Perspectives Special Issue on Ethics in

From Ethical Codes to Ethics as Praxis: An Invitation

Kelly Bannister1*

1POLIS Project on Ecological Governance, Centre for Global Studies, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada. *[email protected]

Abstract Ethical guidance for research involving Indigenous and traditional communities, cultural knowledge, and associated biological resources has evolved significantly over recent decades. Formal guidance for ethnobiological research has been thoughtfully articulated and codified in many helpful ways, including but by no means limited to the Code of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology. We have witnessed a successful and necessary era of “research ethics codification” with ethical awareness raised, fora established for debate and policy development, and new tools evolving to assist us in treating one another as we agree we ought to within the research endeavor. Yet most of us still struggle with ethical dilemmas, conflicts, and differences that arise as part of the inevitable uncertainties and lived realities of our cross- cultural work. Is it time to ask what more (or what else) might we do, to lift the words on a page that describe how we should conduct ourselves, to connecting with the relational intention of those ethical principles and practices in concrete, meaningful ways? How might we discover ethics as relationship and practice while we necessarily aspire to follow adopted ethical codes as prescription? This paper brings together Willie Ermine’s concept of “ethical space” and Darrell Posey’s recognition of the spiritual values of with a unique selection of insights from other fields of practice, such as intercultural communication, conflict resolution and martial arts, to invite a new conceptualization of research ethicsin ethnobiology as ethical praxis.

Received July 20, 2017 OPEN ACCESS Accepted February 15, 2018 DOI 10.14237/ebl.9.1.2018.1060

Keywords Ethical space, Biocultural ethics, Research ethics, Ethical guidelines, Ethical praxis

Copyright © 2018 by the author(s); licensee Society of Ethnobiology. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International Public License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0), which permits non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

“As we learn together, the journey offers the new form of responsible science that works with sacred gift of humility.” (Iwama et al. 2009:7) native peoples for a better future, and not just treats them as subjects for the advancement of White Man’s Ethics is an important element of ethnobiology, and science” (Posey 1990 as reprinted in Posey 2004:5, ethnobiology is an important learning space for emphasis in original). understanding cross-cultural and interdisciplinary From those origins in Belém, largely through research ethics. Indeed, ethnobiologists have Posey’s bold conviction and dedication, an ongoing collectively influenced ethical thought, policy and commitment by ethnobiologists from around the practice from local to international levels since at least world was set in motion to bring global attention to the late 1980s, with the founding of the International Indigenous issues related to biocultural diversity and Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) in 1988. At the close to work towards creative solutions for their redress. of the first ISE congress (Belém, Brazil) involving One of the most notable of these achievements was hundreds of delegates from 35 countries, founding development of a code of ethics by the ISE, which members created the Declaration of Belém, a remains a foundational reference point in biocultural statement of guiding principles that represented “the ethics1 to this day. goals and ideals of ethnobiologists and ethnobiology in an international context” (Berlin 1990 as quoted in Since those beginnings, global public awareness International Society of Ethnobiology, nd). Darrell and ethical guidance for research involving Posey called the Declaration of Belém “nothing short Indigenous and local communities, cultural of an urgent call for [a] new ethic.” He proclaimed it knowledge and associated biodiversity has evolved as “a challenge to ethnobiologists to lead the way in a significantly. For example, within ethnobiology and in

