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The Materiality of Authority: Ornamental Objects and Negotiations of Sovereignty in the Algonquian Middle Atlantic (A.D

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The Materiality of Authority: Ornamental Objects and Negotiations of Sovereignty in the Algonquian Middle Atlantic (A.D W&M ScholarWorks Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects Fall 2016 The Materiality of Authority: Ornamental Objects and Negotiations of Sovereignty in the Algonquian Middle Atlantic (A.d. 900 - 1680) Christopher Judd Shephard College of William and Mary - Arts & Sciences, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd Part of the Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Shephard, Christopher Judd, "The Materiality of Authority: Ornamental Objects and Negotiations of Sovereignty in the Algonquian Middle Atlantic (A.d. 900 - 1680)" (2016). Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects. Paper 1499449858. http://doi.org/10.21220/S2M65M This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Materiality of Authority: Ornamental Objects and Negotiations of Sovereignty in the Algonquian Middle Atlantic (A.D. 900 – 1680) Christopher Judd Shephard Springfield, VA Master of Arts, College of William and Mary, 2009 Bachelor of Arts, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2002 A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of the College of William and Mary in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology The College of William and Mary January, 2017 © Copyright by Christopher J. Shephard 2016 ABSTRACT This dissertation investigates the emergence, development, and transformation of centralized political authority within Algonquian societies of the Late Woodland and early Colonial period (A.D. 900 – 1680) southern Middle Atlantic. Sixteenth and 17th century European accounts describe coastal Algonquian- speaking societies of modern day Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina as organized into multi-community polities structured by hierarchical political authority, centralized decision-making, and pervasive inequality. However, the hallmarks typically associated with chiefly political organization are almost non- existent in the region’s archaeological record. Colonial chroniclers, however, were adamant that the most highly valued indigenous objects, shell and copper adornment, flowed through chiefly lineages, a relationship largely neglected within the regional archaeological scholarship. Ultimately, this dissertation explores sovereignty and the material processes that mitigated relationships of authority and subjection. Drawing on archaeological, ethnohistorical, and ethnographic evidence, three key avenues of inquiry are pursued. First, the organization of the pre- and post-Colonial economy and the ways that the consumption, movement, and enactment of social practices associated with ornamentation influenced the construction of a region-wide political system. Second, the materiality of wealth objects, and the extent to which they could act as social agents in defining and reorienting sociopolitical roles. And finally, the regional organization of production and the potential of new technology (LA-ICP-MS) to identify shell ornament production locales. The results of these analyses suggest that although individuals and communities consumed and deployed shell and copper ornamentation in a variety of ways, these materials and their association with the human body directed the flow of power across the coastal Algonquian political geography. Through various engagements with shell and copper ornaments, social actors created historical infrastructures that channeled manitou, or animacies that could inhabit humans and objects, in an effort to bring prosperity and balance to the lived world. This study concludes that pre-Colonial notions of sovereignty within the region hinged on the differential ability of individuals to socialize unpredictable and often dangerous foreign objects. Relying on their constant flow, however, this form of sovereignty proved unstable and easily subverted. The emergence of new exchange networks and the development of a localized craft industry, both of which occurred within the region during the 17th century, fundamentally redefined relationships of authority and subjection, as sovereignty became distributed across increasingly localized political entities. This is not to say that the violence and large-scale dispossession of Native people were not significant factors in the reordering of sovereign relationships in the wake of colonialism, but that new economic circumstances provided new avenues for negotiating and contesting political relationships. