ISLAM AND MODERNITY: A CONSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO BELLAH’S AND RAHMAN’S THOUGHT

By: Rr. Siti Murtiningsih Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta [email protected]

Abstract

Two scholars have been thinking of modernity using different methods. Bellah employs a com- parative-historical-sociological method, which places Islam in the historical context and compares it to the existence of Abraham religions prior to Islam, especially considering the social system. Meanwhile, Rahman employs a hermeneutic method, especially in approaching al-Qur’an. Rahman’s method double movement hermeneutics. Bellah uses an inductive thinking style in a short formula- tion, while Rahman uses a deductive way of thinking.

Abstrak

Dua orang sarjana telah mengembangkan pemahaman dengan dua metode berbeda. Bellah menggunakan suatu pendekatan komparatif-historis-sosiologis yang menempatkan Islam dalam konteks dan membandingkannya dengan keberadaan agama Abraham, yang hadir lebih dulu sebe- lum Islam, khususnya berdasarkan sistem sosial yang melingkunginya. Sedangkan Rahman meng- gunakan metode hermeneutik, khususnya dalam memahami al-Qur’an. Metode yang diterapkan Rahman adalah hermeneutika gerak rangkap. Bellah menerapkan gaya pikir induktif dalam formu- lasi singkat, sedangkan Rahman menerapkan gaya pikir deduktif.

Kata kunci: Islam, modernitas

I. INTRODUCTION believe that modern people are extracted from their traditional values and way of life. They All nations are involved in modernization worry that the change results in the loss of the process. The manifestation of the process is at value of their prior social life. They refer to an active consumer society as the evidence of the well-known as Industry Revolution. The indica- impact of modern society. It is clearly observed tionfirst of seen the inrevolution eighteenth is since century then England widespread and in the every changing life style of the consumers across the world. The spread is considered as as a result of the industry of mass communica- normal that there is no more space for a nation tion. not to be involved in the process. Such a modernization is at the sociological Modern people have their own varying be- level a bureaucratic process that establishes liefs in themselves and in the modern era. There complex social systems. The identity of the mo- are those who feel liberated from their tradition dernity is characterized by the differentiation of and praise the change. There are also those who social world and subjective world with complex

ISLAM AND MODERNITY: A CONSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO BELLAH’S AND RAHMAN’S THOUGHT 11 Rr. Siti Murtiningsih institutional and also consciousness structures. crystallized and grow excessively with the in- Religion as a part of the consciousness structure crease in the role played by the reasoning as the provides modern people with the normative device of self-expression. For Hegel, reality rep- and cognitive structures in dealing with their resents a manifesting process of the reason and world. Max Weber in his book Protestantische hence human being are in its development. Hu- Etik und der Geist des Kapitalismus proposes a man being is a process and is not the substance, description of the impact of Christianity on the but the subject. The reality as a process consti- working ethics that results in the emergence of tutes the act of making explicit and negation, the capitalism. It means that religious values are that is the reality that makes itself the object by able to support modernization process. This brief paper represents an attempt to alienation. Human being is involved in the pro- - alienating itself and finding new identity in the nity referring to the two articles by Robert Bel- Since rationality represents itself through nega- lahfind entitled the correlation “Islamic betweenTradition Islam and theand Problem moder tivity,cess that the they negativity find themselves includes in theirthe negation.principle of Modernization” and Fazlur Rahman in his meaning of progress both in the reality and in book “Islam and Modernity”. It is organized in the meaning of the reality and in both (Magnis- four following sections: introduction, the histor- Suseno, 1992; 23). ical background of modernity, a descriptive The process of making itself explicit and the analysis of Bellah’s and Rahman’s thoughts on negation has resulted in the human being aware- Islam and modernity, and closing. ness of the “distance” between itself and the ob- jective world. At the phase, human being consid- II.DISCUSSION ers the world and the things within it as an ever- changing process. 2.1.Glance at Modernity It is the self of human being that serves as Considering its historical roots, modernity is subject in a constant relationship between sub- characterized by the epistemological separation ject and object. That way the object becomes between subject and object by Descartes alienated and seems to be something threaten- through his concept of methodological doubts. ing. The salvation of the self against the world of Descartes radically makes the separation be- threatening objects is possible only by making tween subject and object and it has been the point of departure of modern thoughts. In other words, modern philosophy begins with the re- whenthe objective the subject world is able the to objectification make itself an ofobject the versal of the realm center that human being is insubject’s the things self. and The then objectification considers itself is achievedas being the master and the ruler of the world. “It is not within the object. It is achieved in working and the mind of human being that has to adjust to creating because human being gives the natural the physical environment, but the nature to the things a human form that the things become hu- norms in the mind of human being.” Cosmocen- man and the human threatening and alienated trism has changed into anthropocentrism. Thus, nature disappears. Thus, working becomes the rationality and consciousness are the key words expression of human being itself. For instance, into the discourse of rationality. human being feels increasingly human and has Descartes’ view of cogito ergo sum (I think complete dignity when they manage to trans- and hence I am) implicates in the loss of the en- form the things into certain device in satisfying chantment of the world. Physical environment their needs. with its fear stimulating mystical power and at The implication of Hegel’s thought on ratio- - nality-negativity is the increasingly strong ence and form human mind. The natural envi- thoughts of dialectics in the history. It is the ronmentthe same istime challenged an enchantment and given does meaning not influ as point of modernity in term that history is essen- material realm or merely as object (hardiman, tially considered as progressive history. Particu- 1993; 120). Consequently, there emerges the larly, each individual knows more and collec- autonomy and the very freedom of the subject in tively in a commune it is unavoidable, sooner or interpreting the reality. later, that they have to learn something new Such autonomy and freedom are increasingly -