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many fields, the of research “subjects” has  Is it time to ask what more—or what else— been superseded with “participants,” new standards might we do? for what constitutes “consent” have been established,  How do we lift the words on a page that due acknowledgement of knowledge holders and describe how we ought to conduct ourselves, equitable benefit-sharing have become expectations, to connect more directly with the intention of and intentional efforts have been made in those ethical principles and practices in methodology to evolve research in participatory, concrete, meaningful ways? collaborative and Indigenous-led directions. Formal guidance for ethnobiological research has been  How do we discover ethics as relationship while thoughtfully articulated in helpful ways, including but we necessarily aspire to follow agreed ethical not limited to the ISE Code of Ethics (2006). Many codes as prescription? ethnobiologists have been involved in these necessary In this paper, I explore the question of “what exercises of codifying ethical expectations, raising else,” motivated by a sense of convergence in the ethical awareness and creating new tools to assist in concept of “ethical space” as articulated by Cree understanding how we ought to treat one another philosopher and educator Willie Ermine (Ermine within the research endeavor. These are important 2000, 2015) and Darrell Posey’s recognition of the accomplishments within ethnobiology and more spiritual values of biodiversity. After providing a brief broadly. history of ethical codification in ethnobiology, I Yet many of us, perhaps especially those situated explore ethical space in more depth from a relational within a university, still struggle with ethical dilemmas, ethics perspective (Austin 2008; Bergum and Dossetor conflicts, and differences that arise as part of our 2005; Haslebo and Haslebo 2008) and draw parallels “humanness”—those inevitable uncertainties and from a unique combination of other fields of practice, lived realities of our cross-cultural work involving such as intercultural communication, conflict people and the natural world. Austin (2008:749) resolution and martial arts. I offer initial ideas and an underscores the important role of ethical guidelines in invitation to reimagine research ethics in ethnobiology health research to minimize risks, maximize benefits as not just compliance with ethical practices, but as an and uphold crucial principles such as free, prior and art and practice that could lead us to articulating a new informed consent, but she expresses a vital insight: ethical praxis. “From a relational ethics perspective, … although Ethics is commonly understood to refer to the these guidelines are necessary, they are insufficient.” values and principles that guide behaviors towards Similarly, Gavazzi (2012)’s work in clinical psychology others. However, ethics has many meanings in society recognizes that ethics are not equal to ethical codes. today and may be interpreted differently by each of He promotes a “positive” rather than “remedial” us. In this paper, I draw upon multiple understand- approach to ethics, advocating ethics as more than ings. One is ethics as a formal branch of western just a set of rules and codes that need to be philosophy that seeks to resolve questions of human memorized.” Gavazzi (2011) describes ethics as “alive morality and involves concepts of right and wrong, or every day in our professional lives.” Likewise, Bergum just and unjust. In this regard, my particular focus is and Dossetor (2005) underscore a set of ethical applied ethics, specifically research ethics policy and principles as necessary, objective, general structures practice. I also call on understandings of ethics at a that are inadequate on their own, but needed to more fundamental level as our capacity to know what support us in the primary goal of fully attending to harms or enhances the wellbeing of sentient creatures, ethics within specific relationships. which manifests in how we choose to relate to one 2 Holding in mind the duality of ‘achievement’ and another and the natural world . This understanding ‘insufficiency’ within a relational ethics framework, I has been shaped through exchanges with Indigenous posed the following questions in a presentation at the colleagues and mentors, as well as my exposure to 39th Annual Conference of the Society of eastern philosophical traditions. It is through our Ethnobiology entitled “Reimagining Research Ethics: potential to experience and hold multiple perspectives A Relational Approach to Codes of Ethics for on ethics in a biocultural context that I see Ethnobiologists” (Bannister 2016): ethnobiologists as well-placed, even obliged, to continue to meet Posey’s 30-year-old challenge to lead the way in responsible science that works with

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Indigenous peoples for a better future. This paper is special session was held to formally reaffirm the an attempt to share some emerging thoughts and commitment of ISE members (Bannister, 2004). After ideas, and encourage further thoughtful reflection and a 10-year process of development involving hundreds exchanges, to assist in the goal of continuing to of individuals from many different cultures and expand our perspectives and understandings of ethics. backgrounds, from all regions of the world, the ISE Code of Ethics was unanimously adopted by members Research Ethics Codification in Ethnobiology in 2006 (Chiang Rai, Thailand) with minor additions Research ethics commonly involves codification of made in 20083. agreed rules of conduct intended to guide the research The ISE Code of Ethics (2006) remains in place endeavor through difficult moral questions. Research to this day with goals “to facilitate ethical conduct and ethics codification over the last few decades has led to equitable relationships, and foster a commitment to the development of ethical guidelines and codes of meaningful collaboration and reciprocal responsibility ethics within many disciplines and professions. In by all parties.” It offers 17 principles and 12 practical some countries (e.g., Canada, USA, New Zealand, guidelines, and emphasizes the underlying value of Australia), adherence to national ethics standards for mindfulness, described as “an obligation to be fully research involving humans is a formal requirement of aware of one’s knowing and unknowing, doing and university research (see Hardison and Bannister 2011 undoing, action and inaction.” for a historical overview of research ethics as related to ethnobiology). The adoption process for the ICE Code of Ethics included an ongoing commitment to continual review As noted, ethics codification in ethnobiology and affirmation. Extensive discussion about revising took root in 1988 with the Declaration of Belém at the ISE Code of Ethics took place leading up to and the ISE’s first congress and aspirations to create an during the 2010 congress in Tofino, British Columbia, ethics committee. A priority issue raised by Posey was Canada. However, for a number of practical and intellectual property rights (IPR). Posey expressed his principled reasons, members at the 2010 congress hope that the 1990 ISE congress would be “the next decided that, despite evolving language and step toward the development of a position of terminology, the ISE Code of Ethics represented a ethnobiologists toward IPR and the ‘just compensa- robust aspirational document and should remain tion’ of native peoples for their knowledge,” and that intact with only non-substantive minor updates. An “both the Society of Ethnobiology and the online ratification process is currently open to all ISE International Society of Ethnobiology will take the members with an invitation to endorse an updated intellectual lead-as well as appropriate actions-toward version with minor changes4. the development of a new ethic that serves as a model for other disciplines” (Posey 1990:97–98). Much volunteer effort to date has gone into sharing the ISE Code of Ethics and making it ISE members agreed to develop the first ever accessible in eight . The Society of code of ethics for ethnobiologists at the fourth Ethnobiology, the Society for Economic Botany, and congress in 1994 (Lucknow, India). Under Posey’s the Latin American Society of Ethnobiology (among direction, it was anticipated that the code of ethics other societies and organizations) have also dedicated would be completed within a year. Significant attention to discussing and developing ethical progress was made in developing drafts at the 1996 guidance and resources. Each of these groups adopted and 1998 congresses. However, despite best efforts of the ISE Code of Ethics (in current or modified form), the ISE ethics committee, challenging circumstances creating a sense of collective ethical aspiration among delayed the process, including a need to reconcile ethnobiologists and a shared platform for future controversies among ISE members related to claims ethics innovation. of and biopiracy in the late 1990s and early 2000s (for example, see Shebitz and Oviedo Beyond Codification, Towards Ethical Space 2018, this volume). In recent years, the ISE Ethics program has Posey’s untimely death in 2001 was a setback in endeavored to ground its work in the concept of many ways, putting completion of the ISE Code of “ethical space” (Bannister and Solomon 2009; Ethics on hold until the process was revived in 2004 Bannister and Wyndham 2014) as articulated by Cree at the 9th ISE congress in Canterbury, Kent, UK. A philosopher and educator, Willie Ermine (Ermine

