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Gendering Literary Creation in Medieval French Culture 1 NOTES Introduction Authors, Writers, Singers, and Women: Gendering Literary Creation in Medieval French Culture 1 . Epigraphs from Bernard Cerquiglini, In Praise of the Variant (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), p. 8; Nancy Miller, Subject to Change: Reading Feminist Writing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), p. 107; Michel Foucault, “What Is an Author?” in Dits et Ecrits I: 1954–1988 , ed. Daniel Defert, François Ewald, and Jacques Lagrange (Paris: Gallimard, 2001), p. 824 [817–49]; trans. Josué V. Harari in Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979 ), p. 145 [141–60]. 2 . See, for example, Virginie Greene, “What Happened to Medievalists After the Death of the Author?” in The Medieval Author in Medieval French Literature (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 ), pp. 205–27; and Stephen Nichols, “The Medieval ‘Author’: An Idea Whose Time Hadn’t Come?” in The Medieval Author , pp. 77–102. 3 . “The only good auctor was a dead one,” Minnis, Medieval Theory of Authorship: Scholastic Literary Attitudes in the Later Middle Ages (London: Scolar Press, 1984), p. 12. 4 . Minnis, Authorship , p. 94. 5 . Minnis, Authorship , pp. 197–98 (on Jean de Meun), pp. 192, 209 (on Chaucer), p. 204 (on Boccaccio). 6 . On Minnis’ limitations for those who work on the vernacular, see Anne Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain au 13e siècle (Montréal: Institut d’Etudes Médiévales, 1991 ), p. 24. 7 . However, see R. Howard Bloch’s magisterial The Anonymous Marie de France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003 ), as an example of both the problem and the promise of reading for the author in a twelfth-century text. See further discussion of Bloch’s reading of Marie below. 8 . Nichols, “The Medieval ‘Author’” in The Medieval Author , p. 97. 9 . Greene, “Medievalists After the Death of the Author,” in The Medieval Author , p. 213. 10 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 127; all translations of Berthelot are my own. 204 NOTES 11 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 32. 12 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 33. 13 . Foucault, “What Is an Author?” trans. Harari, p. 160. 14 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , p. 24. 15 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , pp. 19, 27–29. 16 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain , pp. 30–87. 17 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain, p. 94. 18 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain, p. 95. 19 . Berthelot claims, erroneously, that women rarely fill the roles she studies, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain p. 297. 20 . On medievalists and the death of the author, see Greene, “Medievalists After the Death of the Author,” in The Medieval Author , pp. 205–27. On the death of the author as it affects feminist criticism, see Elizabeth Grosz, “Sexual Signatures: Feminism After the Death of the Author,” in Space, Time, and Perversion (New York: Routledge: 1995 ), pp. 9–24. 21 . Miller, “The Text’s Heroine: A Feminist Critic and Her Fictions,” Diacritics 12 (1982): 53 [48–53]. 22 . See, for example, Albrecht Classen, The Power of a Woman’s Voice in Medieval and Early Modern Literatures (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2007 ); Peter Dronke, Women Writers of the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Patricia Ranft, Women in Western Intellectual Culture, 600–1500 (New York: Palgrave, 2002 ). 23 . Kamuf, “Writing Like a Woman,” in Women and Language in Literature and Society , ed. Sally McConnell-Ginet, Ruth Borker, and Nelly Furman (New York: Praeger, 1980 ), pp. 285–86 [284–99]. 24 . Kamuf, “Writing Like a Woman,” in Women and Language , p. 298. 25 . For the dialogue between Kamuf and Miller, see Diacritics 12 ( 1982 ): 42–53. The very real risk of an approach like Kamuf’s, as Miller points out, lies in its potential to flatten the historical value of women’s writing. We ignore at our peril the difference between a historical woman who examines the implications of her own action in writing, and the sexualized and objectified figure of a woman writer as revealed voyeuristically to us by a man. 26 . Finke, Feminist Theory, Women’s Writing (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 ), p. 30. 27 . Finke, Feminist Theory , pp. 98–99. 28 . Finke, Feminist Theory , p. 99. 29 . Finke, Feminist Theory , p. 104. 30 . Finke, Feminist Theory , pp. 106–07. 31 . Nichols, “Medieval Women and the Politics of Poetry,” in Displacements: Women, Tradition, Literatures in French , ed. Joan DeJean and Nancy K. Miller (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), p. 108 [99–125]. 32 . Nichols, “Medieval Women,” in Displacements , p. 99. 33 . Nichols, “Medieval Women,” in Displacements , p. 108. 34 . Finke, Feminist Theory , p. 99. For a similar approach to women’s songs, see also Anne L. Klinck, “Introduction,” in Medieval Woman’s Song , ed. Klinck NOTES 205 and Ann Marie Rasmussen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002 ), pp. 1–5. 