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RHEOLOGY Edited by Juan De Vicente Rheology Edited by Juan De Vicente Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Daria Nahtigal Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published February, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from [email protected] Rheology, Edited by Juan De Vicente p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0187-1 Contents Preface IX Part 1 Polymers 1 Chapter 1 Polymer Rheology by Dielectric Spectroscopy 3 Clement Riedel, Angel Alegria, Juan Colmenero and Phillipe Tordjeman Chapter 2 Viscoelastic Properties for Sol-Gel Transition 29 Yutaka Tanaka Chapter 3 Polymer Gel Rheology and Adhesion 59 Anne M. Grillet, Nicholas B. Wyatt and Lindsey M. Gloe Chapter 4 Fracture Behaviour of Controlled-Rheology Polypropylenes 81 Alicia Salazar and Jesús Rodríguez Chapter 5 Poisson’s Ratio and Mechanical Nonlinearity Under Tensile Deformation in Crystalline Polymers 113 Koh-hei Nitta and Masahiro Yamana Chapter 6 Batch Foaming of Amorphous Poly (DL-Lactic Acid) and Poly (Lactic Acid-co-Glycolic Acid) with Supercritical Carbon Dioxide: CO2 Solubility, Intermolecular Interaction, Rheology and Morphology 133 Hongyun Tai Part 2 Pipe Flow and Porous Media 149 Chapter 7 Resistance Coefficients for Non-Newtonian Flows in Pipe Fittings 151 Veruscha Fester, Paul Slatter and Neil Alderman VI Contents Chapter 8 Measurement and Impact Factors of Polymer Rheology in Porous Media 187 Yongpeng Sun, Laila Saleh and Baojun Bai Part 3 Drilling Fluids 203 Chapter 9 Stability and Flow Behavior of Fiber-Containing Drilling Sweeps 205 Matthew George, Ramadan Ahmed and Fred Growcock Part 4 Food Rheology 239 Chapter 10 Solution Properties of κ-Carrageenan and Its Interaction with Other Polysaccharides in Aqueous Media 241 Alberto Tecante and María del Carmen Núñez Santiago Chapter 11 Influence of Acidification on Dough Rheological Properties 265 Daliborka Koceva Komlenić, Vedran Slačanac and Marko Jukić Part 5 Other Materials and Applications 293 Chapter 12 Influence of Electric Fields and Boundary Conditions on the Flow Properties of Nematic-Filled Cells and Capillaries 295 Carlos I. Mendoza, Adalberto Corella-Madueño and J. Adrián Reyes Chapter 13 Rheological Behaviors and Their Correlation with Printing Performance of Silver Paste for LTCC Tape 321 Rosidah Alias and Sabrina Mohd Shapee Preface Rheology involves the study of the deformation and flow of matter. The goal is to establish relationships between stress and deformation for (non-Newtonian) materials where neither Newton's law nor Hooke's law suffice to explain their mechanical behaviour. Many materials exhibit a non-Newtonian behaviour and the area is relevant in many fields of study from industrial to technological applications such as concrete technology, geology, polymers and composites, plastics processing, paint flow, hemorheology, cosmetics, adhesives, etc ... In this Intech E-book, 13 chapters on various rheology related aspects are compiled. A number of current research projects are outlined as the book is intended to give the readers a wide picture of current rheology research balancing between fundamentals and applied knowledge. For this purpose, the chapters are written by experts from the Industry and Academia. The first part of the book is dedicated to polymers and deals with various advanced researches in this field. The first chapter, by Riedel et al. is devoted to the use of broadband dielectric spectroscopy to test macroscopic models for polymer dynamics. Chapters 2 and 3, by Tanaka and Grillet et al., revisit the fundamentals of gel formation and discuss the methods of characterizing polymer gels using rheological techniques to probe their adhesion and mechanical response. Chapter 4, by Salazar and Rodríguez focuses on the fracture behavior of controlled-rheology polypropylenes. Chapter 5, by Nitta and Yamana attempts to clarify the relationship between tensile mechanical nonlinearity and geometrical nonlinearity resulting from the transient change in Poisson's ratio in crystalline polymers. This first section finishes with Chapter 6, by Tai, and analyzes the rheological properties of poly(lactic acid) and poly(lactic acid-co-glycolic acid)/CO2 mixtures. The second part of the book covers two important flow fields of outstanding interest in petroleum industry. On the one hand, chapter 7, by Fester et al. deals explicitly with pipe flows. In