CEU eTD Collection Second reader Supervisor L ooking toThemselves: The T and and Support Greaterof Romania : Balázs Trencsényi : ViktorKarády In requirements for fulfillmentof the thedegree partial of
Transylvania 1918 Central European Rachel Mattair Renz History Department Budapest, Hungary ension Master of Arts Submitted 2012 By
b w
etween Self
ithin the CommunitySaxon in University
to
- 1935
- Reliance, Regionalism,
CEU eTD Collection with accordance in made copies such instructions may bemadepermission ofthe thewritten author. without not Further made. copies such any of part a and form author must the page from the obtained by be may given Details instructions Library. European the Central with the in accordance lodged in only made be may part, or full in eitherbyauthor. process,Copies the any rests with thesis of thistext the Copyrightin
librarian. This librarian.
CEU eTD Collection community and ofTransylvania theSudeten among analyzes thesis the fragmentation experience, Saxon of Transylvanian the to merely perspective give or to order In period, members. community interwar the during identity Saxon cohesive vari approach balanced andrelations, Saxon a offers work the topic, this rhetoric on Socialist studies National rising between tension German the Particular material. on press placed and journals is cultural emphasis interwar of basis the on dissidents social examines Romanian established newly the in minority ethnic Saxons ous movements traced lead to the question of whether historians can even speak of a a of speak even can historians whether of question the to lead traced movements ous hs hss rcs h cags n self in changes the traces thesis This from 1918 to 1935 to 1918 from Reich Reich
the domestic and
the differences between the rise of Pan of rise the between differences the Transylvanian regionalism in these publication these in regionalism Transylvanian distinguishes
and as they transitioned from being a semi a being from transitioned they as international
between Saxon elite narratives and averageoutlooks and narratives elite Saxon between Abstract
line of alliances
German communityGerman ofCzechoslovakia. iii
- rsrain oiis f h Transylvanian the of policies preservation
stat both e following the First World War World First the following e - German sentiments in the Saxon the in sentiments German osraie ao eie and elites Saxon conservative between internal and external external and internal between - autonomous group to an an to group autonomous s. Unlike many existing existing many Unlike from the the from
.
The . It .
CEU eTD Collection ever qualityand oflife remains who and it, have don‘t I think I when energy me gives who smile, me makes always who Füles, to gratitude of howl a owe also I this on worked I as prayers and support their thesis, andforyears their patience inwaitinganother two of all for Texas in back family my thank I Icommunication, and toperpetuate aspire that tradition. the complete language motivation the Without and kindnessinhelping my to as well as Karády, Viktor and Trencsényi Balázs supervisors, knowledgeable my to indebted am I heBudapest madeth on tocome to t on worked I school graduate as throughout only not with me provided he support intellectual and all of Most ntutr a instructors I would like to thank my husband, Mic husband, my thank to like would I research learned continually entertains
colleague, Ágoston Berecz, Berecz, Ágoston colleague, nd f or or , skills, and patience and skills, , me along work. with this
friends this thesis. I want t want I thesis. this
and even before even and
Acknowledgments I have had in the past, I would never have been able to able been have never would I past, the in had have I e faith the future thatwhat good. held wouldbe
me with her me with . I am so grateful for the adventurous decision adventurous the for grateful so am I . iv o thank all of you for for you of all thank o of all of the talented and enthusiastic foreign enthusiastic and talented the of all of
for their insights, constructive criticisms, constructive insights, their for hael, for all of the emotional, spiritual, emotional, the of all for hael, antics. - loyal. Keybie, too, has improved my my improved has too, Keybie, loyal.
to getto me back.
the passion you have for for have you passion the
i tei, u all but thesis, his
CEU eTD Collection Collaboration InternalChapter Four Affairs ChapterAffairs Three External Chapter Sa Two ofthe Pillars Chapter Introduction I III.Interwar Publications II. Community ofthe Pillars Saxon I. Community,Saxon ofthe Social Structure 1910 III.a StrikingBalance II.Identity Deconstructing I. Watertight Theory? I. Within Enemies V. Conclusions IV. 1928 Preservation III. 1924 II. . 1918
b. ―Beyond Groupism‖ a. ―Beyond ‗Identity‘ b. The Social Democrats Interwara. Predecessors:Nineteenth b. Transylvanism of Rise theNational and the P Peasant a. The of Dawn Regionalism b. The 1923Constitution a. The 1921Agrarian Reform ImplicationsItsc. Culturaland Einheit Political b. Preservation and of Schools theChurch theConfessional a. ofCulture as TheBearers Saxons d. Deutsche Hefte Politische aus Großrumänien c. Two Cultural Longb. A Deutches Tageblatt a. The Semi Resistanced. TheSaxon toRomanian Königsboden and Centralization Languagec. German Lutheranb. School Confessional a.Lutheran The Church Romanian Modernizing Projects One - 1923: The Halcyon Days1923: The Halcyon - - 1928: ―Waiting for Better Times‖1928: ―Waiting 1935: The of Collapse the Romanian Dream
...... Theoretical Framework Theoretical
......
- ...... Running Tradition: Th Running Tradition: - Official ofthe Voice The Sächsische Volkspartei: Siebenbürgisch
...... -
...... Political Journals of the Interwar ofthe Period: Klingsor Journals Political Ostland and
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
xon Community xon ......
...... -
- Inter
...... Romanian Relations
...... Table of Contents Table of
......
...... -
...... Saxon Dissensionand TransylvanianGermanSaxon
s ......
...... e KronstädterZeitung
......
...... - Century Conflicts ...... v ......
– ......
...... Disillusion and HeightenedInstitutional Disillusion ......
- ...... 1930
......
......
......
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...... arty
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29 27 25 22 13 11 85 82 73 68 63 60 55 53 48 42 39 38 36 22 18 15 11 82 78 76 66 58 46 35
9
......
81 45 18
9 1
CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Conclusions Turns National to Saxon Socialism AgitationChapter and Six Renewal Chapter Five External Affairs IV. SudetenRenewal Agitation Concludingand Saxon Comparisons: III.Germany Turn The to Sudeten IncorporationII.Cz the into I.A Brief Historical Comparison IV. Conclusions III. AccommodatingTradition Paradox: and The Reich Saxon Saxon Politics II.Increased TheLiterary Mutual 1920s: and Mid Economic Collaboration I. TiestoGermany Early III. Conclusions II. ofRise Collaboration Pan and Transylvanian the German b. The Early Cul 1920s: Interesta. Prewar Germany in c. Dissident Collaborat b. AChangePolicy inVolksrat Itsa. The VDR Kulturamt and d. Selbsthilfe and the c. The Unzufriedenenbewegungen c. Pan Czechoslovakb. Oppression? andPerspectives Sudeten German a. EconomicFactors andand SocialCzech theRise ofa to b. Commitment th Klingsor b. a. Abroad Financial Supportfrom
Establishment of Literary ofEstablishment ofPoliticization Connections Ostlandand and the - German Agitation
......
......
......
...... e Transylvanian Homeland Erneuerungsbewegungen
...... ion andthe of Rise Pan tural Rather Allies Political Than
...... - echoslovak State
Germany and Its Germany and ......
......
...... -
......
...... A Comparison of SudetenTransylvanian GermanA Comparison and
......
...... vi
...... Auslanddeutsche ...... -
Germanism ......
...... - GermanDivide Ethnic
...... - Germanism
......
......
......
......
......
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137 128 124 1 115 110 107 104 164 159 154 145 133 123 115 111 103 172 154 150 149
18 97 90
.
182 177 147 114
CEU eTD Collection U Volksrat VDR Sudetendeutsche Selbsthilfebewegung SDT SdP Sächsische Volkspartei Sachsentag NSDR NPP KZ Königsboden Erneuerungsbewegungen Einheit DPH Auslanddeutsche nzufriedenenbewegungen : : Kronstädter Zeitun : : National Peasant Party : : Sudetendeutsche Partei
Siebenbürgisch Verband de : DeutschePolitische Hefte ausGroßrumänien : Romania Socialist Self Socialist Transylvania Nationalsozialistische
: Saxon National: Saxon Council Unity : Saxon national: Saxon assembly :
―Crownlands,‖ orthe Abbreviations ) : Sudeten Germans, Czechoslovakia : Sudeten populationsliving German minority in : Germans living outsideofGermany‘s: Germans borders
r Deutschen inRumänien : Self - - Help Move Deutsches Tageblatt Deutsches Tageblatt : Saxon National Party Saxon : g ( : R - Kronstadt Newspaper Kronstadt Help movement : Dissatisfied movements enewal orreform movements
(Romania) (
Selbsthilfebewegung derSelbsthilfebewegung Deutschen inRumänien Sudeten ment of theGermans Romania in
and territory
German Party
Translations of Key Terms of Translations
( ( Transylvanian German Daily
Association ofGermans Romania) in vii traditionally inhabited by the Saxons in in Saxons inhabitedby the traditionally
)
( ) German Political Papers from Greater from German Papers Political
)
)
( National
CEU eTD Collection p. 28 January1932, 1 governmentefforts Bucharest thenew from scho and land extensive difficult conditions, the economic by threatened itself felt which community a for reaction natural a was and self with concerned foremost and first was decision This War. World First the Romania the within existenceminority their maintain to sought the to loyalty regionalist their retaining by as well as language, German the of teaching the and schools, confessional self the to right their preserve to attempting By end. war‘s the after years twenty full a transpired officially only and decade, a least international fatherland andcultural state domestic their of abandonment Saxons‘ Transylvanian regulation international and legislation domestic of combination a through Europe Central throughout scattered tailor be could solutions that hoped nation W World First the of German
Alfred Schlosser, ―Über die Lösungsmöglichkeiten des Nationalitätproblems,‖ Nationalitätproblems,‖ des Lösungsmöglichkeiten die ―Über Schlosser, Alfred - states. In insinuating that a two a that insinuating In states. Schlosser, a member of the Transylvanian Saxon community, refer community, Saxon Transylvanian the of member a Schlosser, inter affair),the and (domestic question the of nature dual the to thanks that, each country of affair particular domestic the remain should or direction international an in taken be should the about said be can much So Such transitions do not occur overnight. In the case of the Saxons this shift took at took shift this Saxons the of case the In overnight. occur not do transitions Such s in
minority populations throughout Central Europe who, twelve years end after the twelve throughout who, Europe populations Central minority re must also be a two a be also must re - 29.
Unless otherwise not Unlessotherwise ar, had still not been satisfactorily incorporated into their respective their into incorporated satisfactorily been not still had ar, Wa ti tei peet i rather is presents thesis this What .
Königsboden
- question of whether the solution to the nationality problem nationality the to solution the whether of question sided solution sided — - made for each of the differing German national groups national German differing the of each for made ed, all translations in this thesis are myown. are thesis in this translations all ed, In the German German the - sided solution to the problem must exist, exist, must problem the to solution sided t s hi hsoia hmln, h Sxn initially Saxons the homeland, historical their as roduction — 1 all efforts meant to modernize the new nation thenew all efforts meant modernize to .
- 1
diitain f h Ltea C Lutheran the of administration l eom, n cnrlzn administrative centralizing and reforms, ol –
Alfred Schlosser, 1932 Schlosser, Alfred Reich
.
— n state in the yearsthefollowingin state n Romania dfeet outcome: different a
Klingsor —
for their adopte their for s
, Year 9, Issue 1, 1, Issue 9, Year , to the millions the to - preservation, - state state hurch, its its hurch, Schlosser the the d -
CEU eTD Collection possessedword by period: writtenduring this the Ste opinion. public on effect profound a had publications community the in culture journal burgeoning destabilized. situation political and economic, social, the as conservative among time over changed concept self of notion the to approach s a takes thesis this Thus situation. political unexpected the with morphed self of definitions leaders‘ conservative as journals, the German of preservation on emphasis its with movement Socialist National swelling the that and aid, the of stability financial greater the and religion Saxon traditional the of leaders the finally then and dissidents, social Saxon first 1930s, early and 1920s late rejec s administrative varying widely the incorporate effectively to inability their to due largely demands, these social, their protect religious, andlinguistic, to means the granted were they as political long as the Romania within of cooperate framework to willing were Saxons the autonomy, of tradition long self Saxon the by such as perceived not but state, - preservation have been obse been have preservation tion of the new nation new the of tion These changes were reflected in a concurrent shift in Saxon interwar daily press and and press daily interwar Saxon in shift concurrent a in reflected were changes These Volk
The importance of Saxon literaryproduction Saxon The importance of ystems of their new territories, territories, new their of ystems
would breath nat would theweakened life Saxon into Volksrat
political status. Eventually, however, Romania‘s failure to facilitate failure to Romania‘s political status.Eventually, however, or , - state in favor of German support. In turning to Germany in the the in Germany to turning In support. German of favor in state National - rved in countless minority groups. Despite their centuries their Despite groups. minority countless in rved preservation in the Saxon community, tracing how the the how tracing community, Saxon the in preservation
oni, oe ta te omn lang common the that hoped Council, 2 s‘
— Reich conservative leaders. Similar tendencies of of tendencies Similar leaders. conservative Volksrat
both hud o b udrsiae, s these as underestimated, be not should e t Sxn iilsomn wt and with disillusionment Saxon to led - would provide economic and culturaland economic provide would rsrain n Sxn nationalism Saxon and preservation n Roman in — fan Zweig stated well the potency potency the well stated Zweig fan leaders and social dissidents alike dissidents social and leaders preexisting press outlets and the preexisting and outlets the press ion. ia
and in the community community the in and pecific, subjective subjective pecific, ae and uage -
CEU eTD Collection 6 5 and German the name, place given footnote. be a in willa also equivalents Hungarian of use first the Upon War. World First the following Romania of boundaries Transy in areas the as noted, otherwise unless thesis, 4 (Transsilva (K Günther and Schick Inge Prader eds. Myß, Siebenbürgen Lebensraum Wirtschaft, Wissenschaften, Zivilisation, 3 Jahrhundert p. 179. 2007), Verlag, IKGS (Munich: Sprachgeschichte) 20. und 19. im Südosteuropa eds., Sienerth, Zeitschrift 2 the as such journals, Some content. varied jo literary and political coming discussed period the during Transylvania in read widely also were newspapers Austrian and German semi the represented Saxon conservative it mainstream as especially here, depth in more used Tageblatt Deutsches were rates distribution its newspaper, older an was the con the were Siebenbürgisch thesis, this in used be will that ones the and papers, published being were journals) trade simultaneously, and journals, newspapers, (including papers booming was productivity literary where community, Saxon interwar the in case the also was Such
Hereafter referred to as the to referred Hereafter Brassó. Hungarian: German: Kronstadt; Stefan Zweig, Zweig, Stefan Hans Meschendörfer, ―Presse und Publizistik,‖ in in Publizistik,‖ und ―Presse Meschendörfer, Hans German: Hermannstadt; Hungarian: Hungarian: Hermannstadt; German: Kronstädter Zeitung Kronstädter times, the word still possessed authority. It had not yet been trampled to death by by death to trampled been yet not had It those it. they writtenword, awaited the still heeded people ―propaganda‖; the lies, engineered authority. in Second: possessed the still from word War World the First times, the distinguished charitably what is this For Perhaps even more significant than significant more even Perhaps Frühling . de
pt te ntbe iaca stain B 13, approximately 1930, By situation. financial unstable the spite eahihie ud emten Dushpahg Pes ud ieau i Ostmittel in Literatur und Presse Deutschsprachige vermitteln: und Benachrichtigen Die Welt von Gestern. Erinnerungen eines Europäers eines Erinnerungen Gestern. von Welt Die - 3 Deutsches Tageblatt Tageblatt Deutsches
mostly in Sibiu, in mostly 12) m re im (1920) , 6
which had about 6,000 subscriptions subscriptions 6,000 about had which SDT
( rntd Newspaper Kronstadt .
gionalen und lokalen publizistischen Kontext,‖ in in Kontext,‖ publizistischen lokalen und gionalen
urnals. Journals in the interwar period were numerous and of of and numerous were period interwar the in Journals urnals. Nagyszeben. Volksrat 4
the Vlm 10 f h Wseshflce Rei Wissenschaftliche the of 110 Volume , ( raft Verlag, 1993), 391 p. 1993), raft Verlag, Transylvanian German Daily German Transylvanian heart . In additio In .
the press in the interwar period were the up and up the were period interwar the in press the The Romanian place names will be used throughout the the throughout used be will names place Romanian The of the of Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon: Geschichte, Kultur, Kultur, Geschichte, Lexikon: Sachsen Siebenbürger Die etce oiice et as Großrumänien aus Hefte Politische Deutsche 3
lvania discussed fell (and remain) within the political political the within remain) (and fell discussed lvania
, Braşov, , community n to all of the locally published papers, published locally the of all to n only 5
af ht f the of that half - 1849
395. ( in 1942 . The most prominent of theseof prominent most The .
1930. Thus the Thus 1930. - ), quoted in Bianca Bican, ―Die Bican, Bianca in quoted ), 1944). Although the latter the Although 1944). , Sibiu, 1874 Sibiu, , nien) - official voice of the the of voice official evtv diis the dailies servative Zalaznik, Motzan, and and Motzan, Zalaznik, , published by Walter Walter by published , Siebenbürgisch e (Literatur he
sixty SDT 2
- 1944) and 1944) the the
different different will be will - -
und und und -
CEU eTD Collection (1907 Deutschland ― to points thus and 1920,‖ and 1880 between Germany in motifs and centu thirteenth Sängerkrieg 7 self their through exercised the in especially publications, lang German the of use the and schools, Saxon Church, Lutheran the how on concentrate will thesis the namely, period; interwar the during press Saxon the dominate to came which issues aforementioned the to paid be will self national the follow to 1930s possible the into and 1920s the throughout press the to and journals Saxon to figures key Several identified. always were articles journal of authors perceptioneconomic, ininterwar social, andRomania. of the political situation region.entirethe in Saxons 235,000 around only were there that considers one when especially high, extraordinarily Saxons the of culture reading the Klingsor the analyze fiction, the (in journals literary considered ( exclusively political arti (
atr Land Eastern Romania Greater from Papers Political German i Karpathen Die h name The While it is sometimes more difficult to trace the authorship of newspaper articles, newspaper of authorship the trace to difficult more sometimes is it While and art, also contained polemical articles and political essays. essays. political and articles polemical contained also art, and and o mnte cnet smtms eerd o s the as to referred (sometimes contest minstrel or , Klingsor Klingsor - oiia cnet f hs junl. n atclr epai wl b pae on placed be will emphasis particular, In journals. these of content political ry. Michaela Nowotnick claims that the journal‘s title echoes ―rediscovery of medieval themes themes medieval of ―rediscovery echoes title journal‘s the that claims Nowotnick Michaela ry. preservation, and institutional preservation institutional and preservation, , Ostland Sbu 1919 Sibiu, , - Ostland 1939),‖ Humboldt (MA1939),‖ Thesis, was supposedly the name of a Hungarian minstrel who participated in the medieval medieval the in participated who minstrel Hungarian a of name the supposedly was ; the ; , r changing ir cles supplemented at times by historical pieces. Others, bylike historical pieces. at supplemented times cles Klingsor
Deutsche Politische Hefte Politische Deutsche Hence these interwar publications offer a useful useful a offerpublications interwar theseHence - 91 1926 1921,
- Seebre ud en B seine und Siebenbürgen . SDT diitaie rvlgs hd en ot led under already lost been had privileges, administrative
— . Although the historical tradition of Saxon autonomy, Saxon of tradition historical the Although . tiue twrs h cnet o Sxn nationalism, Saxon of concepts the towards attitudes belle n em o bt pouto ad consumption and production both of terms in - uage came to be representative of ―Saxonness‖ in ―Saxonness‖ of representative be to came uage - lettres 1931) and and 1931) - Universität zu Berlin, 2007), p. p. 74 2007), zuBerlin, Universität 4
sense) but in addition to works of poetry, poetry, of works to addition in but sense) ,
Klingsor Sibiu will be used only cursorily. In cursorily. only used be will .
Wartburgkontest I eziehungen zum literarischen Leben in in Leben literarischen zum eziehungen n this analysis, particularattentionanalysis, this n Klingsor ,
1921 7
Bao, 1924 (Braşov, ‘s markedly German influence. influence. German markedly ‘s - 97, otie almost contained 1927), ) in Thuringia the early early the Thuringia in ) contributed regularly contributed - 75.
This thesis will will thesis This gaugeof
- 99 were 1939) mkn it making , Ostland
— public public short, was
CEU eTD Collection yearsinterwar that leaders Saxon conservative to tactic political collaborative clear became it as discussion, this into regionalism Transylvanian of rise The homeland. th and Saxons the new their of perception Saxon amongin role important an played differences these nationalism as Romanians, and modernization of notions differing the nation Romanian the to Saxons the of di society community. work this in characterized issues, these of importance identity of notions prevailing contrasts 800 its throughout community Transylvania the to importance genuine their in basis a had selection this and nation, Saxon the of continuity cultural and social, historical, period will interrelated, also Bucharest from stemming re Finally, nation. Saxon the to and Transylvania to attachment their publications. interwar in prominent remained territory Saxon the with rule Hungarian verse strategies of national preservation geographically, first examining the commitment the examining first geographically, preservation national of strategies verse under discussion. Following this historical background, the body of the thesis will treat the Saxons‘ the treat will thesis the of body the background, historical this Following the represent to period interwar the in writers by selected were themes These and profilebe to analyzed thepublications . Thus, following a theoretical section (Chapter One) that opens the thesis and and thesis the opens that One) (Chapter section theoretical a following Thus, . hs hpe wl otie t outline will chapter This — needed to mark mark
o te ocp o self of concept the how sistance to administrative disorganization and political corruption political and disorganization administrative to sistance
Ausgleich be taken interests thenational toensure of the community. — as drew opposed to the isolationist policy propagated in the early the in propagated policy isolationist the to opposed
significant attention. Thus these issues, in many ways ways many in issues, these Thus attention. significant cmrms) f 87 cnen o mitiig the maintaining for concern 1867, of (compromise) - , Chapter Two will will Two Chapter , state in Chapter Three. This chapter will will chapter This Three. Chapter in state e ai sca ad oiia srcue f Saxon of structure political and social basic he 5 Königsboden
- . rsrain rnfre truhu the throughout transformed preservation
n ehi cooperation ethnic and give background on background give te itrcl oead f the of homeland historical the , s h ―ilr‖ f h Saxon the of ―pillars‖ the as Writers
particularly expressed particularly -
er itr in history year il lo figure also will the historical the emphasize more a
e
CEU eTD Collection ―the that asserts correctly extent some to Szelényi Balázs Although approach. comparative Pan and European political environment. Pan tothe Transylvaniancommitment will bethe homeland focus chapter. ofthis the between tension The attention. of object an became gradually Reich Third rising the as realm European external the to realm Saxon internal the from gaze its turns Five Chapter community. the into rhetoric Socialist unity. maintain self of policy their in shift final a demonstrated agenda of and dissidents Transylvania. in neighbors German fellow their with cooperate should nation Saxon the not or whether community Erneuerungsbewegungen so these to addition ea the in already emerge to began community Saxon the of democratization continual conservative s rigid the by Aggravated voice. uniform a represent not did issues, similar on focusing while publications, interwar they
ee iey nepee b dfeet ebr o te ao cmuiy and community, Saxon the of members different by interpreted widely were Chapter Four takes a closer look at these ―national interests,‖as i ―national atcloser these a look Four Chapter takes h fnl hpe wl cnetaie hs Sxn taei sit i te interwar the in shifts strategic Saxon these contextualize will chapter final The begrud The - German propaganda infiltrated the Saxon political community, it is useful to take a take to useful is it community, political Saxon the infiltrated propaganda German
iognzto i te oain tt, counter state, Romanian the in disorganization n cnrbtd o h rs o Ntoa Socialism National of rise the to contributed and
Volksrat Despite such divisions, certain commonalities prevailed between the desires desires the between prevailed commonalities certain divisions, such Despite L Volksrat trr collaborations iterary ging willingness of willingness ging
edr, n dspone wt te bsa finan abysmal the with disappointed and leaders, - called
leaders topreserveinstitutions. Saxon rnwl r eom oeet) ohr iiin slt the split divisions other movements), reform or (renewal ca ad oiia structure political and ocial
Unzufriedenenbewegungen In order to examine how, why, and when National Socialist when why, and Inexamine how, to order these
n particular in
leaders to turn to Germany‘s National Socialist National Germany‘s to turn to leaders 6
- German policies of the the of policies German
aiiae te nitain f National of infiltration the facilitated - ocd o forced rsrain n n tep to attempt an in preservation dsaife mvmns or movements) (dissatisfied
sc a te eae ove debate the as such , - oeet amd at aimed movements n the community by by community the n t m il iuto and situation cial ust be noted that ust be Reich
l 90. In 1920s. rly
and
that the r
CEU eTD Collection 1994) Verlag, Böhlau (Cologne: StudiaTransylvanica 9 Slovakia,‖ and Romania ofHungary, Diaspora 8 German the to their to state, Romanian the to community Saxon the of relationship the namely, community: the of affairs‖ ―external the termed here are what neglectto tends he thus and developments ―innerSaxon‖ the focus on to intent is Roth‘s but from 1918 the Saxons diligently and comprehensive sources t of many utilizes it as unique, completely not is it However, literature. preexisting language English the in and for Saxons, by written a Saxons, is Saxons Transylvanian the on literature of majority vast The Saxons. the among Socialism National of rise the trace that works multiple the and identity some ways less in is sort this of comparison asymmetrical an Although community. Saxon the in means and Germans Pan of rise the follow will Six Chapter literature, secondary throughout propaganda Socialist National of spread unique showing period. same the during Czechoslovakia of Germans the between comparisons several evolution,‖ of types gr ethnic German
Harald Roth, Harald Balázs A. Szelényi, ―From Minority to Übermensch: The Social Roots of Ethnic Conflict in the German German the in Conflict Ethnic of Roots Social The Übermensch: to Minority ―From Szelényi, A. Balázs — The present The nd in the German language. This piece is written by a non a by written is piece This language. German the in nd primary and secondary and primary Politische Strukturen und Strömungen bei den Siebenbürger Sac Siebenbürger den bei Strömungen und Strukturen Politische
then suggest reasons why the same ideology was absorbed through different different through absorbed was ideology same the why reasons suggest then Reich than oa apcs f Pan of aspects local oups living in East Central Europe show evidence of remarkably distinct distinct remarkably of evidence show Europe Central East in living oups
study toes a thin line between the numerous existing works on Saxon on works existing numerous the between line thin a toes study ideal, it lays it groundworkideal, for comparative further the research. . Of course Roth does not ignore these issues altogether, but he places he but altogether, issues these ignore not does Roth course Of . - 1933
9
is perhaps the book whose aims lie closest aims lie bookwhose the is perhaps — -
researched work researched l caatrsis ht meitl dsigih t rm the from it distinguish immediately that characteristics all — that other enlightening studies have used. Harald Roth‘s Roth‘s Harald used. have studies enlightening other that - Past and Present and Past Germanism, contribute to the holistic study of the the of study holistic the to contribute Germanism, . 7
on
the ―Political Structures and Currents‖ of of Currents‖ and Structures ―Political the
fellow non fellow 196 (2007): 217. 217. (2007): 196 8
Europe. Europe. uh oprsn, n diin to addition in comparisons, Such interwar - Germanism among the Sudeten Sudeten the among Germanism - Saxon Transylvanians, and Transylvanians, Saxon Largely on the basis of of basis the on Largely hsen 1919 hsen Saxons -
Saxon, for non for Saxon, to
t - n the and he present study, 1933, Volume 22 of Volume22 1933,
- he same same he Sudeten Saxons, Saxons,
CEU eTD Collection 1918 10 undermineddissensions cultural all remnantsand unity. ofsocial interwar the whether or existed, identity common a not or whether arises question the aim, preserve conservative the both by implemented strategies Rom issues other among back Saxon Although period interwar the in community the plagued social around based deal great entirely. and Bessarabia, Transylvania, of territories incorporated newly its and government Bucharest the between relationship study language regio the with deal that works other in found be can problem opposite The Saxons. the of workings inner the on emphasis greater
Irina Livezeanu, Livezeanu, Irina - - anian state, to the Transylvanian region, and finally to Germany greatly impacted the impacted greatly Germany to finally and region, Transylvanian the to state, anian 1930 1930 and situation h ise f ao iett sak mc dbt ad ut e el wit dealt be must and debate much sparks identity Saxon of issue The
- ao unity Saxon (Ithaca and London: Cornell Cornell (IthacaLondon: and
ot, h changes the forth, Roth‘s Roth‘s of Saxon historiography emphasizes a cohesive and continuous nation continuous and cohesive a emphasizes historiography Saxon
by Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building, & Ethnic Struggle Struggle Ethnic & Building, Nation Regionalism, Romania: Greater in Politics Cultural utrl oiis n rae Romania Greater in Politics Cultural study is is study
largely Te eso bten oat t ter w sca isiuin, o the to institutions, social own their to loyalty between tension The . — and religious institutions, Harald Roth stresses the dissension dissension the stresses Roth Harald institutions, religious and oehn fr hc bt gop srv. n ih o ti co this of light In strove. groups both which for something
neglecting the international the neglecting valuable, exceedingly
n rsrain taeis ad h pealn regionalism, prevailing the and strategies, preservation in h Bcvn, u te ao questio Saxon the but Bucovina, the University Press, 1995). Press, University n as a whole. In Irina Livezeanu‘s reflective English reflective Livezeanu‘s Irina In whole. a as n 8
even it understates the complexity of the of complexity the understates it even Volksrat .
oh esetvs ae hi merits. their have perspectives Both
European environment European , 10
leaders uh teto i pi t the to paid is attention much
n sca dsiet to dissidents social and i frotn almost forgotten is n — the political the h. While While h. al ident al mmon that ity a -
CEU eTD Collection points reference the until Reformation the centuries (from more several lasting as phase second the defines Zach period, this Following was she Reformation, the until lasting and Basin Carpathian the in settlement their with beginning u a presents article particular this in provides she narrative summarizing the publications, other in depth in identity of phases main five outlines Zach generalizations allows it because theorists to appealing is identity ―stable‖ of type This ties. ethnic later community a of case clear of for one popular a is case Saxon Transylvanian the Thus, conclusions. satisfactory were historians if for history, simplify necessarily theories Such practice. latter the in involved risks the despite developments, future predict to cases, some in or, development, historical nation‘s a for nation and studies, minority behavior, identity with dealing theories modern multiple in grounded be can explores I.
Watertight Theory? Watertight minority identity in Central Europe, because at first glance, the Saxons seem to present a present to seem Saxons the glance, first at because Europe, Central in identity minority
describes Saxon identity as forming around forming as identity Saxon describes ―estate h dsrpin o scea ognzto ad usin o iett ta ti thesis this that identity of questions and organization societal of descriptions The For example, in Forexample,
and privilege based,ethnic ofnote.‖ any boundby connotation territory,and without privilege from which theoriesfrom canbe which drawn such as language, … Lutheran … language, as such seful case study. study. case seful to deal with all of the particulariti the of all with deal to
an article discus article with a cohe a with Theoretical Framework Theoretical Ausgleich Chapter Chapter In - sive national identity based on social, religious, and and religious, social, on based identity national sive ulig Otnteetere ekt gi to seek theories these Often building. sing Zach‘s
construction. construction. Saxon
9 f 87 and 1867) of
ism, … and cultural orientation. cultural and … ism,
first
One ―social reference points reference ―social to bemadeeasily. more
identity in Transylvania, historian Krista Transylvania,identityhistorian in
hs o Sxn dniy construction identity Saxon of phase
While she explores this issue more issue this explores she While es, they would never come to any to come never would they es, ute encompassing further
,‖ meaning that it it that meaning ,‖
- building, group building, ‖ In the third third the In ‖ ve reasons ve theorists theorists
―e thnic ,
CEU eTD Collection 2 p. 134 1992), Verlag, R.Oldenbourg (Munich: Historic in Question Minority The Gerhard Konferenz: Internationalen in Wandel,‖ historischen 1 no they that great so became community the to threats period, interwar the in that implies to also able is she phases, By well. as region the in minorities German other to applicable be to enoughbroad is it and Socialism, National to Saxons Transylvanian the of turn the for explanation an provides aptly formulation Zach‘s It parttothefollowing inthelatter come essay, her, of enables her conclusions: to historiography. Saxon in uncommon not is narrative This period. interwar the during and to up leading factors religious and social on based largely identity of continuity a emphasizes explanation and eventuallyregional reference of points.‖ references, group of ―disappearance a by accompanied is and 1992) in written was article traditional the of e phase exclusion final and fifth the Zach‘s context.‖ historical to Transylvanian Socialism National ―excessive on based identity German the on focus Zach period, interwarinclude identity Saxon that asserts the of end the until 1867 from decades the covers which phase,
Ibid., 136 p. Ibid., rsa ah ―‗ Zach, Krista id Then … ofthe region. outside found and sought be will also references place their take must … ideological nation‖ other socialist longer, ―unified, the any as formulated such objectives be not may or cannot patterns identity or values interwar the amount during Saxons certain a of Transylvanian excess the contrast, By literature. the their in expressed particularly was this Among period, identity. group and values group for endangerment‖ of need ―times the deepened reformulated and and reconsidered were values strengthened group degree; certain a threatened to identity group being of feeling the and Challenges encompass she Because - ncsaiy vripiy h stain Se lk mn ohr authors, other many like She, situation. the oversimplify necessarily s 137. of challenges, of ―danger,‖ … serves to destabilize. Then, when traditional group group traditional when Then, destabilize. to serves … ―danger,‖ of challenges, of i whtn u dm Königsboden… dem auf wohnten Wir
Reich consolidating
. The brief, fourth phase, lasting from 1940 from lasting phase, fourth brief, The . concretely assert concretely to
the group are usually the periods of the clearest articulation of of articulation clearest the of periods the usually are group the es 800 years of Saxon history in history Saxon of years 800 es Seewann, ed., ed., Seewann, d
references to ―a German ethnic minor ethnic German ―a to references
the historical development of Saxon of development historical the - 135.
