The Fruit of Devotion: Islam and Modernity in Kyrgyzstan

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The Fruit of Devotion: Islam and Modernity in Kyrgyzstan The Fruit of Devotion: Islam and Modernity in Kyrgyzstan Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie (Dr. Phil.) vorgelegt der Philosophischen Fakultät der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg Fachbereich Geschichte, Philosophie und Sozialwissenschaften von Frau Julie McBrien geb. am 03.13.1974 in Newport Beach Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Christopher Hann Prof. Dr. Richard Rottenburg Tag der Verteidigung: 2008 i Dedicated to Ruth J. Anderson ii Contents Zusammenfassung.............................................................................................................iv Preface and Acknowledgements........................................................................................ix Notes on Transliteration...................................................................................................xii Map...................................................................................................................................xiii 1. Introduction....................................................................................................................1 2. On Being Muslim in Bazaar-Korgon.........................................................................35 3. The structures of religious authority – local power and global systems.................60 4. Listening to the Wedding Speaker: Discussing Religion and Culture....................91 5. Constructing Mosques, Building Modernities.........................................................108 6. Clone: Brazilian Soap Operas and Muslimness......................................................125 7. Mukadas’s Struggle...................................................................................................140 8. Conclusion..................................................................................................................159 References.......................................................................................................................171 Pictures............................................................................................................................183 iii Zusammenfassung Die Frucht der Frömmigkeit: Islam und Modernität im postsowjetischen Kirgistan Der Zusammenbruch der Sowjetunion 1991 stellte, zumindest in der westlichen Welt, für viele einen ‚Sieg’ der Demokratie dar. Statt den Niedergang zu begrüßen, versuchten viele zentralasiatische Republiken die Zerschlagung der Sowjetunion – welche ihnen zu relativem Reichtum und Stabilität verholfen hatte – zu verhindern. Unfähig den Wandel zu stoppen und konfrontiert mit dem Zerfall von wirtschaftlichen und politischen Strukturen, der zu erbärmlicher Armut für große Teile der Bevölkerung führte, nahmen die meisten zentralasiatischen Regierungen ausländische Hilfsangebote in Form von Demokratisierung und Marktreformen an, wenn auch in unterschiedlichem Maße. Diese Geschichte ist wohlbekannt, wie auch die Tatsache, dass politische und wirtschaftliche Reformen eine gleichzeitige Verbreitung westlicher Ideologien mit sich brachten, darunter Gewissensfreiheit. In Kirgistan war die schnelle Aufnahme der Gewissensfreiheit in die Verfassung des neuen Nationalstaates und in verschiedene Gesetze wahrscheinlich einer der einfachsten und von der Bevölkerung meist gefeierten Schritte auf dem Weg zur ‚Demokratisierung’. Obwohl die sowjetischen Anti-Religionskampagnen dramatische Auswirkungen auf die religiöse Landschaft der Region hatten, gab die Bevölkerung ihre muslimische Zugehörigkeit nie auf. Die ersten Jahre der postsowjetischen Ära waren von einer starken Zunahme religiöser Observanz unter großen Teilen der Bevölkerung gezeichnet. Die Zahl der praktizierenden Muslimen war im ersten Jahrzehnt nach der Wende starken Schwankungen unterworfen. Jedoch blieb die Religionsfreiheit in Kirgistan einer der populärsten Aspekte der neuen postsowjetischen Periode, auch als gegen Ende der 1990er Jahre sich eine allgemeine Enttäuschung über die ‚Demokratie’ sowie den ‚Übergang zum Kapitalismus’ im Alltagsleben breit machte. Schließlich wurde jedoch auch diese Freiheit allmählich infrage gestellt. Nach der Jahrtausendwende wurde auch eine langsame, aber dauerhafte Wende zum Islam Hanafischer Provenienz deutlich. Vielen wurde klar, dass die Religion mehr als nur eine Frage des privaten Bekenntnisses war. Religiöse Individuen (im Folgenden im Anschluss an Robert Hefner ‚neue Fromme’ 〔newly pious〕genannt), ihre Sensibilitäten, Glaubenssätze, Handlungen und die Institutionen, die sie gründeten, nahmen langsam Einfluss auf das lokale politische und soziale Leben. iv Die vorliegende Dissertation untersucht, basierend auf einer 14-monatigen Feldforschung, die religiöse