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2000, 2007; Ermine et al. 2004). Ermine introduced shift was catalyzed when ethical space was formally this concept to the realm of research ethics through incorporated into national research ethics policy in his Master of Education thesis “A Critical 2007 for health research involving Indigenous Examination of the Ethics in Research Involving peoples, referred to as the CIHR Guidelines (Canadian Indigenous Peoples” (Ermine 2000). Institutes of Health Research 2007). Moreover, in Ermine borrowed the term “ethical space” from 2010, ethical space was included as an underlying Roger Poole (1972) and applied it to the “intersection concept within a new chapter (Chapter 9) on research where the two worlds of Indigenous and Western involving Indigenous peoples in Canada, as part of Peoples meet” (Ermine 2000:8). Ermine (2000:9) comprehensive national ethics guidelines for all explains his original inspiration as follows: university research, called the Tri-council Policy Statement: Research Involving Humans, Version 2 (TCPS2) (Canadian Poole (1972) has remarked in his book Institutes of Health Research, Natural Sciences and Towards Deep Subjectivity that there exists an Engineering Research Council of Canada, and Social ‘ethical space’ when two sorts of space Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada interact. Ethical space is created when the 2014)5. intentions of two entities structure space between them in two different ways, and According to the CIHR Guidelines, ethical space when the sets of intentions confront each should frame the entire research endeavor through “a other then ‘ethical space is set up series of stages of dialogue beginning with the instantaneously’ (Poole 1972:5). conversations prior to the design of the research, through to the dissemination of results and perhaps Ermine (2000:27) draws a parallel with Poole’s even afterward.” The CIHR Guidelines encourage a idea of ethical space and applies it to “…the continual questioning of “is this ethical?” requiring “a confluence of the two societies and the critical dialogue about intentions, values and assumptions juncture where the Indigenous mind meets with throughout the research process” (Canadian Institutes Western thought.” He suggests: “This 'ethical space' is of Health Research 2007:17). Alongside national potentially a productive and appropriate position ethics guidelines, it has become increasingly common from which to express and negotiate an ethical order in Canada for Indigenous communities and in research that crosses cultural borders” (Ermine Indigenous organizations to develop and articulate 2000:9). their own standards for ethical research based on their Ermine (2000:18–19) refers to ethical space, not own principles, values and beliefs (for some Canadian as common ground but as a place between worldviews, examples see Assembly of First Nations 2009 and an “abstract space” created when the intentions of Bannister 2009). As in the ISE Code of Ethics, both two entities “confront each other.” These different the CIHR Guidelines and TCPS2 Chapter 9 underscore intentions are “guided by a past that includes the importance of understanding and following memory, values, interests, and the actions validated by Indigenous community research guidelines and our communities.” Thus, this space protocols as an integral part of ethical practice. affords the opportunity to be reflective about Regarding the co-creation of ethical space by personal convictions and how these formed communities and researchers that is promoted in both perceptions influence our intentions about the CIHR Guidelines and TCPS2 Chapter 9, Brant the 'other'. This confrontation of worldviews Castellano and Reading (2010) note that challenges are sets up the conditions by which negotiation is inevitable when meeting across differences in necessary in order to arrive at ethical worldviews, needs, and expectations. They encourage interaction. embracing this tension through “dialogue undertaken He goes on to propose that ethical space offers with an ethical commitment to mutual benefit and possibilities for new models of research and good relations” calling such a commitment “a knowledge production that are co-developed through powerful instrument to prevent violations of human respectful negotiation in this cross-cultural dignity” (Brant Castellano and Reading 2010:14). interaction. These descriptions of ethical space strongly The contribution of Ermine to research ethics has resonate with Bergum and Dossetor’s (2005) not remained abstract in Canada. An unprecedented perspective from a relational ethics approach. They