1
10
why
idretnrgn n üotuoa Birg der Beiträge Südosteuropa: in Minderheitenfragen ‘ Identitätsbildung bei den Siebenbürger Sachsen im im Sachsen Siebenbürger den bei Identitätsbildung ‘
and how and l esetv 1900 Perspective al 2
the German the
xtends to the present (the (the present the to xtends five short periods, Zach‘s periods, short five - 1990 - 1944, 1944, shift occurred shift ity‖ identity
(8 - . Hence Hence . 4 pi 1991), April 14 comprise and began and entity
in to five five to : she : d
an to to
CEU eTD Collection 3 ―identity‖ descriptive many its and lost taken potency. thus has ontoo definitions qualities definitive and ambiguity).‖ muc too mean to ―tends argues, decries observed has he that phenomena two Indeconstructor hispredecessor‘s rega theories. this of behavior group works Ro was generation new this of head the At things. other among over the criticizing A years. recent in revolution a. “Beyond „Identity‟ II. identity. oversimplify to tendency their namely downsides, their have relevancy. for tested and groups working such necessitates history Comparative minority ethnic other onto fit be can it established, German the in solutions external for longer served to
Brubaker, Brubaker, Deconstructing Identity Deconstructing serves — hs i rato t tee vripiiain, dniy studi identity oversimplifications, these to reaction in Thus, the use of the term ―identity‖ in the humanities and social sciences. ―‗Identity,‘‖ he he ―‗Identity,‘‖ sciences. social and humanities the in ―identity‖ term the of use the atclry hs daig ih h qeto o ―dniy ad niiul versus individual and ―identity‖ of question the with dealing those particularly
Ethnicity without without Groups Ethnicity s fis sbttt t dsrb wa shlr se s the as see scholars what describe to substitute flimsy a as 3
rbkr xlis ht ― that explains Brubaker — unify, but ratherunify, but tofragment;t still dominate the field today. By and large, Brubaker can be viewed as a a as viewed be can Brubaker large, and By today. field the dominate still of individuals or groups. or individuals of - ipiiain f tnc r eiiu iett ad ioiy existence, minority and identity religious or ethnic of simplification
, p. 28 p. , e wv o shlr eegd n h 18s n 1990s, and 1980s the in emerged scholars of wave new h … too little … or nothing at all (because of its sheer sheer its of (because all at nothing or … little too … h .
in recent academic scholarship. academic recent in Reich identity
11 Brubaker‘s dissatisfaction with the term is that is term the with dissatisfaction Brubaker‘s . Once such an explanatory theory has been been has theory explanatory an such Once . radition
‖ hypotheses. However, these hypotheses also hypotheses these However, hypotheses.
s vrsd n mliue f disciplines, of multitude a in overused is al notions of identityal of notions exchanged were rd, Brubaker is specifically critical of rd, Brubaker isspecificallycritical of history and subtle nuances of nuances subtle and history es rbkr ad his and Brubaker, gers
First and foremost, foremost, and First s ae negn a undergone have es nrsal yet ungraspable
he
CEU eTD Collection 5 4 meaningless context this in community the despite in Saxons variances all obvious encompass to it interprets narrowly and ―identity‖ defines vaguely t implies identity, she characteristic because identity, of conception ―strong‖ between differentiate refer Brubaker what on focuses exclusively Zach Furthermore, strata. social various to fail and community, Saxon the of members all to ―sameness‖ a they hand, other the On Saxon. be to meant actually it what of reference or points,‖ ―ethnic points,‖ reference ―social as such phrases general: too are they hand, ―identity‖ Saxon of definitions changing the for her analysis. Brubaker opposing negotiated.‖ constructed, fragmented, conception ―weak‖ a while for,‖ searching are or have, to ought or have, groups] [or people all something is ―identity that asserts conception ―strong‖ A ―identity.‖ of conceptions ―strong‖ and ―weak‖ between selfhood‖ … of aspect ―core ‗ consequential
Ibid., 37 p. Ibid., Brubaker, ec, rbkr rts ht h tr contradictorily term the that writes Brubaker Hence, To continue with the examplethe with continue To
concepts. By concepts. Ethnicity without without Ethnicity make - 38. references to ―a German ethnic minority‖ fail to provide the reader with an idea an with reader the provide to fail minority‖ ethnic German ―a to references
s s the point that it that point the s ameness
when in fact several dissident groups existed. existed. groups dissident several fact in when unveiling Groups
aog ebr o members among ‘ .
implies that ―identity is multiple, unstable, in flux, contingent, flux, in unstable, multiple, is ―identity that implies
, p. 34. p. , n others. in
how scholars use these multiple definitions of definitions multiple these use scholars how is an overused and abused, and thus invalid, category of of category invalid, thus and abused, and overused an is
5 from Brubaker ,
Thus the same term same the Thus 4
Krista Zach‘s essay above, Brubaker would Brubakerwould above,essay Zach‘sKrista
12 rbkr ute ilsrts h contradiction the illustrates further Brubaker a ru o category or group a f
ol as would
throughout the centuries. O centuries. the throughout — sert that the term has become become has term the that sert hat ―identity‖ dnts fnaetl and fundamental a ―denotes l Sxn psesd a possessed Saxons all ‖ ttribute a continuity or or continuity a ttribute n oe ae, and cases, some in — Because is used to refer to refer to used is
―identity,‖ Zach only only Zach n the one the n s
to as a as to fault a
CEU eTD Collection 294. p. Nationalism of Theory the and Gellner Ernest 7 6 thi at aimed are all but solutions, several advocates He ―groups.‖ a as them to referring without about interwar butalsointhe nineteenth period century. the during only not development their characterized agendas political and economic, social, varying widely that reveal will thesis this of chapters following the region, the in minorities show Saxons the that otherwise or ethnic, identity particular a possessing ―group‖ a as Saxons the of speak To theoretical his of one seeking―[understand] … to been long has groups in Already preoccupations. of notion the with dissatisfaction analysis.‖ social of units fundamental and conflicts, social of protagonists chief s of constituents basic as groups bounded discrete, take to tendency the ―mean[s] ethni ofstudy the grantedin for groups indivi inappropriate b.
Brubaker, Brubaker, Rogers Brubaker, Brubaker, Rogers “Beyond Groupism” nking of ―ethnicity, race, and nation … in relational, processual, dynamic, eventful, and and eventful, dynamic, processual, relational, in … nation and race, ―ethnicity, of nking
dual actors, or other categories of actors. He seeks to curb ―the tendency to take take to tendency ―the curb to seeks He actors. of categories other or actors, dual niiul wo em o hr cmo faue (uh s eiin r ethnicity) or religion as (such features common share to seem who individuals Another practice practice Another In hi In Hungaria even groups, ―the bounded externally Russians,‖ homogeneous, ―the internally withpurposes. common actors unitarycollective were Estonians,‖ they ―the if as Croats,‖ Romanians‖ ―the Serbs,‖ ―the of speaking groups, national and ethnic reify casually we writing, and talk everyday our In Ethnicity without without Gr Ethnicity s study s eeec t ― to reference Mts n Misconcepti and ―Myths — Ethnicity without Groups without Ethnicity ed is to grosslyto oversimplify is
more group cohesion throughout their history than ot than history their throughout cohesion group more n eet coasi ta Buae hrhy criticizes harshly Brubaker that scholarship recent in oups ―Myths and Misconcepti and ―Myths ethnic groups groups
, p. 7 p. , - 8. ‖
o hrceie h atos f raiain, events, organizations, of actions the characterize to , ed , n i te td o Nationalism, of Study the in ons city, race, and nationhood‖; by ― by nationhood‖; and race, city, .
John Hall, Hall, John and 13 ,
nations nations
Brubaker implement Brubaker 7 Saxon social Saxon
( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University Cambridge Cambridge: ons as real entities‖: ‖
(1998), he decri he (1998),
diversity. While it may true it diversity.be While ‖ s i
n new ways of thinking of ways new
The State of the Nation: Nation: the of State The groupism — es the practice of of practice the es oil religious, social, s‖ ―the ns,‖ 6 her German her
Brubaker‘s ‖
ocial life, ocial Brubaker
s the is 1998), 1998),
CEU eTD Collection Town Transylvanian a in Ethnicity 10 9 often 8 is there that concludes He below. disconnectedness from citizens ―everyday‖ of behavior from agendas nationalist enforcing elites of actions the between Town Transylvanian social elites, engineering anddissidents, theext institutions, local to reference with made be must ―identity‖ Saxon of indications Thus issues. societal important on views different radically presented publi other although community, the Similarly, majority. the of not and elites the of that only reflected opinion their that dissenters social from protests despite nation, Saxon the of leaders example For work. at are actors, individual than rather group, ethnic an groups,‖ for ethnic others, ofand particular as organizations themsel representmay organizations these of ―some Brubaker, writes actual the often are organizations as groups, than rather units‖) ―min force armed and (e.g. agencies, enforcement law ―organizations‖ offices, of speak to is pertinent more even Perhaps election. moments particular on focusing ―project,‖ th here, (e.g. ―event,‖ an as groupness of thinking suggests variable.‖ … conceptual fluctuating processes contextually psychological a and as cultural groupness social, political, as … terms disaggregated
Ibid., 14 p. Ibid., Brubaker,
Rogers Brubaker, Margit Feischmidt, Jon Fox, and Liana Grancea, Grancea, Liana and Fox, Jon Feischmidt, Margit Brubaker, Rogers n i ms rcn work, recent most his In Ethnicity Ethnicity - 16.
between the two. the between without without Groups , 10 ernal politicalsituation. Volksrat
Brubaker states his aims even more concre more even aims his states Brubaker
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006). Press, University Princeton (Princeton:
, p. 11. p. ,
often purported purported often
The cations like the liberal journal journal liberal the like cations cif rtgnss o ehi mblzto. Notably, mobilization. ethnic of protagonists‖ ―chief
ainls Pltc ad vrdy tnct i a in Ethnicity Everyday and Politics Nationalist reason that the Saxon press is analyzed in this thesisthisanalyzed in is press Saxon the reasonthat
when individuals come together come individuals when 14
SDT to act in the interests of the entire Saxon Saxon entire the of interests the in act to
lie t b te otpee f the of mouthpiece the be to claimed 9
thus giving the impression that thus giving the Nationalist Politics and Everyday Everyday and Politics Nationalist 1933 e 8
above and the responsive the and above tely o eape Brubake example, For
ves, or may be seen by seen be may or ves, , making a distinction a making , Klingsor Sachsentag ,
the conservative the
such as for a for as such
sometimes o a a as or ) specific istries, n r
CEU eTD Collection 362. 11 reinforced elites Because identity. ethnic their later, and, structures, political and social faith, Lutheran their through expressed specifically identity, group consistent their to reference makes 1930s, all almost as sources, examining when waters troubled these navigate to difficult is It caution. with treated be must identity this of cohesiveness the Transylvania, in identity distinct a claiming aBalance III. Striking variance Saxon affairs, Romanian imbalance. this for up make to presented be additionally will publications other but present, always not was dialogue As discourse. ―everyday‖ wa the penetrates Zillich Heinrich 1926, conservative dominant of mouthpiece the as serve the to was press the of nature the Nevertheless, by controlled was it because opinions the ways, some In ideals. political and cultural on based narrative un somewhat a perpetuated and elites other to appealed such as and elites Saxon of as such Journals narratives. everyday to is
See ln o cmuiain that communication of line y
enih ilc, ―Siebenbü Zillich, Heinrich atr ti itreir vie n t blne h dsoncens o eie and elite of disconnectedness the balance to and voice intermediary this capture hl i cno b dne ta te aos a a oil n hsoia b historical and social a had Saxons the that denied be cannot it While s
within thecommunity.within literature on the Saxons the on literature Volk hs artv in narrative this .‖ 11
Conversely, the contributions of readers to the press served as a two a as served press the to readers of contributions the Conversely, maintained,
- il e eeld n rtcss f the of criticisms in revealed be will ao afis ad Saxon and affairs, Saxon rgische
The separate separate The
the interwar period period interwar the
describing the period of period the describing - provides ―the newspaper is not a journal, it is a spokesman that spokesman a is it journal, a not is newspaper ―the deutsche Presse,‖ Presse,‖ deutsche Klingsor
15 nih in insight hpes n hs hss dealing thesis this in chapters
and and
Ostland Klingsor - o unify to emn affairs German o h dsiciees f lt and elite of distinctiveness the to Ya 3 Ise , etme 12, p. 1926, September 9, Issue 3, Year ,
largely represented the opinions opinions the represented largely the Reformation up through the the through up Reformation the
h cmuiy n ie of times in community the SDT SDT
in Chapter Four, this this Four, Chapter in
, too, embodied elite embodied too, , the Saxon nation. In nation. Saxon the similarly highlight highlight similarly Volksrat ih Saxon with realistic realistic ss for asis leaders. - -
CEU eTD Collection CambridgeJanuary 12 crystallized tra and resistance, adaptation, minority of Theories Germany). and d nationalizing and modernizing the to responded institutions religious and social functional highly but traditional with community minority twentieth the study to useful is It in viewed be must leaders Saxon conjunction thecompeting with the ofsocialpoliticalin dissidents voices and community. conservative of policies unifying the Similarly, the of pull competing the to reference without incomplete is draw Germany‘s of explanation an as just developments, Romanian domestic on eye continued a keeping community without of theSaxon isincomplete examination the interwarAn period. thesis this identity, ethnic and religious, social, cohesive a maintained e minor candidate or party particular a of election ( discipline‖ ―voting of practice Saxon the uniting of aims leaders‘ Saxon conservative cases, some In community. the dividing trends literary and parcel to difficult particularly be can it tension, social and economic
E.H. Carr, Carr, E.H. hs w Thus, n te pcfc bten h uiesl n te nqe Te itra … s on to bound is … historian The useful. and valid both are specificpredictions, unique. the and guides general provides he universal doing, so in and, generalize; the between specific, the general and the between distinction this in lies history in prediction of question the to clue The In E.H.lectures role hisatCambridgeC of onthe history, xceptions. - etr development century from such a study. While this piece by no means aims at a prediction of history, of prediction a at aims means no bypiece this While study. a such from ht s History? is What ie o etrl trwn ot rsa ahs setos ht h Saxons the that assertions Zach‘s Krista out throwing entirely not hile - March March
commun 1961, Second Edition, ed. R.W. Davies (London: Penguin R.W. Penguin ed. Davies (London: Edition, Second 1961, variances
The George Macaulay Trevelyan Lectures Delivered in the University of of University the in Delivered Lectures Trevelyan Macaulay George The ity ―from above‖ were effective. F effective. were above‖ ―from ity
—
and changes in identity in Saxon society Saxon in identity in changes and eas te hl hsoin t udrtn ho understand to historians help they because Wahldisziplin — 16 was successful even into the mid the into even successful was 12
rives of two different nations different two of rives ) — for future action which, though not though which, action future for unified ballot casting to ensure the ensure to casting ballot unified or example, the traditional the example, or arr asserted that
Transylvanian homeland. homeland. Transylvanian out nuances Books, 1990), p. 68 1990), Books, n frain a be can sformation
the various social various the — especially their their especially
the events of of events the - 1930s, with 1930s,
w a small small a w (Romania - 69.
CEU eTD Collection chapters ch presen background historical following The introduced. be first must Zach‘s characterize extreme. the other t goes sometimes Brubaker refers. Carr which to unique, the and universal the specific, the and general the between balance the reflects it ting notions of identity based around around based identity of notions ting eoe n dniy a b deconstructed be can identity an Before test these notions test these .
17 o
o f o traditional Saxon institutions before later later before institutions Saxon traditional ln te ie of lines the along ar in his analytical his in ar
Brubaker, however, it it however, Brubaker, nit apter will begin by by begin will apter picking ; essays like like essays ;
CEU eTD Collection ―nation sense, modern the in ―nations‖ to referring When thesis. the throughout meaning this denote to used be will nation,‖ the with Town Transylvanian those nation‘: Grancea, Liana and ‗political Fox, Jon Feischmidt, predemocratic Margit Brubaker, the designated It ‗nation.‘ priv of notion legal and political cross ‗complete‘ of concept Latin the invokes 2 p. 1998), Müller, Langen Beer), Mathias of collaboration the (with Gündisch 1 ( language native for Hungary. autonomy this lost Saxons the when 1867 mid the in Church Saxon the when Reformation the after significant especially in whichprivileges historic to entitled were theyHungariansuch,nobility. the As and Szeklers three the of one comprising group, in II András time this since century. twelfth late the in area the settle in to them invited who kingsbyHungarian given it the were because they Saxony,but Sachsen Siebenbürger 1910 SaxonCommunity, of the I. Social Structure
A good overview of the early history of the Transylvanian Saxon in the region is to be found in Konrad Konrad in found be to is region the in Saxon Transylvanian the of history early the of overview good A ee te eeec i ovosy o t ―ain i te oen es o a nation a of sense modern the in ―nation‖ to not obviously is reference the Here, ldd h mitnne f hi on hrh n cnesoa shos ti became this schools; confessional and church own their of maintenance the cluded lg o rpeetn te el i lt mdea o dal mdr rpeettv asmle. Rogers assemblies.‖ representative modern dearly or medieval late in realm the representing of ilege h German The According originallyaHungarian category census which tothe provided designation
- state,‖ e.g. ―the Romanian nation Romanian ―the e.g. state,‖ 1224 - class community, but was composed of privileged orders or estates. This was a specifically specifically a was This estates. or orders privileged of composed was but community, class
n posses and
(Princeton: Princeton Universi Princeton (Princeton: , the Saxons had long established themselves in Transylvania as an elite an as Transylvania in themselves established long had Saxons the , - 16th century, up until the Austro the until up century, 16th - 29 paig community speaking , received their name not because they arrived in Transylvania from Transylvania in arrived they because not name their received , - 46. Muttersprache natio Pillars of the Saxon Community theSaxon Pillars of
sing autonomous rights dating to the charter granted by King King by granted charter the to dating rights autonomous sing : ―The medieval and early modern early and medieval ―The :
1
Chapter Chapter Two Having inhabited the inhabited Having natio , n nt o nationality, for not and ), - state,‖ will be used. willbe state,‖ ty Press, 2006), p. 36. The term ―nation,‖ e.g. ―the Saxon Saxon ―the e.g. ―nation,‖ term The 36. p. 2006), Press, ty o ―nations,‖ or , as 18 ibnügn n de ibnügr Sachsen Siebenbürger die und Siebenbürgen
nw a te rnyvna Sxn, or Saxons, Transylvanian the as known Transylvania was joined to the Kingdom of Kingdom the to joined was Transylvania
Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a in Ethnicity Everyday and Politics Nationalist - Hungarian Compromise ( Compromise Hungarian - 1930
natio natio 2
Königsboden f h rgo, ln wt the with along region, the of was socially exclusive; it was not a not was it exclusive; socially was nation
n 90 87% o 8.71% 1910, in ond h Lutheran the joined - state. Rather, the term term the Rather, state. , or , ―crownland Ausgleich
(Munich: ) of ) s, ‖ f
CEU eTD Collection 6 5 Yearbook Statistical 4 p. 37 1988), Verlag, Böhlau Archiv(Cologne: Brenndorf also und Hermannstadt in Heidelb e.V. Landeskunde Verhältnisse Siebenbürgische für Arbeitskreis and Verlag der Berücksichtigung besonderer unter 1992, 3 Transylvania. Other Gypsy/Gypsy Jewish/Yiddish German/German Hungarian/Hungarian Romanian/Romanian Table 2: Population of Transylvania 1930, according nationality to and native language Other Romanian German Hungarian (Magyar) ( Native language Table 1: Population of Transylvania 1900 as well (253,426 people). G as nationality their gave 7.9%, at higher slightly but number, similar A 3,217,988). of out (246,587 language native a as German claiming 7.7% populat with increased, had total Germans the although decreased had figures these nationality, and language 2,658,159). of population a ofout people (231,403 speakersGerman as themselves identified population Transylvania‘s
Muttersprache) These are Hochstrasser‘s categorizations, as they would have been listed on listed been wouldhave as they categorizations, Hochstrasser‘s are These Hochstrasser, Ibid.. Hochstrasser‘s Ibid.. Rosemarie Hoch Rosemarie Die Siebenbürger Sachsen in den Jahren 1848 Jahren den in Sachsen Siebenbürger Die
It must be noted that the Saxons were not the only German only the not were Saxons the that noted be must It
Year Die siebenbürgische Die
6 In the eighteenth century, groups of so of groups century, eighteenth the In
strasser, strasser,
]. ].
figures for 1900 are taken from the the from taken are 1900 for figures
Total
Die siebenbürgische Die Total
3
- sächsiche Gesellschaft sächsiche y 90 we ctgre wr poie fr oh native both for provided were categories when 1930, By 3,217,988 23,528 75,342 78,626 253,426 943,642 1,852,402 Number
2,456,838 31,240 1,389,303 229,889 806,406 Number -
65: Bevölkerung Bevölkerung 65:
Nationality - -
sächsiche Gesellschaft in ihrem strukturellen Wandel 1867 Wandel strukturellen ihrem in Gesellschaft sächsiche 19
10, broken down according native to language
- 1918
19 1900
100.0% 0.8% 2.3% 2.4% 7.9% 29.0% 57.6% Percent , ed. Carl Göllner, Volume 22 of Siebenbürgisches Siebenbürgisches of 22 Volume Göllner, Carl ed. , Magyar Statisztikai Évkönyv Évkönyv Statisztikai Magyar 1.27% 56.55% 9.36% 32.82% Percent 100.00% , p. 36. p. ,
- –
called Satu Mare Swabians ( Swabians Mare Satu called
Soziale Struktur 1849 Struktur Soziale
erg, 2002), p. 22. For comparison, see comparison, For 22. p. 2002), erg, 53,542 1,464,211 231,403 909,003 Number 2,658,159 3,217,988 18,943 29,106 52,008 246,587 997,653 1,873,691 Number thecensus. - spea Native language
(1904), 24 [ 24 (1904), - king population of population king
1914. 1910
2.01% 55.08% 8.71% 34.2% Percent 100.00% 100.0% 0.6% 0.9% 1.6% 7.7% 31.0% 58.2% Percent
(Sibiu: hora hora (Sibiu: Sathmar Hungarian
5
o of ion erman
4
- -
CEU eTD Collection (Cluj Török Zsuzsanna in 1900 9 Perspective Historical p. 142. 1992), Verlag, Oldenbourg in Question Minority The Konferenz: Gerhard Sachse, in Südosteuropa,‖ ―Siebenbürger See Do colonists.‖ the enlisted who landlords Ungarndeutscher, and authorities public the of side the on need economic the and expectation of ―horizons the of because but represented,‖ strongly was layer craftsmen professional actual the of because much so ―not colonists 8 7 the to that figureconsidering Saxons Lutheran was Transylvania in population urban elementary Hun towns. the in were universities and gymnasiums most as rate, literacy their thus and schooling to access their improved bewill discussed in cooperation region. the of because part in and status social inferior newcomers‘ the of because new these from separate distinctly as themselves saw Saxons the counter and Hungarians.‖ Turks the from liberate areas ―repopulate to part in Banat, the and Transylvania northern in settled and Empire Habsburg the of regions various from Schwaben
Livezeanu, Livezeanu, Victor Karady, ―Denominational Inequalities of Elite Training in Transylvania during the Dual Monarchy,‖ Monarchy,‖ Dual the during Transylvania in Training Elite of Inequalities ―Denominational Karady, Victor ehr Sean lis ht te esn eeet oiae‖ mn te eighteenth the among dominated‖ element peasant ―the that claims Seewann Gerhard utrl iesos f lt Frain n rnyvna (1770 Transylvania in Formation Elite of Dimensions Cultural garian Monarchy that had their own complete schooling system, beginning with with beginning system, schooling complete own their had that Monarchy garian ugra Statistical Hungarian — ept ter ml nmes te aos ee hgl ubnzd ru, n this and group, urbanized highly a were Saxons the numbers, small their Despite who were almost 90% Lutheranwho were 90% almost ad aa Sain ( Swabians Banat and ) Cultural Politics Cultural 8 education
with the Swabians, and these suggestions were largely met with contempt, as contempt, with met largely were suggestions these and Swabians, the with 7 Only in the interwar period period interwar the in Only
Despite the the Despite - nauschwabe? Überlegungen zur Identitätsproblematik des Deutschtums in in Deutschtums des Identitätsproblematik zur Überlegungen nauschwabe? Napoca: Ethnocultural Diversity Resource Center, 2008), 79. p. Center,2008), Resource Diversity Ethnocultural Napoca: Chapter Four and continuing up continuing and Saxons made up only nine percent of the the percentof onlynine up made Saxons Seewann, ed., Seewann, , p. 137, footnote 24. footnote 137, p. ,
misleading
Bulletin
h Sxn wr te ny tnc omnt wti the within community ethnic only the were Saxons The .
Banat
Minderheitenfragen in Südosteuropa: Beiträge der Internationalen der Beiträge Südosteuropa: in Minderheitenfragen , a , lready - fiil einto o a omn agae the language, common a of designation official through Schwaben 9
— 20 made up the population in towns. This is ahigh Thisis up thepopulation intowns. made i sm Sxn edr cnie political consider leaders Saxon some did
literate were Saxons of 62.3% 1881, by
secondary - social stratification of the col the of stratification social , signifying that a large percentage of of percentage large a that signifying , , oty amr ad esns arrived peasants, and farmers mostly ), - 1950) - 1990 schooling es Vco Krd ad Bor and Karady Victor eds. ,
(8 total Germanic - 4 April 14
population . By 1900, 19% 1900, By
their late arrival to arrival late their onists, in which the which in onists, - 91 (uih R. (Munich: 1991) century ―Swabian‖ ―Swabian‖ century settlers, in part part in settlers, . According.
rebellious of the of , as as , bála
CEU eTD Collection Weber m 14 Germans,‖ Transylvania‘s Collectivity: language least at or groups, ―ethnic‖ be termed today would what with coincided often which Saxons), the as such groups privileged and cultivators, serf 13 12 175. p. 2005), Verlag, (Munich: IKGS Geschichtsquelle als Jahrhundert ed., Zach, Krista in 11 beginn Közlemények Statisztikai szerint,‖ községek és megyék eredményei népszámlalás végrehajtott elején Év 1881. az országaiban Transylvania,‖ 10 ins other and church the that the around structured primarily was which society, Transylvanians fellow their over superiority of short: in townsmen, and peasants, included nation and dialect Saxon common to contributed their confession, Lutheran to addition in Saxons, all of status landed common neighbors peasant Romanian and Szekler peasant landed or class, middle peasant t towns; the in merely women. among also but men, among only not present literate. were cities‖ of 90% over and communities, rural [Saxon] of 75% approximately century, nineteenth the ―in that claiming figure, higher even 31.4 to opposed
it einem soziologischen Beitrag Beitrag soziologischen einem it For a bri a For 67 p. Inequalities,‖ ―Denominational Karady, Harald Roth, ―Memoirenkultur bei den Siebenbürger Sachsen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Ein Überblick,‖ Überblick,‖ Ein Jahrhundert. 20. und 19. im Sachsen Siebenbürger den bei ―Memoirenkultur Roth, Harald Marylin Marylin ae P Nesn ―uem, ainlt, n Pbi Rsac Lbais n Nineteenth in Libraries Research Public and Nationality, ―Museums, Niessen, P. James , ed. Georg Weber, Volume 16 of Studia Transylvanica (Cologne: Böhlau, 1990), 1990), (Cologne:Böhlau, Transylvanica Volume ofStudia Weber, 16 Georg ed. , ing of 1881 according to counties and municipalities,‖ municipalities,‖ countiesaccording to and 1881 ingof
[ Volk — ef but helpful overview of the statuses in sixteenth to nineteenth to sixteenth in statuses the of overview helpful efbut McArthur, McArthur, in contrast to the other estate other the to contrast in ], or ], Libraries & the Cultural Record Cultural the & Libraries % Deutsche und Rumänen in der Erinne der in Rumänen und Deutsche little little
Zum Identitätswandel der Siebenbürger Sachsen. Eine kulturanthropologische Studie, kulturanthropologische Eine Sachsen. Siebenbürger der Identitätswandel Zum f Hungarians of , vol. 61. [―The results of the census carried out in the Hungarian crownlands at the at crownlands Hungarian the in out carried census the of results [―The 61. vol. , heir status as a privileged group privileged a as status heir nation
, Volume 99 of the Wissenschaftliche Reihe (Geschichte und Zeitgeschichte) Zeitgeschichte) und (Geschichte Reihe Wissenschaftliche the of 99 Volume , titutions described below were the sole basis of Saxon cohesion Saxon of basis sole the were describedbelow titutions –
[ Identität, Völkchen
American Ethnologist American everyone and and - te rda cnoiain f h e the of consolidation gradual ―the use groups, see Katherine Verdery, ―The Unmaking of an Ethnic Ethnic an of Unmaking ―The Verdery, Katherine see groups, use
- ny 8.8 only Ethnizität und Gesellschaft Gesellschaft und Ethnizität
68. ]. In ]. - 41, Nr. 3 (2006): 316. N 316. (2006): 3 Nr. 41, based nations of the privileged the of nations based bourgeoisie
.‖ . 21
13 14 addition to the political ruling class, this also this class, ruling political the to addition
Th , but , % s xlie by explained As rungsliteratur: Memorialistik aus dem 19. und 20. und 19. dem aus Memorialistik rungsliteratur:
is status not only gave the Saxons the gave only not status is Hungarian Statistical Bulletin Statistical Hungarian f Romanians. of
12 (February 1985), p. 70 (February 1985), 12 Lutheran Church Lutheran
, also affected the organization of their of organization the affected also
12 n otat to contrast in
meant that meant Indeed, 11
iessen‘s source is ―A magyar korona korona magyar ―A is source iessen‘s Remarkably, this this Remarkably, - century Transylvania (feudal lords, (feudal Transylvania century –
the Saxons stood apart not apart stood Saxons the o Amn ash ud Georg und Nassehi Armin von 10 ayi McArthur Marylin
they also had a had also they aad oh uts an quotes Roth Harald . This is not to suggest to not is This . their - hi gop no a into group thnic p. cives 72. largely unlanded unlanded largely 75 , vol. 61]. vol. ,
- 76. — literacy was literacy
the clerics, the
- a sensea Century Century landed landed Magyar Magyar the ,
CEU eTD Collection the with Kingdom Hungarian the part of became and Empire Hapsburg the in crownland autonomous an be to ceased Transylvania when powers 18 p accounts. fairly balanced provide they that said largely be it can bias, their to contributes in themselves, Saxons by written were church 1918 1849 Kirche, Evangelische ―Die See overview. an by church the on essay shorter A leaders. its and church the of importance political the monograph Möckel‘s schools. confessional and church the of history history Saxon in church the of influence the to dedicated is Sachsen seiner und Siebenbürgens nemzeti 17 a szerepe és 16 rendszere this reference. for ÁgostonBerecz, colleague, pénzintézeti szászok (1835 Movement National the in Role Its and Saxons erdélyi Transylvanian the of System Banking Az haszonszerzés? (1835 mozgalomban szolid vagy védgát 15 the of dissolution institution. section Saxon the of formation identity the in role fundamental B. A. Kirche Evangelische Churcha. The Lutheran Community of theSaxon II. Pillars economicnot bediscussed indetail. concerns will Tra throughout settlements in Germans to important communicated were developments most … which through single institution the remained church the church, Lutheran the of independently Katherine systems as well as institutions, industrial and Commercial power. and
Verdery, ―The Unmaking of an Ethnic Collectivity,‖ p. 74. p. Collectivity,‖ Ethnic ofan Unmaking ―The Verdery, Most recently, see Gábor Egry‘s monograph on the Saxon banking system between 1835 and 1914: 1914: and 1835 between system banking Saxon the on monograph Egry‘s Gábor see recently, Most The The An overwhelming portion of Paul Philippi‘s book book Philippi‘s Paul of portion overwhelming An e. al öle (oon: ölu elg 18) p 227 p. 1988), Verlag, Böhlau (Cologne: Göllner Carl ed. , Nationsuniversität Vast amounts of literature of amounts Vast will
( Nachbarschaften edr asrs ―lhuh ay f te ao] raiain wr formed were organizations Saxon] [the of many ―although asserts, Verdery The national c national The
present a picture of the church‘s historical imp historical church‘s the of picture a present nsylvania.‖ - 1914) Saxon political body ( body political Saxon
was not completely dissolved until 1937, but it lost the bulk of its administra its of bulk the lost it but 1937, until dissolved completely not was
(Csíkszereda, Pro (Csíkszereda,
hurch 16 ) , were also mainstays of the community‘s stability. However, as However, stability. community‘s the of mainstays also were , ad hs hss s o te lc t dvt frhr td t its to study further devote to place the not is thesis this and ,
As the main focus of this thesis is thesis this of focus main the As , Volume 39 of Siebenbürgisches Archiv (Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2008), 2008), Verlag, Böhlau (Cologne: Archiv Siebenbürgisches of 39 Volume ,
already
have been written on the Saxon Lutheran Saxon the on written been have Ausgleich
- Print Könyvkiad Print
began to take to began the articular by members of the clergy. While this of course course of this While clergy. the of members by articular -
1914,‖ in 1914,‖ Nationsuniversität of 1867. For a thorough (but brief) history of the the of history brief) (but thorough a For 1867. of 22
Land des Segens? Fragen an die Geschichte Geschichte die an Fragen Segens? des Land ; Bishop Friedrich Teutsch wrote volumes on the the on volumes wrote Teutsch Friedrich Bishop ;
Die Siebenbürger Sachsen in den Jahren 1849 Jahren den in Sachsen Siebenbürger Die ó, 2009). [ 2009). ó,
on a more political role after the 1876 the after role political more a on - 242. 242. Umkämpfte Volkskirche Umkämpfte o nation Many sources on the Saxon national national Saxon the on sources Many rtance National Levee or Fair Gain? The The Gain? Fair or Levee National
18 on banking ), although this although ), cultural institutions, theseinstitutions, cultural . 17 as a social and political and social a as
ahr te following the Rather, 15
and neighborhood and
Ludwig Binder Binder Ludwig - 1914)
Church, or the or Church,
also highlights highlights also role ]. I thank my thank I ].