DHARMASMRTI though it poses the thoughts to the filter of ta 12 Vol. XIII Nomor 26 Oktober 2015 : 1 - 135 boos and cultural restriction. cant difference between Islam and the western Following Hegel, the discourse of the moder- world he considers to be the pioneer in ‘the mas- nity with its rationality-negativity continues. tery’ of modernity themes. Once he has estab- The dialectics of reason goes into progressive lished his oppositional attitude, he begins his history that is variously interpreted. At least, discussion of the modernity to bring Islam to there is a dichotomy between the right Hegelian further advancement through education. First of and the left Hegelian. The word “right” means all he suggests how al-Quran and Sunnah are the interpretation of the dialectics ends in the supposed to be interpreted on the basis of the absolute reason and is of religious transcendent. al-Quran and Sunnah in whole and comprehen- Meanwhile, the left Hegelian has its radical in- sive manner considering their history, and not sight that the dialectic process has not ended to interpret them on the basis of other sources and barely rejects the interpretation of absolute in a partial manner. And then, he uses the histo- reason as the manifestation of something reli- ry of Islam as his reference, especially at the time when al-Quran become so inspiring for the as Marx radically criticizes Hegel by suggesting development of science that Islamic science is “Hegelgious and has transcendent. transformed Eventhe understandingthe left Hegelian, of - the world and not transformed the world per nally, he proposes the areas considered to be se”. strategicnot something in the impossible science and to necessarymaterialize to and work fi The course of modernity concept from the out. separation of the subject and object has resulted in the other modern consciousness, which are: 2.2.The Searching of Islam and Modernity 1) progress, 2) individuation, 3) emancipation, Bellah begin on Islamic monotheism. He and 4) secularization. Progress represents a writes, the act and word of God stand outside - the natural world and break or threaten to break versed. Subjectivity is described as an individual whoconsciousness tries to free that itself time from flows collective and can entities not be re or of all Muhammad but after him, (at least in prin- ‘individuation’. The individual tends to be con- ciple)every naturalevery Muslim, structure. is called Here anupon individual, to stand first out scious of itself and autonomous in term of being from every tie of kinship and polity if need be. A higher obligation to God makes every man not in the drive of the individuals to transform its exis- tenceable to related its own to thenomos social (laws). structure Emancipation and secular is- or town, but self in direct relation to eternal de- ization is the consciousness to separate the sa- ity.the (Bellah,first place 1970; a member 149) of a given clan or triber cred from the propane. In short, modern con- There is no question but that under Muham- sciousness is the sequence of human conscious- mad, Arabian society made remarkable leap for- ness changes and developments (Hardiman, ward in social complexity and political capacity. 1993; 121-124). When the structure that took shape under the Using the same tone both Bellah and Fazlur prophet was extented by the early caliphs to Rahman organize their thoughts of Islam and provide the organizing principle for a world em- modernity. Bellah uses what so-called dramati- pire, the result is something that for its time and cal universality as the point of departure that is place is remarkable modern. It is modern in the high degree of commitment, involment, and par- dramatistic universe isat the extreme end of fu- - sion,later appliedundifferentiation, in the history and of Islam.lack ofHe personaldifines a bers of community. It is modern in the openness choise, and one at the other extreme that is ofticipation its leadership expected positions from the to rank-and-file ability judged mem on open, highly differentiated, and has the maxi- universalistic grounds and symbolized in the at- mum element of personal choise. Needless to tempt to institutionalize a nonhereditary top say these are ideal types, heuristic devices. Sub- leadership. On same ways, Bellah (1970; 151- sequently, he formulates the