Bannister. 2018. Ethnobiology Letters 9(1):13–26 16 Perspectives Special Issue on Ethics in Ethnobiology describe the relational space as a nourishing dwelling the ethical space is connected to these ideas place for self and other, a space that enables us to be … how we treat each other as human beings. together in our difference and diversity, with an This is the very basis of ethics. So when we irreducible respect for one another. They recognize a talk about ethics, then we have to go into the need to nurture the relational space to make ethical moral arena where we start talking about our practice possible. They acknowledge the value and values, where we start talking about our necessity of ethical principles as the means to come to spirituality. The task today is to link up this know ethical practice, but view the nature and idea of ethics and turn it into a sort of energy significance of relationship as fundamental to enacting that we [feel] …as we [encounter] each other. ethical practice as an art, moment by moment. … The ethical space is about the encounter Inspired by all of the above, I was curious to of strangers. … What is the response when explore ethical space more fully and more tangibly, we meet this other? What we call ‘other’ as beyond inspirational academic articles and the has been written about in academia, when we negotiated words of policy documents. In 2015, I had see other races, other genders perhaps, other the privilege to organize a national policy conference classes of people, other nationalities, other as part of the Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural people with different bodies, and all these Heritage Project6, funded by the Social Sciences and differences that come into play. Humanities Research Council of Canada. The Working Ermine (2015) identified different levels and types Better Together Conference on Indigenous Research Ethics7 of encounters•–exchanging names or following social strategically brought together 80 Canadian Indigenous prescriptions–as examples of superficial encounters, and non-Indigenous academic and community compared with meeting one another at a more researchers, educators, practitioners, policy analysts conscious level of awareness. He pointed to an all too and administrators (including Willie Ermine, Marlene common “incompetence” in our intercultural Brant Castellano and several ethnobiologists) to encounters that creates an obstacle in our ability to explore what it really means–and what it takes–to relate to one another. He asked us to consider how we work collaboratively in Indigenous research, using work through these obstacles across our differences – ethical space as a foundational concept. or if we do? The next section provides selected verbatim How do we link the ideas of ethics and highlights from Ermine’s keynote presentation on moralities when there’s these boundaries that ethical space at the conference. Such contributions of we carry? One of the questions … [about Ermine and others (discussed subsequently) have ethical space] … is ‘What do we do with ‘it’?’ deeply inspired and informed my thoughts on It’s not an ‘it’. What we’re trying to do is connecting with the relational intention of our ethical center and focus this idea of ethics, as it lies principles and practices. My choice to quote Ermine within each and every one of us—within our rather than briefly paraphrase is intentional; his spirit, within our inwardness. That’s where it unique articulations have been key to shifting my needs to be powerful, that’s where it becomes understanding of ethical space from aspiration and powerful. We cannot ‘use’ ethics, it’s not a reified notion to practice. My goal here is for readers noun. It’s in here somewhere [referring to to have an opportunity to experience Ermine’s words inside oneself]. for themselves. Ermine (2015) continued: Dancing Particles – Ethical Space Revisited Linking up this idea of ethics is something In his keynote address entitled “Dancing Particles,” that each one of us has and is responsible for. Ermine (2015) offered a provocative elaboration of We go through these ideas that ethics has to ethical space as an encounter of energetic or spiritual do with the human spirit—which is unseen, dimensions. and the unseen is the unknown. We cannot work with something we can’t see; we can’t A mouse loves another mouse, a grass loves a manipulate it, so we have a hard time working grass, a tree loves a tree, that mountain has with it. Nevertheless, when we look at the ethics to love the other mountain. And us spiritual level, a spirit inside each and every humans, we really have to love each other. So one of you can see the spirit of another

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person. These are the teachings that we go described as entities, spirits or natural law. through with our old people, our spiritualists. Thus, knowledge of the environment depends That the spirit can, in fact, see the other not only on the relationship between humans spirit. … if we can [relate to one another] to and nature, but also between the visible world that level, then we have a different paradigm and the invisible spirit world. or a different formulation that we can work Since Posey’s time, within and beyond with. ethnobiology, I have experienced in myself and Ermine included a novel interactive component observed in others a greater awareness of and respect as part of his conference presentation, inspired by a for spiritual dimensions of biocultural knowledge and combination of Cree understandings of “health” with knowledge systems. These understandings, as Posey theory from particle physics. His demonstration notes, are linked with a universality emanating from enabled participants to experience firsthand what he the ‘laws of nature,’ and worldviews based in the referred to as “dancing particles” or a sense of interconnection of the natural world and all sentient animation of one another’s spirit. beings across spatial and temporal scales. For So dancing particles—this is the central point example, Anishnabe Elder and spiritual leader, Dave when talking about ethics; we have to keep Courchene of the Sagkeeng First Nation (Manitoba, exploring this whole field. It takes a Canada) teaches that “natural law is the first rule of discussion of ethics as an ‘it,’ as a noun, and spirituality,” and that spirituality and ceremony are a turning it more into an energy, like in the fundamental part of the principles and values that exercise we did this morning. And start need to underlie our biocultural activities (Courchene connecting it to a spirituality that everybody as quoted in Bannister 2017:22–23). Dr. Leroy Little has. Then we’re talking about ethics. … And Bear (2000:77–78) explains that there is no animate/ we know that the universe operates on those inanimate dichotomy in Aboriginal languages; all principles. …when we’re talking about the things are animate and imbued with spirit in ethics, it’s at this level that things really start Aboriginal philosophy. “If everything has spirit and to happen, that the critical mass of energies, knowledge, then all are like me. If all are like me, then of spiritual people working together can all are my relations.” produce profound results. To some extent, this awareness is reflected in the ISE Code of Ethics. For example: Spiritual Values of Biocultural Ethics  The Principle of Traditional Guardianship Ermine’s message on the fundamental nature of ethics brings to mind Posey’s writings on the cultural recognizes “the obligation and responsibility and spiritual values of biodiversity, which I believe of Indigenous peoples, traditional societies partly motivated Posey’s sense of need to establish a and local communities to preserve and new ethic in ethnobiology. Posey (1999: 4, emphasis maintain their role as traditional guardians of in original) states: these through the maintenance of their cultures, identities, languages, Although conservation and management mythologies, spiritual beliefs and customary practices are highly pragmatic, indigenous laws and practices”; and traditional peoples generally view this knowledge as emanating from a spiritual base.  The Principle of Confidentiality includes “a All creation is sacred and the sacred and responsibility to be aware of and comply with secular are inseparable. Spirituality is the local systems for management of knowledge highest form of consciousness, and spiritual and local innovation, especially as related to consciousness is the highest form of sacred and secret knowledge”; and awareness. In this sense, a dimension of  The Principle of Respect “recognizes the is not local knowledge necessity for researchers to respect the but knowledge of the universal as expressed in integrity, morality and spirituality of the the local. In indigenous and local cultures, culture, traditions and relationships of experts exist who are peculiarly aware of Indigenous peoples, traditional societies, and natures organizing principles, sometimes local communities with their worlds.”