is often is Nemzeti gives tive tive -
CEU eTD Collection 56. p. 2005), Verlag, (Munich: IKGS Zeitgeschichte) und Jahrhundert (Geschichte 20. im Exil Deportation, Flucht, Auswanderung, Jahrhundert,‖ 20. im Migranten als Andere 21 Catholic. Roman were whileothers Unitarian), or 20 role the undermining authors, subsequent the of dissolution the following 14 p. 2007, 1933 Saxons Transylvanian of Case the in Identity National 1849 Kirche, Evangelische lan to German preserve had to was job it its efforts, and Magyarisation the against system it defend schooling German the of carrier the was it Since people. Saxon the of specificity the of was That it. in vested was state the within had nation the that autonomy The situation. created newly the by it to ascribed tasks, many over took Church 19 8 Issues Nationsuniversität,‖ Sächsischen der Geschichte Nationsuniversität the into difference.‖ sensitivity a [creating] thereby confession, individual to according of groups language division the fostered Reformation the Hungary, Upper and Transylvania pop the among differences confessional only not created neighbors. Catholic Orthodox primarily their from Saxons the distinguish further reformers instit centuries its of because only not weight communities neighborhood result did Saxon in overemphasized
T Krista Zach, ―Feindliche Fremde Fremde ―Feindliche Zach, Krista e, f See, raditionally, Romanians belonged to the former denomination former the to belonged Romanians raditionally, ution - . 9, August 9, or example Ludwig Binder‘s assertion that that assertion Binder‘s Ludwig example or The chu The
societal and societal
- . 15. Translated by Cristian Cercel. While this assertion of the church‘s predominant political role role political predominant church‘s the of assertion this While Cercel. Cristian by Translated 15. in the increasing involvement of the Lutheran ch Lutheran the of involvement increasing the in like 21 salse i te mid the in Established
Thus church membership entailed entry into the ethnic community as well as well as community ethnic the into entry entailed membership church Thus Johannes Honterus (1527 Honterus Johannes
- rch was capable of stepping into this political role for at least two reasons: two least at for role political this into stepping of capable was rch until 1925, albeit written from a bi a from written albeit 1925, until September 1925, p. p. 1 1925, September 20 spiritual one. spiritual
Krista Zach asserts that the distinct Lutheran identity of the of identity Lutheran distinct the that asserts Zach Krista - 1914,‖ p. 238, quoted in quoted 238, p. 1914,‖
Nationsuniversität historiography. n ohr oa organizations local other and –
ein Top ein - - 10, continued in Issue 10, October 1925, p. 1 1925, October 10, continued in Issue 10, long history, but also because of its success as a social social a as success its of because also but history, long of other important community institutions like the the like institutions community important ofother In December 1919, Saxon Bishop Dr. Friedrich Teutsch Friedrich Dr. Bishop Saxon 1919, December In salien - itet cnuy ne te nlec o humanist of influence the under century sixteenth o n rsa ah ed., Zach, Krista in s zur Motivation der Ausgrenzung. Deutsche, Juden, Rumänen, Rumänen, Juden, Deutsche, Ausgrenzung. der Motivation zur s t
-
first of all in the fields in which it was about the maintaining maintaining the about was it which in fields the in all of first 1564), it had stood the test of time and served to served and time of test the stood had it 1564), 19
etce oiice et as Großrumänien aus Hefte Politische Deutsche is true, the problem is this narrative is simply taken over by over taken simply is narrative this is problem the true, is
Cristian Cercel, ― Cercel, Cristian While ased perspective, see Bishop Dr. Friedrich Teutsch, ―Zur Teutsch, Friedrich Dr. Bishop see perspective, ased 23 after the dissolution of the the of dissolution the after
-
1944,‖ 1944,‖ t he disbanding of the of disbanding he Vlm 9 o te Wissen the of 91 Volume , . Some Hungarians were reformed (Calvinist (Calvinist reformed were Hungarians Some .
irto i sdslce Mitteleuropa: südöstlichen im Migration MA Thesis, Central European University, University, European Central Thesis, MA ulations, but also ethnic also but ulations,
The Relationship between Religious between Relationship The urch in Saxon political affairs political Saxon in urch also guage and culture.‘‖ From ―Die ―Die From culture.‘‖ and guage Reformed, , otne t share to continued Nationsuniversität - 9. Nationsuniversität
to ethnocultural ethnocultural to Nachbarschaften schaftliche Reihe Reihe schaftliche
and Roman Roman and , Volume 5, 5, Volume ,
ones: ―In ones:
Saxons , ―‗The ―‗The ,
this
and and . ,
CEU eTD Collection thisexample. convictions. personal his of in Church Lutheran ( Zikeli Gustav 25 24 37. 23 133. p. 129, January1920, 22 pay. to price high a b caused ostracization social the for membership, this of out‖ ―opt simply not could one words, other in society; Saxon of out step to was church the of out representatives.‖ its of voices local the through congregations, various the of life ― writes: Cercel Cristian role, participation. political and societal dynamic more much a but belief, membership ch the to belonging people) 230,000 94 and 91 between with 1930, by number this in increase officiall 87 ascribes Karady Victor exception. without almost century, 20th the into well Church Lutheran the of members were elite, highest the to class social lowest the from the was and,all, aboveforunity, inner entire forofthe cultural the depth community.‖ grat are we least, Not […] character and being inner ―our also but church, the by affected been development‖ political and national external has only ―Not continued, character.‖ He [Saxon] national our of formation anddevelopment th of ―influence the that impact‖ ―particular the described
Cercel, ― Cercel, Dr. Fr. Teutsch, ―Das sächsiche Volk und seine Kirche,‖ Kirche,‖ seine und Volk sächsiche ―Das Teutsch, Fr. Dr. One notable and ironic example of Saxon loyalty to the Lutheran Church can be found in the person of of person the in found be can Church Lutheran the to loyalty Saxon of example ironic and notable One aay ―eoiainl Inequalities, ―Denominational Karady,
The second reason for the Lutheran bodyaThe representativereason Saxon second forChurch‘sas the success
y belonging to the Lutheran Church in 1910, and Rosemarie Hochstrasser reports anreports Hochstrasser Rosemarie and 1910, in LutheranChurch the yto belonging all The Relationship between Religious Religious between Relationship The -
encompassing
n h Sxn omnt dd o mrl rpeet atcpto i religious in participation represent merely not did community Saxon the in b 17) a oil eort n self and Democrat Social a .1876), Bistri 25
ț In looking at these high membership figures, it it figures, membership high these at looking In
a I would like to tha to like would I (German: (German:
social role that it played in the community. Namely, all Saxons, all Namely, community. the in played it that role social
the Church had traditionally the highest authority withi authority highest the traditionally had Church the Bistritz ‖ p. 67; Hochstrasser, Hochstrasser, 67; p. ‖ ; Hungarian: Hungarian: ; nk my colleague Ágoston Berecz for drawing my attention to attention my drawing for Berecz Ágoston colleague my nk and National Identity,‖ p. 30. p. Identity,‖ National and urch. 24 23 - rcamd tes wo eand mme o the of member a remained who atheist proclaimed
s il e en n hs hss church thesis, this in seen be will As Beszterce Ostland eful to the church for external unity, unity, external for church the to eful i siebenbürgische Die , Volume II, Issues 3 Issues II, Volume , )
throughout the interwar period in spite in period interwar the throughout % cuc‖ a hd n ―the on had had church‖ e
ie bten 2,0 and 222,000 between (i.e. y leaving the church was was church the leaving y is Of the church‘s social church‘s the Of - understandable why understandable ähih Gesellschaft sächsiche - 4, December 1919 December 4, % 22
of Saxons as Saxons of
24
To step To n the n - ,
CEU eTD Collection ofthe incorporation. beginning from the already werepresent but rulers, theHapsburg against theHungarians statuse various its of relations power 27 26 to threat a constituted intervention government of politics the that to fear their first express the were who Saxons Transylvanian German the was ―it that claims Puttkamer a 1781 in II Joseph Emperor Habsburg of reforms protested greatly the explains, was the centralized state. Romanian mid the in especially church, the to loyalty their than pronounced less slightly only was schools church [ group ethnic entire the encompassed practically it that Church Tran society Saxon Confessionalb. Lutheran School awareascohe ofitspower asocially period. interwar the throughout church the of unity the to threats internal and external both were exp be will As church. the as such institutions of self the tmtd t sbi Poetn shos o oenet oto, bt ih o success. no with but control,‖ government to schools Protestant submit ―to ttempted
Harald Roth, ―Memoirenkultur,‖ p. 175. p. Roth, ―Memoirenkultur,‖ Harald Transylvania was incorporated into the Habsburg Empire in 1691, bringing about several changes in the the in changes several about bringing 1691, in Empire Habsburg the into incorporated was Transylvania
- yvna Sxn ws o ral dvlpd ihn h faeok f h Lutheran the of framework the within developed broadly so was Saxons sylvanian 1920s when 1920s not the first time that time first the not
may have been been have may - h mdln o te oain state Romanian the of meddling The the to contributed too, schools, confessional Lutheran The e e Yet preservation of the Saxon community was intimately bound up in the preservation the in up bound intimately was community Saxon the of preservation ven those who may have been opposed to the traditions of the church were were church the of traditions the to opposed been have may who those ven . Harald Roth writes that already ―around 1800, the school system of the the of system school the 1800, ―around already that writes Roth Harald . the schools were perceived were schools the the backbone of the of backbone the
the
s. These conflicts, of course, came to a head in the 1848 the in head a to came course, of conflicts, These s.
schools had come under threat. As Joachim von Puttkamer von Joachim As threat. under come had schools s
sive institution capable unifyingsive institution thecommunity. of school 25
as n ao schools Saxon in
threatened by the by threatened
lored in lored system, the loyalty of the Saxons to their to Saxons the of loyalty the system, - depth
Ethnikum
during the interwar period period interwar the during subsequent chapters, there chapters, subsequent modernizing reforms of reforms modernizing oil nfcto of unification social ].‖ 26 -
1849 uprising of uprising 1849 Although the Although 27
had also had
their
CEU eTD Collection un 2003 der mit Auseinandersetzung der in Puttkamer 30 29 populations. Transylvanian on its and effects language as theadministrative the on information for 147ff p. esp. 1984), Verlag, Trofenik Rudolf Dr. (Munich: Josupeit 17 p. 2008), Center, 1950) 1780 Transylvania in Schooling 28 behavior for prescriptions and rules of system complicated McArthur; Marilyn of concept the was identity Saxon Transylvanian formation the to importance central ―Of another. one marrying often classmates Saxon community. m the perpetuation purpose: networ that demonstrate above quoted figures offer and advancement, f them as undermining centuries their modernization, of vehicles as viewedbe can century,twentieth the Monarc Hungarian threatened as schools their perceived identity.‖ group rms, hy preserve they oremost,
During the Dualist Period, about two percent of students in Saxon schools wereRomanian schools Saxon in students of percent two about Period, Dualist the During 68. p. Inequalities,‖ ―Denominational Karady, oci vn utae, Faeok f oenzto: oenet Legisl Government Modernization: of ―Framework Puttkamer, von Joachim ), p. 245. ), es Vco Krd ad obl Zusna öö (Cluj Török Zsuzsanna Borbála and Karady Victor eds. , tvto t lan tnad German standard learn to otivation - k is … far from being a historical myth.‖ historical a being from far … is k T Neitzel, Neitzel, , he significance of the confessional schools to the Saxons was manifold. First and First manifold. was Saxons the to schools confessional the of significance he
Schulalltag und nationale Integration in Ungarn: Slowaken, Rumänen und Siebenbürger Sachsen Sachsen Siebenbürger und Rumänen Slowaken, Ungarn: in Integration nationale und Schulalltag hy ergtd h ehi cmuiy n esrd t preservation its ensured and community ethnic the segregated they
30 .
Although non Although The segregated nature of the schools also influenced marital practices, with practices, marital influenced also schools the of nature segregated The i Rfre Jsps I i Siebenbürgen in II. Josephs Reformen Die 28
- Later, under Hungarian rule between 1867 and 1914, and 1867 between rule Hungarian under Later, 9 For 19. h
y. While the Hungarian school reforms, like those of those like reforms, school Hungarian the While y. ― t i fnaetly oa iprtv o sldrt ws elce i a in reflected was solidarity of imperative moral fundamentally his ed
wr adesn te eom o Jsp I mr cmrhniey se Elke see comprehensively, more II Joseph of reforms the addressing work a d
n xeln euain Acrig o aay te ih literacy high the Karady, to According education. excellent an - - 94‖ in 1914,‖ Saxons also attended the confessional schools confessional the attended also Saxons h Gra lnug, provide language, German the
aice Satie, 1867 Staatsidee, garischen - old cultural institutions. , this time stemming from the magyarizing aims of the of aims magyarizing the from stemming time this , utrl iesos f lt Frain n rnyvna (1770 Transylvania in Formation Elite of Dimensions Cultural
, they were primarily visited by members of the the of members by visited primarily were they , te fiiny f h Lutheran the of efficiency ―the 26
29 sticking together sticking
Saxon schools a schools Saxon , Volume 33 of the Studia Hungarica Series Series Hungarica Studia the of 33 Volume , - Napoca: Ethnocultural Diversity Resource Resource Diversity Ethnocultural Napoca: – 1914 1914 —
including endogamy including
d ( uih R Oldenbourg R. Munich:
potnte fr social for opportunities conservative Saxons saw Saxons conservative , or ,
lso served a secondary a served lso implementation of German German of implementation ation and Regulations on on Regulations and ation solidarity Saxon leaders again leaders Saxon the Romanians in Romanians the , partially out of of out partially , . See . - ao school Saxon ,‖ explains ,‖ Joachim vo Joachim —
Verlag which which
and of of n - ,
CEU eTD Collection 34 p. 29. January1932, 33 1927. December 8 278, Nr. Volume91, 32 31 system high Harald and literacy oftherate,explains Saxons Roth, preservation c. German Languag utmost the of were they importance tocommunity throughout themembers entire interwar period. not, was Church Lutheran the even that way a in posterity to schools. confessional our abandon never could Saxons journal the in remarked Schlosser Alfred schools, their for support financial h ideology centuries.‖ for existed have which schools, confessional a as survival our also but culture, [Saxon] our only the to t plight, due financial and reforms school Romanian deterioration of signs showing already were schools the when 1927, as late as even Indeed, posterity. of perpetuation the representing as framed was it significantly, church, the group.‖ ethnic the of continuity the ensured
Harald Roth, ―Memoirenkultur,‖ p. 175. p. Roth, ―Memoirenkultur,‖ Harald Marylin lrd clse, Üe de öugmgihetn e Nationalitätpro des Lösungsmöglichkeiten die ―Über Schlosser, Alfred Roths,‖ O. H. Dr. Interview ‗Adeverul‘ Ein unzufrieden? Rumänien in Deutschen die sind ―Warum churches. and in schools promoted systematically German standard [ dialect O … Saxon life Transylvanian communication of lessons, of the preaching, of use, everyday of language was language Sächsisch spoken the writte between word: yawning gap underestimated often an nevertheless was there system school confessional the to related Closely McArthur, McArthur, d eertd h cmuiy and community the penetrated ad
, which constituted a complicated issue. For,d complicatedissue. a constituted which , represented more than just the perpetuation of certain educational standards; standards; educational certain of perpetuation the just than more represented l wt te so the with nly far was which ],
Zum Zum e
Identitätswandel der Siebenbürger Sachsen Siebenbürger der Identitätswandel
- ald ntoa aaeig o te mid the of awakening‘ ‗national called
- eoe from removed
31 27 standard standard
Saxon Saxon Thus, Thus,
he daily he Volk preserving the schools, like preserving like schools, the preserving emn [ German edr were leaders ‖ 33 Kronstädter Zeitung Kronstädter is closely bound together with our with together bound closely is
32 espite the well the espite , 6., p. Because th Because
was vn hn Nati when Even Hochdeutsch blems,‖ 34
-
ieenh etr was century nineteenth
the
on all levels levels all on looking to Germany for for Germany to looking Klingsor e schools were linked were schools e usin f language of question Siebenbürgisch . t a the was It ]. - n and spoken spoken and n
established school established Ya 9 Ise 1, Issue 9, Year , of social social of Klingsor declared: ―not declared: nl Socialist onal - ,
―we KZ ,
CEU eTD Collection i Exil Deportation, 156. p. 2005), Verlag, IKGS (Munich: Flucht, Zeitgeschichte) und (Geschichte Reihe Wissenschaftliche Auswanderung, Mitteleuropa: 35 sums ―substantial cost uncommon,‖ seventeent and sixteenth these out, points Nowotnick the Michaela as However, in centuries. theology reformed studying youths for destination popular particularly a attending was Wittenburg scholars Reformation. the Saxon during even with universities German 1871, in state German the of establishment the before years Austrian (or German a visited intellectuals Saxon leading factor German the by theend flag perioddiscussion. of under German all as out evened eventually War.‖ World First the after lived they which in nation new the in minority ethnic an as rights their of protection complete the interest: feature common a possessed they as different ―As writes, Zach over controversy the with up bound closely was issue language the therefore, 1920s, the of part German fellow German distant the from Saxons the separating marker identity further an schools into incorporated been had German standard although period, interwar the by Thus,
Cornelius Zach, ―Zwischen Ideologie und Pragmatismus,‖ Pragmatismus,‖ und Ideologie ―Zwischen Zach, Cornelius d was used in publications, the local dialect was still favored in speech and viewed as a as viewed and speech in favored still was dialect local the publications, in used was d
h sra o Pan of spread the eoe eunn t ter rnyvna hmln. hs rdto rahd ak w back reached tradition This homeland. Transylvanian their to returning before nlecn te nlx f tnad emn no h community the into German standard of influx the influencing The steady flow of Saxons to and from Germany to visit universities was a was universities visit to Germany from and to Saxons of flow steady The - speaking Transylvanian neighbors Transylvanian speaking -
Germanism
the various groups of Germans in Rom in Germans of groups various the , — ‖ - speaking groups began to seek shelter under the Pan the under shelter seek to began groups speaking
n Taslain emn collaboration. German Transylvanian and thus limiting them to the middle and upper strata of of strata upper and middle the to them limiting thus h [emn language [German] the 28
35 like
in Krista Zach, ed., Zach, Krista in Thus, as will will as Thus, 2. Jahrhundert 20. m
the Swabians. the
or Swiss or stints — n a eea common general a and e en te differences the seen, be ) university for for university )
Especiall Migration im südöstlichen südöstlichen im Migration abroad, although ―not although abroad, ania after 1918 were, 1918 after ania Reich , Volume 91 of the the of 91 Volume , .
lot l o the of all Almost
and y in the latter the yin
from Cornelius several nother - their their state ell h -
CEU eTD Collection lit 36 designated inthe map Saxons the granting territorial, and administrative both were rights These above. mentioned been already have century thirteenth early and twelfth late resistance centralizati toRomanianpolitical tradition historical the abstract: more are community Saxon the of pillars two final the preservation, linguistic of tradition cultural the or schools, confessional its and Church Lutheran the of institutions journal and press the in prominent were that d. shapin philosophical currentspublications. of also but German, standard on emphasis the increasing only rhetoric Socialist National of spread the stays influenced university these by prompted period interwar the throughout strong society.Saxon
erarischen Leben in Deutschl Leben in erarischen ihea oonc, ― Nowotnick, Michaela The Königsboden The historical rights gained by the Saxons when they settled the settled they when Saxons the by gained rights historical The publicat interwar these of discussion a onto moving Before 36
Connections between German institutions and Saxon intellectu and Saxon betweenGerman institutions Connections
f ao trioil n amnsrtv atnm, n te growing the and autonomy, administrative and territorial Saxon of and Saxon ResistanceCentralization toRomanian on thefollowingon page i Karpathen Die
and (1907 and
- 1939),‖ Humboldt (MAThesis, 1939),‖ , Ostland
on , . s of the time remain to be explored. Unlike the Unlike explored. be to remain time the of s 29 Klingsor .
Seebre ud en Bzeugn zum Beziehungen seine und Siebenbürgen . in
the late 1920s and early 1930s early and 1920s late the - Universität zu Berlin, 2007), p. 13. p. 2007), Berlin, zu Universität dominion ions, two further factors further two ions,
te oiia and political the g Königsboden
over the area area the over
als remained significantly
in the the in , not not ,
CEU eTD Collection Komitate 37 Brown Gray Blue Yellow Map Duchyof 1:Grand http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/de/1/12/Gro%C3%9Ff%C3%BCrstentum
Map taken from the Internet. Accessible at Accessible takenthe Internet. from Map - -
Szekler territory(German:
County terrainCounty ( - - - und
Partium Königsboden - St%C3%BChle
(the regions ofTransylvania) thewest to andnorth
comitatus
-
1770.png Transylvania around
) . Szeklerland
30 /Hungarian:
1770 37
Székelyföld - Siebenb%C3%BCrgen
)
-
CEU eTD Collection 1900 Perspective p. 120 1992), Verlag, R.Oldenbourg (Munich: Historical in Question Minority The Ger Konferenz: Internationalen in Wandel,‖ historischen 38 reforms territory. and language, school, church, of modernize preservation institutional to challenges greatest the of one as perceived with Bucharest‘s centralizingpolicies political disorganization, discontent and disappointment Saxon the namely, War: World First the following collaboration regionalism include to homeland Saxon the was emphasis While the of maintenance significance. spiritual even possess to out the describing when significance legal even surpassedwriters particular,Saxon in period interwar Duringthe in those separating barrier figurative a furthermore Transylvaniaand with privileges those without: was it entity; territorial a just the describes Zach Krista However,
rsa ah ―‗ Zach, Krista It is associated with the civilized values of ―privilege‖ and ―freedom and ―privilege‖ values of withthe civilized isassociated It state.‖ ―original its in it preserving region, surrounding ―evolved‖ freely disorderly, the from the designate to settlements the only refers] … remembered was it how least at or group, the of history of place the Königsboden, The T , but also lack of action and failure to honor minority protections promised on the the on promised protections minority honor to failure and action of lack also but , e etaiig oiis mntn fo Bcaet in Bucharest from emanating policies centralizing he historical region of Transylvania, a typical multicultural multicultural typical a Transylvania, of region historical
the country the
n h mid the in a te iet eut f nte att another of result direct the was Wir wohnten auf dem Königsboden… dem auf wohnten Wir to the autonomous territorial and legal region of the German inhabitants from inhabitants German the of region legal and territorial autonomous the to Königsboden of province
, is function symbolic Its 1867. until up centuries thirteenth and twelfth the the Saxons viewed them as endangering as them viewed Saxons the
- 1920s. hard hard
of
―freemen‖ [ ―freemen‖ Seewann, ed., ed., Seewann, , all of Transylvania, in part due to due part in Transylvania, of all hs egahcl xaso ad nrae n regional in increase and expansion geographical This in the twentieth century, el century, twentieth the in euiy n protection and security Königsboden
- Königsboden 121. freie Menschen freie
31 However idretnrgn n üotuoa Birg der Beiträge Südosteuropa: in Minderheitenfragen ‘ Identitätsbildung bei den Siebenbürger Sachsen im Sachsen Siebenbürger den bei Identitätsbildung ‘
td ta ws n h rs i te years the in rise the on was that itude as representing more representing as : at some points, the territory was made made was territory the points, some at : ] in the legal sense and to to and sense legal the in ] — i ws o ol new only not was it , — does not denote the totality of the of totality the denote not does as it was anchored in the early early the in anchored was it as , and corruption transition ites expanded the definition of of definition the expanded ites . ‖
38 the traditional institutions traditional the
territory h ery 90 were 1920s early the the rise of rise the this geographical andgeographical this - 1990 initially
. While intended to intended While . to the Saxons than Saxons the to . . Rather, [it [it Rather, .
protect protect (8 - 4 pi 1991) April 14 oiis and policies inter placed on on placed [it]
- ethnic
CEU eTD Collection to territories the ceded officially 1920 June 4 on Trianon of Treaty Romania. the only although 1918, December 42 41 Scurtu‘s 55. p. 1994), Verlag, is source Böhlau (Cologne: Archiv Siebenbürgisches the of 28 Volume König, Walter 1919 Parlamentspartei Deutschen der from Information period. interwar the during made one only the census, 40 p. 70 1994), Verlag, (Cologne:Böhlau Weltkriegen beiden den zwischen Siebenbürgen 39 of leapfrog the and parties, the of factionalism the government, of changes frequent the by characterize provinces Romania war. represented would the of 4.1% Germans and 7.9%, Hungarians 71.9%, represented with begin To Greater to Transylvania of union the with stipulated were that rights minority th implement as to impossible almost it well made populations, minority with dealing as experience system, French the on based government, centralized the wake First ofthe regional varying and minorities of influx huge structuredliterature wasequipped neither simply thatRomania nor asserts to either failure this attribute to seem frustrated so that Romanians the of part
Keith Hitchins, ―Romania,‖ ―Romania,‖ KeithHitchins, ainl ioiis ersne 2.% f oai‘ e Romania‘s of 28.1% represented minorities National Bessarabia was joined on 27 March 1918, Bukovina on 28 November 1918, and Transylvania on 1 1 on Transylvania and 1918, November 28 on Bukovina 1918, March 27 on joined was Bessarabia üte H Tnsh ―u National ―Zum Tontsch, H. Günther 41
Irina prove üte Tnsh fr xml, anan ta te ey aue f Romania‘s of nature very the that maintains example, for Tontsch, Günther Enciclopedia României Enciclopedia
epaiig h dfiute Bucharest difficulties the emphasizing , —
s the s Bessarabia, L prxmtl 3% Romania 30% approximately
ivezeanu, too, offers a similar thesis in her study her in thesis similar a offers too, ivezeanu, o be to the , political environment in Romania as an ―unstable landscape, de landscape, ―unstable an as Romania in environment political an World War. War. World diverse the numutbe challenge insurmountable
The American Historical Review Historical American The , vol. 1 (Bucharest, 1938), p. 148. 1938), (Bucharest, 1 vol. , Bu
c eorpi mku o Rmna i wih Romanians which in Romania, of makeup demographic ovina, and Transylvania and ovina, - - 72. 97‖ in 1937,‖
itätenrecht Rumäniens zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen,‖ in in Weltkriegen,‖ beiden den zwischen Rumäniens itätenrecht aiiu attds r o elc, uh secondary much neglect, to or attitudes malicious , ed. Walter König, Volume 28 of Siebenbürgisches Archiv Archiv Siebenbürgisches of 28 Volume König, Walter ed. , conservative Saxon conservative ibnügn wshn e bie Weltkriegen beiden den zwischen Siebenbürgen s ouain compared population, ‘s 32
administrative administrative ntire population. These figures are from the 1930 1930 the from are figures These population. ntire
; had in integrating so many diverse new new diverse many so integrating in had 40
97, Nr. 4 (1992): 1069 4 (1992): Nr. 97, olwn te war the following
— into their political purview political their into
Ioan Scurtu, ―Beiträ Scurtu, Ioan
leaders. While Saxon While leaders. systems that they gained in gained they that systems Cultural Politics in Greater in Politics Cultural
population o ut % eoe the before 8% just to - h state‘s the 1070. ehi minorities ethnic , to incorporate
ge zur Geschichte Geschichte zur ge ,
oe what posed Romania. monstrated monstrated edite ,
ak of lack authors . 42
by d She
the 39 e
CEU eTD Collection 1918 Romania into Transylvania of Integration 48 47 46 45 1919 of Government 44 43 increasingly centralizedBucharest regime. disbanded was council the years, two pr limited with or Council, Ruling This council. appointed an of implementation the through administration local continue to plan a been had there reneged continually who politicians Kingdom Old pushy by irked were alike Hungarians and Germans, Romanians, minorities th between struggle ethnic list party opposition Hungarian in party Romanian ruling the with allied were they and 1937, and 1919 between parliaments ten these of all in represented were Transylvania in Germans The scene. political the behind hovering of suspected was ― Nation Romania‘s by won were which of most 1919 (from period interwar the during elections parliamentary ten were there short, dissoluti concoction, continuous the by politically party.‖ to party from personalities political was still hegemonic‖ in Transylvania in hegemonic‖ still was
Scurtu, ―Beitr Scurtu, Livezeanu, 64. p. Geschichte,‖ ―Beiträgezur Scurtu, Ioan Livezeanu, Victoria F. Brown, ―The Movement for Reform in Rumania after World War I: The Parliamentary Bloc Bloc Parliamentary The I: War World after Rumania in Reform for Movement ―The Brown, F. Victoria hoge ac hs eoe a etr mngah o h rln cucl See council. ruling the to monograph entire an devoted has Iancu Gheorghe s) . 47
T
u t hus ; p ; Cultural Politics Cultural Cultural rimarily, it was a struggle between state and local contingents. local and state between struggle a was rimarily, it ä e oiia back political he ge zur Geschichte,‖ p. 64. p. Geschichte,‖ gezur erogatives established by the government.‖ However after serving less than less serving after However government.‖ the by established erogatives - 1920,‖ 1920,‖
Politics Slavic Review Slavic
, p. 23. p. , 21 p. ,
n gemns ocrig oa cnrl f h region. the of control local concerning agreements on ) and in 1919 and 1920 ( 1920 and 1919 in and ) Rmna mjrt ad h nw emn n Hungarian and German new the and majority Romanian e
-
24. Quotation from p. 21. Quotationfrom 24. p. - and
- 38, Nr. 3456. (1979): Nr. 38, ot ta caatrzd h 12s a not was 1920s the characterized that forth eve 46
). Even ). y lcin xet n 97 ( 1927 in except election ry - 1920 abruptly abruptly 48 43
33 , Bibliotheca Rerum Trans Rerum Bibliotheca , Victoria Brown sa Brown Victoria oslu Dirigent Consiliul al Liberal Party (although the (although Party Liberal al
when the Liberal Party was not in control,it in not wasLiberalParty the when n amnsrto poedd rm the from proceeded administration and n and on,
when they formed their own electoral own their formed they when
eobnto o parties. of recombination ys the period was period the ys ―a a rvsoa body, provisional a ―was , silvani hn hy ond the joined they when h Rln Cucl The Council: Ruling The æ
In Transylvania, InTransylvania, VIII National Party National
(Cluj
purely an an purely ―reflected
- 1937), Initially - Napoca: Napoca: ‖ 44
In 45
CEU eTD Collection p. 320. 1927), title 49 the under language (1918 State Unitary National Romanian the of Consolidation to the Council Ruling Romanian the in exists 1985, Consiliului in published version, extensive more A 7. page from is quotation The 1995). Foundation, Cultural Romanian The Studies, Transylvanian for Center institutions religious of autonomy Saxons the promised government Romanian the which minority the included These institutions. protections and rights minority their of preservation made government. Romanian institutions. minority their for room make would and could Romanians the of nationalism the that Saxons the pro underestimation naiveté to onthepart Saxons: of the implemented the of underestimation Saxon to due were communityfollowin inthe high Saxon immediately and rights minority of implementation protections the with disappointments their despite long
Zsombor de Szász, Szász, de Zsombor - Hungarian bias against the Bucharest regime. Yet he highlights the misconcept the highlights he Yet regime. Bucharest the against bias Hungarian a series of agreements and promises to the Saxon nation that should have ensured the ensured have should that nation Saxon the to promises and agreements of series a The question of why the Saxons remain Saxons the why of question The Needless to say, de say, to Needless intolerable. was as just policy interferen educational and cultural the and Hungarians, the by as not strongly as were just them schools by felt was their administration the of Hungarians; corruption the but the churches, other the of of those as like closed officials Saxon the There of … dismissal of disabused wholesale soon were they error an was It Treaty. Minorities the of 11 Article in secured that than autonomy larger even an obtain to able be would they that is It iiet a osldra ttli na statului consolidarea la Dirigent
evident that the Germans believed in the Gyulafehérvár Resolutions and naïvely thought thought naïvely and Resolutions Gyulafehérvár the in believed Germans the that evident
will be explored in the following chapter, but here it suffices to say that hopes hopes that say to suffices it here but chapter, following the in explored be will acts
n h post the in ( Minderheitenschutzverträge h Mnrte i Ruain Transylvania Roumanian in Minorities The
T he Saxons were not entirely at fault for their for fault atentirely not were Saxons he A
t the beginning of the interwar period, period, interwar the of beginning the t Szász‘s view contains personal undertones that reveal a strongly a reveal that undertones personal contains view Szász‘s - a years war . nationalizing projects that Romanian politicians politicians Romanian that projects nationalizing ţ oa uia rmn (1918 roman unitar ional n 1927 In 34 ) of September 1919 September of )
ed
loyal to the to loyal 49
smo d Sáz attributed Szász de Zsombor
g theGreat War.