Landschaft einer kirgisischen Kleinstadt, fokussierend auf die Rolle, die die neuen frommen Muslime in der (Re-)Konstruktion der lokalen sozialen und politischen Ordnung nach mehr als einem Jahrzehnt des Postsozialismus spielen. Zur Zeit der Feldforschung bestand die Bevölkerung Bazaar-Korgons, einer Kleinstadt nahe der usbekischen Grenze, aus usbekischen Bauern (80%) und kirgisischen Angestellten (20%). Die neuen Frommen stammten überwiegend aus der usbekischen Gemeinde, obwohl, wie ich in Kapitel 2 argumentiere, dies eher aus deren sozioökonomischer Lage während des Sozialismus und der damit einhergehenden Integration in die sowjetischen Strukturen resultiert als aus etwas, das ihrer Ethnizität ‚inhärent’ wäre. Diese Gruppe von Muslimen entwickelte in den frühen postsozialistischen Jahren mehrere Cluster religiöser Institutionen zur Bildung und Missionierung (Moscheen, Koranschulen und Studiengruppen), die jedoch vorerst wenig Einfluss auf das institutionelle Leben der Gemeinde als Ganzes nahmen. Die wichtigste dieser Institutionen – davat - war sowohl eine lokale missionarische Bestrebung mit dem Ziel, Bewohner der Region näher an den Islam heranzuführen als auch heimische islamische Bildung mit dem gleichen Ziel. Während die häuslichen Studiengruppen von den neuen Frommen besucht wurden oder von denjenigen die bereits ‚Interesse am Islam haben’ (dinge bulup kaluu), waren die missionarischen Bestrebungen an die Muslime gerichtet, die sich nicht schon kanonischen Interpretationen des Islams zugeneigt hatten (Kapitel 3). Nach 2000 begann die gefühlte Präsenz des Islams das soziale und politische Leben der Stadt deutlicher zu beeinflussen, sowohl innerhalb als auch außerhalb der religiösen Gemeinde. Der selbstbewusste religiöse Glaube und Handlungen der neuen Frommen forderten die Vorstellungen vom Muslimischsein (Muslimness), die die späte Sowjetzeit und frühe Ära der Unabhängigkeit dominierten, heraus. Die sowjetischen Antireligionskampagnen der 1920er und 1930er Jahre waren erfolgreich darin gewesen, als ‚Religion’ bezeichnete Institutionen und Praktiken, die als konstituierend für ‚Religion’ angesehen wurden, wie zum Beispiel häusliche islamische Erziehung, Verschleierung, regelmäßiges gemeinschaftliches Beten, das Netzwerk religiöser Autoritäten und Kenntnisse des Schriftislams als rückständig und extremistisch zu brandmarken und zu eliminieren. Auf andere aus lokaler Sicht gleichwohl ‚muslimische’ Aspekte des zentralasiatischen Lebens wie zum Beispiel häusliche Rituale und Ereignisse innerhalb des Lebenszyklus, welche von den Sowjets aber nicht als ‚Religion’ verstanden wurden, wurde jedoch nicht abgezielt. Korrektes muslimisches Verhalten und religiöse Observanz drehten sich somit während der Sowjetzeit um genau diese, von staatlicher Seite nicht verfolgten, erlaubten Aspekte. Diese Facetten muslimischen Lebens und islamischer Identität, die um den Haushalt kreisten, stimmten mit den v Eckpfeilern nationaler Identität überein, welche von der sowjetischen Nationalitätenpolitik dieser Zeit geprägt worden waren. Die Gleichzeitigkeit beider Bewegungen bedeutete, dass die Aspekte des Lebens, welche in lokalen Definitionen von Muslimentum (Muslimness) elementare Bedeutung besaßen, zudem auch als Indikatoren für Usbekentum oder Kirgisentum angesehen wurden. Zum Ende der Sowjetzeit war nationale Identität eng mit Muslimentum verbunden, jedoch einem Muslimentum, dem ein großer Teil seiner ‚religiösen’ Inhalte genommen worden war und das somit sowjetischen Idealen und einer politischen Kultur des Säkularismus angepasst werden konnte. In den frühen 2000er Jahren begründete eine wachsende Anzahl ‘neuer frommer’ Muslime eine Vision von Muslimentum – als eine inhärente und fast exklusiv religiöse Identität - die sich konträr zu den Konzeptionen von Muslimentum in der Sowjetzeit positionierte. Unter den neuartigsten Foren zur Artikulierung dieser Vision befanden sich ‚neue Hochzeiten’ (Kapitel 4). Die Feierlichkeiten, welche diese Zeremonien begleiteten wurden abgewandelt, um sie moralisch akzeptabel zu gestalten und um eine Plattform für Predigten zu schaffen, die explizit sowjetische Vorstellungen von Muslimentum kritisierten. Darüber hinaus untergrub die Transformation dieses lokal als ‚kulturell’ wahrgenommenen Ereignisses in ein erklärtermaßen ‚religiöses’ Ereignis die Vorstellungen von Gemeinschaft. Die religiösen Observanzen, körperliche Gestaltung sowie die Diskurse der neuen Frommen, die nunmehr in der Öffentlichkeit sichtbar und hörbar waren, deuteten für viele Menschen der Kleinstadt Bazaar-Korgon auf die Erosion des säkularen öffentlichen Lebens hin. Die Handlungen und Diskurse der neuen Frommen wurden zudem von vielen Mitgliedern der Gemeinschaft als kongruent mit der Art von Glauben und Handlungen angesehen, die man religiösen Extremisten in regionalen Diskursen über ‚Wahhabis’
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