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Yet compared to Ermine’s (2015) view of cross- development of our perspective-taking cultural ethics as fundamentally an encounter at the capacity); energetic level and a relationship of spiritual  Positioning (understanding the locations dimensions, the treatment of spirituality8 within the from which we speak, listen, act, think, and ISE Code Ethics is relatively passive and prescriptive, make sense of the world relative to others; one might say ‘two-dimensional’. questioning whose knowledge is privileged; As I asked at the onset, is it time to ask what more, understanding knowledge as socially and or what else? Is there an opportunity within historically constructed and produced in ethnobiology today to lift those two-dimensional relation to power); words of the ISE Code of Ethics off the page in a  Dialogue (understood as a relationship of three-dimensional way so that they come alive–even exchange that embraces a tension inherent in animate one another’s spirits? In addition to adhering reaching across difference; holds the potential to our agreed formulas for how to be ethical, can we to be changed by one another; requires a discover together, and intentionally practice, ethics as quality of communication and connection relationship? Maybe some of us already are? If so, can between parties; allows for the possibility of we (the broader ethnobiology community) gather new meaning and understanding); these ways of being with one another to articulate and share more widely a new ethical praxis for our  Reflection (intentional introspection and biocultural research and education? observing oneself in relation to others; the capacity for these to alter our perspectives From Ethical Prescription to Ethical Praxis and actions); My suggestion to cooperatively articulate an ethical  Action (joining our increased understanding praxis in ethnobiology is inspired by Sorrells’ (2015) with responsible action, through a range of intriguing model of “intercultural praxis,” which is simple or complex creative and transforma- based in a critical social justice approach to tional forms or tactics). 9 intercultural communication . Sorrells (2015:48) These six entry ports offer direction to defines intercultural praxis as “a process of critical reflective thinking and acting … that enables us to our ways of thinking, reflecting, and acting in navigate the complex and challenging intercultural relation to our intercultural experiences, spaces we inhabit interpersonally, communally, and allowing us to attend to the complex, globally.” Sorrells (2015:48) does not seek to just relational, interconnected, and often teach an understanding of intercultural communica- ambiguous nature of our experiences (Sorrells tion but to also support us in practicing “a way of 2015:49). being, thinking, analyzing, reflecting, and acting in the I find Sorrells’s insights from intercultural world in regard to cultural differences.” She communication highly relevant to ethics in recognizes that differences are real and that they are ethnobiology, but I do not naively promote an inevitably situated within relations of power. The key outright adoption of Sorrells’s model by ethnobiolo- intention of her model is to “understand and address gists. Rather, I suggest the model is one compelling the intersection of cultural differences and hierarchies and timely example to stimulate a discussion within of power in intercultural interactions.” our field of how we envision our ethical aspirations Sorrells’ model is designed as a circular or spiral today, and what we might create through a concerted process (rather than linear) with six interrelated ports effort to articulate a biocultural ethical praxis building of entry (Sorrells 2015:49–58): on ethical space and informed by relational ethics and intercultural praxis.  Inquiry (curiosity; willingness to learn without judgment; openness to allow our way Barriers to Ethical Praxis of viewing and being in the world to be I acknowledge the complexity of my suggestion challenged); situated within the academic system or other  Framing (awareness of the limiting frames institutional hierarchies of power, since the researcher of reference from which we view and -community relationship itself is but one of the experience the world; intentional dimensions at play. Moreover, I recognize that the