(London: The The (London: ce of the authorities in their in authorities the of ce Romanian government for so for government Romanian - 1920) the Ro the and December 1919, in 1919, December and misguided - 1920)
[ Richards Press Limited, Limited, Press Richards h Cnrbto o the of Contribution The manian government manian was no such such no was T ].
his was
beliefs in the in beliefs Contribu
partially o of ion
this ţ ia ia
CEU eTD Collection p. 1995), Verlag, Böhlau Archiv(Cologne: in Zwischenkriegszeit,‖ 52 51 p. 1976), Verlag, Böhlau (Cologne: Siebenbürgens Landeskunde 50 the did as content, their on impact large a had journals and papers of owners and Editors aims. and orientation, political profile, own its had thesis this in examined publications be always must that something evident, quite is agenda political years traditions political and cultural, II published journals. t its of complaining regime Bucharest the support to continued unintentionally or intentionally whether citizens. Romanian agreed previously the include to neglected explicitly Liberals, National the by drafted 1923, of schools.‘‖ denominational p the Additionally, Party.‖ Liberal the of candidate the support would latter the minority Saxon a with constituencies the in while majority, Saxon a with constituencies in candidates Saxon of election the hinder to not was Government s Romanian the which in 1922, February in Party Liberal Romanian system school the and
I. Interwar Publications I. Interwar de Szász, Szász, de Ernst Wagner, aie ibn, De Mind ―Die Ciobanu, Vasile . The political spectrum was widely represented in Saxon publications, and in some the publications, and insome wasinSaxon represented widely political spectrum The - pn ioiy rtcin wie h while protections minority upon From the historical background provided above, it becomes clear why clear becomes it above, provided background historical the From The Minorities in Roumanian Trans Roumanian in Minorities The
ed., ed., Quellen zur Geschichte der Siebenbürger Sachsen 1191 Sachsen Siebenbürger der Geschichte zur Quellen
organizational flaws, organizational 52
idret n Nationalstaat und Minderheit Though the Romanian government reneged on many of its promises its of many on reneged government Romanian the Though , 50
51 s el as well as
e Yet in spite of these promises, the new Romanian Constitution Romanian new the promises, these of spite in Yet r
heitenfrage in den Programmen Rumänischer Parteien während der der während Parteien Rumänischer Programmen den in heitenfrage iue poiety in prominently figured
62.
n lcoa pc md bten h Sxn ad the and Saxons the between made pact electoral an
ylvania over — pciial poliig h eult o all of equality the proclaiming ypocritically 35 osraie ao laes f the of leaders Saxon conservative - centralization , 321,, 326. p. , ed. Harald Roth, Volume 31 of Siebenbürgisches Siebenbürgisches of 31 Volume Roth, Harald ed. ,
ruhu te 1920s, the hroughout
274. act ―secured ‗the recognition of the of recognition ‗the ―secured act
h pub the , and corruption and , - 1975
kept in mind. in kept iain o te interwar the of lications , Volume 1 of Schriften zur ofSchriften 1 Volume , ide pledged that ―the that pledged ide
although bitterly bitterly although
in th in Saxon
E e press and press e ach of the of ach Volksrat
social, —
CEU eTD Collection ofStudiaTransylvanica 54 (Transsilvanien) (K Günther and Schick Inge Prader eds. Myß, Siebenbürgen Lebensraum Wirtschaft, Wissenschaften, Zivilisation, 53 Volksrat SDT other by contested often was that one community, the outset, the from Thus le publication, beginning after Quickly Although the 1874 from run, emerged the Thus the of forerunner Tageblatt a. The Semi Politische Hefte ausGroßrumänien Zeitung Siebenbürgisch the examine Saxons. 235,000 just of population a for 1930 in publications approximately overwhelming,was Romanian landscapewith the pressof the Saxon on historicalpublication. tradition ofthe
ading organ in the struggle for the Saxon future, and to land it in a preeminent position.‖ preeminent a in it land to and future, Saxon the for struggle the in organ ading Harald Harald Hans Meschendörfer, ―Presse und Publizistik,‖ in Publizistik,‖ und ―Presse Meschendörfer, Hans ―was governed by Sibiu‘s upper middle class and therefore was fully available to the to available fully was therefore and class middle upper Sibiu‘s by governed ―was The
Roth, ‖ or ,‖ ( during a period of great upheaval in the Saxon community,Saxon and long its great publication of periodthe upheavalduring in a
KZ SDT - Siebenbürgisch Official Voice ofthe Sächsische Voice Official Volkspartei: , the ), Politische Strukturen und Strömungen bei den Siebenbürger Sachsen 1919 Sachsen Siebenbürger den bei Strömungen und Strukturen Politische SDT , the daily version of the the of version daily the , National - publications - Deutches Tageblatt Deutches 1 SDT 4, a dsie t lv u t te oiia eet ta hd ite it. birthed had that events political the to up live to destined was 944, was by no means the oldest Saxon daily, it soon fought its way daily,its t soonfought it theoldest means Saxon byno was
( journals Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1994 Verlag, Böhlau Cologne: , came int came
Council.
SDT
- etce Wochenblatt Deutsches sd a used Klingsor
o existence already in 1867, the same year as the as year same the 1867, in already existence o occupied the position position the occupied 54
( The ( DPH piay ore i ti tei: the thesis: this in sources primary s SDT As was raft Verlag, 1993), 392. p. 1993), raft Verlag, its its
and Volksrat Wochenblatt ) editor ).
and its conservative competitor the competitor conservative its and 36 Ostland Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Geschichte, Kultur, Kultur, Geschichte, Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die mentioned intheintroduction, thesignificance mentioned ),
p. p. 36. al Wolff Carl
a a tight a was publications
ad the and , (
rnyvna Gra Weekly German Transylvanian of ht ea pub began that
a national voice within the Saxon the within voice national a The Siebenbürgisch
― aae t mk i it the into it make to managed
- . nt ice f conservative of circle knit oiia journal political Harald Roth Harald T he following section will section following he iain n ae 1873, late in lication , published by Walter Walter by published , -
1933 - writes that the that writes Deutches
Kronstädter
, Ausgleich prominent Volume 22 Volume o thetop. Deutsche ), the the ), sixty 53 .
CEU eTD Collection 393. p. 55 Newspaper the 1941, in and 1930s, adopted the rapidlysocializingtheir publications. agendafellow national of Saxon thus and independence,‖ own their losing without movement reform the of pull the evade SDT Self aims Selbsthilfebewegung the of (founder Fabritius Fritz dissident social example, For ideology. of terms in then rates, Erneuerungsbewegungen politicians. elite by controlled largely was it fact it when community entire the of voice the represent conflict liberal Volkspartei The nation. Saxon the of members all comprised that institution administrative and social a rather but Nationsun 1876 in up set been had whichcommunity Saxon the of the of part was the dominated who leaders
Meschendörfer, ―Presse und Publizistik,‖ in in Publizistik,‖ und ―Presse Meschendörfer, - a wl a te te cnevtv daily, conservative other the as well as , ep obt Journal Combat Help ; b ;
ebr o te community. the of members The synchronization The by mistrust with viewed often was paper daily conservative the such, As y the mid the y eae heated became iversität
) to form the form to ) ‘s political institution, SDT h pplr ucs o the of success popular The Sächsische Volkspartei Sächsische
- a is fiil mouthpiece, official its was late 1920s, 1920s, late .
Despite its name, the name, its Despite , or Self or ,
n many and
, Südost SDT
created competit created ) Saxon political scene throughout much of the interwar period. It period. interwar the of much throughout scene political Saxon
- of the press along national along press the of agenda politicized more a developed had Help Movement) created a journal in 1921 to spread his social his spread to 1921 in journal a created Movement) Help
Fabritius‘ egdwt the with merged - deutsche Tageszeitung Tageszeitung deutsche
the social dissenters resented the way the the way the resented dissenters social Particularly in the late 1920s and early 1930s, press press 1930s, early and 1920s late the in Particularly Volksrat
Die Siebenbürger Siebenbürger Die (Saxon (Saxon
Selbsthilfe Sächsische Volkspartei Sächsische ion 37 .
agl udr h cnrl f the of control the under largely National for the for Banater Deutsche Zeitung Zeitung Deutsche Banater the e oil eea mvmns or movements, renewal social se - Kampfblatt Kampfblatt Kronstädter Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen SDT
in response to the dissolution of theof dissolution the to response in ( - Party), the central organizing body body organizing central the Party), South socialist lines occurred in the la the in occurred lines socialist , if not in terms of distribution of terms in not if , - East German Daily German East (
roughly translat roughly
Zeitung was not a political party, political a not was , published by Walter Myß, Myß, Walter by published , . By late 1933, the the 1933, late By . wr ―nbe to ―unable were , SDT ( aa German Banat
able Säch lie to claimed 55 ), which ),
sische sische as the the as more te
CEU eTD Collection 391. p. Myß, 57 Hiradó Transilvania de Gazeta the Transylvania, 56 othe with the of leadership period.‖ the of mentality the Teutsch, D. Rot Ludwig Stephan Georg as such newspapers, his around universities German at studied had [ h in introduced Wochenblatt the of predecessor the founded patriarch, had family, 1848 of revolution the the was it Transylvania, b. ALong ro latter this however, alwayspaper the claimed serving while Even community. Transylvanian the within propaganda Pan of organ another simply as ending and community the of voice conservative the span, life year published was ibnügshs Wochenblatt Siebenbürgisches
Hans Meschendörfer, ―Presse und Publizistik,‖ in Publizistik,‖ und ―Presse Meschendörfer, Hans Additionally, around the same time, Gött was responsible for the first Romanian first the for responsible was Gött time, same the around Additionally, KZ ( , too, was birthed in times of political unrest, immediately following the tumultuous tumultuous the following immediately unrest, political of times in birthed was too, , Transylvanian Gazette Transylvanian huh the Though r papers, was subject to strict censorship from Vienna following the squelching of squelching the following Vienna from censorship strict to subject was papers, r - Running Tradition: The Kronstädter ZeitungRunning Tradition:TheKronstädter
Gt‘ pbihn successes publishing Gött‘s . ogtaiin n rnyvna rs. oanGt (1810 Gött Johann press. Transylvanian in tradition long a under the leadership of Hans Otto Roth until Roth Otto Hansleadershipof the under Foaie Dumenicii Dumenicii Foaie s aes h add upeetr set ta sre t ―ae the ―make to served that sheets supplementary added he papers: is KZ - , ( , 1849 in Hungary and Transylvania. The owners of the paper, the Gött the paper, the of owners The Transylvania. and Hungary in 1849 , the paper remained in his family for nearly 100 years. The years. 100 nearly for family his in remained paper the , SDT h, Daniel Roth Daniel h, Transylvanian Gazette Transylvanian SDT
KZ
), but withsuccess. but little ),
a hv be al t cam h hget itiuin ae in rates distribution highest the claim to able been have may underwent major transformations, beginning as the national national the as beginning transformations, major underwent
that could claim the longest publication history. Like the Like history. publication longest the claim could that 57
( udy Paper Sunday
] more interesting,‖ and ―gathered young intellectuals who intellectuals young ―gathered and interesting,‖ more ] lhuh oan öt a nt oey epnil fr the for responsible solely not was Gött Johann Although
to represent the Saxon nation. Saxon represent the to , Johann Hinz, etc., who had an important influence on influence important an had who etc., Hinz, Johann , ). He also attempted to publish a Hungarian paper, the paper, Hungarian a publish to attempted also He ). , the ), 56 Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Siebenbürger Die 38
KZ KZ
ee ehp de o h invtos he innovations the to due perhaps were oi d Septemana de Foaie led i 13: the 1837: in already
fall 1944 fall
( Lexikon eky Paper Weekly . Thus,duringit . - language newspapers in newspapers language - , published by Walter Walter by published , 1888), the family family the 1888), Siebenbürgisches ad h daily the and ) KZ - German s sixty s , along , Erdély Erdély SDT le, - ,
CEU eTD Collection 362. 58 years, 5 of hiatus a After print. in longer publication its However, 1919. June publication. yearsof first their in least at widely, varied journals the of tone the contributors,same the of m even and structures, similar had they Although section. this in together considered be c. s itsformerindependent an of echo was only 1944,it until publication continued while it,too, I the ofpredominance content. political of terms in together them lump to as far journal liberal the of editor the and voices, radical more Four Chapter in discussed ( ―Greens‖ and conflicts generational of voices competing the became but papers Both odds. at frequently were dailies two the century, tak to HeinrichFritz. and so Gött‘s Johann of direction the under 1884, in daily a became it and week, a times the after shortly 1876, By revolution. the n the latter part of the interwar period interwar the of part latter the n elf.
See Two Cultural Two
te ae ah oad a oe ainl S National more a towards path same the e enih ilc, ―Siebenbürgische Zillich, Heinrich Although by the end of the interwar period the period interwar the of end the by Although Ostland Ostland
Schwarze und Grüne und Schwarze - and Political JournalstheInterwar of Period:andOstland Klingsor
Klingsor SDT was begun in the early post early the in begun was
, the , .
By the mid the By , two prominent monthly journals of the interwar period, will period, interwar the of journals monthly prominent two ,
KZ
will be used only as a supplementary source in this thesis. this in source supplementary a onlyas used be will - deutsche Presse,‖ Presse,‖ deutsche )
u was run htboe u a te n ftenntet century, nineteenth the of end the at out broke that the - 1920s, howev 1920s, Ostland KZ KZ 39
suffered a fate similar to that of the of that to similar fate a suffered
a founded was short - war years, with its first edition printed in printed edition first its with years, war
resumed publication from 1926 to 1931, to 1926 from publication resumed cait dooy i te late the in ideology, ocialist Klingsor - lived er, both papers came under fire from fire under came papers both er, KZ Klingsor 58 an ,
Ya 3 Ise , etme 12, p. 1926, September 9, Issue 3, Year ,
and Due to these similarities these to Due between the so the between i ws en dsrbtd four distributed being was it ,
aray n 91 t a no was it 1921 in already d were generally conservative, generally were SDT , Heinrich Zillich, went so so went Zillich, Heinrich ,
were
eventually - called ―Blacks‖ called
- ninete SDT
and the and
forced , and and , enth any ns,
CEU eTD Collection 61 60 59 critiques. or opinions strong contained often that letters open and reviews literature included edition Each ones. literary its of also but tone. cautious,polemical more less a of marks East of image whole. the on culture‖ mirror ―true a become to sought also journal the w that asserting efforts‖ cultural and thoughts, ―style, its that claiming that seems it Yet Saxon.‖ too journal monthly its of description following the contained one the Upon journal. daring, less Saxons,‖ Transylvanian the of journal [ wars, world two the ―between German a not was but polemic. literature, was which of much well, as content political with publication. its of entirety the for Zillich, to 1924 from lasting run, publishing profile. literary than political more ( Romania in Germans agenda. political outspoken more a with but Csaki, Richard of leadership editorial same the under
Ostland in Myß, ―Klingsor,‖ Dr. Walter Prof. ― Nowotnick, ept ter iia cnet te oras a vr dfeet rfls While profiles. different very had journals the content, similar their Despite
, Year 2, First July Issue, 1920 First July 2, Issue, Year , This was in part due to its publication its to due part in was This authors. authors. Die Karpathen Die Ostland
61 Verband de Verband s successful as as successful s
In contrast to this static this to contrastIn
, is that it is too reserved, too cautious, in a word, one could say could one word, a in cautious, too reserved, too is it that is Ostland
Ostland , Die S Die Klingsor , introductory , pages. Klingsor - year anniversary of it of anniversary year r Deutschen in Rumänien in Deutschen r 59 iebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen iebenbürger
60 ‘s editorial board was rather proud of this criticism, this of proud rather was board editorial ‘s Klingsor Klingsor 99 I to anand h sm eio, Heinrich editor, same the maintained too It 1939.
Ostland ,‖ p. 54 p. ,‖ Klingsor dvlpd no n nleta cultural influential an into developed ] own 40 Ostland This was true not only of its political articles,political only its ofnot truewas This
-
b cnrs, a a uh oe consistent more much a had contrast, by , 55.
by the cultural office of the of office cultural the by contents: ―The main reproac main ―The contents:
self at incorporating up and coming Saxon Saxon coming and up incorporating at was rather viewed as a more conservative, more a as viewed rather was
was primarily a literary magazine, albeit magazine, literary a primarily was - , while containing essays that essays containing while , evaluation, evaluation, s publication in July 1920, July in publication s ), which necessarily gave it a a it gave necessarily which ), , published by Walter Myß, p. 267. p. Myß, bypublished , Walter r ide Sxn although Saxon, indeed ere Klingsor Ostland
to fcsd on focused too, , from its start borestart its from Association of Association h made of the of made h - provided - political German Ostland and —
CEU eTD Collection 63 366. 62 nation. Toa by they largeendextent, endeavor. of this thedecade, in were successful the determining for responsible as themselves viewed Ostland success. its determined that quality its as publication a of quantity the much Klingsor t impact wide the copies, hundred one surpassed never distribution its that considers functions Klingso connections. literary cultivate to and community, of role the as it viewed he contrast SDT Zillich Heinrich conservative the thepages of pieces lining because together newspaper polls Transylvania, in race of discussions affairs, political current of descriptions than opinionated views contemporary
Prof. Dr. Walter My Dr. Walter Prof. enih ilc, ―Siebenbürgische Zillich, Heinrich
and In the context of this thesis, i thesis, this of context the In r
— were important because they reached the small but activecircle but small reachedthe because weretheyimportant they although period, interwar the in influential were , both — KZ a i ee mr astonishing.‖ more even is had h oe oe ecie n daai, n te te mr patcly minded practically more other the and dramatic, and reactive more one the s, oiia ad utrl respectively cultural, and political , whose mission mission whose , descriptions ofnewdescriptions publications, pl express aptly compared ß, ―Klingsor,‖ in ―Klingsor,‖ ß, Klingsor on current affairs in 1920s Romania and the world at large, at world the and Romania 1920s in affairs current on
the .
he believed was to educate the nation (― nation the educate to was believedhe the
Nevertheless, - cultural deutsche Presse,‖ Presse,‖ deutsche Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die iw o more of views his journal his t is helpful to examine the two contemporary journals contemporary two the examine to helpful is t
role of the journals to that of daily papers like the like papers daily of that to journals the of role 63 SDT
ned a ti tei wl so, t a nt so not was it show, will thesis this as Indeed, 41 the the
etc. etc. to contribute to the cultural edification of the the of edification cultural the to contribute to
Walter . during the interwar period.during theinterwar Klingsor
ois n oh oras ee similar: were journals both in topics iea Sxn otiuos vis contributors Saxon liberal
Ultimately, both journals, journals, both Ultimately, , Year 3, Issue 9, September 1926, p. 365 p. 1926, September 9, Issue 3, Year , utrl course cultural Myß
, published by Walter Myß, p. 267. p. Myß, bypublished , Walter rts of writes s erve Volkserziehung
of the entire Saxon Saxon entire the of of intellectuals who intellectualsof slightly d Klingsor
Klingsor Klingsor Ostland -
: ―If one one ―If : à different different was ‘s editor - of ‖). i the vis
62 local
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hat By —
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CEU eTD Collection b The Bibliography‖]. Journal Sibiu The Publication: bibliografie,‖ sibiană Revista uitată: publicaţie 64 period. this during tolerated well not were institutions, Saxon of betrayal a as viewed which aims, political Such Swabians. alli political make to century the of part early the in movement the of proponent greatest the example, conform O Hans colleague Saxon he characterizations, all nearly By period. interwar the of figures political Saxon controversial, descriptionan ofhis inthepre roleasinfluentialpolitician the to contributor Romania. in groups minority German various the of history the detailing section regular a contained 1923, of as and, Romania, Europe in sit the on emphasis significant places journal the affairs, political European in interests his and Four, Chapter in discussed Romania, of Germans the here addressed works other the from different because rather but interesting, or influential not were contents journal‘s the because not is This thesis. this in treatment limited receive will 1927, and 1921 between d.
o a opee ilorpy f h junls otns se aie ibn ad lxnr Pp, ― Popa, Alexandra and Ciobanu Vasile see contents, journal‘s the of bibliography complete a For Deutsche was a contentious figure. While sharing many of the same conservative viewpoints as hisas viewpoints conservative same the of many sharing While figure. contentious a was Transylv Rudolf Rudolf to and
Politische Hefte ausGroßrumänienPolitische Hefte h taiinl ao policy Saxon traditional the Anuar ne wt the with ances on western affairs. western on Brandsch ania‘s first political journal, published by Saxon politician Rudolf Brandsch Rudolf politician Saxon by published journal, political first ania‘s u ibliography comprises p. 19 p. ibliographycomprises DPH Isiuuu d Creăi Socio Cercetări de Institutului l , the contents of the journal can to a large part be explained explained be part large a to can journal the of contents the ,
t Rt, e edd oad mr lbrl solutio liberal more towards tended he Roth, tto (1880 Deutsche Politische Hefte aus Großrumänien aus Hefte Politische Deutsche etce oiice et as Großrum aus Hefte Politische Deutsche
te non other - 93 wa 1953)
Nevertheless i Nevertheless - A ao Gra gop i Transylvania in groups German Saxon h ms cnevtv mmes f the of members conservative most the
- 39. f n sltd utrl nationalism cultural isolated an of s tog Badc ws o, f ore te sole the course, of not, was Brandsch lthough
one of the leading, but also one of the most most the of one also but leading, the of one 42
. 64
t also concentrated on internal affairs within within affairs internal concentratedon also t
- Due to Brandsch‘s personal aims in unitingin aims personal Brandsch‘s to Due mn Sibiu Umane uation of other other of uation - war and interwar eras. andwar interwar
3 20) 15 (2006): 13 änien
(1921
(1921 – 1927), Presentation and and Presentation 1927), German – 97, rznae şi prezentare 1927), - 9 ― Forgotten [―A 39 s ht i not did that ns i ts profile was was profile ts .
He was, for for was, He
minorities minorities
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CEU eTD Collection http://istorie.ulbsib First the in Germans Baltic a Period‖], ofthe Interwar theDecade and Saxons the between Relations Europe. in Minorities German of History interbelice perioadei al deceniu anal an ― For Saxons. Ciobanu, the like groups by envied was that Baltics the in status 69 68 aus 1924 Amt. Auswärtigen Oktober 14. am Freytag Minister Rumänien: Fragen, 67 Rudolf über Brandsch. Aufzeichnung 133: 66 p. 194. 1, Vol. Leben, meinemAus Rösler: Gustav Neckar), 65 contacts. personal these through politicians Europe Central DPH the in example, For borders. Transylvania‘s beyond well extended Germans other with i alcoholism of accusations (including pre the in These are indeed criticisms. harsh work.‖ the all doing been actually have who Transylvania] [in home at others is it while Germany in popular himself making at ―good only actually was congenial‖ very ―appearing activity,‖ productive any of ―incapable as citizens, Sibiu conspiratorial a ―having as nature him characterize who Brandsch of contemporaries cites actual his more analyzing se of ssue
Ibid In particular, he wrote a wrote he particular, In Ibid Roth, bd, p. Ibid., , he closely followed the post the followed closely he , . . Roth‘s source: Archiv des rumänischen rumänischen des Archiv source: Roth‘s . , , p. , ‖ Yet while Yet oiice Strukturen Politische 65
79. DPH
Din istoria minorităţilor germane din Europa. Relaţiile dintre saşi şi germanii baltici în primul primul în baltici germanii şi saşi dintre Relaţiile Europa. din germane minorităţilor istoria Din war
80. Roth‘s source: Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amts (Bonn), R73650, Nationalitäten Nationalitäten R73650, (Bonn), Amts Auswärtigen des Archiv Politisches source: Roth‘s 80. s being as otmoay ecitos f rnsh however, Brandsch, of descriptions contemporary
hogot h itra pro ad ogt eeis o h Sxn situation Saxon the to remedies sought and period interwar the throughout
and interwar period should not be disregarded because of a few personal flaws flaws personal few adisregarded ofbe not because should period interwar and
n t ohr newr oras hs ilmtc civmns n cooperating in achievements diplomatic his journals, interwar other to and .
iu.ro/studia/studia1/Ciobanu.pdf 69 policies
ma Furthermore, he was in contact with both German and Romanian and German both with contact in was he Furthermore,
oe ocre ih usighs w ol ta hs fhs fellow his of those than goals own his pursuing with concerned more ny characterized characterized ny
lengthy examination of the Baltic Germans who had recently achieved a minority a achieved recently had who Germans Baltic the of examination lengthy
or
p 7. ohs ore Aci ds Siebenbürgen des Archiv source: Roth‘s 79. p. , ,‖ ,‖ his polemic personality polemic his Studia Universitatis Cibiniensis Universitatis Studia vailable on the Internet at theon Internet vailable
n ftesd rne o rnshs fot t efforts Brandsch‘s of ironies sad the of One
-
war progress of the German minorities i minorities German the of progress war 68 Brandsch in somewhat sinister terms, his productivity his terms, sinister somewhat in Brandsch ). In addition to publishing and contributing to every to contributing and publishing to addition In ). uemnseim, od Dushad (1920 Deutschland Fonds Außenministeriums,
(accessed April 2012). (accessed 43
that caused such an outcry. Harald Roth Harald outcry. an such caused that , Series Historica I (2004), (2004), I Historica Series , Bukarest an Leg. Sekr. Von Grundherr im im Grundherr Von Sekr. Leg. an Bukarest 66
n a a lnr wo while who, ―loner‖ a as and one wonders whether it was was it whether wonders one ysis of these reports, see reports, these of ysis - Instituts (Gundelsheim am am (Gundelsheim Instituts n other part other n p. 267 [―From the [―From 267 p. o maintain o - 94, Vol. 1944), leading Vasile s of s 67
CEU eTD Collection 69. p. 70 social dissenters conservative both by community Saxon the within nationalism Saxonnes of ―pillars‖ the how examine will chapters analysis an Through fr a also emphasized. be will community self withdrew fromlife. public political S National the of aspects Transylvanian Saxon the in solution Romanian a inter of advocate an Erneuerungsbewegung DPH supporters ranks Saxon conservative the by opposition fierce with met were proposals his 1920s, early the in Especially community. own his within peace of cost the at came efforts these that was minorities German other and Saxons the between peace
Dr. Michael Kroner, ―Rudolf Brandsch,‖ in Brandsch,‖ ―Rudolf Kroner, Michael Dr. - rsrain n hs hss te infcne f rnsh s pltcl edr n the in leader political a as Brandsch of significance the thesis, this in preservation
a rn t cus, agl de to due largely course, its run had Although the Although qet otiuo t ohr ulctos i priua to particular in publications, other to contributor equent — of which there were in fact many in were which there of during -
German collaboration, he was still a member of the group that favored favored that group the of member a still was he collaboration, German of the interwar papers and journals and papers interwar the of DPH
and National S National and the interwar period.the
do not serve as a primary basis of analysis of Saxon policies of policies Saxon of analysis of basis primary a as serve not do cait rpgna tmig rm Germ from stemming propaganda ocialist
In addition to his role as editor of the of editor as role his to addition In 70
ocialist ideology. Although Bra Although ideology. ocialist Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die
44 —
nufcet udn and funding insufficient as traitors to the Saxon nation theSaxon traitors to as
s oead n ws eitn t some to resistant was and homeland
described here were used to promote to used were here described
explored above explored , who vie who Volksrat , published by Walter Myß, Myß, Walter by published , Ostland wed ndsch had long been been long had ndsch DPH , the following three three following the ,
any. In 1933, he he 1933, In any.
leaders and Saxon and leaders
Brandsch and his and Brandsch the rise of the the of rise the , Brandsch was was Brandsch ,
. n the and By 1927, the By SDT .
CEU eTD Collection 1 of increasing views changing the on focus will as contributors chapter this well, as publications other the of organ the with than start to place better self and nationalism policy Romanian in changes to self national of policies how and time, over changed attitudes leaders Saxon st Romanian of the towards attitude the on focus will chapter present the Thus reforms. of series westerly n the in rights political any recognized gradually leaders chapter linguis and confessional, social, the by embodied Saxons the of patterns cultural and social the views, isolationist these temper to come had rule Hungarian under existence of century a half While region. the in communities ethnic vis stance isolationist traditional their to due element ―external‖ community
Keith Hitchins, ―Romania,‖ ―Romania,‖ KeithHitchins, — ept te eie f ao cnevtv laes o oiial incorporate politically to leaders conservative Saxon of desire the Despite - looking model looking remained persistent well into the twentieth century. Yet following the war, Saxon war, the following Yet century. twentieth the into well persistent remained l y more intolerable
into Romania, Romania, into Sächs Saxons began to perceive perceive to began Saxons ische Volkspartei ische External External Affairs - rsrain olwn te is Wrd a i Rmna tee s no is there Romania, in War World First the following preservation 1 The American Historical Review Historical American The
ate as represented in interwar publications, examini publications, interwar in represented as ate that sought to modernize the new new the modernize to sought that they largely continued to view the view to continued largely they . the need to adapt these traditional views traditional these adapt to need the
w nation ew . In order to gauge the pulse of mainstream Saxon views on views Saxon mainstream of pulse the gauge to order In . Siebenbürgisch Chapter Chapter Three
and its political body, the body, political its and - tt, hc ws omd rud centralizing, a around formed was which state, the economic and political situation in Romania as Romania in situation political and economic the -
R 45 omanian Relations omanian
tic differences described in the preceding the in described differences tic - Deutsches Tageblatt Tageblatt Deutsches
97, Nr. 4 (1992): 1067. 1067. 4 (1992): Nr. 97,
Romanian Romanian
newly established state as an as state established newly - preservation preservation Volksrat - à - vis the other social and social other the vis
if they were to expect to were they if
territories through a through territories
. While looking at looking While . ( SDT shifted parallel shifted ng how these how ng ), the official the ),
SDT the the —
CEU eTD Collection p. 10. 2007, Berlin, Deut in Leben literarischen zum Beziehungen ― See chapter. this in revealed be furthermore will 2 however, not, were Saxons the associations, neighborhood effective and schooling private nati their lost whom north the to neighbors Swabian their than policies these from less much suffered occurred frequently latter the although magyarize, to not and accordin as well as practice, and 1867 from period the during Magyarization oppressive of complain often sources Saxon While o is suffering this of degree the although togethe direct result of inward an to lead largely A region. favor to tended Romanians protections minority that doubt to Saxons the greater a in framework. national participation without aims political and cultural their achieve to minority, I. 1918
Mic haela Nowotnick points out that this inward this that out points Nowotnick haela - 1914, it is important to remember that Magyarization patterns varied greatly in theory in greatly varied patterns Magyarization that remember to important is it 1914, udr h Mgaiain oiis n h yas olwn te 1867 the following years the in policies Magyarization the under r T It must be remembered that the Saxons and Romanians had to some extent suffered extent some to had Romanians and Saxons the that remembered be must It - 1923 he importance of of importance he lthough the outcome of the First World War and the instability created by it did it by created instability the and War World First the of outcome the lthough : The
Romanian violation of violation minorityRomanian rights policies.
Halcyon
In the years the In e emn agae o Hungarian to language German ve would be kept. One factor contributing to this trust was that the the that was trust this to contributing factor One kept. be would
- the drawing tendency among the Saxon community, Saxon the among tendency drawing
the the Saxons over the other minority groups in the Transylvanian the in groups minority other the over Saxons the
promises the Romanian government made to them regarding them to made government Romanian the promises Days agr Romanian larger g to region to g immediately following the war, there was little reason for for reason little was there war, the following immediately
cln (1907 schland - Die Karpathen Die drawing tendency is visible in interwar publications, and it and publications, interwar in visible is tendency drawing , and their fundamental intent was to modernize modernize to was intent fundamental their and , tn vrmhszd n ao historiography. Saxon in overemphasized ften 46
context - 99, M Tei, Humboldt Thesis, MA 1939),‖ , Ostland
. lay u t ter tog rdto of tradition strong their to Due
a as inability, Saxon‘s the in , Klingsor ; o example for . Siebenbürgen und seine und Siebenbürgen . 2
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a ,
CEU eTD Collection in Entente,‖ Kleinen der Staaten in den imDonaubecken, 5 (1881 Schulverein Deutscher 4 1918 Lengyel K. Zsolt also See 60. p. 2006), Verlag, eds., IKGS (Munich: Zeitgeschichte) und (Geschichte Reihe Roth, Wissenschaftliche Harald Ostmittel in and Minderheiten Hausleitner auf Nationalsozialismus Mariana und in Faschismus 1918,‖ nach Sachsen Siebenbürger den Ersten des ―Kontinuität Böttcher, Bernhard e.g. see point, this On tenable. entirely not is rule Hungarian under experience negative their of because War 3 Hungarians.‖ vis the loyalty their facilitated and populations, Saxon the to by appreciated and recognized than minorities German the to situation a granted Little … and policy the nationalities split a pursued of Entente governments the minorities], acquired newly [among efforts [irredentist] territories; united newly the organizing the between policy minority oppression Romanian affected which Saxons and Hungarian Romanians of sentiment shared a was there therefore, extent, some To period. this during community Saxon the protected that statuses and institutions th possess not did they that fact the to due largely neighbors, Saxon their did than rule Hungarian under more suffered Monarchy Dual the of populations Romanian the status under Hungarian prewar their to similar was rule Romanian under War World First the following themselves found Saxons the which in situation the regard, this In loyalty. external and preservation Hungary.‖ Magyar a of citizens loyal as living while German ethnically and linguistically Hung under ―dilemma‖ a faced Saxons Magyarization. by affected greatly
Ló Thus the argument sometimes made that the Saxons welcomed a union with Romania after the First World World First the after Romania with union a welcomed Saxons the that made sometimes argument the Thus Jonathan Kwan, ―Transylvanian Saxon Politics, Hungarian State Building and the Case of the Allgemeiner Allgemeiner the of Case the and Building State Hungarian Politics, Saxon ―Transylvanian Kwan, Jonathan ránt Tilkovszky, ―Die F ―Die Tilkovszky, ránt - 1928
While Saxon claims of Hungarian oppression may be exaggerated, it is evident that evident is it exaggerated, be may oppression Hungarian of claims Saxon While , Volume 41 of Studia Hungarica (Muni Hungarica Volume , ofStudia 41 4 Auf der Suche nach dem Kompromiß: Ursprünge und Gestalten des frühen Transsilvanismus Transsilvanismus frühen des Gestalten und Ursprünge Kompromiß: dem nach Suche der Auf
hs characteriza This
rage der politischen Zusammenarbeit der deutschen und ungarischen Minderheiten Minderheiten ungarischen und deutschen der Zusammenarbeit politischen der rage rule. rule. –
82),‖ 82),‖
English Historical Review Historical English in eosrts h da Sxn mhss n cultural on emphasis Saxon dual the demonstrates tion 3
In a recent publication, Jonathan Kwan stresses that the the that stresses Kwan Jonathan publication, recent a In Weltkrieges im Frieden? Kriegerdenkmäler und Heldenkult bei bei Heldenkult und Kriegerdenkmäler Frieden? im Weltkrieges
L ch: Verlag Ungarisches Institut, 1993). Institut, Ungarisches Verlag ch: ó ra rl i ta te ―desir[ed they that in rule arian ránt 47
Minderheitenfragen in Südosteuropa Minderheitenfragen Tilkovszky
CXXVII (2012): 592 (2012): CXXVII -
n Südosteuropa und writes that ―in order to inhibit inhibit to order ―in that writes
relatively more relatively - making 5
- hs lbris were liberties These 624.