35 . See also Jennifer Summit’s useful overview of how the concept of “author” might apply to medieval women: “Women and Authorship,” in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Women’s Writing , ed. Carolyn Dinshaw and David Wallace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 ), pp. 91–108. As Summit argues, “the idea that authors were the sole originators of their texts is a relatively recent one,” p. 91. Women were able to influence textual culture in many ways, as readers, patrons, collaborators, and writers of works, like letters, that may not allow their composers to claim the status of author (“letters do not have authors, as Foucault insists,” p. 105). 36 . See, for example, Ranft, who states that “women had been participating creatively in the intellectual community throughout the entire Middle Ages,” Women in Western Intellectual Culture , p. ix. 37 . One notable attempt at synthesis has been Michele Szkilnik, “Des femmes écrivains: Néronès dans le Roman de Perceforest, Marte dans Ysaye le Triste ,” Romania 117 (1999): 474–506, comparing two figures of poet heroines. On studies of minstrel figures, both male and female, see chapter one . 38 . Burns, “Sewing Like a Girl: Working Women in the chansons de toile ,” in Medieval Woman’s Song: Cross-Cultural Approaches , ed. Anne L. Klinck and Ann Marie Rasmussen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002 ), pp. 102–03, 107–08. 39 . Burns, “Sewing Like a Girl,” in Medieval Woman’s Song , p. 125. 40 . Smith, The Medieval French Pastourelle Tradition: Poetic Motivations and Generic Transformations (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2009), p. 63. 41 . Smith, Pastourelle Tradition , p. 64. 42 . Smith, Pastourelle Tradition , pp. 105 and 227 respectively. 43 . On the dit ’s discussion of authorship, see, for example, Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet, “Un Engin si soutil”: Guillaume de Machaut et l’écriture au XIVe siècle (Paris: Champion, 1985), esp. pp. 211–21, “Le métier d’écrivain.” 44 . On lyric insertion as a form of citation that is inherently dialogic, see the interesting discussion by Helen Solterer, Acorder li Chans au Dit: the Lyric Voice in French Medieval Narrative (1220–1320) , Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1986 , pp. 1–27. Solterer’s understanding of lyric insertion as the citation or invocation of another voice, and at the same time as a “sign of the act of writing” (p. 13) is relevant for poet hero- ines, whose imagined voices the text invokes as its lost sources. Solterer also uses Bakhtin as a way of understanding the dialogic nature of such citations. 45 . Berthelot, Figures et fonction de l’écrivain, p. 337. 46 . Huot, From Song to Book (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987 ), p. 328. 47 . On the practice of lyric insertion, see also the definitive study by Maureen Boulton, The Song in the Story: Lyric Insertions in French Narrative Fiction, 1200–1400 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993 . Boulton 206 NOTES mentions that while the practice of lyric insertion is common within the French tradition, “examples from other literatures of the period are rare,” p. 1. Thus, the poet heroine as I define her may be a primarily French phenomenon. However, not all of my chosen texts conform to Boulton’s strictly formalist definition of texts with lyric insertions; for example, she excludes Aucassin et Nicolette , see Song in the Story , p. 3. 48 . Coldwell, “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz : Secular Musicians in Medieval France,” in Women Making Music: The Western Art Tradition, 1150–1950 , ed. Jane Bowers and Judith Tick (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986 ), p. 41 [39–61]. An overview of the texts discussed in Boulton’s Song in the Story yields a similar result. 49 . Coldwell, “ Jougleresses and Trobairitz ,” in Women Making Music , p. 41. Furthermore, it’s important to note that the split between performance and composition is especially problematic in the case of music. See Susan Boynton, “Women’s Performance of the Lyric Before 1500,” in Medieval Woman’s Song: Cross-Cultural Approaches , ed. Anne L. Klinck and Ann Marie Rasmussen (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), pp. 47–48 [47–65]. Boynton argues that before the advent of polyphony, medieval music was improvised to such a degree that performers should be considered to have been composers. 50 . Primarily or exclusively women engage in composing poetry and singing in Beuve de Hantonne , Sone de Nansay , and Ysaÿe le Triste . Furthermore, pseudo-autobiographical figures of masculine poets arguably display a particular form of literary gender-bending, taking on what is elsewhere a largely feminine role; see part II of the present book for more. 51 . Grosz, “Sexual Signatures,” in Space, Time, and Perversion , p. 21. 52 . Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York: Routledge, 1993): pp. 28 and 16, respectively. 53 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p. 49. 54 . Butler, Bodies That Matter , p.
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