Bannister. 2018. Ethnobiology Letters 9(1):13–26 19 Perspectives Special Issue on Ethics in Ethnobiology ethical space concept may be far less familiar, let to limit risk and liability for associated institutions. alone a referential concept within ethics policy, Within a ‘though shalt not orientation,’ Gavazzi outside of Canada. (2012) questions whether our fear of doing something The institutionalization of research ethics may wrong limits our opportunities to do good. An inadvertently be an impediment given ethics is largely example might be focusing on dutiful design of siloed within universities. For example, human consent forms that meet institutional criteria with research ethics review systems are an administrative hopes for an efficient research ethics review approval, aspect of university research, with their own policies, rather than sufficient attention to maximizing processes, and checkbox-like requirements typically participation and striving to enhance conditions that fulfilled by researchers in advance, and removed from support trust and quality of relationships with the people and places that they are meant to protect. research collaborators. This includes coming to an Ethical theory and education are often communicated understanding of what is the most fitting way to separately from research ethics review through provide the opportunity for, and evidence of, ongoing courses. Ethical principles may be given extensive consent throughout the project. Gavazzi (2012) points consideration in research design, but (outside of out that focusing on ethical standards alone is based ethics review) are often met in real time with real on an incomplete view of ethics. In contrast (but not consequences ad hoc if they arise. Research ethics dismissing ethical standards), the “positive ethics” offices and ethics review boards at any given approach that he promotes moves away from “the institution may or may not be viewed as facilitative punishing and anxiety-producing components of bodies for ethical research. If not, we might ask why ethics.” It aims for the ceiling rather than the floor, not, and consider what role we might have in and explicitly recognizes the value of our self- informing, encouraging and evolving the ethics review awareness, self-care and emotional competence as process within our institutions. The opportunity to having important roles in relational ethics. serve on an institutional Research Ethics Review Thus, expression of a new ethical praxis in our Board may be one such possibility. Ethical challenges biocultural research may require us to educate about, to a project may arise from other administrative units advocate for, and support creation of ethical space in (e.g., Research Services, Finance, Legal Counsel, the systems within which our research is embedded. Technology Transfer) related to contract develop- Identifying hurdles and creating navigational aids ment, financial transfers, risk management and through them is also part of the collaborative ethics intellectual property for a given project. work ahead. Concrete examples of facilitating ethical While there is a wide spectrum of research ethics space at an organizational level are emerging in administration, implementation and regulation across Canada. One compelling story is that of the Alberta institutions and across countries, the typical siloed Energy Regulator, a government organization that approach to ethics contributes to a disconnect that sought the leadership of Dr. Reg Crowshoe (Piikani impedes translating ethical theory and principles into Nation), a well-known Blackfoot ceremonialist and thriving practices. By ‘thriving practices,’ I am not proponent of ethical space (AER 2017). Elder referring to doing everything morally right or just, Crowshoe’s organizational approach supports linking according to a western philosophical framework•; I worldviews but strives to avoid simply incorporating generally assume we do our humanly best to and integrating Indigenous processes with those of understand and behave according to appropriate mainstream institutions. Systems remain parallel to ethical expectations and that most of our shortcom- retain their integrity and ways are sought to ings are unintentional or uniformed. Rather, I invoke authentically link these parallel systems through an understanding of ethics along the perspectives “cultural translation” and “cultural interpreta- shared by Ermine and Courchene – which I tion” (AER 2017:14). The AER process had a understand at a profoundly fundamental level as a transformative effect at individual and organizational way of being, and a way of being with others. levels–making real an understanding that in ethical space, learning how to be together precedes deciding Another institutionalized hurdle is a tendency what to do together. towards over emphasis on “remedial ethics.” A bias in western ethics is the focus on minimum standards to Further insights are found in the organizational prevent harm, intended to protect people, as well as ethics approach taken by Haslebo and Haslebo (2012)