Vlm 17 o 107 Volume ,
when it came to came it when e Enls von Einfluss Der e strong social social strong e advantageous , 403. , p. t remain to ] - dominated dominated
- à f the the f - vis
CEU eTD Collection 7 25 p. 2011), Böhlau, evangelisch Saxon the of 266 meeting p. 1976), Verlag, Böhlau (Cologne: Siebenbürgens Landeskunde zur ed., Wagner, Ernst see the of text the For provinces. Kingdom Old thewith unified be to desire their of town the Hungarian: Karlsburg; in made state, Romanian new the Mediasch to loyalty their pledge to 1919 January 6 among nationalism that idea the supports values inner on emphasis This pressures. external against buffer national and spiritual the as recognized are community the of values‖ ―inner t Instead, Transylvania. in tradition political longstanding a had Saxons the sure, be to although, strength, Saxon of source the as institutions political identify not does Roth Here, conceded ofthe tothe readership newly journal established after months just 1919, June nation. Saxon the of mainstay the was power political that presumed moment a for never leadersre Saxon fact, In cultural. and social centuries: and decades past the for had they that form self of notions Saxon the War, World First a. Theof Saxons asBearers come to years the that and fair, be would minorities their towards Romanians the of policy the period postwar immediate Inthe state. Romanian the
Hans Otto Roth, ―Politische Rundschau,‖ Rundschau,‖ ―Politische Roth, Hans Otto The The — eishr Anschlusserklärung Mediascher In light of the p the of light In values. inner our exclusivelythrough safeguarded is existence self the strengthens also but easier, politics only not conducting makes that security internal with us provides insight Turks, This to. able Russians, be never will Hungarians, they and of sovereignty the under Se been Romanians, have East the of Germans extern been never has East the in existence German of basis The while perhaps challenging inthe beginning Hnain Medgyes) Hungarian: ; sponsible for political decision political for sponsible - sächsischen Pf sächsischen - 28. Gyulafehérv Quellen zur Geschichte der Siebenbürger Sachsen 119 Sachsen Siebenbürger der Geschichte zur Quellen Nationalrat rbians, and Austrians, but they have never reigned over a state themselves, themselves, state a over reigned never have they but Austrians, and rbians,
arrers Konrad Möckel (1892 Möckel Konrad arrers olitical trust they placed in the Romanian government following the following government Romanian the in placed they trust olitical
Culture I rifre te oain eouin ae t la Iulia Alba at made resolution Romanian the reinforced It . , see Andreas Möckel, Möckel, Andreas see , ár
the ) just two months before, when the Romanians of Transylvania declared declared Transylvania of Romanians the when before, months two just
a te is ofca dcaain f the of declaration official first the was
Media Ostland - making in the community, such as Hans thecommunity,making Roth,as Otto such in ş , Vol. I, Issue 1, June 1919, 33 p. I, June1919, Issue1, Vol. ,
elrto o Annexation of Declaration 48 - preservation and nationalism maintained the the maintained nationalism and preservation -
1965) Umkämpfte Volkskirche: Leben und Wirken des des Wirken und Leben Volkskirche: Umkämpfte — , Volume 42 of Studia Transylvanica (Cologne: (Cologne: Transylvanica Studia of 42 Volume ,
would be happy and calm.would beand happy of 1918 and 1919, it was expected that expected was it 1919, and 1918 of 7
Ostland - assurance of the natio the of assurance - The … power political al 268. For a short overview of the the of overview short a For 268. Mediascher Anschlusserklärung Mediascher 1 - : 1975
Saxons as a community in in community a as Saxons
- 36.
, Volume 1 of Schriften of 1 Volume , o Romania to
Media n. Our Our n.
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(German: (German: ( , German: German: 6
Roth he he In ,
CEU eTD Collection 9 StudiaTransylvanica 8 in possibility,‖ and decisiveness for regard firm a with quality, greatest the of head political a talent, extraordinary of man ―a as contemporaries his by described was contrast, by Roth, charges theto opposition direct in is this people‖;[Saxon] own his of service the atentirely dealings Church. ( also he politician, a becoming rights the advocate to use to skills his put he 27, of age the com the in inhabited he that roles important the into himself work to him Sighişoara. from family class middle upper influential int born was he as Brandsch‘s, as steep as not was power to rise Roth‘s that is men two the between difference further A Budapest. and Zurich, Berlin, Vienna, in trained lawyer, while Yet ambitions. political same the of many shared they and Brandsch, Rudolf of contemporary internal o institutions traditional the to commitment his was Ostland to just not contributed frequently Roth community. the of institutions social and cultural sta spiritual a to but politics, to linked not was intellectuals Saxon
Hauptanwalt Ibid. Harald Harald , p. 75. 75. , p. Roth, As mentioned in the previous chapter, Hans Otto Roth Roth Otto Hans chapter, previous the in mentioned As aad oh ecie Hn Ot Rt a a pamtc fgr wo pae his ―placed who figure ―pragmatic‖ a as Roth Otto Hans describes Roth Harald
, but also to the to also but , Saxon
ae gis Badc, h ws fe accuse often was who Brandsch, against made Brandsch was a teacher by profession, Roth, ten years Brandsch‘s junior, was a was junior, Brandsch‘s years ten Roth, profession, by teacher a was Brandsch
Politische Strukturen und Strömungen bei den Sieb den bei Strömungen und Strukturen Politische fr oh h Cnrl omte ( Committee Central the both for )
politics untilpolitics the1920s well into
( Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1994 Verlag, Böhlau Cologne: SDT
and other Saxon publications during the interwar period, and it it and period, interwar the during publications Saxon other and
frequently
), 49 evd s sntr n a te an lawyer main the as and senator a as served
p.74. .
German: Schäßburg; German: Schäßburg; Zentralausschuss 8 enbürger Sachsen 1919 Sachsen enbürger
te ao nto ta dominated that nation Saxon the f Thus it was not quite as difficult for difficult as quite not was it Thus d
f usig self pursuing of of the Saxons. In addition to addition In Saxons. the of Hungarian: Segesvár Hungarian: u ebde b the by embodied tus ) (1890
munity. n te Lutheran the and - 1933 - - evn aims serving 1953) , Volume 22 of Volume22 In 1917, at 1917, In was a a was .
o an o . 9
CEU eTD Collection Reich 12 period. interwar in the Saxoncommunity 11 p. 194f. 1, Vol. Leben, meinemAus 10 only Transylvania, the Romanianstate: tofellow Germans butalso in to dutytheir not fulfill brethrento Saxon his encouragesBrandschmanifestly clear. sentiments sam the in writing Brandsch Rudolf of words inner Saxon Roth‘s in demonstrated from other GermanSaxons in communities distin to helped which culture local particular its and region the of values spiritual h Transylvanian the to attachment chapter, later a in explored be will As fulfillment. for Germany to look to began homel Transylvanian the within and Romania, in found be predicament overruled. were preservation clear was it when 1930s early by them of com the within ideas Socialist rise National Brandsch the to and resistant Roth were both character, importantly, aims: in political differences many shared their nevertheless of spite In War. World First the loyal of direction political the for responsible Saxon the in involved extremely was he politician, a As Transylvania. of development economic and industrial the in part streak. vain his of spite
This will be dealt with in the following chapter, which deals with the internal dissensions characterizing the the characterizing dissensions internal the with deals which chapter, following the in with dealt be will This This will be investigated in Chapter Five, which deals wit deals which Five, Chapter in investigated be will This Ibid.
and persisting notions of Transylvanian regionalism. Transylvanian of notions persisting and , p. 77. Roth‘s source: Archiv des Siebenbürgen des Archiv source: Roth‘s 77. p. , Indeed, this belief was a later reincarnation of the att the of reincarnation later a was belief this Indeed,
values does not exactly translate into an implication of cultural superiority, the the superiority, cultural of implication an into translate exactly not does values 10
utto above. quotation For example, Roth was not solely a po a solely not was Roth example, For
11
utemr, oh doae ta a ouin o Saxon to solution a that advocated both Furthermore, n, n otat o one gnrtos f aos who Saxons of generations younger to contrast in and,
Volksrat mln ws n at u t ter eif n h pseudo the in belief their to due part in was omeland
munity, although they eventually had to give way to way give to had eventually they although munity, fervently worked to maintain the Saxon community Saxon the maintain to worked fervently , or , f Roth‘s If Europe. that 50 ty to Romania taken by the council following council the by taken Romania to ty National
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Instituts (Gundelsheim am Neckar), Gustav Neckar), am (Gundelsheim Instituts oeig oue of volume opening e hi taiinl en o Sxn cultural Saxon of means traditional their
h the turn of the Saxon community to the German German the to community Saxon the of turn the h
oe eadn te itntvns of distinctiveness the regarding tone
Council, and was to a large extent large a to was and Council, achment to Saxon inner values inner Saxon to achment litical figure, and also took also and figure, litical Ostland Ostland
ae these make guish the the guish 12 Rösler: Rösler:
their -
CEU eTD Collection 13 Romanian felt readership threatened that state: presence cultural by its inthe new the utilized time this Roth Otto Germany Ostland accusing agenda, cultural Saxon the about suspicions expressed had 1919 mid in paper Romanian a from article such One press. Romanian the in appeared had that affairs, addressdomestic community.the Saxon would characterizepublication short run, from first its 1919 journal interwar the of issue culture. Saxon of self virtue.‖ national ―German of tradition long the with neighbors new their enlighten to duty their as it see Saxons the issue, looming a be to 1919 June in future the viewed intellectuals Saxon prominent which with confidence the lines, these reading In
Rudolf Brandsch, ―Zunkunftsfragen des Ostdeutschtums,‖ Ostdeutschtums,‖ des ―Zunkunftsfragen RudolfBrandsch, - assured notion of cultural nationalism, acting as if they were evangelizing missionaries evangelizing were they if as acting nationalism, cultural of notion assured c state the to also but us, only not to blessing a and to use of be will out, carried successfully if duties, these of All relations. new weaving and friendship to culture German our of consists all above that duty human beautiful, important, owe we that obligation most the maintaining about only not is It emn utrl omnt i w ve orevs s emn Ti cmimn t the to commitment This German? as ourselves view we if community cultural German cultural a German is there as long as s make not it be Does belong. we which to nation to continue will the with and concerned question, also German are we general sense, this In character. national German of equal development with citizens rather ultima but status,‖ Our privileged … a rights with ―colonists be to want not do We Like
itizens in the future. in itizens the of harboring Pan harboring of . In September 1919, just months after his first address to address first his after months just 1919, September In Ostland It is important to note to important is It
is what stands out. Not only does preservation of institutions not seem not institutions of preservation does only Not out. stands what is , the , Considering it their responsibility as the leading Saxon dailyresponsibility leading theirConsidering it as Saxon the pa
13 SDT e ol s o pltcl maste political not is goal te - SDT
German aims German to to ourselves, our future, and our entire people, but it also concernsan also it but people, entire our and future, our ourselves,
Ostland the new state in which we live. It means retying torn bonds of of bonds torn retying means It live. we which in state new the
editors often responded to criticisms of the Saxon community Saxon the of criticisms to responded often editors contained frequent references to the importance of c of importance the to references frequent contained SDT
to defend the Saxon not Saxon the defend to , marking the Saxonness and stubbor and Saxonness the marking ,
because they because
that both of their articles appear in the inaugural the in appear articles their of both that valuable 51 ense for us to acknowledge the [international] [international] the acknowledge to us for ense
B German national virtue national German Ostland r oth Roth and Brandsch touted the same same the touted Brandsch and Roth oth y … but simply the maintenance and and maintenance the simply but … y facilitate in
to to , Vol. I, Issue 1, June 1919, p. p. 27 1919, I, June Issue1, Vol. , revealing the wonderful treasure treasure wonderful the revealing - good as belong will we which 1921. ion of cultural nationalism to a to nationalism cultural of ion d
cultural collaboration cultural
Ostland , not only about an about only not , n optimism that optimism n ‘s readers, Hans readers, ‘s
oras like journals
ulture in ulture - 28. per to
with
-
CEU eTD Collection 15 14 importantly, ofnational maintenance andcultural unity thecommunity. within the of fortification nation: cultural necessary. also the was 1920s, early the Throughout mobilization state; Romanian the within existence their maintain Saxons the of culture superior and values inner the that think to as statesmen life‖ is ―Organization and Saxon the Ro both benefit would which duties universal the out carrying and culture German spreading for means The superiority. cultural and unity national of declarations institutions. cultural and social their preserve to determination their of spite in loyal politically remained appeared above one the the in frequently as such their Articles that to. goals prone more irredentist were the countrymen attempt Hungarian to situation weak numerically their of aware tha nationalism of definitions cultural the maintain to continued Saxons the while goals, similar of Saxons the suspected naturally homogenization, territorial and institutional, linguistic, educational, ethnic, with concerned purs to soon Romania, aims. postwar other‘s each up sizing to came it when page same the on not were Romanians and Saxons the that unsurprising is It
Rudolf Brandsch, ―Zunkunftsfragen des Ostdeutschtums,‖ Ostdeutschtums,‖ des ―Zunkunftsfragen RudolfBrandsch, Zeitschrift ‗Ostland,‘ ―DieRoth, Hans Otto manian nations were through rigid social organization: In the words of Rudolf Brandsch, Rudolf of words the In organization: social rigid through were nations manian vain. given in werenot expect we confidently which Romanian the that prove will future The … state Romanian the to threat political a become never could community cultural German However, the self the However,
SDT , as signs of re of signs as , (― Organisation ist Leben ist Organisation
- preservation policy pursued by the Saxons was not as simple as simple as not was Saxons the by pursued policy preservation
SDT assurance to the Romanian state that the Saxon nation Saxon the that state Romanian the to assurance ‖ emphasized a few key means to upholding the Saxon Saxon the upholding to means key few a emphasized te hd o centuries. for had they t SDT schools state obtained loyal citizens and that the liberties liberties the that and citizens loyal obtained state , Vol. 46. Nr. 13955, 14 September 1919, p. p. 1 September1919, 14 13955, Nr. 46. Vol. , 52
‖ friiain f the of fortification , 15 ) . Ostland 14
Brandsch and Roth were not such naïve such not were Roth and Brandsch
, Vol. I, Issue 1, June 1919, p. p. 27 1919, I, June Issue1, Vol. , ue highly politicized politicized highly ue Volksrat chur
edr wr too were leaders ch
ad most and, ,
could alone could - 2.
reforms - 28.
CEU eTD Collection 2007, University, 18 17 16 curricu entire not The language. was Romanian in it instruction … by replaced beginning the at and cancelled was language Hungarian namely, in information: ―instruction specific more provides which system, school Saxon the of study affairs.‖ educational the in Church the of authority complete the to led which field, educational the in legislation of void a practically was there 1924, Cristian language. German the of use the over control them gave also that one and 1919, January in maintain to beworsened will discussed inthe markedly following as point, by this chapter. had situation financial the and more, for calls still were there 1922, by years, postwa immediate the in forthcoming been have may donations voluntary attack.‖ these under While come] [will life cultural entire our of hub central and core the danger, the as For, schools. and church‖ the of aid the to come to donations ―voluntary and means fundraising to resort new the in situation the by on brought practicalities self of conceptions theoretical, or ideal, the Thus worse. the for pocketbooks their of state the left the from rates exchange miserable the as crisis fu of need in were they b.
―Eine Volksabgabe für die sächsiche Kirche,‖ Kirche,‖ sächsiche die für ―EineVolksabgabe Volksschullehrer,‖ unserer Vorbildung ―Zur e.g. See, Cristian Cercel, ― Cercel, Cristian Preservation ofthe As press reports reveal, the Saxon schools were not so much in need of renewal as as renewal of need in much so not were schools Saxon the reveal, reports press As Despite financial woes financial Despite -
Cercel p reservation through institutional preservation collided with the everyday everyday the with collided preservation institutional through reservation
control of its schools, a condition that they had set for joining Greater Romania Romania Greater joining for set had they that condition a schools, its of control p.17 emphasizes The Relationship between Religious Religious between Relationship The - 18. SDT Confessi
nding.
rcamd n ac 11, I or hrh n shos r in are schools and church our ―If 1919, March in proclaimed ― that in the first years period,of theinterwar namely first that inthe
16
onal Schoolsand the Saxon community was happy at least during this period this during least at happy was community Saxon the
Even the wealthier Saxons were facing were Saxons wealthier the Even SDT , Vol. 46, Nr. 13798, 5 March 1919, p p 1919, 1. March 5 13798, Nr. 46, Vol. , 53 SDT
and National Identity,‖ Identity,‖ National and Hungarian the , Vol. 46, Nr. 13787, 20 February 1919, February20 Nr. 13787, 1919, 46, Vol. , Church Romanian Crown
18 state, forcing the Saxons to Saxons the forcing state,
to the new Romanian Lei Romanian new the to e ie Wle König‘s Walter cites He MA Thesis, Central European European Central Thesis, MA u ws n h mother the in was lum
a severe economic severe
from 1918 p. 5. p.
17 r -
CEU eTD Collection p. 1 June1921, 3 Nr. 14430, 48, 20 17 Identity,‖p. Wel beiden den Zwischen 19 instit Saxon in trained themselves were who Saxon teachers by but state, Romanian the by not and for, cared be to therefore had they future, the church sch confessional the of preservation the on emphasis more place i together, system,merely these served toincrease efforts. school Saxon the affect did which 1920s, mid the of reforms school Romanian 1920s early the be to it for schools. confessional exclude explicitly calling to clarified draft, the of wording the about nervous somewhat was Schullerus our in law become they as far in schools state in concern us thedraftlegislation only that ―the of repercussions Romania, butconcluded occur to set were that changes the of some concern with explained always not might control kept industrial o the considering remarkable was 1924 until lasted language.‖ German in were prints and acts all and authorities ecclesiastical the of plan educational the to according tongue,
Senator D. Schullerus, ―De Schullerus, D. Senator atr öi, Ds Sch ―Das König, Walter ―new blood,‖ or blood,‖ ―new a close eye on the evolution of Romanian state schools, as there were fears that this that fears were there as schools, state Romanian of evolution the on eye close a . But it should be remembered that control of the of control that remembered be should it But . osdrn te oe f h cuc a te oil e bind web social the as church the of role the Considering — t is somewhat surprising to note that throughout the 1920s, the the 1920s, the throughout that note to surprising somewhat is t be - 18. Translated by Cristian Cercel. Cristian by Translated 18. ing implemented by the Romanian government Romanian the by implemented ing
tesn te motne f uprig h cnesoa shos ad the and schools, confessional the supporting of importance the stressing Nachwuchs t kriegen lee dr ibnügr ahe i dr Zwi der in Sachsen Siebenbürger der ulwesen r Gesetzentwurf über die staatlichen Anstalten des Volksunterrichts,‖ Volksunterrichts,‖ des Anstalten staatlichen die über Gesetzentwurf r
be maintained. In maintained. be - 2.
,
own schools,‖ something that was not likely to occur. to likely not was that something schools,‖ own utd n ecl ― Cercel, in quoted
of the Saxon community Saxon the of 19
The fact that this curricular freedom curricular this that fact The
deed, in 1921, in deed, 54
The Relationship between Religious Religious between Relationship The Countless articles appear in the in appear articles Countless hr reforms ther utions.
. Because children represented the the represented children Because . schoo
Saxon s Saxon .
hs hr ws concerted a was there Thus s Nevertheless, Nevertheless, ls determined ls hnreset in chenkriegszeit‖ — ools than on that of the the of that on than ools enator political, agrarian, and and agrarian, political, n te community the ing
in private schools private in Adolf SDT
Saxon leaders Saxon the Siebenbürgen Siebenbürgen
and National National and
Schullerus seemed to seemed quality of of quality SDT SDT 20
in so , Vol. Vol. , Still, in
CEU eTD Collection self national Volksrat the of opinions the Echoing unified. politically and spiritually, culturally, remain to nation Saxon the encouraging those were updates, economic and political regular of exception c. institutions. Saxon conservative the to challengesvoice to began dissenters social and increased Romania in difficulties economic the as important particularly became character national unified a preserving of importance neglected not was that society Saxon of aspect One church. the of those than period interwar early the in schools confessional the of needs financial the emphasize the for crucial more was it Thus stability. economic by purely not and members, financial severe faced too, existen its church, difficulties, the Although consequences. similar with down, no the endangering thus was there if Furthermore, tradition. educational Saxon and them, language German the of survival attend to able be not would children their schools, the for confessional the of in used be future The existence. in to still was it as long as church attend continue would Saxons that and services would language German the that clear was It period. interwar explana one is which schools, the as reforms) state or funding of lack as (such threats external to vulnerable as not was contrast, the of needs the for provide to effort
Cultural Cultural
funding for the schools from the side of the state and the parish, then they must be shut shut be must they then parish, the and state the of side the from schools the for funding Some of the most frequent articles appearing in the in appearing articles frequent most the of Some ,
editors of the the of editors Einheit - preservation.
and schools could not be so easily taken for granted: if parents could not pay pay not could parents if granted: for taken easily so be not could schools
e a i sm fr o another or form some in was ce Its Implications Political SDT
Similar to the church and schools, Saxon national unification wasnationalunification Saxon schools, churchand the to Similar
nepee nation interpreted tion for the dearth of articles concerning it in the early the in it concerning articles of dearth the for tion schools 55
within the Saxon community. Saxon the within
al unification, or or unification, al
Volk within the Saxon community; this this community; Saxon the within
nue b te tedne o attendance the by ensured SDT srat srat
during 1918 during which had long dominatedlong had which Einheit
however was the was however , as the key to to key the as ,
The church, by by church, The - 1923, with the with 1923, SDT its f
to
CEU eTD Collection 22 21 in acting simply wereThey minorities. their towards malevolently and deliberately acting was government Bucharest the that imply to not is This counties. the to great lengths Bucharest. in government central the to responsible territories small la the were land extensive as well as state regulations, exam new schools, private for regularcuts funding schools, confessional of inspections to led territories, new the modernize to meant war, the after implemented to revealed was on, wore time as which, assumption an years, coming the with improve would Romania in situation political and new changes theFirst following War. World surviv could and character, this preserved had it because past the in changes political confessional would retain but generations, all through immutable remain would character Naturally parallel: An right. own its in institution of sort a as viewed
Cercel, ― Cercel, Lebensmut,‖ ―Sächsischer social already begun to develop a unified national character within the first decades of our our of decades first the within wereunable we if occur character would existence our to national threat true only The … unified homeland new the in a settlement develop to begun already th reason only The However, Saxon Saxon However,
The Relationship between Religious Religious between Relationship The inequalities previously created by German and Hungarian and German by created previously inequalities edr o te ao cmuiy i nt assume not did community Saxon the of leaders tr a te cnetd the converted they as tter, ,
the same fundamental values that marked it as Saxon: namely its unique its namely as thatmarkedit Saxon: fundamental values same the n lnusi iett. h ble ws ht h Sxn ain a survived had nation Saxon the that was belief The identity. linguistic and to
to preserve this historically imprinted skill in our new circumstances. our in skill imprinted historically this preserve to make at we were able to pull through the many centuries was because we had had we because was centuries many the through pull to able were we at SDT the the Volksrat reforms and adminis and reforms , Vol. 46, Nr. 13869, 4 June 1919, p. p. 1. 4 Nr.June1919, 13869, 46, Vol. , new divisions on the basis ofethnic tobalancenew thebasis on lines inorder divisions out
leaders were relying on the assumption that the economic the that assumption the on relying were leaders uooos onis f h Hbbr Epr into Empire Habsburg the of counties autonomous and National Identity,‖ National and
e piitc t et Te etaiig reforms centralizing The best. at optimistic be 56
trative changes. trative SDT
article in June 1919 reflects this this reflects 1919 June in article
p. 21. p.
22
ht this that Perhaps most devastating most Perhaps a manner that best suited best that manner a hy i asm that assume did they The government went government The dominance 21 nfe national unified
in certain in
social, e the e
it
CEU eTD Collection 24 1995) 1918 Struggle Ethnic & Building, Nation Regionalism, 23 community Saxon the to Germans atmospherewarm joint of accentuateopportunity[the] thean to than ―representedmore nothing of visit the that suspected gazette Romanian inv by Germany with Romanian the by made the in appeared article an example, for 1921, September In the potential harmful the recognize to right was government Romanian the ways, some In mobilization. political to leading of capable as mobilization cultural Saxon view to quick were they minorities, misunderstanding aimsclear becomes ofRomanian inthe following citation: institutions traditional their preserved which nationalism state homogenized consolidated, a create to sought Romanians the While nationalism. of conceptions Saxon and Romanian political territories new the centralize to go would maintainit.nation, to which ledtorenewed theSaxons of effortsthe part on aims. centralizing their
―Sächsischer Lebensmut,‖ Lebensmut,‖ ―Sächsischer hs cnrlzn tnece ae vriwd in overviewed are tendencies centralizing These , C hapter 1, ―The State on the Cul theon State ―The 1, hapter In 1919 the Saxons were unprepared for the lengths the for unprepared were Saxons the 1919 In Although it may not have beenexplici Although the may it nothave [ territory of bit little a us. repressing gain to than helpers and collaborators as Saxons greater a in us the need Gradually they Yet role]. this [in fut and strength our that value this in is It … needed workers cultural as measure are longer no we Romanians], [the ones new the To auxiliaries. political as us needed Hungarians] [the authorities previous The
reforms. 23 24
oan wl b convinced be will Romains
hs a largely was This ―unified na ―unified tn svrl emn rfsos o umr ore i Sbu The Sibiu. in courses summer to professors German several iting SDT Gazeta Transilvaniei Gazeta
n o on, oee, hy undermine they however, doing, so In , Vol. 46, Nr. 13869, 4 June 1919, p. p. 1. 4 Nr.June1919, 13869, 46, Vol. ,
tural Offensive,‖ p. 29 p. turalOffensive,‖ tional character‖ tional te aos otne t pursue to continued Saxons the ,
u, s ugse aoe t te ifrne i the in differences the to above, suggested as due,
by means of agrarian, education agrarian, of means by
Irina Livezeanu, Livezeanu, Irina 57 ht t s oe o hi avnae o ae us have to advantage their to more is it that
that the Saxons were nurturing political ties political nurturing were Saxons the that -
1930 1930 t intent oft intent the Romanians―repress‖their to
of the Saxons might have in future years. future in have might Saxons the of - 48. (Ithaca and London: and (Ithaca
Cultural Politics in Greater Romania: Romania: Greater in Politics Cultural
n ntoa unity national and
to which the which to SDT d
in response to criticisms criticisms to response in h uiy f h Saxon the of unity the ure prospects lie … lie prospects ure
Cornell University Press, Press, University Cornell Lebensraum clua nto of notion cultural a Romanian regime Romanian al, religious, and religious, al,
Te Saxon The . by ]
CEU eTD Collection 26 Romania thefor existing good weretoo they thought 25 redistribute to government Romanian the by attempt deliberate a as seen often was reforms political and religious, industrial, school, agrarian, the of implementation sources, interwar II. political the into transform eventually nationalism ofthe1930s. would character cultural this that fear their in Roma further W were cultivated. Germany to ties if politicized become quickly might nationalism cultural of implications SDT and feeling, in … soul, and heart with German, are they that fact the in rejoicing and one German a such, As created.‖ and produced spirit German the that [things] beautiful and mighty, ―great, the sp close in unity: cultural of bonds were Germany and Saxons the between of accusations citizenship‖ national uthor
―Nörgelei,‖ The gazette further accused the Saxons of harboring a sense of cultural superiority, implying that they they that implying superiority, cultural of sense a harboring of Saxons the accused further gazette The
Romanian Romanian i dmntae wy h Rmna atoiis ih rgty ae erd the feared have rightly might authorities Romanian the why demonstrates it , nian state. Thus in some ways, some in Thus state. nian an abandonment of the Saxon Saxon the of abandonment an
implied the existence of a unified national character binding the Saxon nation to the to nation Saxon the binding character national unified a of existence the implied When viewed in light of Saxon historiography, especially in light of contemporary of light in especially historiography, Saxon of light in viewed When iritual and cultural association with Germany and German Austria,‖ recognizing Austria,‖ German and Germany with association cultural and iritual
SDT : ―The Saxons are in the habit of continually and ubiquitously … accentuating accentuating … ubiquitously and continually of habit the in are Saxons ―The : dealing.‖ ehr utrl r oiia, ik t Ge to links political, or cultural hether Modernizing Modernizing political , Vol. 48, Nr. 14510, 7 September 1921, p. 1. 7 September1921, Nr. 14510, 48, Vol. , a unified and mobilized Saxon nation. Their fear was was fear Their nation. Saxon mobilized and unified a
26 xsig ewe te w nations. two the between existing
Although this article was more emphatic than most appearing in the in appearing most than emphatic more was article this Although ilyly te uhr f the of author the disloyalty,
Project
s the Romanians may have been have may Romanians the
emn eiae a utikbe Furthermore, unthinkable. was heritage German n universities (probably a just accusation). just a (probably nuniversities 58
SDT rmany could entail danger for the the for danger entail could rmany 25
ril epaie that emphasized article
n ein rsos t these to response defiant In
the Saxons ―want to remain to ―want Saxons the
more forward more that Saxon goals of goals Saxon that hi thinking, their
- thinking h ties the the
CEU eTD Collection ( Hungarica ofStudia Volume50 Rumänien in Minderheitselite ungarischen der Strategien Politische Anpassung: und Ablehnung 29 28 1919 of Government 27 class middle the which in country a for up drawn been had which 1923, and 1866 itself structure political the in flaw fatal o makeup social actual the to counter ran that interests of conflict a to led model western a on based modernize and industrialize to desired who Liberals National dominant the and character agricultural Romania‘s preserve to wished conservative between competition The other. the on it homogenize ethnically sociallyand to and hand one the on nation the modernize effortsto nation of process neutralthe dissension, and bydisorganization government, new Romanian wi instituted aims national own their with ―nation Romanian of concept Roma to due extent alike political and social institutions.‖ political new of creation the was building reinforces Hitchins Keith wereof the ideaactually Sheto modernizewrites: thecountry. reforms meant thatthese t combats Brown Victoria lines. ethnic along power political and social
Hitchins, ―Romania,‖ p. 1067. p. ―Romania,‖ Hitchins, Franz Sz. Sz. Franz Bloc Parliamentary The I: War World after Rumania in Reform for Movement ―The Brown, F. Victoria than thepast. brighter be to future the expect to reason had Rumanians many 1919 in But of West. the imitation an as or sham a as government of form parliamentary country‘s the dismiss to year, after year low, and places high in corruption of examples striking find to enough easy was it politics, Rumanian of world labyrinthine the In Horváth th the formation of any new nation. Because of the particular makeup of the of makeup particular the of Because nation. new any of formation the th 27
-
1920,‖ 1920,‖ gives a useful brief overview of the political system in Greater Romania in Romania Greater in system political the of overview brief useful a gives nia‘s diverse new ethnic makeup. While many Saxons interpreted the interpreted Saxons many While makeup. ethnic new diverse nia‘s Slavic Review Slavic
—
Munich: Verlag Ungarisches Institut, 2007 Institut, Ungarisches Munich: Verlag hs view this 29 ol o cus hv a ern o ehi eeet t some to elements ethnic on bearing a have course of would -
building‖ as negative because it had the potenti the had it because negative as building‖ however, which, as has already been noted, was characterized noted,was alreadyas been has which, however, i can it ,
38, Nr. 3 (1979), p. 456. 3 (1979), p. Nr. 38, on, run ta ― that arguing point, — — n should and the middle the 59
both before and after World War I, and I, War World after and before both — - class character of the constitutions of constitutions the of character class e nepee a a eta process neutral a as interpreted be 28 f
Romanian
The creation of new institutions new of creation The the country. Hitchins points to ―a to points Hitchins country. the n seta apc o nation of aspect essential An ), p. p. 45 ), - building soon devolved into into devolved soon building oiiin wo largely who politicians - 49.
his view in defense in view his al to interfere to al 1931
Zwischen Zwischen - 1940
— - ,
CEU eTD Collection p. 62. 1995), Verlag, Böhlau Archiv(Cologne: in Zwischenkriegszeit,‖ 31 30 ethnic the advantage the to be would results the that feared was it as flag, to beginning was predi to attempting community the the demonstrate that even articles ramifications. These of members wealthier those focus particularly the been long had reform planned the Thus property. their than wealthier traditionally the of much and Transylvania, in rights territorial held long had Saxons the chapter, previous 1913 since already planned l Transylvanian the was territories, acquired newly their over have to desired Romanians the control centralized complete the of as well as nationalism, Romanian of a. The 1921Agraria through of examination the1921agrarian and an the1923constitution. reform revealed be will as complicated, further was situation the lines, ethnic along divided be to reform via modernization on predicated government a into peasants Romanian of masses the of incorporation with will.‖ and education in lacking majority and enlightened an with peasant a and politicians not professional of circle small a to left was but lay citizenry experienced machinery political sophisticated of operation the pop the of stratum narrow a only constituted
Ibid., aie ibn, De Mind ―Die Ciobanu, Vasile Königsboden 30
p. 1068. p.