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements iv Dedications viii List of Tables ix List of Figures x Chapter 1. Objects and Authority in Documents and Dirt 1 Disentangling the Powhatan from Popular History 9 Reframing Authority in the Southern Middle Atlantic 12 Methodology and Organization 14 Contributions 17 Chapter 2. Power, Sovereignty, and the Coastal Algonquian Sociopolitical World 20 Archaeologies of Materiality 24 Value in Space and Time 37 Exchange, Production, and the pre-Capitalist Economy 41 Colonialism and Material Culture 53 Archaeology and Sovereignty 57 Chapter 3. Power Redirected: Algonquian Ontologies, Animate Objects, and Notions of Authority in the Indigenous Southern Middle Atlantic 70 Manitou and the Algonquian Material World 74 Foreign Objects and Cultural Metaphors 79 i Movement, Singularity, and Sacrifice 94 Algonquian Wealth and the Development of Intercultural Value Systems 99 Colonial Law and Native Subjection on Virginia’s Eastern Shore 107 Chapter 4. Adorning the Living and the Dead: The Construction and Legitimization of the Political Collective 134 Shell and Copper Ornament Consumption in Time and Space 138 Materialities of Mortuary Ritual 142 Mortuary Ceremonialism and Social Difference 147 Burial Practices and Corporate Association 150 Adornment and Non-Mortuary Social Practices 173 Chapter 5. Craft Specialization and the Regional Organization of Production 206 Documentation of Shell Bead Production 209 Geographic Distribution of Hard Clam and Whelk and Potential Production Zones 215 Previous Shell Sourcing Research 221 Methodology for Sourcing Shell Beads from the Circum-Chesapeake 223 Shell Geochemistry, Lithology, and Elemental Uptake in Mollusks 225 The Chesapeake Geochemical Environment 227 Preparation of LA-ICP-MS Shell Samples 228 ii Instrumentation 229 Impacts to Artifacts 230 Limitations 230 Results 231 Chapter 6. Conclusion 253 Objects as Agents 254 Manitou and Shifting Notions of Sovereignty 258 Production and Networks of Exchange 262 Appendix 268 Bibliography 301 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The success of this project was only possible with the help of a great number of people. Some provided guidance in research, others contributed expertise in the more technical aspects of this study, and still others offered encouraging words and support during the long, and often lonely writing process. To those whom I have forgotten to mention here, please know that I am forever grateful for your support. The early stages of my research were funded by the Gloria S. King Fellowship administered by the Maryland Archaeological Conservation Laboratory. In addition to the much needed funding, the MAC Lab staff provided me a place to stay during my time in St. Leonard, and were exceedingly generous with their time and resources. Patricia Samford, Ed Chaney, Rebecca Morehouse, Sarah Rivers-Cofield, and Erin Wingfield offered invaluable guidance in choosing site collections that became central to my research project. They provided access to those collections, facilitated conversations with state and federal agencies when I sought permission to conduct invasive analyses, and gave me a quiet place to work. I also extend a debt of gratitude to Julia King of St. Mary’s College for creating the fellowship in her mother’s memory. This dissertation project also took me to North Carolina, whose archaeological resources I was largely unfamiliar with in the early stages of research. Susan Myers, Delores Hall, and John Mintz at the NC Office of State Archaeology made me feel welcome in their laboratory and guided me toward useful sites and reports that I would have never found on my own. Veronica Johnson pulled collections for me and walked me through the state cataloging system, never hesitating to answer any of my many questions. The staff at the OSA also pointed me toward collections housed at East Carolina University where Charles Ewen provided valuable insight into colonial economics on the North Carolina coastal plain and facilitated my study of several site collections. Although I never actually met them, Clay Swindell of the Museum of the Albemarle and Charles Heath offered unpublished manuscripts and a wealth of knowledge regarding Native archaeology in eastern North Carolina. Closer to home, this research allowed me to engage with Virginia’s archaeological community who have consistently offered valuable feedback and support above and beyond the bounds of professional obligation. Elizabeth Moore at the Virginia Museum of Natural History welcomed me into her lab, introduced me to volunteers and museum staff, and shared with me the insights iv she gained from working with the collections at the museum that I sought to analyze. She provided valuable feedback on my research proposal and artifact loan request, which greatly improved both products. Dee Deroche at the
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