intrinsic values of 152) shows a structural dramatistic universal of modernity in Islam and the problem it deals early Islam society. He writes, in way the failure with (Bellah, 1970; 147) of the early community, the relapse into pre-Is- Meanwhile, Rahman (1984; 152) begins its lamic principles of social organization, is an - added proof of the modernity of the early exper- description of the modernity using the signifi ISLAM AND MODERNITY: A CONSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO BELLAH’S AND RAHMAN’S THOUGHT 13 Rr. Siti Murtiningsih iment. It was too modern to succed. It is another able political soil for the institutional innova- indication that something precious was lost tions required by modernization. with the collapse of the early experiment, some- In medieval Islam, Bellah (1970; 156-157). thing that would continue to exercise the pres- argue that great religious regression might be sure of an ideal through subsequent centuries. characterized under the rubric of “the rise of Su- In this situation the state and the political realm in the Islamic world failed to develop an one that allowed Islam to spread halfway around inner coherence and integrity. The state as a le- thefism”. globe It was and a togreat penetrate compromise social strataformation, to which but gitimate realm of thouhgt and action with its in- the original austere fainth had never appealed. dispensable role of citizen failed to emergence. In many ways it was a complementary opposite The Muslim community itself, even though with of Quranic religion. Above all it was comfortable out any effective means to exercise power, con- and local, with inners shrines, local cults and lo- tinued to express the only legitimate political cal saints. self-consciousness in the society, and the role of This late medieval Islamic society is not here adult Muslim beliver, not that of citizen, was the of interest in its self. Its only relevance is that it only inclusive political role. Thus political re- sources of the Islamic tradition in the modern dreams, that the modern West abruptly and world have been limited to the powerful but loudlywas into entered. this world,It should enraptured not be forgotten in its that Sufi necessarily utopian — in advanced traditional no Muslim country is more than decades away societies not to speak of industrial society — im- from this very different Islam. Nor even now is it age of the fusion of religion and politics in the entirely. It still suffuses the unconscious ways of thingking and habits of action of the masses of Bellah (1970; 152) explore another theme of the people and to some extent of even the intel- modernity,first decades e.g. of family,Islam. to look how Islamic val- lectuals. (Bellah, 1970; 157) ues gives room for individual and women. He writes, the Islamic family as it took shape under argument. In other words, Muslims have inferi- - or Fazlurstate of Rahman mind when affirm they implicitly stand with face Bellah’sto face with modernity. Secularism on modernity gives newthe prophet’sMuslim community guidance wasand to to express reflect the en re- a dilemma for Muslims. Rahman descripbe on chancedduced significance dignity of of the extended individual, kinship including in the his book entiled ‘Islam and Modernity’. Accord- women and children, as persons standing in di- ing to him, the esentialy Islamic education based rect reation to God. But in the other ways, while on “Intelectualism Islam”. On chapter IV he de- a family ideal of mutual respect and obligation clare a mapping of Muslim on modernity. A ques- between all family members continued to be en- tion which he come out is how islamic education joined as exemplary, in fact practice tending to become meaningful in the modern intellectual undermine inner family equality and solidarity and spiritual setting, not so much to save reli- and elevate patriarchal arbitrariness were pro- gion from modernity — which is, after all, only a nounced legitimate. Traditional Islam thus pre- partisan interest — but to save modern man sented a mixed heritage to the modern family from himself through religion. (Rahman, 1984; reformers. 