One of the most pronounced signs of the socially and ethnically homogenizing aims homogenizing ethnically and socially the of signs pronounced most the of One Thus the difficulties lay not only with incorporation of ethnic minorities, but also but minorities, ethnic of incorporation with only not lay difficulties the Thus
a md u o cuc poet. utemr, Saxo Furthermore, property. church of up made was n Reform idret n Nationalsta und Minderheit
and industrialization. Because the various social strata happened strata social various the Because industrialization. and 31 e
r
but finally enacted in summer 1921. As was mentioned in the in mentioned was As 1921. summer in enacted finally but heitenfrage in den Programmen Rumänischer Parteien während der der während Parteien Rumänischer Programmen den in heitenfrage oain egbr, h otn i nt vn own even not did often who neighbors, Romanian xeine hm h pltcas ol mnplt at manipulate could politicians the whom experience
60 at ulation.‖ He continues, ―As a consequence … consequence a ―As continues, He ulation.‖ , ed. Harald Roth, Volume 31 of Siebenbürgisches Siebenbürgisches of 31 Volume Roth, Harald ed. ,
enthusiasm of enthusiasm of
f h Sxn rs, with press, Saxon the of optimistic contributors optimistic n landowners were were landowners n
n reform, and t its ct
CEU eTD Collection Ethnologist 34 33 32 con local counties necessity ―the p had that the version cultural supplement to nationalism political a for need the implied that sentiments negative of deluge a sparked reforms agrarian the press, Saxon mainstream the in identified clearly of detriment the church families alike. confessional communities, schools,andindividual to peasants, Romanian mostly neighbors, Transylvanian their among c the of hectares went communi the finally for disastrous reform as viewed were the results the When through, misplaced. not were fears Saxon the that demonstrate belies the fears, butalso regarding theresolution changes: ofthe Saxons theimminent o debates after weeks few a just published 1921, community. the of anchor an as hope enduring identifying often the in appeared Saxon of cost the at Romanians
―Gefährliche Schlagworte,‖ Schlagworte,‖ ―Gefährliche müde?,‖ Hoffens ―Des e.g., See Kathe ersnaie. h rpeettvs f h chbtn ntos a ol co only decision the in voice decisive givena be not will can they caution; and nations cohabiting the of representatives The representatives. The it. to tha made ourselves was resigned decision parliamentary we and out, carried be to had reform the that understood We A fre The land the nonby owned inis Transylvania of expropriation for prospected that isbeing much because … reform Transylvanian the in fore the to come strongly would agrarian the of rine Verdery, ―The Unmaking of an Ethnic Collectivity: Transylvania‘s Germans,‖ Germans,‖ Transylvania‘s Collectivity: Ethnic an of Unmaking ―The Verdery, rine . Such a government, he government, a Such . ditions, should be fair and capable of fulfilling its tasks; it should work quickly but quickly work should it tasks; its fulfilling of capable and fair beshould ditions, lthough it was not until 1923 until not was it lthough
12 (February 1985), p. 72. (February12 1985),
of un rprs n h pors o te eae pbihd n umr 1921 summer in published debates the of progress the on reports quent SDT
true self true ommunity‘s corporate landholdings were parceled up and distributed distributed and up parceled were landholdings corporate ommunity‘s
eom n h Od igo already Kingdom Old the in reform urging
SDT - administration, with as few limitations as possible‖ in t in possible‖ as limitations few as with administration, reviously
SDT the Saxons not to give up hope in the Romanian government, Romanian the in hope up give to not Saxons the , Vol. 48, Nr. 14462, 13 July 1921, p. 1. July13 1921, Nr. 14462, 48, Vol. ,
, Vol. 48, Nr. 14443, 19 June 1921, 1. p. 19 14443, June1921, Nr. 48, Vol. , territory wrote, ―should have a modern administration adapted to to adapted administration modern a have ―should wrote,
existed t the [reform] should be left left be should [reform] the t that a more pronounced anti pronounced more a that . However, as in earl in as However, . . In early July, Dr. Siegfried Siegfried Dr. July, early In . 61
ver the agrarian form began in parliament, in began form agrarian the ver
suggested
ier years, frequent articles still still articles frequent years, ier to us that radical attitudes attitudes radical that us to
in the hands of hands the in - making. The proceedings proceedings The making. ty. Approximately 20,000 Approximately ty.
32
- n ril n mid in article An Romanian shift can be can shift Romanian - Romanians. - advise, clarify, clarify, advise, 34
Klokner
Romanian Romanian 33
he Saxon he
American American invok
- July ed
CEU eTD Collection 37 36 35 the readers; Romanian and leadSaxons the through only conservative the fulfilled both for solutions dreaded most the of one communism, of implementation be could injustices all level to desire the that tone ominous ser that injustice new for atoned be ―should injustices Such committed been have injustices national and ―social author The harboring blata to not was situation postwar u improve; the perhaps that leaders Saxon of recognition dawning community.werefarfromof thesmallSaxon the wishes were and desirable, not was pronouncements form this in autonomy that proclaiming articles Klokner‘s course, Of the of even nor nation, Saxon entire the of neither representative feared. government Romanian the outgrowths. should and well, also
―Gefährliche Schlagworte,‖ Schlagworte,‖ ―Gefährliche ―Siebenb W., K. Dr. e.g. See, Verwaltungsreformentwurfs,‖ ―Kritikdes Siegfried Klokner, Dr. The article cited above ended on a decidedly pessimistic note that demonstrated the demonstrated that note pessimistic decidedly a on ended above cited article The Indeed, this warning against the road leading to communism was not only meant for meant only not was communism to leading road the against warning this Indeed, centuries. the over by Romanians the suffered oftheall for injustices compensate Representative to intended is committee, which reform, agrarian the agrarian of character t national the the emphasized the of of delegate session to first the important the Chilezan, In was groups. nationality ethnic of of citizens different between made was difference question no which in emphasized, the always was reform] the that well t from But, knew form. agrarian Transylvanian all [we] Indeed, caatrsial, t et o a a t acs te oain oenet of government Romanian the accuse to as far so went it ncharacteristically, 35 claimed
It was exactly this more politicized attitude within the S the within attitude politicized more this exactly was It nt ethnic aims inimplementing thereforms:nt ethnic ing Romanians alike
that historical i historical that ,
as far as possible as far as e t bnft h forme the benefit to ves SDT
SDT ürgen,‖
contained frequent articles that implied an internal enemy internal an implied that articles frequent contained , Vol. 48, Nr. 14462, 13 July 1921, p. 1. July13 1921, Nr. 14462, 48, Vol. ,
he Transylvanian ruling party, spoke candidly. He openly openly He candidly. spoke party, ruling Transylvanian he SDT njustices have no place in place no have njustices . , Vol. 49, Nr. 14721, 29 June 1922, p. 1 June1922, 29 Nr. 14721, 49, Vol. , 37 bt hog a rda dvlpet nt hog a through not development, gradual a through but ,
,
eliminate all despotic individuals with their corrupt their with individuals despotic all eliminate hose in positions of authority, the social nature [of nature social the authority, of positions in hose 62
l dsdatgd‖ e concluded He disadvantaged.‖ rly
since SDT 36
Vol. 48, Nr. 14456, p. 1 p. Nr. 14456, 48, Vol. h fudtos f h world. the of foundations the
political decision political
SDT - , which also contained contained also which , 2. axon community that community axon
that irredentist aims irredentist that - - 2. making, as making,
n an in — the the ‖
CEU eTD Collection 39 38 self national at efforts redoubled to led and optimism of coffin the on lid the nailed 1923 in constitution Romanian new the of drafting the 1918, in Romania Greater to loyalty their pledging in decision right the made had they b. The 1923Constitution desir their achieving even andmodernization industrialization. without Saxons the as such minorities ethnic peasants.‖ prosperous of number small relatively the exclusively almost benefited crops, industrial promot the and credit, rural of expansion an cooperatives, for support as such period, progress.‖ alt significantly 1920s the of reforms land extensive the even ―not and II,‖ War World until Saxon and threat, external an constituted reform agrarian the inter with deals chapter, which following the in raised be again will context this in practice unity national Saxon maintaining traditional of defiance radical in collaboration, internationally the by endangered felt Saxons conservative years, postwar early the in threats external by Democrats Social
Hi Agrarreform,‖ siebenbürgische die und Abgeordneten ―Unsere ered the traditional patterns of production, despite despite production, of patterns traditional the ered t chins, ―Romania,‖ p. 1068 p. ―Romania,‖ chins, - Romanian relations inthe decadecome. to Despite occasional events that reminded, or at least persuaded, Saxon leaders that leaders Saxon persuaded, least at or reminded, that events occasional Despite ―agriculture Hitchins, writes Ironically,
39 Furthermore,
Thus in Thus - minded Social Democrats who tended towards class, rather than ethnic, ethnic, than rather class, towards tended who Democrats Social minded — who threatened to divide the community from w from community the divide to threatened who
implementing the reforms, the Romanian government served to isolate to served government Romanian the reforms, the implementing - communal relations. In any case, the voices of the of voices the case, any In relations. communal
―The reforms that governments did introduce in the interwar interwar the in introduce did governments that reforms ―The - 1069
.
63
eand h fudto o te economy the of foundation the remained 38
- SDT preservation. Committees comprised Committees preservation. clear evidence that they impeded impeded they that evidence clear
, Vol. 48, Nr. 14465, 1. p. Nr. 14465, 48, Vol. , its
ucm praety tainted permanently outcome Tu, h tee of theme the Thus, . ithin.
Even more than more Even SDT ed aims for for aims ed
reveal that reveal Saxon Saxon ion of ion
CEU eTD Collection Verfassungsausschuß,‖ 40 Saxo of program postwar early the of light in expected the in focus central of also were of andtheentireco nottaken, indication to minorities only referring as construed be could pla in used be must citizens‖ ―Romanian term the that out point to and meaningless‖ and―unacceptable as article decrythe to quick was Roth Otto Hans harmless, relatively seemed statement this Although etc.‖ assembly, of press, the of freedoms, public f conscience, of freedom laws: and constitution the guaranteedthrough complete without enjoy Romanians, will religion, ―All and constitution: language, origin, the of of differentiation 5 Article for suggested was wording the by reported as example, of For form nationalism. homogenizing own, their support to order in Romanians the by used be might wording education, thenew and state language inthefollowing in decades. religion, of status the mandate would legislation its as paramount, was Romania, in living Saxons, the to only not constitution new the of importance portrayal Saxon the to according beginning the from rocky were Proceedings 1923. March in enacted const new the draft to 1922 late in meeting began Brandsch, Rudolf and Roth Otto Hans as such Saxons several including state, Romanian the of representatives of
De idretnrg i dr Ve der in Minderheitenfrage ―Die In addition to questions of ethnicity, those of religion, education, and language were language and education, religion, of those ethnicity, of questions to addition In conscien particularly were Roth Otto Hans as such experts Legal
of the new constitution, as the Saxons feared that every ambiguous turn of phrase of turn ambiguous every that feared Saxons the as constitution, new the of in the in . 40
However, the ruling party was not so easily persuaded, and Roth‘s suggestions Roth‘s and persuaded, easily so not was party ruling the However, SDT SDT , which followed the progress of the drafting with rapt attention. The attention. rapt with drafting the of progress the followed which , , Vol. 49, Nr. 14867, 17 December 1922, 2. p. 1922, December 17 Nr. 14867, 49, Vol. ,
SDT fsug Rdn e Abgeordnete des Reden rfassung. s nlss f h cntttoa datn, s a t be to was as drafting, constitutional the of analysis ‘s 64 nstitutional proceedings.nstitutional ethnic
SDT
otae nud wh ensued outrage , oain ad o seiial to specifically not and Romanians n cul n ce of ―all Romanians,‖ as the latter the as Romanians,‖ ―all of ce
tural nationalism. For example, For nationalism. tural but also to the other minorities minorities other the to also but
n Dr. Hans Otto Roth im großen großen im Roth Otto Hans Dr. n
reedom of education, of reedom itution, which was was which itution, n h following the en tious about the the about tious
CEU eTD Collection und Januar,‖ 18. 17. am undMühlbach Reußmarkt 43 p. 1 January1923, 5), January Bucharest, Agency, Telegraphic ‗Lux‘ the of (Report Sprachenfrage‖ 42 41 commu the within reforms political and social for out call did individuals many Although expected. be the in expressed be similarly sustained. would unity national their that were assumed was institutions it laws, cultural new the their by protected that ensuring By continuity. national Saxon ensuring notio cultural a that demonstrates press Saxon the in language and religion, education, of issues these on emphasis continued self for hoped we which with belief and eagerness ―To Saxons: conservative among mid in words Roth‘s but 1923, March in enacted was constitution the before months following the in upon improved were concerns these of the of language official neglecting entirely thus state,‘‖ Romanian the is language Romanian ‗the states, 119 Article that extent SDT r Saxon by ―tenuous‖ as viewed similarly were 24 Article in schools the of Descriptions law. the of applications future in misrepresented be thus would Lutheranthe Churchthat all of protection and―freedom the described which 22, Article of wording 1923 January the over concern great was there
Emphasis added. Emphasis ―Rede des Abg. Dr. Hans O Hans Dr. Abg. des ―Rede ―Die Shlußverhandlungen des großen Verfassungsausschusses. Kirche und Schule, Vereinigungsrecht und Vereinigungsrecht Schule, und Kirche Verfassungsausschusses. großen des Shlußverhandlungen ―Die reports that ―the question of language is only handled in the constitutional draft to the to draft constitutional the in handled only is language of question ―the that reports t s oal t notable is It
nity itself, as will be discussed in the following chapter, the mainstream the chapter,following the in discussed be will as itself, nity -
3. SDT
during this period, did not lead to an abrupt change in tactic as might as tactic in change abrupt an to lead not did period, this during a te iapitet wt te oain oenet clearly government, Romanian the with disappointments the hat
— tto Roth über die politische Lage. Gehalten in den Wählerversammlungen von Wählerversammlungen den in Gehalten Lage. politische die über Roth tto naturally not viewed as a ―cult‖ in the eyescongregationthe its ―cult‖in of a as viewednaturally not
cults o self of n
a oe ut lot ag we rmmeig the remembering when laugh almost must one day by the state,‖ the by
SDT the use of minority languages. minority of use the - rsrain a sil iwd s h mas of means the as viewed still was preservation 65 , Vol. 50, Nr. 14895, 24 January 1923, p. 1 January241923, Nr. 14895, 50, Vol. ,
41 -
January revealed the prevailing attitude prevailing the revealed January rather than of all of ratherthan - determination.‖ epresentatives. Importantly, the Importantly, epresentatives. churches SDT 43 , Vol. 50, Nr. 14882, 9 14882, Nr. 50, Vol. , 42
eetees the Nevertheless
Of course, some course, Of . The fear wasfear The . - 2. Volksrat
—
CEU eTD Collection 21), February Bucharest, ‗Universul,‘ from 44 policy Saxon traditional of and state Romanian the of critical more was that ideas political the Despite 1926. in again from differences media the outlets with Saxon traditional the infiltrate to began war, from returning men young of those particular significantly subsided the in action their characterized th Yet years. postwar immediate had that nationalism cultural of policy the renewed unwilling mid the in actors mainstream Institutional III. chapter.this 1924 from periods two into divided be can which 1923, following years the tracing After years? following the in nationalism cultural thof course their continue Saxons the did laws, in its and government disappointments clear despite Why, case. the is this why is arises naturally preservation. cultural of strategy their continued Roth as such leaders
―Die Minderheitenrechte in der neuen Verfassung. Eine Aeßuerung des Abgeordneten B Abgeordneten des Aeßuerung Eine Verfassung. neuen der in Minderheitenrechte ―Die 1924 As mentioned in the preceding chapter, just a brief look into into look brief a just chapter, preceding the in mentioned As Saxon the of policy the foreshadowed Brandsch Rudolf words, these With … this path. this reject tread protest, to but o borders the of outside choice aid seeking other of wary been have we now Until no world. entire the before them demand to have cease we granted], not times better for wait and constitution, are wishes [our If - — our nation [Romania] to not force us to take this path. ustake this not force to to nation our [Romania] 1928: 1928: t es a ti point this at least at
Preservation “Waiting for Better Times” Times” forBetter “Waiting Ostland - 1928, and 1928 and 1928,
To the contrary, we earnestly and urgently plead with all with plead urgently and earnestly we contrary, the To
— publication of journals lhuh o completely not although
, which had ceased publication already in 1921, only to begin begin to only 1921, in already publication ceased had which , f the nation, at the League of N of League the at nation, thef
r omn content, common ir -
1920s. Unwilling 1920s. e optimism that had marked the publications of 1918 of publications the marked had that optimism e — o un o h Lau o Ntos o etra ad they aid, external for Nations of League the to turn to - SDT 1935 . We will never relinquish our rights, and we will never will never we and rights, our neverrelinquish will We . , Vol. 50, Nr. 14921, 24 February 1923, p. 1 February 24 Nr. 50, 14921, 1923, Vol. , , this matter will be handled in handled be will matter this , 66 like
– to give up their cultural institutions, yetalso institutions, cultural their up give to
Disillusion Disillusion Klingsor — HeinrichZillich‘s n te ocs f e gnrtos in generations, new of voices the and ations. Even today, we do not want to want not do we today, Even ations. 44
a ifsd ih nw e of set new a with infused was and
Heightened Heightened Klingsor the [authorities] [authorities] the Klingsor h qeto that question The the conclusion of of conclusion the - . 2. randsch‖ (Report (Report randsch‖
eel its reveals of
new e - 1923
CEU eTD Collection 47 Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die 46 45 divide began tobeseeninthe community. gener a as especially the publications, Saxon in in evident manifest strongly was so period, previous not corruption, and disorganization Romanian with discontent the pe publications interwar following section lea the under came of editor was Zillich here. on concentrated be will that content political the is it although contents, essays.‖ and narrative, poetry, of politically of comprised ―mostly being as work Zillich‘s describes Sienerth Stefan but hats, different many wore the of outside from writing poet German the of task of exponent Zilli that claimed Mueller Transylvanian J. Walter 1940, in Already the for journalist a as founding Before Berlin. in abroad, years university his spent in Born community. the in changes implement to eager and forward more was tradition, from away completely breaking of desirous not while Zillich Heinrich than
Michaela Nowotnick, ― Nowotnick, Michaela ―Heinrich Mueller, J. Walter Quotation and additional biographical info biographical additional and Quotation riod from 1924 from riod Ostland Klingsor auslanddeutsche
had been, or than the than or been, had - emn rtr‖ diinly hrceiig i a ―h ms active most ―the as him characterizing additionally writer,‖ German
- (1898 will utilize both utilize will
1928. Although the same policy of cultural preservation was still pursued,still was preservation culturalpolicyofsame the Although 1928. until 1936 (and its publisher until it ceased publication in 1939), when it when 1939), in publication ceased it until publisher its (and 1936 until dership of Harald Krasser after Zillich‘s departure for Germany. for departure Zillich‘s after Krasser Harald of dership Die Karpathen Die
to demonstrate the changing political tone among the Saxons in the in Saxons the among tone political changing the demonstrate to Kronstädter Zeitung Kronstädter - - 98, h blne t a one gnrto o Sxn which, Saxons of generation younger a to belonged who 1988), themed journalistic contributions and reviews, in addition to works to addition in reviews, and contributions journalistic themed
Zillich , published by Walter Myß, p. 590 p. Myß, bypublished , Walter philosophy,‖ in that he developed a philosophy of the role and role the of philosophy a developed he that in philosophy,‖
,‖ ,‖ Monatshefte für deutschen Unterricht deutschen für Monatshefte , 46 Klingsor Ostland
This de This SDT rmation taken from: Dr. Stefan Sienerth, ―Heinrich Zillich,‖ in Zillich,‖ ―Heinrich Sienerth, Stefan Dr. from: taken rmation , was. This was largely due to its editorship under editorship its to due largely was This was.
Klingsor
, the , and the scription also properly characterizes characterizes properly also scription 67
SDT , ‖
p. 71. p. SDT ‘s conservative competitor in competitor conservative ‘s Reich , as well as a few articles from other a articleswell few from as, asother
- 591. . 45
ch was ―the most prolific prolific most ―the was ch Klingsor Braşov
rl, s nato, Zillich author, an as Truly,
32, Nr. 5 198. (1940): Nr. 32,
n 88 Zlih also Zillich 1898, in
in 1924, he worked he 1924, in Klingsor -
thinking Braşov ational 47
The ‘s .
CEU eTD Collection From: passed.‖ now has parties the 49 of struggles The petty Rundschau,‖ the resolutions. beyond great politics any statesmanlike together true pull establish to Romania to for moment psychological The … government able national collective a into parties been political President really particular not in have statesmen, Romania Transylvanian of parties political the 48 like the of focus aims. Saxon achieve to for called be might cooperation regional of sense greater a that dawning s ofstrategies in shift important, but slight, a highlights mid the in publications Saxon in theme common a became Romanian, Kingdom g friends.‖ only ―not be can Romania in nationalities different the that so Gr of formation the since indiscriminately‖ governments Romanian all infused has that ―spirit the nation the centralize distinguishe to seeking politicians those for tolerance little have to Zillich In effective. and efficient of more that objectively and was which Kingdom, Transylvania, Old the in system administrative the between made distinction e to tended sources Saxon many although disorganization, as corruption much so not was government Regionalisma. The Dawnof
Heinrich Hans Otto Roth described the lack of organization in Bucharest already in November 1919: ―Regrettably, 1919: November in already Bucharest in organization of lack the described Roth Otto Hans Klingsor admonished he and Romania, eater
often made this distinction, claiming to empathize with the ―honest‖ Romanians but Romanians ―honest‖ the with empathize to claiming distinction, this made often By this this By lhuh h defense the Although 49 Zillich
This characterization, differentiating the Transylvanian Romanian from the Old the from Romanian Transylvanian the differentiating characterization, This Ostland mphasize the former. the mphasize d SDT
, to differentiate between types of Romanians when identifying the source of source the identifying when Romanians of types between differentiate to , the respected ―Romanian peasant, who leads a simple and honest life‖ honest and simple a leads who peasant, ―Romanian respected the , ―An den Herrn Nichifor Crainic!,‖ Nichifor Herrn ―An den , time ‘s articles throughout this period, even the more traditional paper began, paper traditional more the even period, this throughout articles ‘s , Vol. II, Issue 2, November 1919, p. p. 95 II,1919, November Vol. Issue, 2,
it was evident to Saxon authors that the problem with the Bucharest the with problem the that authors Saxon to evident was it
f ao shos n cuce sil eand significant a remained still churches and schools Saxon of 48
Generally, as will be revealed below, there was a clear a was there below, revealed be will as Generally,
the state to learn from the honest life of the peasant the lifeof honest the learnfromto state the Dr. Maniu, have unfortunately not managed to unite all all unite to managed not unfortunately have Maniu, Dr. 68 Klingsor
- 99. , Year 2, Issue 1, January 1925, p. p. 7. January1925, Issue 1, 2, Year ,
elf - preservation. The realization was realization The preservation. o ctzn, u also but citizens, ood Klingsor - Heinrich , 1920s and 1920s - tt. He state.
―Politische ―Politische
from
CEU eTD Collection 384 p. 1926, December 53 January 52 212 p. 1926, December 51 50 some In collaboration. minority to came it when tone the ethnicity, respective each of authors by Hungarians,‖ Saxons,‖ Transylvanian Klingsor young the quicklyby more up picked was whichwilldominated bethe solution, focus Five. ofChapter German a to stance Romanian loyal their from shift gradual the to points and accidental, Furth one. centralized new Transylvanian the local and system former the between aptly Saxons Bucharest by in made distinction reigning the chaos demonstrates the of characterization this cynicism, with Laced the exampl for Chaos,‖ ―The entitled simply article an In system. Transylvanian traditional the for understanding no or little had who Kingdom, Old the from members committee were who whole the on Romanians not was it general, In institutions. Saxon these on attacks
―Das Chaos,‖ Chaos,‖ ―Das Dr. Ioan Lemenn, ―Was die Siebenbürger Rumänen von den Sachsen und Ungarn halten,‖ halten,‖ Ungarn und Sachsen den von Rumänen Siebenbürger die ―Was Lemenn, Ioan Dr. Dr. Ladislaus Rajka, ―Was die Ungarn von den Siebenbürger Sachsen halten,‖ halten,‖ Sachsen Siebenbürger den von Ungarn die ―Was Rajka, Ladislaus Dr. Heinrich Zillich, ―Was die Siebenbürger Sachsen von den Rumänen halten,‖ halten,‖ Rumänen den von Sachsen Siebenbürger die ―Was Zillich, Heinrich SDT
accused of undermining minority establishments, b establishments, minorityundermining of accused - December 1926, 343 p. 1926, December oa. onan o dsir, erhs ppr, uhrztos ec ae iig p n the in up piling are directors, general directors, etc. vice inspectors, the among authorizations, offices, registrar‘s and papers, inspectorates searches, dossiers, es an of see can Mountains one no Angelescu‘s today. which of interior out the chaos, on complete into exterior, turned the has legislation from school flaunted being is parade dazzling a While oee, h icesn rgoait esetv dd o take not did perspective regionalist increasing the However, w then Hopefully model. theon Prussian planned is administration educational the of reorganization a that hear we satisfaction, With … disease chronic a like forward trudging over, patched or misplaced are but processed, be resu test and reports, student drafts, Curriculum committees. and
described of affairs thestate inthe ministryeducationfollows: of as
contained a series of semi of series acontained 52 SDT
and ―What the Transylvanian Saxons think of the Romanians,‖ the of think Saxons Transylvanian the ―What and , Vol. 55, Nr. 16505, 8 July 1928 (report from beginning ofJ (reportfrom beginning July 8 16505, 1928 Nr. 55, Vol. - - 388. 214.
51
- Wa te rnyvna Romania Transylvanian the ―What 344.
- humorous articles on ―What the Hungarians think of the of think Hungarians the ―What on articles humorous ill this absurd centralization be eliminated. be centralization absurd ill this Klingsor Klingsor roe te ao rfrne o rsi i not is Prussia to reference Saxon the ermore, SDT 69
was far from embracing such a bantering a such embracing from far was circle. While throughout the mid the throughout While circle. ways, ut rather those meddling agents and agents meddling ratherthose ut
Klingsor lts of all sorts are sent in to to in sent are sorts all of lts s hn o te aos and Saxons the of think ns uly, Bucharest), p. 2 p. Bucharest), uly, Klingsor Klingsor
, as a literary journal, journal, literary a as , n meitl, and immediately, on
Ya 3 January 3, Year , 50 , Year 3, January 3, Year , Klingsor
53 cape cape
all written all - - , Year 3 Year , 3. 1920s,
e, - - - ,
CEU eTD Collection the Cluj, titlein 54 the in not and time, this a in Notably Saxons. the of part the on resentment and frustration much to led naturally This Party.Liberal the of heads the with negotiated be to had largely positions governmencentralized new, the in power political Saxons‘ the restricted severely which phenomenon a 1925, until own, as these might chances riskt their with line in wholly not were aims whose group minority neighboring a with chances government, Romanian the with disappointment the which with caution The feltnot outweigh thatthebenefits thedisadvantages: did th that irredentists as reputation a had Hungarians the because part in collaboration, Hungarian of offer the up to centralization, Romanian against complaints own block minority a of formation the what against ranks their supplement for pushing been long had who Hungarians, long apossibility of the discussed which than a the newspaper as such relations interethnic of idea the with toy and articles its in creative more be to afford could ―Magyaren und Sachsen,‖ Sachsen,‖ und ―Magyaren
In stark contrast to Austro to contrast stark In a make to willing is side one only if possible not is so. willing do not to coalition is other while the sacrifice, A … basis case by case against and for arguments the that great so is aims] Saxon and Hungarian [between difference The n uut 94 the 1924, August In
Deutsche Bote Deutsche … [a collaboration] [a … e Saxons wanted to avoid, and in part because the Saxon leaders simply simply leaders Saxon the because part in and avoid, to wanted Saxons e t. While Saxons could occupy parliamentary seats in Bucharest, local Bucharest, in seats occupyparliamentary could Saxons While t. SDT
, August , 2). SDT , Vol. 51, Nr. 15356, 15356, Nr. 51, Vol. , SDT
SDT , Roth discussed ―The Political Situation of the Germans in Germans the of Situation Political ―The discussed Roth ,
can only only can SDT - , which was concerned of more policy. withrealmatters he limited politicalhe limited they position government. had inthe
Hungarian rule, there were no local elections in Romania in elections local no were there rule, Hungarian containe
they perceived as Romanian domination. Despite their Despite domination. Romanian as perceived they s otiuos rcee ipis ht vn after even that implies proceeded contributors ‘s be judged from a specific tactical situation, i.e. on a on i.e. situation, tactical specific a from judged be - term political collaboration with the Transylvanian the collaborationwith political term a atce nild Hnain ad Saxons,‖ and ―Hungarians entitled article an d 70 6 August 1924, p. 1 (taken from the the from (taken 1 p. 1924, August 6 54
Volksrat ao leaders Saxon
leaders
were not willing to take take to willing not were were not so eager to take to eager so not were Klingsor SDT ‘s
companion companion
article
CEU eTD Collection 1. p. 57 56 190 p. 1925, December 55 minister Romanian was who Angelescu, Constantin of reforms school extensive the against nation‘s [Saxon] our of one to ―violencedone the by unlawful deemed wereregulations The German.‖ Catholic Roman a and Romanian, Catholic Roman a Hungarians, reformed non [i.e. different of students six accepted Făgăra the in was question in school The Transylvania. Sa about something revealed and leadership Saxon the from outrage particular incited 1924 fall in closing school a of incident particular One coming. time long a been had politics Saxon of branch conservative more the from strategy other and he and last, to not were sentiments bitter Roth‘s Yet Saxons. the for open remained polit Romanian w the treacherous; and honest, as perceived peasant, Romanian the i.e. groups, ethnic of members individual the between distinguish least at to willingness c in stands This community. the of members other among emerging were that attitudes regional the between differentiate to unwilling people, Romanian entire …‖ times the of mentality the people, entir the was] [it individual, one no was] [It personality? leading Which party? Which reform? agrarian the in enemy the was ―Who tones: of bitter most the in Romania‖
German: Hermann Plattner, ―Sperrung einer evang. einer ―Sperrung Plattner, Hermann Dr. Hans Otto Roth, ―Die politische Lage der Deutschen in Rumänien,‖ Rumänien,‖ in Deutschen der Lage politische ―Die Roth, Otto Hans Dr.
Volksrat ş hn xmnn te rs fo te eid i becomes it period, the from press the examining When 56
Fogarasch; Fogarasch; uevsr eas, ― because, supervisor
leaders graduallyleaders idea ofregional uptothecollaboration. opened t sc a attd, h psiiiy o inte for possibility the attitude, an such ith Hungarian: Fogaras Hungarian: - 193.
contrary .
