Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

University of Bath

PHD

Integration and identity of the Transylvanian-Saxons in Salzburg since the Second- World-War

Schonheinz, Julia Christine

Award date: 2006

Awarding institution: University of Bath

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Download date: 05. Oct. 2021 Integration and Identity of the Transylvanian-Saxons in Salzburg since the Second-World-War

Julia Christine Schonheinz

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

University of Bath

Department of European Studies and Modern Languages

April 2006

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ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 UNIVERSITY OF BATH LIBRARY BA 3 0 JAN 2009 ~PhD Table Of Contents Table of Figures ...... 6 Acknowledgements ...... 7 Abstract ...... 8 Introduction ...... 9 Structure of Thesis ...... 10 Transylvanian-Saxon History...... 13 1.0 Introduction ...... 13 2.0 Early Transylvanian-Saxon History...... 14 2.1 Descent Theories ...... 14 2.2 Reasons for German Settlement in Transylvania ...... 15 2.3 The Golden Letter of Freedom ...... 16 2.4 Invasions from the East ...... 17 2.5 Development of Town Life and Legal Status in the 15th Century ...... 19 3.0 Succession War for the Hungarian Throne ...... 20 3.1 Reformation of the Transylvanian-Saxons ...... 20 3.2 Ferdinand of Habsburg’s reign ...... 22 4.0 The Bathory Dynasty and Civil W ar ...... 23 4.1 Counter Reformation Attempts ...... 23 4.2 End of Turkish Rule ...... 24 5.0 Transylvania and the Habsburg Empire ...... 25 5.1 Re-Catholicisation Attempts and Tax Rises ...... 25 5.2 Samuel von Brukenthal ...... 26 5.3 Joseph ll.’s Reforms ...... 26 5.4 The End of the Corporate State ...... 27 6.0 Transylvania and Hungary...... 29 6.1 The Volkskirche and its importance to Saxon culture ...... 30 7.0 The First World W ar ...... 32 7.1 Romania’s Role in the First World W ar ...... 32 7.2 Calls for Romanian Unification ...... 33 8.0 The Greater Romanian State ...... 34 8.1 Consequences of Unification for Romania’s Ethnic Groups ...... 34 8.2 Agrarian Reforms and Contact with Germany ...... 35 9.0 Transylvania and the National-Socialist Workers Party/Second- World W a r...... 36 10.0 Emigration to Austria...... 40 10.1 Transylvanian-Saxons across the Austrian counties ...... 41 11.0 Commentary ...... 46 12.0 Nationalist Historians...... 50 12.1 Transylvanian and Saxon historiographies ...... 51 12.2 Misinterpretations in the Historiographies of Transylvanian Ethnic Groups ...... 51 12.3 Saxon historiographers ...... 53 12.4 Tendencies of Modern Historiographies ...... 54 12.5 The “Germanisation” of Saxon Historiography ...... 55 12.6 Critical points in modern Saxon historiography ...... 56 12.7 Conclusion ...... 58 Concepts of Nation and Identity ...... 59 1.0 Introduction ...... 59 2.0 Definitions of Nations and Ethnic Groups ...... 61 2.1 The changing meaning of the term “nation” ...... 61 2.2 Nations - Timeframe Criteria ...... 62 2.3 Nations - State Criteria ...... 64 Nation-State and Multi-national States ...... 65

1 ‘Kulturnation’ and Irrendentism ...... 65 2.4 Nations - Other Criteria ...... 66 Language/Culture ...... 67 Size ...... 68 Will/Suffering ...... 68 2.5 Summary...... 69 2.6 Definitions of “Ethnic Group” ...... 70 Primordialism and Constructivism ...... 71 2.7 Descent Myth, Golden Age and Homeland ...... 73 2.8 Conclusion ...... 73 2.9 Nations and Ethnies Theories applied to Transylvanian-Saxons ...... 75 Saxon Descent Myths ...... 76 Changing governments in Transylvania ...... 77 Kulturnation...... 78 3.0 Identity ...... 80 3.1 National Identity ...... 80 3.2 Ethnic Identity ...... 82 Extinction of Ethnic Group/Strategies for its Survival ...... 83 3.3 Development and Characteristics of Transylvanian-Saxon Identity ...... 85 Early Group Identity ...... 85 Characteristics of Modern Saxon Identity ...... 88 “German” Identity of the Saxons? ...... 89 3.4 Immigrant Identity ...... 92 Identity issues of immigrants in Austria, directly after the war ...... 93 Immigrant identity 50 years after re-settlement ...... 94 Conclusion ...... 95 4.0 Conclusion and Hypotheses to be tested ...... 96 A variety of Saxon ‘identities’ ...... 97 4.1 Hypotheses to be tested ...... 99 Hypothesis 1: ...... 101 Hypothesis 2 : ...... 102 Hypothesis 3 : ...... 103 Hypothesis 4 : ...... 105 4.2 Outlook to following Chapters ...... 106 Methodology ...... 107 1.0 Introduction ...... 107 2.0 Research methods ...... 108 2.1 Questionnaires ...... 108 2.2 Interviews ...... 109 2.3 Focus Groups ...... 109 2.4 Diaries ...... 110 2.5 Participant Observation ...... 110 3.0 Methods used for Primary Research -Objectives to be considered ...... 111 3.1 Selection and Number of Interviewees ...... 111 3.2 Methods used for primary research ...... 113 3.3 Methodology - first generation ...... 115 3.4 Methodology - second generation ...... 116 3.5 Methodology - third generation ...... 118 3.6 Reliability of Interviewees ...... 119 4.0 Overview of interviewees and places ...... 121 4.1 Family members in all three generations interviewed ...... 122 4.2 Family members in two generations interviewed ...... 123 4.3 Interviewees from one generation only ...... 123

2 4.4 Place names mentioned in relation to Transylvanian-Saxon settlements in Salzburg ...... 123 The first generation settlers ...... 126 1.0 Why interview first generation settlers - Existing Research on First Generation Settlers ...... 126 1.1 Sutter’s research ...... 126 1.2 Transylvanian-Saxon society in Transylvania before 1945 and after the evacuation ...... 128 1.3 Recent Research into Transylvanian-Saxons in Austria and Salzburg...... 129 2.0 Interviewees used for this research - Background information ...... 132 2.1 Settling in Austria ...... 132 Interviewees Gneis/Eichethof settlement ...... 132 Living in the city of Salzburg ...... 140 Living in rur