140) Finally, Bellah (1984; 155) back to symbol- ism argument of God. The symbolic reference to to relieve the vicious circle just mentioned is, for theAccording Muslim, to to distinguish Rahman, the clearly first essentialbetween norstep- all neither as king nor as father but simply as mative Islam and historical Islam. If the spark God.God inThe the only Qur’an analogy that Godfor God is understood is God. This first is an of for the modernization of old Islam learning and - for the Islamization of the new is to arise, then erence point in Muhammad’s thought was not the original thrust of Islam — of the Qur’an and kingaccuurate or father reflection but theof the God fact of that Israel. the keyBiblical ref Muhammad — must be clearly resurrected so thought is far more deermining than any current that the conformaities and deformities of histor- social model. The combination of arbitrariness ical Islam may be clearly judged by it. But in and illegitimacy in all worldly power creates a kind of uneasy absolutism which is hardly favor- What is, then guarantee, or at least the likehood, same ways he put out a significant question: DHARMASMRTI 14 Vol. XIII Nomor 26 Oktober 2015 : 1 - 135 that the pursuit of the new solution willnot be part of the process of reform in terms of com- arrected at a certain point, or that the result bining old and new subjects in new reformed reached will not be so bewilderingly chaotic and schools or setting up afternoon islamic schools contradictory ? to supplement the morning “regular schools’ is The answer is that neither the fundamental- by now well underway in virtually all Muslim ist nor the modernist had a clear enough meth- - od. That fundamentalist movements in Islam enced is not the new step itself but extricating have been arrested is not due to their claims, for one’slands. feetThe fromgreatest the difficulty stagnant that waters will ofbe theexperi old they claimed ijtihad, that is, new thingking in Is- Qur’anic exegesis, which may contain many lam. Is is also something af an irony to pit the- pearls but which, on the whole, impedes rather socalled Muslim fundamentalists against the than promotes a real understanding of the Muslim modernists, since, so far as their ac- Qur’an. The new step simply concists in study- claimed prosedure goes, the Muslim modernists say exactly the same thing s the so-called mus- (and doing this study systematically in a histori- lim fundamentalists say: that Muslims must go caling order),the Qur’an not injust its studying total and it specific verse by bacgound verse or - passage by passage with an isolated ‘occasion of lam and perform ijtihad on that basis. This was revelation” (sha’n alnusul). (Rahman, 1984; undoubtedlyback to the original sound, danbut fordefinitive the rest sources the premod of Is- 145) ernist revivalist neither had nor bothered to Rahman (1984; 145) makes a map and shows seek a menthodology of Qur’anic interpretation a strategycally step as he calls ‘Recontruction of that would be sound in scholarship, rationally the Islamic Sciences’ to reforms system of islam- reliable, and faithful to the Qur’an itself. (Rah- ic education. On that statement, the condition man, 1984; 142) It is only because the Qur’an was not treated as a coherent whole by many Muslim thingkers sub-title:should be historical attention period. first, e.g. He that stressed movement two that the metaphisical part, which should form pointmust beabout a historical Muslims movement.should be. For Even one he thing, gives the necessary backdrop to a coherent elabora- the thoroughness and comprehensiveness re- tion elaboration of the moral, soocial, and legal quired call for a massive effort, and the West message of the Qur’an, in particular received the cannot be expected to make such a large-scale wildest interpretations at the hands of the so- invesment. Second, it is Muslims who require - this historical study so they can further assess losophers, or even some mutakallimun (theolo- the values of these historical developments in gians),called esoteric while the school, majority be they of Sufis,the orthodox Batinis, phibe- order to recontruct Ilamic diciplines for the fu- came dusty-dry literalist far removed from any ture. genuine insight into the depths of the Qur’an. The argument, Rahman (1984;151-162) (Rahman, 1984; 143) gives a priority realm of sciences to work out For Rahman (1984; 144), the Qur’an is a doc- step by step and wholistic. He use sub-title ‘Sys- ument that grew within a backgorund, from the tematic Recontruction’ are: Theology, Law and both as “straight-forward” and as organically co- herentflesh and as lifeblood itself. af actual Any attempt history; to it take is therefore it with a III.Ethics, CLOSING Philosophy, and the social sciences. - gitdity will, to use A.J. Arberry’s phrase, “crush Based on the discussion above there is a sim- itsliteralist, gossamer partiialist wings superficialityto powder.” To and insist lifeless on ab ri- ilarity between Bellah’s and Rahman’s thoughts, solute uniformity of interpretation is therefore which is the use of al-Qur’an and the prophet neither possible nor desirable. What is impor- Mohammed as their main reference. Both are in the agreement that the major value in Islam is to to distinguish clearly between normative Islam transfer egalitarian message. andtant historicalis first of islam,all to use which the he kind was of advocating method, e.g. to The major difference between Bellah and eliminate vagrant interpretations. Rahman’s thoughts lies in their understanding of modernity. Bellah (1970; 158) construe the new intellectual materials, since the mechanical modernity is enormously complex and by no For the first logical step now is the creation of ISLAM AND MODERNITY: A CONSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO BELLAH’S AND RAHMAN’S THOUGHT 15 Rr. Siti Murtiningsih mean well understand. Some things relatively tion. Bellah considers the secularism in Islam as clear. Structurally it involnes increases in com- neutral, while Rahman considers it as a distor- tion resulting from the normative approach to Ideologically it involves an increased sense of al-Qur’an dignityplexity, efficiency,of the individual adaptability, and his and right productivity. to be in- Methodologically, the two thinkers are differ- cluded as a full and equal participant in a society ent. Bellah employs a comparative-historical-so- with some minimal guarantee of material and ciological method, which places Islam in the his- personal security. Rahman (1984; 162) see it as torical context and compares it to the existence related to the special issues of democracy, sci- of Abraham religions prior to Islam, especially considering the social system. Meanwhile, Rah- issues as included in the classic understanding man employs a hermeneutic method, especially ofence, the and modernity, women status.which Even,is equivalent he considers with the in approaching al-Qur’an. Damanhuri Mu- postmodernist fundamentalism. Thus, Rahman hammed (2003; 8) calls Rahman’s method dou- tries to transcend the phenomena of modernity. ble movement hermeneutics. Bellah uses an in- Some observers consider him as a contempo- ductive thinking styly in a short formulation, rary and neo-modernist Islamic thinker. It while Rahman uses a deductive way of thinking. means that the entire attempt to give identity to Concerning to Islamic community, Bella pro- the tendency in Islamic thoughts that have poses the following agendas: Islam and political emerged in some latest decades. Such identity issues, family institution, individual personality serves as the bridge and event transcend previ- and Islam as the system of symbols, while Rah- ous traditionalism and modernity (Damanhuri man proposes some strategic stages in over- Muhammed, 2003; 3) coming the problems in Islam, especially those Another difference between Belah and Rah- related to the secularization in the phenomena man lies in their understanding of seculariza- of modernity.

REFERENCES

Damanhuri Muhammed, 2003, Hermeneutika-al-qur’an Fazlur Rahman: Tafsir baru Memahami Teks Kitap Suci

Fazlur Rahman, 1984,, onIslam Jurnal and Ilmu-ilmu Modernity: Ushuluddin Tranformation Esensia, of an Vol. Intellectual 4 No 1 januari, Tradition Yogyakarta, The univer- sity of Chicago, Chicago

F. B. Hardiman, 1993, Kesadaran yang Tak bersarang: Refleksi atas Interaksi Kesadaran dan Struktur dalam Modernisasi, on Tim Redaksi Driyarkara (ed) ‘Dikursus Kemasyarakatan dan kemanusiaan’, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta

Frans Magnis-Suseno, 1992, Hegel, Filsafat Kritis dan Dialektika, on Majalah Filsafat Driyarkara Th VIII No 3, Jakarta

Robert N Bellah, 1970, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion West Traditional World, University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley.

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