- sächsischen Schule,‖ Schule,‖ sächsischen 55
Roth lays the blame of the past seven years on the on years seven past the of blame the lays Roth SDT
o iitra rgltos te cols rector school‘s the regulations, ministerial to 71 -
Lu , whose reaction was vehement, mourningthe vehement, wasreaction whose , schools.‖
hrn cnesos no h sho: four school: the into confessions theran] Braşov o rltos ih hi nihos in neighbors their with relations xon 57 SDT
In particular, outrage was directedwas outrage Inparticular, , Vol. 51, Nr. 15404, 4 October 1924, October 4 15404, Nr. 51, Vol. ,
r district and was closed by a a by closed was and district - tnc olbrto a least at collaboration ethnic Klingsor la ta ti sit in shift this that clear ca, ecie as perceived ician, nrs t Zillich‘s to ontrast Ya 2 January 2, Year ,
e Romanian e -
CEU eTD Collection 200. Qu 48. aspirations.‖ and ideals same the have should who country same the of ―sons divide to served existence their that belief the process, this as In such schools, Romania. denominational autonomous on Greater exerted wasof pressure significant territories united newly the in existed that systems schooling different pr budgetary to led expansion This tenure. 58 oflook outside thecommunity financial for support,whether or political. forward more their the Although 1924. as early combining demonstrates example this Thus in. allowed been have ethnicity and confession foreign of students these nationalism, cultural had leaders Saxon conservative if Transylvaniansall ethnicities. of many by esteemed were schools the education, humanist of tradition long a had and funded more drove war the following reforms school chaotic the numbers, small in schools confessional non Although point. this to up painted been has that considering surprise a of bit a as comes point latter This outsiders. these accept to willingness Saxons‘ the of qualityamongand non schools‘ desirability theSaxon sign bothof it because closed been had school 1920s. the of much for education of
Angelescu opened an extraordinary number of new schools and attempted to renovate old ones during his his during ones old renovate to attempted and schools new of number extraordinary an opened Angelescu
otation from p. 47, footnote 82. Livezeanu‘s source: Ministerul instrucţiunii, instrucţiunii, Ministerul source: Livezeanu‘s 82. footnote 47, p. from otation to seek refuge in the higher quality Saxon schools. Because they were privately privately were they Because schools. Saxon quality higher the in refuge seek to Naturally, in part the students were accepted because they could pay the tuition, but tuition, the pay could they because accepted were students the part in Naturally,
For an in an For cultural nationalism and institutional defense with regional loyalties even as as even loyalties regional with defense institutional and nationalism cultural - - depth overview of Angelescu‘s school reforms, see Livezeanu, Livezeanu, see reforms, school Angelescu‘s of overview depth thinking counterparts at counterparts thinking
the picture of isolationist cultural nationalism in the Saxon community Saxon the in nationalism cultural isolationist of picture the
SDT
may have been slower to latch onto regio onto latch to slower been have may
oblems and met with great tension as he attempted to unify the four four the unify to attempted he as tension great with met and oblems had been harboring non harboring been had exclusively 58
ht s atclry f oe s ht h Lutheran the that is note of particularly is What Klingsor 72
en doaig n sltoit om of form isolationist an advocating been - , even they were aware of the need to need the of aware were they even , Saxons had always attended Lutheran attended always had Saxons conservative Saxon spokesmen were spokesmen Saxon conservative - Lutheran students. This was a a was This students. Lutheran - Saxon communities, andcommunities, Saxon
the Saxon Lutheran ones, in in ones, Lutheran Saxon the Lege Cultural Politics Cultural probably
, pp. 167, 191, 198 191, 167, pp. , nal ideas than ideas nal wo uld , p. 34 p. , not - -
CEU eTD Collection Notenumlautes,‖ des Vermehrung gegendie National ―Die 15828; Entscheidung,‖ keine ―Noch 1926; January Verhandlungen,‖ der Stockung eine Wieder Zaranisten. und ―Nationalpartei 1; p. 60 populis generally supported Brown, Party National Al the … d‘ Party Party, raison National the Peasant original for party‘s crisis‘ ‗identity the continuing of a in loss resulted achieved, inevitable the with combined interests, of embr and base social broad very ―a having 59 that Saxons conservative most the even convince to collaboration was hard not was it time, this By years. several next the for strategy political Saxon of focus the become to was that decision apart parties two the kept that the 1926, and 1925, 1924, Throughout strata. social various and ethnicities three all from support garner to enough popular and majority, parliamentary anticipat was which merge, the of progress the 1924, in Already years. the over deadlocks several with met had Transylvania of PartyNational the between join a of formation The attention. rapt with NPP the of conservative usually the Even nation. Saxon the of continuity the ensure to enough sufficient as viewed not clearly was practice, in still while 1920s, the self The (NPP). Party community‘s Saxon the b. Transylvanism
See, e.g. Dr. W. S. ― S. W. Dr. e.g. See, Victoria Brown characterizes the Transylvanian National Party, formed in the late the in formed Party, National Transylvanian the characterizes Brown Victoria ―The Movement for Reform in Rumania after World War I,‖ p. I,‖ p. 459. War World after Reform Rumania for in Movement ―The The mid The [Transylvania], [Transylvania], nation one of together, living of centuries In mid - 1926, Karl Hermann Theil, writing Hermann the1926, Karl for - 1920s were soon to witness an increased interest in collaboration outside ofoutside collaboration in interest increased an witness to soon were 1920s and not to be soquickly not to shunned. - Grundfragen der romänisch der Grundfragen
n Zrnsepre bebn e Praeteöfug en En lbrl Den liberal Eine fern. Parlamentseröffnung der bleiben Zaranistenpartei und have drawn the the drawn have
- te l Kingdom] Old [the the RisePeasant Party ofthe National preservation that had found such an outlet in cultural na cultural in outlet an such found had that preservation
traditional political framework with the rise of the National Peasant National the of rise the with framework political traditional
. the difficult times experienced together, and and together, experienced times difficult the 60
Finally, in fall 1926, the parties were finally merged in a in merged finally were parties the 1926, fall in Finally, peoples peoples ac[ing] persons with widely differing aims and needs. This diversity diversity This needs. and aims differing widely with persons ac[ing] SDT SDT
, Vol. 53, Nr. 15777, 30 January 1926, p. 1; 1; p. 1926, January 30 15777, Nr. 53, Vol. , , Vol. 52, Nr. 15892, 23 June 1926, 1. p. June1926, 23 Nr. 15892, 52, Vol. , of Transylvania Transylvania of advancing en Innerpolitik,‖ Innerpolitik,‖ en 59 73
d o rae pry ag eog t gi a gain to enough large party a create to ed and the Peasant Party of the Old Kingdom butKingdom Old the of PartyPeasant the and
into t
anti , closer together closer the settlement area of another another of area settlement the SDT t party had long been in the works the in been long had party t SDT - cen , Vol. 51, Nr. 15373, 26 August 1924, August 26 15373, Nr. 51, Vol. ,
SDT , went thatfaras so toassert SDT t
ait oiin. Se itra F. Victoria See positions.‖ ralist
traced the disagreements the traced followed the gradual rise gradual the followed ,
though less radical than the the than radical less though SDT and … SDT te ne nfcto was unification once être [the experience] [the
, Vol. 53, Nr. 15771, 23 15771, Nr. 53, Vol. , led to led - nineteenth century, as as century, nineteenth
was reporting the reporting was
S a certain a tionalism into tionalism DT , Vol. 53, Nr. 53, Vol. ,
k schrift schrift
CEU eTD Collection 63 Studies Case p. 42 Regio,2001), (Budapest: Kántor Zoltán and Iordachi, Constantin Petrescu, Cristina Petrescu, Hungarian & Romanian Identities: Contested and Building Central Thesis, MA 1920s,‖ Early 1997; the University, in Romania European in Minority Hungarian the of Study Ideology: Minority Ostmitteleuropa zur Tagungen of Jahrhunderts 18 19. Mitte der seit Zwischenräumen europaischen in Regionalismen und Bewegungen (Bud Change in 243 Society on p. Studies 1999), ―Atlantic of Press, 97 Volume Arató, Nóra trans. Király, 1848 K. Efforts, Béla Reconciliation Hungarian Region: Danube the in Geopolitics include regionalism Transylvanian Kompromiß dem nach Suche der subject: the on monograph Lengyel‘s K. Zsolt see perspective, Hungarian a from written Transylvanians, ―Transylvanism 62 61 becameTransylvanianpronounced the homeland with preoccupation the elites, quasi the by seduced not were and definition, spiritual this embrace to willing as were Transylvania of Saxons the nor Romanians the neither Although throughFerencwords of the Albrecht: Transylv autonomous an of creation the namely, for, hoped were that effects political the have not did but successful, were collaborations these of Several authors. Saxon and Hungarian, Romanian, between elite advocating as thebenefitswere for mutual inter in engage to willing were who Saxons of ranks the joining finally were voices conservative more the that clear becomes it proclamation, Theil‘s With
Ferenc Albrecht quoted in Balogh, ―Transylv in Balogh, Albrecht quoted Ferenc Siebenbür Tragikdes ―Die Theil, Hermann Karl Unfortunately there is not room in this study to provide and in and provide to study this in room not is there Unfortunately - rpgtd oeet ht so that movement propagated In particular, Hungarian intellectuals embraced the idea of a unique regional spirit, regional unique a of idea the embraced intellectuals Hungarian particular, In Transy ofa assimilation consciousness is the same for each nation irrespective of ethnic differences. Thus their their Thus differences. ethnic of irrespective nation extent. this to features have common nationalcharacters each for same the is consciousness feature Saxon and consciousness Transylvanian Romanian, a Hungarian, exists there besides consciousness, that national fact a as it state can we Transylvania …in
a philosophy of ―Transylvanism, of philosophy a . — Fr cmrhnie nlss f teps t ugra claoain with collaboration Hungarian at attempts of analysis comprehensive a For ‖ s nqe s rnyvna itself Transylvania as unique as lvanian nation, despite exis despite nation, lvanian - of way of thought and character, character, and thought of way of 262; Zsuzsanna Török, ―Transylvanism: A Politics of Wise Balance?‖ Balance?‖ Wise of Politics A ―Transylvanism: Török, Zsuzsanna 262;
Kinga
na Te ugra Taslait etmn i bs expressed best is sentiment Transylvanist Hungarian The ania. , esp. Chapter XI, p. 339 p. XI, Chapter esp. , -
oet Sata, Koretta Prsa aoh ―rnyvns: eiin r einls? in Regionalism?‖ or Revision ―Transylvanism: Balogh, Piroska : both the Saxons and their fellowboth the Saxons Transylvanians. - Forschung gt o ped tef hog ltrr collaboration literary through itself spread to ught
anism: Revisionism or Regionalism?,‖ p. 257,13. footnote p. Regionalism?,‖ or Revisionism anism: ting
gertums,‖ 03 p 127 p. 2003, ―The Idea of the ‗Nation‘ in Transylvanism,‖ in in Transylvanism,‖ in ‗Nation‘ the of Idea ―The
— national and racial differences. racial and national 74 to each nation‘s consciousness. Transylvanian Transylvanian consciousness. nation‘s each to ‖
to the extent that today one can almost speak speak almost can one today that extent the to or Transylvanian regionalism. Transylvanian or
- 382. Other, less developed studies in English on English in studies developed less Other, 382. SDT - 144; 63 , Vol. 53, Nr. 15918, 24 July 1926, p. 1. July24 1926, Nr. 15918, 53, Vol. , - depth analysis of the multiple dimensions of of dimensions multiple the of analysis depth
Kinga - irredentist aims of Hungarian of aims irredentist - , eds. Balázs Trencsényi, Dragoş Dragoş Trencsényi, Balázs eds. , - oet St, ― Sata, Koretta ethnic collaboration as long collaborationas ethnic which endows a unique unique a endows which - 1998 61 , eds. Ignác Romsics and and Romsics Ignác eds. ,
rnyvns as Transylvanism 62
in the Saxonthe in This was an was This
in - their fellow fellow their ps: CEU apest: 55. Regionale Regionale , Volume Volume ,
Nation
Auf Auf -
CEU eTD Collection 223. 65 64 unique a of talk the to contrast stark in stand as itself express also must soul Transylvanian Transylvanian The … well! as sphere political the in unconditionally and speedily then but sphere, cultural the in all of First work! to get us conclude Lemenn race. of questions on placed was weight political and cultural both that shows it Furthermore, Europe. of all in but Romania, in only not period, the during issues these of prevalence the r with concern Lemenn‘s poverty.‖ and suppression through peasants, the the was there Additionally, centuries Romanians. the are neither and all], at [mixed hardly are the [But] etc. Swabians, Jews, Slavs, with mixed, strongly are Hungarians the that true is ―It races: region‘s the between distinction clear a remained still there wrote, he soul, delineated clearly more contained that Lemenn in Ioan Dr. by appeared given was personality‖ article ―Transylvania‘s Hajek‘s after months just and have soil this a part.‖ the For … center spiritual a as rather but patterns, word ordered articulated, as ears our penetrate that lang Transylvanian a ―True, continued, Helanguage.‖ its spirit, its air, its conditions, living own its atmosphere, own its with unit territorial ―a as publications ofthe mid
Egon Hajek, ―Vom siebenbürgischen Menschen,‖ Menschen,‖ siebenbürgischen ―Vom EgonHajek, Dr. Ioan Lemenn, ―Die P ―Die Lemenn, Ioan Dr.
The e The - long isolation of the Saxons and the isolation of the Romanians, in particular of of particular in Romanians, the of isolation the and Saxons the of isolation long
ail etitos Atog Taslai my ae uiu gorpy and geography unique a have may Transylvania Although restrictions. racial on live who all which of actuality historical a become] [has soul Transylvanian lusive Transylvanian spirit, as might be expected, was never clearly defined, clearly never was expected, be might as spirit, Transylvanian lusive — it must become a personality!‖ a become must it 64
- d ersönlichkeit Siebenbürgens,‖ Siebenbürgens,‖ ersönlichkeit 1920s. In1920s.
by encouraging inter encouraging by
Klingsor , Saxon authorofTransylvania Egon spoke Hajek , Saxon Klingsor 75 Saxon - ethnic collab ethnic
65 Klingsor
Such words, even from a from even words, Such , Year 3, 3, January Year ,
personality so widespread in the period the in widespread so personality uage does not exist in terms of sounds of termsin exist not does uage , Year 3, January 3, Year , Klingsor orations in Transylvania: ―So let ―So Transylvania: in orations - December 1926, p. 137 1926, December aohr eiiin of definition another , - December 1926, p. 1926, December ace demonstrates ace Klingsor
Saxons author, - 139.
221
-
CEU eTD Collection 67 66 and policies, rights minority firm its coalitions, class and ethnic different of combination its Transy their in nation their maintain to Saxons of majority the of wish the been always had It not. Perhaps 1928. November of life the for else nothing desire We cells. our filling and lungs our expanding nation, German our for air fresh of breath a honesty legality, of demands the to life public our of adjustment ―The to predicted was party imple to the and organization, bring of corruption, eliminate victory The government. local in positions of number limited the despite them, for seats parliamentary seeking by minorities the with cooperate to had IuliuManiu, leader, party‘s the campaigning, While triumphed. the of party war,the chaos the of end the since elections fair first Romania‘s in In1928, years. preceding the from liberation political of bearer the as hailed was NPP the contrast, f paradise a been have long would Romania ―then 1927, late the quipped expressions,‖ eloquent with solved be could state of questions important the both in derided openly was administration inter collabo of policycautious the cemented had NPP, the of popularity I a to isolationist an from shift regi the demonstrate and war, the following immediately V.
―Die Regierung Iulius Maniu,‖ Maniu,‖ Iulius Regierung ―Die nichts alsWorte!,‖ ―Worte, onalist policy. 1928 By 1927 and 1928, the chaotic state of Bucharest affairs, combined with the growing Bucharestaffairs,with the combined chaoticstate and of By 1928,the 1927 - 1935 lvanian homeland, and the victory of the NPP offered this opportunity. With opportunity. this offered NPP the of victory the and homeland, lvanian :
67 ration T
he Collapse of the Romanian Dream Romanian ofthe Collapse he Were the Saxons naïve to place so much faith in the party‘s capabilities? party‘s the in faith much so place to naïve Saxons the Were —
KZ ihn h misra Sxn com Saxon mainstream the within , Vol. 91, Nr. 291, 23 December 1927. December 23 Nr. 291, 91, Vol. , SDT
, Vol. 55, Nr. 16609, 11 November 1928, p. 1. 11 1928, 16609, November Nr. 55, Vol. , our state and for our life within within life our for and state our 76
Kronstädter Zeitung Zeitung Kronstädter ment long ment
- or national minorities.‖ national or uiy Te l Kingdom Old The munity. tnc collaboration ethnic - promised minority rights. minority promised it, made significant efforts significant made ‖ , and justice would be would justice and ,
declared the declared n the and
SDT — SDT KZ albeit 66 ―If .
By
in in
CEU eTD Collection 69 68 policywaitingwith the traditional practices ofnation: ofthe inline Saxon largelybyGermany,the represented to still turn the fail had of strategies collaboration regional the and nationalism cultural the both that financial supportcultural lay and Romania. and notin inGermany homela Transylvanian the maintain to desired still who Saxons those to even clear was it point this by 1933, until interruptions, some with power, in remained party the Although LeiMillion party the of defined clearly more and formulations clearerresolutions.‖ expected We party]. the by forward long our of fulfillment the glimps to us for gone far too is time the ―Today words: empty to come merely had policy been community plaguing theSaxon t problems the of many to solution a provide to seemed NPP the support, popular its
―Der erste Schri ―Der erste Erwartungen,‖ ―Unbefriedigte Already as early as spring 1929, however, the the however, 1929, spring as early as Already fragmentation is doubled … doubled is fragmentation with survives law ancient like one and however, nation, our co may that of all encounter to determined be life must we that validity: heightened inner the For see. and wait position our regarding option other no is there moment, the For War, World First the of end the after years twelve decade, the of end the by Thus wis justice. oftrue solution a to leading path the pursue the government express sincerely We … justice of demands the with commensurate way any in it is nor schools, Romanian the as measure same the in supported be schools minority r thewith commensurate neither is It insufficient. absolutely is out thrownwas figurethat The ed to achieve the self the achieve to ed egulations established in the peace treaty and in the constitution that require that the the that require that constitution the in and treaty peace the in established egulations — — 68 was laced with the bitternesswas have should ofwhat lacedbeen:
the news that the government had granted confessional schools a loan of 25 25 of loan a schools confessional granted had government the that news the - In summer 1929, even a somewhat more positive report that praised wo more the that report positive a1929, evenIn somewhat summer tt,‖ tt,‖ minded SDT , Vol. 56, Nr. 16778, 9 June 1929, p. 1. 9 Nr.June1929, 16778, 56, Vol. , anr I tms f uh ioos eso o al ocs te agr of danger the forces, all of tension rigorous such of times In manner.
SDT, SDT, - -
preservation of the Saxon nation. Those Saxons who resisted who Saxons Those nation. Saxon the of preservation hrse epcain i tee eea fruain [put formulations general these in expectations cherished However, if we remain together as a united national community community national united a as together remain we if However, Vol. 56, Nr. 16737, 17 April 1929, p. 1. 17 16737, April 1929, Nr. 56, Vol. — and all of Romania and all of 77
SDT SDT
until late 1933, insteadamandated 1933, late until —
contained reports that the party‘s the that reports contained 69 for thepast decade.
on regional politics than to than politics regional on
me in a unified unified a in me
Volksrat h that the that h
hat had hat leaders nd nd rk e
CEU eTD Collection 70 However, improve. would Romania in situation the that hope maintained they long how surprising indeed is it hindsight in but NPP, the and solutions regional to gaze their turned despite the by course, Of demands. minority for disregard general long, a so for preservation cultural and funding, of lack policy, centralizing government‘s of Bucharest the with disappointments policy a pursue to continued leaders Germany. who and with or ethnicities, reform, other with collaboration class of favor in church the of unity the rejected political, later and social, for pushed who those of voices th dissenting with countered be turn in will voice this chapter, next the in community; Saxon the conservative the particular in publications, Saxon colla regional of strategy isolationist less a to language, and school, church, of institutions the protecting self of policies Saxon in shift V. Conclusions socially younger, activegeneration as thefollowing ofchapter reveal. Saxons, will the for option viable a longer no was centuries, preceding the of and of support the garner longer to sufficient no were means traditional their that saw community the of leaders the even that belies group‖ unfractured ―small a of mention the tradition, to loyalty dismal this Despite
―Zum neuen Jahr,‖ neuenJahr,‖ ―Zum un [ Perhaps the most interesting question that was raised was wh was raised was that question interesting most the Perhaps we phenomena important Several Volksgemeinschaft fractured
boration, realized with the rise of the National Peasant Party. An analysis of of analysis An Party. Peasant National the of rise the with realized boration,
group. SDT , Vol. 59, Nr. 17615, 1 January 1932, p. p. 1. 1 Nr.January1932, 17615, 59, Vol. , 70 ], ],
the improvements, which must someday come, come, someday must which improvements, the
- preservation from a traditional cultural nationalism aimed at aimed nationalism cultural traditional a from preservation
the Saxon majority. The ―wait and see‖ policy of 1918, of policy see‖ and ―wait The majority. Saxon the re raised in this chapter, which traced the gradual the traced which chapter, this in raised re 78
SDT , introduced the mainstream voice of of voice mainstream the introduced ,
end of the 1920s, such leaders such 1920s, the of end
il id s a us find will y conservative yconservative
small Volksrat
e
CEU eTD Collection political of ―expectations Romanian how highlights Hitchins government. Bucharest overburdened the in chaos political into dissolved state democratic this achieving of dreams ethnically democratic balanced, state. and socially a of expectations Romanian the with conflicted state Romanian modernized stat nation Romanian new the stabilize to meant reforms of implementation the that presumed not had leaders its because however, community, Saxon the in late too came realization nation Saxon language German the of use and education confessional destabilize and funding, church undermine land, Saxon up parcel to not different entirely an had leaders Saxon nation, their of character western modernized, the to contributing as reforms other and educational, political, agrarian, the viewed leaders Romanian While building. tradition.above, policy patience this as viewed was aSaxon of articles the of one in mentioned as Secondly, aid. lend to distant too and weak financially othe only the since especially sense, political good made see‖ and ―wait to leaders Saxon traditional of patience abiding the memories, these of light In land. their maintained had they autonomy, ove control maintained large and national by had their Saxons the system, dualist of the under difficulties Despite memory Transylvania. in existence historical collective the to recourse had Saxons the Firstly, of point vantage the from wud ev t fatr Sxn ntttos Sxn xettos f h ftr i the in future the of expectations Saxon institutions. Saxon fracture to serve would e Ironically, the expectations of the Romanian the of expectations the Ironically, clearly Saxons the Moreover, - ptnil uoen ally European potential r b uilders had put into modernizing their social and cultural institutions. This institutions. cultural and social their modernizing into put had uilders Volksrat ion of modernization. The results of the reforms the of results The modernization. of ion — r their confessional schools, and despite losing territorial losing despite and schools, confessional their r were seen as detracting from the centuries of efforts that efforts of centuries the from detracting as seen were leaders
— iudrto te oain oiis f nation of policies Romanian the misunderstood Germany , su , 79 ch longsuffering was perhaps not so foolish. so not perhaps was longsuffering ch
— wr iial dspone s their as disappointed similarly were s a prevd s o pltcly and politically too as perceived was
— which served which - -
CEU eTD Collection 71 Volksrat theRomanianloyaltyand both of tired communitysoon the who ofmembers those of views the use also will chapter following the While 1920s. late gradu a by accompanied years, early the in were institutions Saxon to and which state the to loyalty in leaders, balance a by epitomized community conservative of views mainstream the presented has forexplanation the Saxons‘ greatest the provide period, interwar the of beginning the at alike Saxons and Romanians de of weakening the of causes as cited been often have crises other and depression economic of world the with deal to parties political traditional of and government parliamentary of inabilities The 1930s. the c ontinuity
Hitchins, ―Romania,‖ p. 1068. p. ―Romania,‖ Hitchins, Based on an analysis of analysis an on Based ‘s domination of Saxon society.‘s dominationofSaxon proved illusory as a drift towa drift a as illusory proved al expansion of policy to incorporate regional collaboration by the by collaboration regional incorporate to policy of expansion al
mocracy. enduring the 1920s. policy ofloyalty toRomaniathroughout
the leading conservative newspaper, the newspaper, conservative leading the ‖ 71
h hp fr hs eorc, xeine by experienced democracy, this for hope The rd authoritarian government gained momentum in momentum gained government authoritarian rd 80
SDT
extensively, it will reveal the reveal will it extensively,
SDT , this this , chapter
CEU eTD Collection 1919 Sachsen Siebenbürger den bei Transylvanica Strömungen und Strukturen Politische a 1 literature secondary much of focus the d many the explore will voice, Saxon nation. the undermined eventually century) tendency strong its currents political multiple the despite cohesion, towards and itself, community Saxon the within changes political for impetus an as served similarly changes drastic Such community. the divided necessarily Saxon the of status privileged limitation the and rights autonomous of loss the but centuries, twentieth was society Saxon that suggest to not maj the by least at then community, the of members all by not if granted, for taken were taxes paying and schools, confessional Lutheran attending attendance, church ea At it. represented which institutions the to and community the to loyalty meant ultimately cultural notonlyExpressed alsounity andpolitical but through throughparticipation, social, most the of one Internal Affairs
des h vros oiia cret ta eegd ihn h cmuiy ewe 11 ad 93 See 1933. and 1919 between community the within emerged that currents political various the ddress aad oh fr xml, ocnrts lot xlsvl o inner on exclusively almost concentrates example, for Roth, Harald rlier rlier Ausgleich points in Saxon history, this had not seemed a difficult concept: activities such as as such activities concept: difficult a seemed not had this history, Saxon in points It the previousrememberedfrom chapter that be will The present chapter, in contrast to the previous which emphasized the mainstream the emphasized which previous the to contrast in chapter, present The
(
oon: ölu elg 1994 Verlag, Böhlau Cologne: of 1867, but focusing on the 1920s. Because these internal divisions are the are divisions internal these Because 1920s. the on focusing but 1867, of
during these centuries these during , f o te ot iprat atr n anann te ao nation. Saxon the maintaining in factor important most, the not if -
Inter
-
Saxon Dissension Dissension Saxon 1
and this thesis seeks to concentrate on the strategies of strategies the on concentrate to seeks thesis this and Collaboration Chapter Four Four Chapter ivisions within the community, beginning already with already beginning community, the within ivisions Einheit
seamlessly sewn together sewn seamlessly implied certain social a social certain implied ) Smlry the Similarly, . 81
ht a ln be a anty f h Saxon the of mainstay a been long had that
that emerged (particularly in the twentieth twentieth the in (particularly emerged that
and
volume edited by Carl Göllner, Göllner, Carl by edited volume -
ao afis n tks ra cr to care great takes and affairs Saxon Einheit Transylvanian German nd political adjustments that adjustments political nd
before the nineteenth and and nineteenth the before - 1933 , or unity, was valued, orunity,was as , Volume 22 of Studia Studia of 22 Volume ority. This is This ority. Die Die
CEU eTD Collection following. in the wellas as in chapter, this later Pan to Saxons the of turn the addressing 1988), Verlag, 1848 Jahren den in Sachsen Siebenbürger ( ―Greens‖ the and ―Blacks‖ t between ( those were community Saxon the within developments later on bearing direct a had which conflicts political prominent most two nineteenth earlier, the of at useful is it thesis, this of focus the is period interwar the Although a. Interwar Predecessors: Nineteenth Within I. Enemies threats. n Saxon the protecting as projects political and social their saw similarly who themselves, dissidents these of some of views the and community the of members Saxon mainstream the of attitudes the contrast to order the utilize to continue will chapter Germany. This from trendsgraduallycommunity Socialist itselfwithNational synchronized cl the movements. in less be will chapter this policy, self lscsn n Jungsachsen und Altsachsen - preservation eavages that had been so deep in the 1920s had begun once again to level out as the as out level to again once begun had 1920s the in deep so been had that eavages
By 1933, the entire political makeup of the community had been transformed, and transformed, been had community the of makeup political entire the 1933, By naoitc oiia attds ihn h Sxn omnt hd ln history. long a had community Saxon the within attitudes political Antagonistic
addresses in depth the inter the depth in addresses
doae b misra Sxn edr i lgt f xenl Romanian external of light in leaders Saxon mainstream by advocated
-
century divides, as they laid the foundations for later disputes. The disputes. later for foundations the laid they as divides, century cwre n Grüne und Schwarze drcl floig h 1867 the following directly ) - - German and National Socialist propaganda. This will be discussed be will This propaganda. Socialist National and German SDT depth and merely provide an overview of the counter the of overview an provide merely and depth - - communal dissensions. Finally, an entire body of literature exists exists literature of body entire an Finally, dissensions. communal 1918 - Century Conflict
while bringing in voices from other publi other from voices in bringing while , Volume 22 of Siebenbürgisches Archiv (Cologne: Böhlau Böhlau (Cologne: Archiv Siebenbürgisches of 22 Volume , 82
)
n h lt nntet century nineteenth late the in s
he ―Old‖ and ―Young‖ Saxons Saxons ―Young‖ and ―Old‖ he Volksrat Ausgleich
oad te dissident the towards
least to outline a few a outline to least , and between the the between and , ation from external from ation
cations in cations This . -
CEU eTD Collection 3 ―Jung‖ in Deutschen den also see Saxons, unter ―Young‖ 149 p. Auseinandersetzungen Weltkriegen,‖ innenpolitischen beiden den den zwischen ―Zu Rumänien See 1930s. the on concentrates amo infightings political of overview an provides 129 p. 1994), Verlag, Böhlau (Cologne: Archiv Siebenbürgisches in 1933,‖ bis 1867 2 by1872. ground common found eventually groups two the as betrayal, perceived this as important as not is conflict the of outcome generation. The older the betrayalby national a as horror with act unprecedented an in representatives Romanian the with siding by elders their outnumber to able were Saxons Young the reforms, administrative the on hearing two one Hungarian the concerned vis regime thus Austrian ―absolutist‖ and the generational, of perception fact generations‘ in was conflict the suggest, names reforms Hungarian to open were Hungarian nation,‖ Saxon the new defend to desiring the with compromises ―w Saxons, ―Young‖ make the opponents, progressive more to Their administration. unwilling were they that extent self of positions legal traditional the of defense ―energetic an of th that meant This policy. isolationist exclusively an through achieved best the by prompted reforms school Hungarian the following period the in Saxons ―O the labeledconservative more politicians, Thecommunity. the ofunity preservingthe for means best the as perceived was what around revolved largely community Saxon the by Andreas regarding thetopic,unless Möckel noted. otherwise relieslargelyconflicts, the outlines merelywhich section,
Die Siebenbürger Sachsen in den Jahren 1848 in Jahren den Sachsen Siebenbürger Die Andreas Möckel, ―Kleinsächsisch oder Alldeutsch? Zum Selbstverständnis der Siebenbürger Sachsen Sachsen Siebenbürger der Selbstverständnis Zum Alldeutsch? oder ―Kleinsächsisch Möckel, Andreas -
und ―Altsachsen.‖ und As Möckel explains, and as hinted at within the previous chapter, conflicts within conflicts chapter, previous the within at hinted as and explains, Möckel As
However, this was perhaps the first time in the mo the in time first the perhaps was this However, — s hy ee iwd n h ee o te piitc youth. optimistic the of eyes the in viewed were they as ibnügn wshn e bie Weltkriegen beiden den zwischen Siebenbürgen
Die Siebenbürger Sachsen in den Jahren 1848 Jahren den in Sachsen Siebenbürger Die
Ausgleich - 1918 ng the Saxons during the interwar period, which largely largely which period, interwar the during Saxons the ng , were of the opinion that self that opinion the of were , , ed. Carl p. ed. Göllner, , 83 - 167. For comparison on the topic of the ―Old‖ and and ―Old‖ the of topic the on comparison For 167.
- implemented administrative, language, and language, administrative, implemented - 148. In the same volume, Karl Reinerth also also Reinerth Karl volume, samethe In 148.
on the brief but informative essay informative but brief the on dern history of the Saxon nation Saxon the of history dern e. atr öi, oue 8 of 28 Volume König, Walter ed. ,
- 131. 1918 2
, ed. Carl Göllner, p. Göllner, Carl ed. , - à - - diitain‖ o the to administration,‖ i te n the vis - . preservation was preservation
ey were in favor favor in were ey s h groups‘ the As 3 ie similarly hile
w ―liberal‖ ew ht viewed that n n 1871 an In
128 - 136: 136: von von ld‖ ld‖
CEU eTD Collection Geschichte vaterländischen Teutsch, Friedrich from taken is declaration 4 denigrated they However, community. Saxon the of outside aid for looking to opposed strictly not Transy nevertheless Greens the parliament. surprisingly, Hungarian somewhat the from representatives Saxon of resignation pre the in regime Hungarian the h ―Blacks‖) the as to referred (now representatives Saxon older that way the with dissatisfied were who ―Greens,‖ the community, Saxon the in emerged strain w conflict created that attitude of type the precisely was nation, Saxon the of individuality the to than rather state, the to loyalty Volk have we what remain to and be to want ―We it, of version ― age the between lay tension the Here support. and development continued o themselves to look should community the whether of issue national betrayals by simila century, twentieth the into transition community the ethnic clear the undermined had community the of members that
e wle lie wt e sen mer wat bleiwe, wälle Mer Möckel, ― Möckel,
and also honest true citizens of the state to which we belong.‖ we which to state the of citizens true honest also and l The dispute between the ―Blacks‖ and the ―Greens‖ similarly revolved around the around revolved similarly ―Greens‖ the and ―Blacks‖ the between dispute The vanian Germa vanian Kleinsächsisch oder Alldeutsch?,‖ p. 129, p. 133. Roth‘s quotation of Stephan Ludwig Roth‘s 1848 1848 Roth‘s Ludwig ofStephan quotation 133. Roth‘s p. 129, p. Alldeutsch?,‖ oder Kleinsächsisch the
in order to gain a political majority over their own. As the Saxons made the made Saxons the As own. their over majority political a gain to order in strategies conservative ns , ed. Friedrich Teutsch, Volum Teutsch, ed.Friedrich ,
and
employed by the older generation of Blacks, which they they which Blacks, of generation older the by employed were
ce !‖ (―We want to remain what we are!‖) and a modified modified a and are!‖) we what remain to want (―We !‖
Saxon politicians Saxon attracted to German national movements, national German to attracted d ing decade. decade. ing e Siebenbürgisch Der ti te omnt. n 83 a ne a 1893, In community. the ithin 84 conflicts r
e 2 [Hermannstadt, 1899], 359. p. 1899], [Hermannstadt, 2 e The Greens went so far as to as far so went Greens The — advocate were toincrease. only - etce Jugendbund deutsche —
always been, an honest German honest an been, always ned ecie a profound as perceived indeed d
t a etro suc for source exterior an to r olbrto wt other with collaboration
and social and ad compromised with compromised ad 4
The latter pledge of pledge latter The - old Saxon cry of of cry Saxon old in ,
o and thus were thus and Notably, boundaries - idr u der aus Bilder conservative promote the the promote and
of
CEU eTD Collection 8 7 392. p. Myß, byWalter in Publizistik,‖ und ―Presse Meschendörfer, Hans 464; p. Myß, Österreichischen der Verlag (Vienna: Urbanitsch 6 Peter and Wandruszka Wissensc Akademieder Adam eds. Reiches, des Völker 5 Saxon the among movement workers‘ ―A developments: these of evaluation following the strikes. frequent their for known were and towns,‖ market in even cities, Transylvanian of all in Party existed Democratic unions and Social Hungary the of organizations ―local century, the of turn the by and politi became industrialization. soon movements individual these increasing Kroner, Michael to According period‘s the of product a were that movements workers‘ centu institution twentieth Saxon of unity the to threat a as Democrats Social the of popularity community b. The Socia while nation Saxon the to loyal cultivating external political relationspervasive remained a theinterwar issue pe into be could one whether of question the and resolved, the and Blacks they papers, conservative both community. the in dailies Saxon leading two the affected War. World First inter of promotion Brandsch‘s Rudolf Greens‘ The f bargaining ―weak as characterized
Dr. Michael Kroner, ―Arbeiterfrage,‖ in ―Arbeiterfrage,‖ Michael Kroner, Dr. 1848 in Jahren den Sachsen Siebenbürger Die Dr. Michael Kroner, ―Schwarze und Grüne,‖ in in Grüne,‖ und ―Schwarze Kroner, Michael Dr. Friedrich Gottas, ―Die Siebenbürger Sachsen,‖ in in Sachsen,‖ Siebenbürger ―Die Gottas, Friedrich osdrn tee nineteenth these Considering i i nt ifcl t iaie h the why imagine to difficult not is it , l Democrats
efforts to cooperate with other German groups German other with cooperate to efforts ry KZ 6 Te oil eortc at aoe u o te mid the of out arose party Democratic Social The .
