , 125–6 see also dialogue La Prison Amoureuse , 17 , 23 , 24 , 84 , commemoration, see memory ; nostalgia 117–35 , 199 composing Flos (narrator/author fi gure), 17 , v. performing, 14 , 19 , 29–31 , 43 , 119–30 , 134 61 , 68 , 79 Flos’s lady (poet heroine), 119–24 , portrayals of women composing 126–28 , 129 , 199, 200 poems, 93–6 , 97–100 , 145–6 , Neptisphelé (fi gure of Toute Belle), 174–5 , 177–8 130–3 cross-dressing, see transvestism Rose (patron fi gure), 119, 123–30 , 133 dance, 91–2 , 174–5 Rose’s lady (poet heroine), 120 , Deschamps, Eustache, 84 , 117–19 , 132–3 124–25 , 128–30 , 134–5 , 199 dialogue, as model of literary creation, 9 , 84 , 88 , 117–18 , Galeran de Bretagne, see Renaut 123–5 , 195 Garber, Marjorie, 14–15 , 32 , 59 , 157 see also collaboration ; lyric insertion gender disguise, 14–16 , 29 , 32–3 , 36–7 , 39–41 , medieval understanding of, 11–12 , 45 , 52 , 56–7 , 175–6 , 186 , 188 , 15–16 209 n. 1 and writing, 12 , 16 , 17 , 197–8 see also under transvestism Grail, 62 , 78–9 drag, see transvestism heteroglossia, 88 , 114 , 118 écriture féminine , 12 , 16 , 140 , 198 history, poet heroines as shapers of, embroidery, see sewing 24 , 149 , 164–5 emotion see also memory emotional incontinence of poet Huot, Sylvia, 9 , 19 , 141–2 , 147–8 , heroine, 40 , 67 , 93–5 , 112–14 , 149 , 153 198 as guarantor of authenticity, 87, imagination, 120 , 133–5 92–3 , 96 integumen , veiled language, 143 , role in writing, 89 , 92–3 , 98–9 , 174–5 148–9 , 154 enclosure, 23 , 44 , 61 , 73 , 79 , 114 , 130 Isabella of Ibelin, 77 boxes, as coffins, 79 , 133 , 225 n. 63 boxes, as figures of books, 73 , 78–9 , jongleurs, see minstrels 110–11 , 114 , 133 , 169 , 179 , 185 , 225 n. 64 , 238 n. 39 Kristeva, Julia, 13 , 17 , 52 , 88 , 96–7 , claustration of women, 30 , 142 , 140 , 168 , 171 , 200 154 , 155 , 159 , 165 , 180 Krueger, Roberta, 75–6 , 196 imprisonment, 34 , 36 , 37 , 111 , 120 , 128 , 133 , 186 letters, 84 , 103–4 , 205 n. 35 woman as vessel, 79 , see also Grail lyric insertion, 8–10 , 205 n. 44, n. 47 INDEX 265

Machaut, Guillaume de, 5 , 9 , 19 , 25 , orality, as aspect of text’s imagined 117–19 , 132–3 , 135 , 139 , 140 , past, 10 , 12–13 , 17 , 19–20 , 85 , 191 , 195 139 , 141 , 143 Le Voir Dit , 17 , 23–4 , 66 , 83–115 , 123 origins, implied, 10 , 21–2 , 24 , 75 , 140 , narrator (Guillaume, author fi gure), 142 , 155 , 164 , 168 , 172 , 200 17 , 83–115 poet heroine as implied source Toute Belle (poet heroine), 23–4 , of text, 17 , 74 , 77 , 79 , 143 , 66 , 83–115 , 117–20 , 130–1 , 163–4 , 171–2 133 , 135 , 174 , 187 , 199 , 200 see also nostalgia Margaret of Scotland, 86 Orpheus, 127 Marie de Champagne, 74 , 223 n. 32 Ovid, 78 , 127 , 130 Marie de France, 10 , 17–22 , 43 , 49 Ovide Moralisé , 109–11 Lais , 17–22, 43 , 49 matter parrot, as figure of poet, 66 , 79 for book, as provided by female pastourelle , 8–9 , 34 , 43 , 146 figures, 48 , 74–5 , 90 patronage as feminine in medieval gender inscribed patron figures, 7 , 12 , 23 , systems, 11–12 61–2 , 72–7 McGrady, Deborah, 102 , 123 , 126–7 , women’s historical, 74–6 , 85 , 119 227 n. 24 Perceforest , 23 , 24 , 29 , 31 , 33 , 50–8 , memory, poet heroines as guardians 139–65 , 199 , 200 of, 24 , 144 , 159 , 161 , 167–8 , Blanche (poet heroine, daughter of 170 , 172 the Fairy Queen), 142 , 143 , see also history 146–7 , 148 , 150–2 , 154 , 155 , Minnis, Alastair, 2–3 159 , 164 , 241 n. 15 minstrels Lidoire, the Fairy Queen historical women, 29–30 , see also under (mother-storyteller), 54–8 , music 143 , 152 , 158–9 minstrel heroines v. poet heroines, 23 , Lyriope (poet heroine), 142 , 143 , 29 , 32 , see also under individual texts 148–9 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 159 , 164 mothers Nerones (poet/minstrel heroine), breastfeeding, 168 , 175 32 , 33 , 50–8 , 59, 64 , 114 , 141 , childbirth, as metaphor of literary 142 , 157 creation, 140 , 168–72 , 194 Pergamon, twelve granddaughters mother figure as storyteller in of (poet heroines), 142 , 155–64 minstrel heroine episodes, 7 , 43 , Priande (poet heroine), 142 , 143 , 46–50 , 54–8 146 , 147–8 , 149–50 , 152–4 , music 155 , 156 , 159 , 164 as bodily presence, 13–14 , 91–2 , performance, 12–14 , 199–200 229 n. 41, see also under body, the v. composition, 19 , 29 , 30 , 62–3 , historical women’s practice of, 85–6 , 123 , 176 29–32 , 85–7 embodied, 23 , 68–72 , 86 , 91–2 emotional, 67 , 86–7 naming, 45–6 , 48 , 73 , 171–2 musical, 85–7 , 91 as performative act, 45–6 women’s public, 14 , 29–32 , 61 , nostalgia, 13–14 , 79 , 139–40 85–6 , 142 266 INDEX

performative discourse, 14 , 38 , 46 , 47 , sexual reproduction, as model for 48 , 50 , 58–9 , 70–1 , 142 , 145 , 199 artistic creation, 48 Peronne (addressee of Deschamps Silence, Roman de , 10 , 31–2 , 177 poems), 117–19 skin poet heroines changing, 147 definition of, 8–14 dyeing, 36 , 40 , 50 , 52 , 55 , 56 , 57 historical value of, 5–7 , 25 , 118–19 , piercing, pricking, 51–2 , 55 , 56–7 135 , 201 see also pollution paradoxical status of, 25 , 141–3 , slander, 113 , 144–5 , 151–2 , 153 , 154 , 198–200 164 , 194, 199–200 sexualization of, 11–12 , 14 , 23 , Solterer, Helen, 145 , 154 , 200 24 , 25 , 32 , 38 , 45 , 59 , 66 , 68 , Sone de Nansay , 23 , 30 , 61–79 70–1 , 87 , 91 , 95–6 , 171, 173–7 , Branque (clerk figure), 73 , 77 , 78 179–80 , 198–9 Fane of Beirut (patron figure), 61 , silence, self-effacement of, 23 , 77–9 , 72–9 , 114 141–3 , 153 , 159 , 161 , 164 Odée (poet figure), 23 , 61–72 , 75 , see also under individual texts 77 , 78–9 , 114 , 199 pollution, 52 Orvale (minstrel figure), 62 , 69–72 permeability, 64 , 114 Papegai (minstrel figure), 23 , 61–3 , see also skin, piercing 66–72 , 77 , 114 Prison Amoureuse , see Jean Froissart Summit, Jennifer, 14 , 75 prowess swan, as figure of woman poet, 77–9 men’s chivalric, 151–2 , 155 , 156 , Szkilnik, Michele, 142 , 161 , 163 , 182 158 , 159 , 161 , 163 , 182–4 women’s poetic, 23 , 24 , 25 , 32 , 33 , transvestism 37–8 , 45–6 , 58 , 141–2 , 143–5 , drag performance, 32 , 44–5 , 70 , 14 9 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 159 , 164 , 199 198 , 199 literary, 4 , 11 , 14 , 190–1 , 198 men’s, 142–3 , 157 , 243 n. 42 rape, 9 , 59 , 127 , 148 , 153 , 176 , 217 n. 76 women’s, 14–16 , 32 , 44–5 , 58–9 , see also skin, piercing 175–8 Renaut, Galeran de Bretagne , 23 , 29 , 33 , 42–50 , 51 , 62 veil, see integumen Fresne (minstrel heroine), 32 , 42–50 , ventriloquizing, 8 , 160 59 , 70 , 199 voice, first-person feminine, Gente (mother-storyteller), 43 , difficulties surrounding, 43 , 47–50 , 56 , 58 50 , 52–6 , 63 , 70 , 71 , 123 reputation, 48 , 66 , 68–9 , 152 , 154–5 Voir Dit, see Guillaume de Machaut see also slander women’s song, 7, 34 , 62–3 Sedgewick, Eve Kosofsky, 14 writer figures, 2–3 , 9 , 13 , 15 semiotic, 13 , 96 , 128 , 200 v. author figures, 2–3 sentement , see emotion male, 15 , 17 , 23 sewing, as feminine artistic activity, queer status of, 14 , 16–17 47–8 , 156–7 see also under individual texts INDEX 267 writers, women, historical, 4 , 5–7 , 14 , Orimonde (poet heroine), 167 , 25 , 30 , 86 , 193 181–4 , 186 , 188 see also Christine de Pizan, Marie Orphée (poet heroine), de France 184–5 Tronc (author figure), 15 , 17 , Ysaÿe le Triste , 15 , 17 , 24 , 29 , 139–40 , 24–5 , 167–8 , 169 , 179–80 , 167–91 , 194 184 , 185–90 , 191 , 198 , Alior (poet heroine), 182–4 199 , 200 Marthe (poet heroine), 167 , 168 , Yseut (poet heroine), 167 , 168 , 169 , 173–81 , 185–9 , 199 , 200 169–73 , 175 , 179 , 185