Bannister. 2018. Ethnobiology Letters 9(1):13–26 20 Perspectives Special Issue on Ethics in Ethnobiology who apply relational ethics to institutional change identify strives to maintain a separation between self using a social constructionist and appreciative and other. Along the lines of Sorrells’s (2015) entry perspective. The organizational change frameworks port of “framing,” Hamilton’s methods support and and methods shared by Elder Crowshoe and Haslebo encourage developing the capacity to relax our egoic and Haslebo (2012) may serve as helpful resources to boundaries of identity enough to fully accept the deepen a ‘how to’ understanding within our affiliated tensions inherent in holding multiple perspectives institutions. with more grace and ease. Developing this fundamental capacity is the basis for being with the Opportunities in Ethical Praxis–Getting Personal other and deepening our skills in listening and As Ermine (2015) and Sorrells (2015) have pointed communicating. However, listening itself is an out, and as discussed in this paper, ethics is not just uncommon art that requires learning and practice. ‘out there’ codified in our research and professional Drawing on his mastery of aikido, Richard worlds. Ethics is also personal, within each one of us– Moon’s (fifth degree black belt) work on animating one another, inviting us to develop and “extraordinary listening” is premised on the principle practice more awareness and competencies in the that “listening is an act of intent” (Moon 2000:23)11. every day. But competencies in what, specifically? Moon (2000:20) challenges us and offers training to What are we missing? “become a student of listening,” claiming that “the I have been particularly struck with the realization world changes when we change the way we listen.” that much ethnobiological research, by its nature, His methods are based in listening beyond words and involves explicit or implicit intercultural conflict and hearing another beyond the limits of our cognitive negotiation, yet this is not something most interpretation. researchers receive training in, or professional support Beyond listening, Darnell (1991) underscores the to work through. Ermine (2015) underscored a type misunderstood role of silence within intercultural of “incompetence” in the encounter of strangers that encounters. Darnell (1991:89) describes the bias of is exacerbated within intercultural spaces, forming a “the loud-mouthed whiteman” within conversation, barrier in our potential to relate to one another. and shares helpful insights or “postulates” from Sorrells’s intercultural praxis model emerges from implicit Cree communicative systems. For example, explicit recognition of this ‘barrier’ and the need for “co-presence” defines social occasions; talking is a awareness and competencies in embracing it. I believe side-effect rather than the focus, and silence is understanding and embracing this phenomenon is an considered respectful under many conditions. integral part of ethics. The question of how is personal and may be different for each of us. My own pursuits Everyday interaction (in the secular domain) are informed by writings, conversations and is structured around people being co-present; experiences with Indigenous colleagues and elders co-presence may involve talk, but its presence over many years. They are also profoundly influenced or absence does not change the nature of by training in Zen-based conflict resolution (e.g., what is felt to be going on (Darnell 1991:91). Hamilton 2013, 2017; Lenski 2014) and the martial art She goes on to explain (Darnell 1991:92): of aikido10. My study of aikido is not only technical Respect for another human person is often (i.e., physical techniques for self-defense), but includes expressed by silence. … Silence is understood exploring the underlying philosophical and spiritual to be full (not needing to be filled up by talk principles of aikido as an art and as an embodied or even activity) and complete in itself. practice of conflict resolution. I offer some personal Sorrells (2015) explicitly recognizes intercultural observations from my own exploration of ‘how’ that communication as an embodied experience, are part of a larger work in progress on ethics as an acknowledging that our misunderstanding, art and practice—what I have coined “embodied misconceptions and biases about others are ethics” (Bannister and Goreas 2014). exchanged and expressed through our physical bodies. Related to the interpersonal barriers and Paul Linden’s (sixth degree blackbelt) aikido-based incompetencies that Ermine (2015) pointed out in somatic methods for “embodied peacemaking” reveal encounters with strangers, Diane Hamilton’s (2013) the role of our limbic response to distress at the work in Zen-based conflict resolution affirms and physiological level, which influences our degree of acknowledges that our human ego-based sense of

Bannister. 2018. Ethnobiology Letters 9(1):13–26 21 Perspectives Special Issue on Ethics in Ethnobiology competence at the interpersonal and intercultural now more than ever, dialogue must take place scales. Simply put, anxiety reduces our capacity to between disciplines and peoples. It will take listen and learn. Linden’s (2007) work focuses on our best minds from all fields and cultures to understanding and developing the ability to find socially and ecologically viable options consciously override the innate stress response of for the survival of the planet. One might ask flight/fight/freeze, using physical practices to create a if ethnobiology is capable of such miraculous body state of calm alertness. In essence, Linden’s tasks. The only response can be: if we do not approach enables one to become aware of, and try, who will? choose not to be controlled by, the normal physical Today, developing a model of ethical praxis and emotional distress elicited during encounters with applied to ethnobiological research has the potential others. to offer a concrete methodological and self-reflective Daniel Siegel’s (2011, 2016) pioneering work in tool for deepening critical reflection and navigating the field of interpersonal neurobiology offers an through our intercultural complexities and intriguing lens to situate ourselves within intercultural incompetencies at a deeper level that is not overtly encounters as “me,” “we,” and “m/we” at the level of recognized in most of our biocultural research energy and information flow through our nervous approaches. The perspective shared in this paper can systems. He claims that an understanding of the ‘self’ be taken as a new invitation to ethnobiologists for as separate is a form of impaired integration because another round of innovation in ethics. The invitation we are all differentiated as a ‘me’ but we are all linked is not to develop more ethical guidance, but to make as a ‘we’. He describes the ‘self’ as an interconnected more of the guidance already shared with us, from system and the body as one node. He explores how to within and outside our discipline as well as our honor individuated differences while acknowledging cultural and spiritual traditions–and to draw on the our interconnectedness to everyone and everything “sacred gift of humility” (Iwama et al. 2009:7) in else, suggesting our existence is better conceptualized sincerely considering how to co-develop our as ‘m/we’. The parallels in Siegel’s concepts and biocultural ethics as praxis. terminology with ethical space and ethics as an expression of energetic or spiritual dimensions are Notes particularly intriguing. 1I respectfully acknowledge the treatment and definition of biocultural ethics published by Rozzi Many other concepts and fields of inquiry and (2012, 2013) and Rozzi and Massardo (2011). In this practice are also relevant but not discussed here due article, I use the term in a way that is largely to space limitations: nonviolent communication (e.g., consistent, but is more generalized and flexible. Rosenberg 2012, 2015), emotional intelligence (e.g., Goleman 2011; Salavoy and Mayer 1990), Indigenous 2 My use of “sentient” in this paper is intended to be healing (e.g., Ross 2014), cultural humility and safety consistent with Indigenous authors such as Ermine (e.g., FNHA, nd; Gallardo 2013), healing justice and (2015) and others in referring to sentient beings as emotional justice (e.g., Walia 2013), intercultural extending beyond just humans and other creatures hospitality (Esteva and Prakash 1998; Kuokkanen that are shown to have the capacity to “feel” based on 2013). Building and sharing a wider body of western science. While important to the topic of references and practical resources seems a helpful step biocultural ethics, it is beyond the scope of this paper in continuing to evolve our understanding of to discuss different notions and cultural assumptions biocultural ethics and ethical praxis. of sentience. For an example of such a discussion, see Natcher et al. (2007). An Invitation to Ethical Praxis 3For a brief history of the ISE Code of Ethics, see Almost thirty years ago, after the Declaration of http://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core- Belém, Darrell Posey voiced his passionate conviction programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-ethics/brief- that ethnobiologists were well placed to “take the history/. intellectual lead, as well as the appropriate actions, 4 For information and to access the ISE Code of towards the development of a new ethic that serves as Ethics ratification, see: http://www.ethnobiology.net/ a model for other disciplines” (Posey 1990 as code-ethics-ratification/#!form/CoERatification. reprinted in Posey 2004:6). At the time, he claimed that 5For transparency, the CIHR Guidelines and TCPS2