particular, they review the loss coefficient data for laminar flow on non- Newtonian fluids in pipe fittings. Chapter 8, by Sun et al. focuses on enhanced oil recovery methods and explores the flow behavior of polymer solutions through a porous media. X Preface The third part of the book is devoted to drilling fluids. Chapter 9, by George et al. concerns the rheology of fiber-containing fluids specific to the oil and gas industry. They focus on drilling sweeps that are used to improve borehole cleaning. The fourth part of the book covers some relevant aspects of food rheology. The gelation mechanism of -Carrageenan and its interaction with starch and non-starch polysaccharides is reviewed in chapter 10 by Tecante and Nuñez-Santiago. Later, in chapter 11, by Komlenic et al., it is demonstrated that rheological properties of dough strongly depend on acidification. The last part of the book deals with liquids crystals and ceramic microelectronic devices. Chapter 12, by Mendoza et al. reviews recent theoretical results on the rheology of systems consisting of a flow-aligning nematic contained in cells and capillaries under a variety of different flow conditions and under the action of applied electric fields. Finally, chapter 13, by Alias and Shapee, stresses the impact of silver paste rheology in the fabrication of ceramic microelectronic devices (low temperature co-fired ceramic LTCC devices). The format of an E-book is chosen to enable fast dissemination of new research, and to give easy access to readers. The chapters can be read individually. I would like to express my gratitude to all the contributing authors that have made this book become a reality. I wish to thank also Intech staff and their team members for the opportunity to publish this work, in particular, Ana Pantar, Tajana Jevtic and Daria Nahtigal for their support which has made my job as editor an easy and satisfying one. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge financial support by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN MAT 2010-15101 project, Spain), by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), and by the projects P10-RNM-6630 and P11-FQM-7074 from Junta de Andalucía (Spain). Juan de Vicente University of Granada Spain Part 1 Polymers 10 Polymer Rheology by Dielectric Spectroscopy Clement Riedel1, Angel Alegria1, Juan Colmenero1 and Phillipe Tordjeman2 1Universidad del Pais Vasco / Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea 2Université de Toulouse, INPT 1Spain 2France 1. Introduction The aim of this chapter is to discuss the main models describing the polymer dynamics at macroscopic scale and present some of the experimental techniques that permit to test these models. We will notably show how Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy (BDS) permits to obtain rheological information about polymers, i.e. permits to understand how the matter flows and moves. We will focus our study the whole chain motion of cis-polyisoprene 1,4 (PI). Due to dipolar components both parallel and perpendicular to the chain backbone, PI exhibits a whole chain dielectric relaxation (normal mode) in addition to that associated with segmental motion. The Rouse model (Rouse, 1953), developed in the fifties, is well known to describe rather correctly the whole chain dynamics of unentangled polymers. In the past, the validity of the Rouse model has ever been instigated by means of different experimental techniques (BDS, rheology, neutron scattering) and also by molecular dynamics simulations. However this study is still challenging because in unentangled polymer the segmental dynamics contributions overlap significantly with the whole chain dynamics. In this chapter, we will demonstrate how we have been able to decorelate the effect of the α-relaxation on the normal mode in order to test how the Rouse model can quantitatively describes the normal mode measured by BDS and rheology. The introduction of polydispersity is a key point of this study. The reptational tube theory, first introduced by de Gennes de Gennes (1979) and developed by Doi and Edwads Doi & Edwards (1988) describes the dynamics of entangled polymers where the Rouse model can not be applied. Many corrections (as Contour Length Fluctuation or Constraints Release) have been added to the pure reptation in order to reach a totally predictive theory McLeish (2002); Viovy et al. (2002).
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