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Chapter 9 indirectly influenced, and were indirectly Acknowledgements influenced by, the concurrent international process to I am grateful to the many teachers, elders, colleagues, develop a code of ethics in ethnobiology, led by the and practice partners who have encouraged and International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE). The supported my interest in ethics as an embodied connection between these three policy initiatives is practice. Most notably, I thank Marlene Brant- through participation of the author as a member of Castellano and Willie Ermine for their years of the respective working groups and advisory inspiration beyond words and for comments on a committees for each process. Namely, I have been a draft of this paper. I also thank Cynthia Fowler, member of the Aboriginal Ethics Working Group George Nicholas, John Welch, Scott M. Herron, (AEWG) from 2004–2007 which developed the James R. Welch, and several anonymous reviewers for CIHR guidelines; a member of the Panel on Research feedback that encouraged, challenged, and Ethics-Technical Advisory Committee on Aboriginal strengthened the final version. I acknowledge the Research (PRE-TACAR) from 2005–2008 which pivotal role of the Intellectual Property Issues in advised on TCPS2 Chapter 9 (2008); the Chair of the Cultural Heritage Project (led by George Nicholas, ISE Ethics Program from 2004–present; and the with funding from the Social Science and Humanities facilitator of the ISE Code of Ethics development Research Council of Canada) in providing intellectual, process. physical, and financial space to explore Ethical Space 6For information about the Intellectual Property through the Working Better Together Conference on Issues in Cultural Heritage Project, see http:// Indigenous Research Ethics. www.sfu.ca/ipinch/. Declarations 7For information about the Working Better Together Permissions: None declared. Conference on Indigenous Research Ethics, see indigenousresearchethics2015.wordpress.com or Sources of funding: Social Sciences and Humanities http://www.sfu.ca/ipinch/events/ipinch-events/ Research of Canada. working-better-together-conference-indigenous- Conflicts of Interest: None declared. research-ethics/. 8I acknowledge the terms “spiritual” and “spirituality” References Cited have diverse meanings and may be confusing or Alberta Energy Regulator. 2017. Voices of uncomfortable for some readers due to religious or Understanding – Looking through the Window. other connotations. My intention is to be true to the Alberta Energy Regulator, Calgary, Canada. voices of Posey and Ermine in their use of these Available at: http://www.aer.ca/documents/about terms as a way to encourage thoughtful reflection and -us/VoiceOfUnderstanding_Report.pdf. Accessed discussion within the biocultural ethics discourse. on Jan 2, 2018. 9Sorrells’s (2015) model of intercultural praxis is Assembly of First Nations. 2009. Ethics in First accessible online via google play https:// Nations Research. AFN Environmental play.google.com/store/books/details? Stewardship Unit, Ottawa, Canada. Available at: id=eapiCgAAQBAJ&source=ge-web-app. http://www.afn.ca/uploads/files/rp- research_ethics_final.pdf. Accessed on Jan 2, 2018. 10Aikido is typically described as a peace-based Japanese martial art founded by Morihei Ueshiba with Austin, W. 2006. Engagement in Contemporary a dual practical goal of self-defense and protecting an Practice: A Relational Ethics Perspective. Texto e attacker and oneself from injury. The emphasis on Contexto Enfermagem 15:135–141. technique, philosophy, and spirituality varies greatly Austin, W. 2008. Relational Ethics. In The SAGE among the many different styles of Aikido worldwide. Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, edited by See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aikido. L. Given, pp. 749–750. SAGE Publications, 11Moon describes “extraordinary listening” as an Thousand Oaks, CA. inquiry into effectively transforming communication, Bannister, K. 2004. Addressing Ethical and Legal thinking, and the way we create our world. See Issues in Ethnobiology: A Deliberative Dialogue www.extraordinarylistening.com. on the ISE Draft Guidelines for Research. Unpublished session proceedings from the 9th

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