Th
haften, 1980), 389 p. 1980), haften,
rmtn te res cause. Greens‘ the promoting e disagreement deeply divided the divided deeply disagreement e
8 were
In 1907, writes Kroner, the the Kroner, writes In1907, Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die or small concessions‖ with the Hungarian government Hungarian the with concessions‖ small or -
- 390. - t odds at ethnic collaboration in the period before and after the after and before period the in collaboration ethnic century - 1918
i Seebre Scsn Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die , ed. Carl p. ed. Göllner, , 85 i Hbbremnrhe 1848 Habsburgermonarchie Die
n h matter, the in
rdcsos o oiia dvso i the in division political to predecessors
Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die h cnlc ws ee t b fully be to never was conflict The Volksrat Sächsische Volkspartei Sächsische Although the Although
can be can Kron
129. ih the with , published by Walter Myß, p. 29. Myß, p. Walter , by published
ecie te increasing the perceived städter Zeitung städter
seen as predecessors as seen SDT - - century nineteenth , published by Walter Walter by published , SDT 1918
uprig the supporting Vl II1 Die III/1: Vol. ,
and cally active, cally , and even and ,
contained , published , KZ i the in s riod.
were were
to . 7 5
CEU eTD Collection 12 11 Wählers,‖ sächsischen 10 9 cooperate practice withthe traditional Saxon ofvoting discipline. votes, 2,113 to 2,746 just Democrats?‖ Social the ―antagonistic‖ well the for Democrats Social the by represented be never can nation our of interests common obligat ―predetermined the side ― the that reports Roth Harald politician. leading a as popularity Brandsch‘s t election an in Brandsch, Rudolf than other none against election for ran Mayer Rudolf 1920 representative Sibiu‘s their elections: in parliamentary voice mainstream conservative the against battle one least at winning would this as collaboration, ethnic, undermine the than rather class, toward tended that movement co line Saxon conservative the movement, our in remain must workers hands.‖ Our body. foreign a as it tolerate cannot certainly which preventatively it meet and arise may nation
KZ
Ibid., p. Ibid., Ibid. Roth, , 14 September 1907. Cited in Kroner, ―Arbeiterfrage,‖ in ―Arbeiterfrage,‖ in Cited Kroner, 1907. September 14 , ‖ (the‖ - being of our people.‘‖ our of being Roth‘s quotation of the ofRoth‘sthe quotation Although a seemingly small group, the Socia the group, small seemingly a Although 9 oiice Strukturen Politische
98 This was indeed the crux of the matter. While tolerant of the idea of a workers‘ a of idea the of tolerant While matter. the of crux the indeed was This SDT .
) clearly voiced its opinion on both the matter of the Social Democrats and of and Democrats Social the of matter the both on opinion its voiced clearly ) social and and social article in the in article SDT it . B . , 13 May 1920, p. p. 1. May 13 1920, ,
11 may even be healthy; above all, it is unstoppable. It is necessary to necessary is It unstoppable. is it all, above healthy; be even may
ut an international Social international an ut
p 97 p. , ethnic unity holdthe community to thought together. SDT Brandsch ultimately won the election, but by a narrow margin of margin narrow a by but election, the won ultimately Brandsch 12 ―‗the that arguing elections, the during voters‖ Saxon of ions 10 SDT
, 30 May, 1920, p. 1. May, 1920, 30 ,
Roth adds that shortly thereafter, Brandsch himself wrote an wrote himself Brandsch thereafter, shortly that adds Roth sg ta pras h cmuiy a nt o iln to willing so not was community the perhaps that sign a - 8 Rt‘ qoain f the of quotation Roth‘s 98. entitled ―Why cannot and why may not a Saxon support Saxon a not may why and cannot ―Why entitled
uld not bear the idea of an internationally an of idea the bear not uld 86 hat one might assume was a clear call due to due call clear a was assume might one hat
Democrat is unacceptable in our nation, our in unacceptable is Democrat Die Sie Die l Democrats came scathingly close to to close scathingly came Democrats l SDT benbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen benbürger : Hermann Plattner, ―Die Pflicht des des Pflicht ―Die Plattner, Hermann :
official
, p. 29. , - minded
Saxon
CEU eTD Collection Klassenvertretung,‘‖ die und Sozialismus den 15 14 13 voices conservative the assertedthat was Init short, elites. political of voices the to opposed towns the of even and workers, and farmers, the of i.e. ―people,‖ the of voices concerningtablethe the to argumentsbrought Democrats themselves Social the community, the implicationsof warningwere clear. foe.‖ greatest its would as nation, our against egregiously sins leaders our and politics our of sincerity the about th admonishment the contained community‘s] furthermore It [the leaders.‖ towards mistrust ―incite to sought which internal ―agitation,‖ against and warned article divisions an example, for 1919, February In 1924. to 1919 from is unity Saxon internal to threat party‘s Democratic Social the because workersand ofitsinternational itsfocus notbecause onthe of thrust. colors].‖ national Saxon [the red and blue am I then church, and school the to comes it when nation, the to comes international Democrat Social Saxon ―We pronouncement: 1919 Knopp‘s Ludwig Hence Social institutions. ethnic many to loyal War, utterly as World themselves saw First Democrats the following years early these in fact, in boundaries; prom unequivocally one that mean necessarily
―Für die Einheit unseres sächs unseres Einheit ―Fürdie in Quoted By 1920, however mentions of the party were explicit. See, e.g. ―Siebenbürgisch e.g. See, explicit. were party the of mentions however 1920, By Nevertheless, it is also important to note that being a Saxon Social Democrat did not did Democrat Social Saxon a being that note to important also is it Nevertheless, In response to these accusations that their work undermined the internal unity of the of unity internal the undermined work their that accusations these to response In the proclamations, patriotic such Despite ibid.
I oc ta I m Sca Dmca truh n truh bt hn it when but through, and through Democrat Social a am I that vouch I … , p. 97. p. , SDT
, Vol. 47, Nr. 14167, 9 July 1920, 1 p. 9 Nr.July 14167, 1920, 47, Vol. , Sozialdemokratie,‖ Sozialdemokratie,‖ 14
13
While not explicit not While ischen Volkes,‖ Volkes,‖ ischen
o uh aos te Social the Saxons, such To
SDT SDT , Vol. 47, Nr. 14151, 19 June 1920, p. 1; ―‗Nationale oder oder ―‗Nationale 1; p. 1920, June 19 14151, Nr. 47, Vol. , 15 , Vol. 46, Nr. 13791, 25 February 1919, p. 1. p. February25 13791, 1919, Nr. 46, Vol. ,
87 l y mentioning the Social Democrats by name, by Democrats Social the mentioning y
SDT td ls te cosn international crossing ties class oted - 2.
remained wary of the movement, and movement, the of wary remained
wn nothi want s t te n wo xrse doubts expresses who one ―the at
eortc oeet appealed movement Democratic
the focus of several articles several of focus the - sächsische Gedanken über über Gedanken sächsische g o o ih the with do to ng
people, as people,
CEU eTD Collection 18 Tageblatt 17 16 disconnected tr from the as ultimately but children, of education the for necessary perhaps institution an church: the towards attitude materialistic Democrats‘ Social the as reported they what criticized harshly chur fellow by stigmatized be would they anti movements Democrat Social political elites and notthose of workersand peasants. nation,‖ regar claims similar made Orend Misch Dr. article, same the In reproaches. such make to one only the not was Lienert daily paper conten reflects the only not Bod of village the from Lienert Hans year. same by issued survey a to response in paper daily the about opinions the of critique 1926 extreme an In Saxons. privileged less the of interests the disregarded community the in
Ibid. German: Brenndorf As - church, tendencies in an effort to discourage Saxons from joining the joining from Saxons discourage to effort an in tendencies church, part of the article ―Rundfrage über das das über ―Rundfrage article the of part
According to my knowledge, the [ the knowledge, my to According T read farmers our expensive.‖ muchtoo because otherwise, [ were situation another is right is the if that even much by increase would readership peasant the thatnot doubt I case, Inany question. or Whether needs. their and readership peasant the to attention the be to considered ―intelli is which paper, the read farmers many borrowing, not of way by and communities readership rural in even And households. farmers‘ the Sibiu, surrounding area the in Also of. know I that 18
aditcatih Blätter Landwirtschaftliche und unsere Bauern,‖ undBauern,‖ unsere hese
n mlcto ta i ws ocre ol wt te far o itletas and intellectuals of affairs the with only concerned was it that implication an
claimed torepresent.claimed gentsia.‖ As a result, the the result, a As gentsia.‖ criticisms ; Hungarian: Botfalu. A town in Braşov County, approximately 15 km north ofBraşov. km 15 County, approximately Braşov in A town Botfalu. Hungarian: SDT
ue needs of the ue ofthe needs were
, 17 Klingsor male members of the Saxon communi Saxon the of members male
t s of the s ofthe ding the the ding . One tactic to this end this to tactic One .
largely ad ams wtot xeto, osdr diy ae t be to paper daily a consider exception, without almost and, ]
, Year 3, Issue 9, September 1926, 360. p. 1926, September Issue 9, 3, Year , Tageblatt SDT SDT
Siebenbürgisch ignored by the by ignored SDT Volk , but als , but ] is not subscribed to by farmers in the communities communities the in farmers by to subscribed not is ]
can, in full consciousness, refuse consciousness, full in can, ‘s neglect of ―the broad stratification of our our of stratification broad ―the of neglect ‘s hor. n uy 90 fr xml, the example, for 1920, July In chgoers. . The . The 88
o the mainstream political current which current which the mainstreampolitical o SDT - Deutsche Tageblatt Deutsche 16 SDT
was to was Tageblatt
rt te following the wrote cited a letter from a Social Democrata fromcited letter a ,
and they continued to u to continued they and their emphasize
is taken only in very very in only taken is newspaper of our Saxon Saxon our of newspaper ty Klingsor Klingsor Agricultural Papers Papers Agricultural
outspokenly voiced their voiced outspokenly ,‖ under the subheading ―Das subheading the under ,‖
to pay particular particular pay to
their irreligious, or irreligious, their
party in the fall of the of fall the in critique for fear that fear for few few ndermine which , SDT SDT the
CEU eTD Collection 21 p. 1 1924, November 20 p. 1 July1920, 19 affiliation.‖ without loners were Party no Communist the to of sympathizers and members Saxon few next The Saxons. the among influence had 1921, in founded Romania, of Party Communist ―the Kroner, the Michael In community. Saxon the within party communist no certainly was there Socialism.‖ of child bl natural, the is Communism brothers; not are Communism and Democracy as two] [the of rightlycannotdeclaring,speak ―One movements, the institutionssuchasSaxon thec assertions, was society whose community antitheses incompatible religion contrasting By acerbically repliedauthor of tothe theletter: belief call They nature.‘ is ‗God hears, one cases, 100 of out 99 in And come. kingdom about and God about questions about townspeople the to talks one peasants, the to goes ―One stating:
Kroner, ―Arbeiterfrage,‖ in in ―Arbeiterfrage,‖ Kroner, ―Sozialdemokraten und Bürgerliche: Eine Erwiderung von August Schuster,‖ Schuster,‖ August von Erwiderung Eine Bürgerliche: und ―Sozialdemokraten ―Die zweite und die dritte Internationale‖ (Lett Internationale‖ dritte die und zweite ―Die SDT in God as the church teaches it something necessary for children.‖ for necessary something it teaches church the as God in French Revolution proved where this belief leads!‖ thiswhere belief proved Revolution French raises which program bringing of capable power international a in faith‖ nature,‖ of exception the with religion any recognize not do probably yourself you Because Byt 1924,
a bgn o uls drc prles ewe te oils and socialist the between parallels direct publish to begun had
ay oil eort, ie uwg np, iwd hmevs s oa to loyal as themselves viewed Knopp, Ludwig like Democrats, Social many - 2. 2.
you lack the understand the lack you I would like to thank my colleague, Caroline Mezger, for help withtranslation. this help for Mezger, Caroline mythank colleague, wouldto I like - o further paint them in a negativea lightin them paint further o esnl God personal 2.
20
Indeed, communism was perceived as a threat by most Saxons, and Saxons, most by threat a as perceived was communism Indeed, , the ,
ih h ves f h Sca Dmcas n prryn te as them portraying and Democrats Social the of views the with Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die
dumb dumb SDT
… According to my convictions, Christianity … is the true true the is … Christianity convictions, my to According … hurch. nature … to the level of deity. The reign of terror of the great the of terror of reign The deity. of level the to … nature
sought to undermine undermine to sought so much based around the church. Contrary to these these to Contrary church. the around based much so ing , the sense, for the beauty and rapture of the ―childish ―childish the of rapture and beauty the for sense, the ,
21
To illustrate To men and nations together, and not your materialistic materialistic your not and together, nations and men er from Paris, 14 November), 14 Paris, from er 89
19
how opposed even socially d socially even opposed how , p. 30. , the and
credibility
discour hostile SDT SDT age potential followers, agepotential
of the party the of , Vol. 51, Nr. 15445, 21 15445, Nr. 51, Vol. , , Vol. 47, Nr. 14174, 18 14174, Nr. 47, Vol. ,
brother
To this, the this, To ―God is ―God s. ForSocial s. ood communist communist
within the within words of of words iscontent
- related SDT
CEU eTD Collection 23 p. 7. July 3, 1925, 22 rigidly the with dissatisfaction by accompanied Romania, 1920s in difficulties affairs. economic and social on effects profound had also community, the nationalism cultural of tactic bullying their for leaders Saxon mainstream the begrudged that movements smaller c. The Unzufriedenenbewegungen new movements. conservative to greaterathreat as seen were community,theythe of numbersencompassedlarger dissenters workers, and Democrats Social the of many be community, describ othertheSaxon movements to time, social within this by Furthermore, chapter. previous the in entailed government Romanian the of reforms fore, the to come had threats external SDT the in prominent keep from more joining Saxons theSocialmoveme Democratic scare stigmatizing as seen be can communism to directly leads socialism churches.‖ anti paper were Saxons
Ibid., Ibid., Roth, - uhrn eak, eetees dniid oseim s h ―c the as Bolshevism identified nevertheless remarks, Lutheran agl ngetd okr‘ n fres afis I pr, hs a because was this part, In affairs. farmers‘ and workers‘ neglected largely Die „Unzufriedenen‟ „Unzufriedenen‟ Die p. 99. p. Politische Strukturen Politische For various reasons following 1924, however, the Social Democrat issue was not so not was issue Democrat Social the however, 1924, following reasons various For ned i adto t te oil eortc oeet tee ee lo multiple also were there movement, Democratic Social the to addition in Indeed, 22
Thus statements such as these in the the in these as such statements Thus to communism, it is useful to highlight a statement appearing in the dissident dissident the in appearing statement a highlight to useful is it communism, to
Volksrat
SDT . This is evincedby is This . — , p. 114. Roth‘s source is ―Verrat am eigenen Volke,‖ Volke,‖ ameigenen ―Verrat is Roth‘s source 114. p. ,
leaders, and thus the thus and leaders, factors which, although meant to boost the cultural well cultural the boost to meant although which, factors dsusd eo) n uy 95 Te ril, hl containing while article, The 1925. July in below) (discussed
aey h cnrlzn arra ad educational and agrarian centralizing the namely Klingsor 90 23
SDT
weakening the party. As these new internal new these As party. the weakening ‘s 1926 claims, me claims, 1926 ‘s SDT
redirected its emphasis to address these address to emphasis its redirected
which claimed in explicit terms that terms explicit in claimed which nt.
n Die „Unzufriedenen‟ Die mo eey f all of enemy ommon tioned above, that the the that above,tioned ed below, absorbeded - tactics meant to to meant tactics
h economic The -
being of of being divided
other, , I ssue s
CEU eTD Collection Braller oppre ―inordinate as describes Ibid., Roth what to due Catholicism‖ to converted 25 24 movement, their of name the bearing in argument Roth‘s of S thrusts main the of one fact, in is, This community. financial out leveling at aimed goals social primarily smaller predecessorslarger which dissatisfied arose inthe mid movement tothis community. the within dissatisfaction for basis only anti an of emergence the [ movement for ―dissatisfied … ―catalyst the as taxes church While increase.‖ an to led run long the in which income, and assets to according made be should calculation the taxes, church adjusting for used ex church the of burdens financial members) church were Saxons of 90% almost that remembered taxes levy could c War, anti both triggering as leaders‖ church and politicians Saxon between relations personal ―close the identifying together, politi clergy Lutheran The movements. the of rise the to contributed community, the of structure political and social t
Ibid., rukturen und Strömungen und rukturen Thus, ―at the beginning of the 1920s, approximately half of the Saxon population of the village of Bruiu Bruiu of village the of population Saxon the of half approximately 1920s, the of beginning the ―at Thus, acerbated by the 1924 decision ―that instead of the self the of instead ―that decision 1924 the by acerbated p. 110, footnote 5. Bruiu is a village in Sibiu County, approximately 50 km east of Sibiu (German: (German: Sibiu of east km 50 approximately County, Sibiu in village a is Bruiu 5. footnote 110, p. a ad diitaie arena. administrative and cal ; Hungarian: Brulya
p. 110 p. muiy edr hd eal arne te iuto so situation the arranged legally had leaders ommunity Importantly, - 113.
—
n o of top on
oh hrceie these characterizes Roth and and ).
Unzufriedenenbewegung Volksrat . In s In .
- h Rmna sae tax state Romanian the church and anti and church . ummer 1925, the the 1925, ummer utemr, iaca tobe i troubles financial Furthermore, ebr h members n at Hrl Rt se te w i two the sees Roth Harald fact, In i „Unzufr Die 91 d lot xlsv cnrl over control exclusive almost ad
- political movements. political Unzufriedenenbewegungen ],‖ he emphasizes that they were not the not were they that emphasizes he ],‖ ― dissatis iedenen‟ 24
—
e lo ons u ta tee were there that out points also He n sca dfeecs ihn the within differences social and n hrh ebr (t il be will (it members church on - fied evaluative [method] previously [method] evaluative oh dniis h heightened the identifies Roth
( s‖ h „Dissatisfieds‟ The
so‖ rm hi from ssion‖ ht h L the that
began to publish a paper paper a publish to began n re t alvae the alleviate to order in the n Shortly following the following Shortly - church protest,‖ or or protest,‖ church
community were were community se a bound as ssues
tea Church utheran s possessing as gh church taxes. taxes. church gh - 1920s. the Politische , which ), Saxon 25
CEU eTD Collection all of those to affairs Saxon from focus shifted supposed a implying Romania), in Germans the for Newspaper Romänien in Deutschtum das für Volkszeitung Allgemeine 28 27 26 Tagespost Brandsch‘s Rudolf absorbed reasons, financial to due had, and educational and social, the 1926, artistic, By content. cultural, its to also but content, political its to regards the of criticism increasing the in found be can population, the of majority mid the in again head its tension reared had partners The external seeking and here. policies isolationist between mind to comes above, described 1871, in Saxons Old of generation Lutheran the of taxation the Church. regulate to Parliament Romanian the petition to sought movement dissatisfied the of members authority,‖ Romanian a before church own their instance first the periodical weekly disorganized was fo a ―gain to managed paper attendance. school for condition a be not taxes adjacent for pastor one employ to ability the lowe schools, confessional the downsizing included aims concrete their others, Among classes. to lower the leadership of hardships Saxon the recognize of failure the and situation financial dismal the against out spoke
Ibid. Ibid., s f aur 1 te w ppr wr cmie udr h tte of title the under combined were papers two the 1, January of As - 1920s, and it , 115. , p.
p. 113 p. Evidence of dissatisfaction within the community, whether or not it comprised the comprised it not or whether community, the within dissatisfaction of Evidence 27
h siding The ( German Daily Post Daily German -
114.
in which ―a group of Saxon church members brought complaints against complaints brought members church Saxon of group ―a which in was onlyas toincreasewore thedecade on. Sächsische Volksblatt Sächsische t et B Nvme 1925, November By best. at
SDT f h Yug aos ih oain ersnaie aant the against representatives Romanian with Saxons Young the of
had eliminated any major competition from other Saxon papers Saxon other from competition major any eliminated had othold‖ in the main Saxon main the in othold‖
) . 28
As mentioned above, in f in above, mentioned As
( Saxon People‟s Paper People‟s Saxon ring clergy salaries, re clergy salaries, ring 92 parishes
26
i „Unzufriedenen‟ Die (Transylvanian German Daily: Universal National Universal Daily: German (Transylvanian
However, neither the movement nor the nor movement the neither However, , and making the payment of church of payment the making and ,
counties, and its program for reform for program its and counties,
Siebenbürgisch all 1926 all
). In what Roth describes as describes Roth what In ). - regulation of church taxes, churchtaxes, of regulation
oe liberal more
Klingsor was replaced by the the by replaced was - Deutsche SDT , not only in only not , published a published s
Deutsche Tageblatt: Tageblatt:
CEU eTD Collection das 30 279. Siebenbürgisch ―Das Folberth, the 29 of overview brief a For achieved. not Tage was aim this that implied however, year, following the in readers Jahr,‖ neuen ―Zum See country.‖ our in Germans the of interests common the of service the at powers full its placing of task the itself gives paper our Germans sense, religious the the in does it than elsewhere lies direction our matters, spiritual to regards in that clear manifestly is It paper. the in exist not Germany,and in life spiritual new [ spirituality emotional of trace no is ―there coverage: political and of lack Volk the for education national, or spiritual, a but events, of chronicle daily a provide to only not id members were muchpolitically notso as culturally dissatisfied and s task …‖ responsibility of lackand indolence astonishingan display editors the regard, this in that said be must it Unfortunately … one cultural a is task mo and Germans. mouthpiece survey the to opinions the gauging survey
Unless otherwise noted, al noted, otherwise Unless entifying it as ―the pulpit of our times.‖ As such, readers like Jekelius expected the expected Jekelius like readers such, As times.‖ our of pulpit ―the as it entifying The survey was issued in response to a July article by Otto Folberth harshly criticizing the daily. Otto Otto daily. the criticizing harshly Folberth Otto by article July a to response in issued was survey The Siebenbürgisch
s . In this regard, another reader, Dr. Konrad Nußbächer, complain Nußbächer, Konrad Dr. reader, another regard, this In . post hould be cultural was noteworthy because it demonstrated that many community community many that demonstrated it because noteworthy was cultural be hould r Ent eeis iial dsrbd h rl o te rs i clua terms, cultural in press the of role the described similarly Jekelius Ernst Dr. st widely disse widely st ― in Transylvania. The inaugural edition contained the assertion: ―With the advent of new relations, relations, new of advent the ―With assertion: the contained edition inaugural The Transylvania. in ‘s profile and its conflicts withthe its conflicts ‘sand profile spiritual 30
Erwin Reisner, a frequent contributor to to contributor frequent a Reisner, Erwin of the the of
ee eaie bt y n lre h sentim the large and by but negative, were - Deutsche Tageblatt Deutsche ‖
contents, in spite of his generally positive opinion of the paper‘s editors paper‘s the of opinion positive generally his of spite in contents, Volksrat
but in the psychological and philosophical sense philosophical and psychological the in but minated German newspaper in the country, the country, the in newspaper German minated l of the quotations in the following section are part of the article ―Rundfrage über ―Rundfrage article the of part are section following the in quotations the of l
- Deutsche Tageblatt. Eine Kritik,‖ Kritik,‖ Eine Tageblatt. Deutsche
was failing to reach the Saxon people and other Transylvanian other and people Saxon the reach to failing was of readers readers of ,‖ ,‖ — Tageblatt Klingsor SDT as unbelie as SDT , on the content of the of content the on Vol. 53, Nr. 15754, 1 January 1926, p. 1. Complaints from from Complaints 1. p. 1926, January 1 15754, Nr. 53, Vol. , see Roth, see , , Year 3, Issue 9, September 1926, p. 353 1926, September 3, Issue9, Year , .‖ This concern for spiritual leadership spiritual for concern This .‖ 93 vable as it seems it as vable
Politische Strukturen Politische Klingsor Klingsor T his asserti his SDT , Year 3, Issue 7, July 1926, p. 276 p. 1926, July 7, Issue 3, Year , , declared that declared , n ws xrse ta the that expressed was ent — . 29 that in Transylvaniain that on that a pap a that on bewegte Geistigkeit bewegte socially
, p. 10 p. , Not all of the respo the of all Not — infiltrated the Saxon the infiltrated Tageblatt d bu the about ed 2 -
104. .
-
362. ―as t ―as
er‘s primary primary er‘s
‘s primary ‘s he largest he — SDT not in not , ]; the ];
does SDT nses ‘s -
CEU eTD Collection icpie Zlih elrs ht hs ehd f on tig i n lne pos longer no is things doing of method this that Roth, nationalorganization.‖ ofour ―democratization declares Zillich discipline. 32 449. Sieb. ―Das Zillich, Heinrich the of critiques 31 movement dissatisfied the ―when 1926, September in only and movement, the to attention conservative the that seems it complaints, widespread these e cultural, social, a in also but sense, political purely a in not and community, the within democracy of degree greater a for calling ultimately attitudes inthecommunity the conservative towards the in expressed opinions the movement, Although Fi Chapter in examined be (to politics German numerous affairs political external ―spirituality would …be desirable.‖ folk moreacademic, dissatisfieds. the and conservatives Saxons the of strategies political the characterized still that culture on emphasis Sax the mid the in community
s cnlso t te uvy Hirc Zlih isl woe five a wrote himself Zillich Heinrich survey, the to conclusion a As For example, Harald Roth cites Heinrich Zillich‘s complaints about community frustrations with voting voting with frustrations community about complaints Zillich‘s Heinrich cites Roth Harald example, For
n eain wt Gray bt edr‘ neet n prta mtes gi ble the belies again matters spiritual in interest readers‘ but Germany, with relations on Volk In short, as the dissatisfied movement progressed, it became clear that Saxons were Saxons that clear became it progressed, movement dissatisfied the as short, In the around revolved complaints main the Thus .
This will be discussed more in depth in the following chapter, which deals with deals which chapter, following the in depth in more discussed be will This Klingsor citations . ‖ SDT
testo su ih htte called they what with issue took Others
and primarily faulting its editor its faulting primarily and
- n hs hss ocrig oain oiis i Catr Three Chapter (in politics Romanian concerning thesis this in a b n mas e iwd s h muhic o te dissatisfied the of mouthpiece the as viewed be means no by can like [ like - late 1920s, in part as a result of German discourse on maintenance of maintenance on discourse German of result a as part in 1920s, late - Deutsche T Deutsche
bt hs atr cuain s agl utnbe osdrn the considering untenable largely is accusation latter this but , volkstümisch
ageblatt und wir,‖und ageblatt r Hans Dr. ] and lively treatment of our inner our livelyof and treatment ] - 94 Politische Strukturen Politische in SDT -
chief, Hermann Plattner, for this lack of quality. See quality. of lack this for Plattner, Hermann chief, Klingsor
e, o hc a lw ol b added be could slew a which to ve), erc as epaie that emphasized also Hedrich uvy ersn mn o te general the of many represent survey Vol conomic, and religious one. religious and conomic,
ksrat , Year 3, Issue 11, November 1926, p. 445 p. 1926, November Issue 11, 3, Year , its
failure to address address to failure
SDT - and leadership. its ae ril smaiig h main the summarizing article page , p. p. 154. , Volksrat s ak f hrsa or charisma, of lack ‘s
- i nt a much pay not did national questions national il, aln fr a for calling sible, domestic
— 32
both the both Despite ―a less less ―a and )
and . 31 -
CEU eTD Collection 36 in Sachsenbund,‖ und ―Unzufriedene Kroner, Michael Dr. towns. rural several in supporters with albeit movement, intellectual 35 Siebenbürgen Roth, his 2012; of opinion negative a held R also See contemporaries tenure. cross Dörr‘s of the some advances, these and Despite achievements. inaugurated, was can was Church city entire the example, for tenure, 1906 the leading to 34 33 refo objectives,‖ political any contain actually the out, points Roth Saxons, church. the within especially differences, social out level to meant approach democratic more different, the from differedcompletelythat nationalism of project advocatinga not theywere that demonstrates solve failure a as attempts these viewed community the of members the unity, national and church, co of aims the Despite mainstream the by forth put nationalism cultural of project the considering enlightening extremely is church and school, [ the Dörr, Albert by headed and community the within kind its of first the party, formed politic a of statues the for draft a presented Volkstum
Roth, Inmember.addition most prominent its perhaps was he butof the group, leader sole notwas the Albert Dörr Ibid. ept tee eeig oil is Mcal rnr dniis the identifies Kroner Michael aims, social leveling these Despite rms. - Sachsenbund 98 oe f h ms iprat eid o te iys rnfrain no mdr ct. ne his Under city. modern a into transformation city‘s the of periods important most the of one 1918, , 117. , p. h polm themselves problems the Politische Strukturen Politische
described in Chapter Two, remained the foundation of the community. As Harald As community. the of foundation the remained Two, Chapter in described Most notably, in 1926, members of the of members 1926, in notably, Most Volksrat ], School, and Church.‖ This s This Church.‖ and School, ], oiice Strukturen Politische 35 ă ( Sachsenbund Sachsenbund
Cologne:Böhl Po zvan
E Die Siebe Die e i te ys f h dissat the of eyes the in ven o te Pltcl at fr h Mitnne f ainl Character National of Maintenance the for Party ―Political the or , ‘s; for they desired to protect the same cultural institutions, albe institutions, cultural same the protect to desired they for ‘s; p, ―Albert Dörr Dörr ―Albert p, Sachsenbund nservative politicians to preserve above all the institutions of school, of institutions the all above preserve to politicians nservative nbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen nbürger movement, Dörr was an important community member and mayor of Sibiu from Sibiu of mayor and member community important an was Dörr movement, , p. 118. p. , au Verlag, 2006). auVerlag,
p 120; p. ,
Volksrat
Sachsenbund Itrsigy hwvr the however, Interestingly, . –
‘s 10 Mari Sibieni,‖ Sibieni,‖ Mari 10 -
confessional municipal cemetery was opened, among other other among opened, was cemetery municipal confessional aad Roth, Harald ttts rf, hc ws ee pbihd ―i not ―did published, never was which draft, statutes le ad ae, h Me the paved, and alled
osraie, ecie i te rcdn chapter. preceding the in described conservatives, elf - 36 , published by Walter Myß, p. 545. p. Myß, ,Walter by published description as maintainer of national character, national of maintainer as description 95 al party,‖ was any action taken. action any was party,‖ al sid oeet te cultural the movement, isfied
s self ‘s n ws etrd rmrl aon church around primarily centered was and
Sachsenbund emnsat Ken Gshct enr td in Stadt einer Geschichte Kleine Hermannstadt: http://www.razvanpop.ro/blog/ - elrd il dmntae ta many that demonstrates title declared tropolit Sachsenbund , and had banded together to together banded had and , threatened to step out of the of out step to threatened Sachsenbund an Cathedral of the Orthodox Orthodox the of Cathedral an
as being a particularly particularly a being as
―pillars‖ , accessed March March accessed , 33 s il also title ‘s
hs newly This it taking a taking it
34 f the of
was
CEU eTD Collection 37 the Rösler, Gustav by visits frequent of institution the through accomplished part in was This nation. Saxon the of voices,Volksrat dissenting the to response in position; Saxon mainstream the of adjustment party political a of creation its and Church Lutheran the of out step dissol officially was It 1920s. late the in power to rose that movements social powerful more other, the into of thesame cultural in conservative stances, social different radically their well remainedthe their than matters the that emphasizes furthermore Roth religious a much so not was church the centuries the from but God, from escape seeking not were community the of members dissatisfied socially the century; supra the highlights anti or church, anti as church not toleavethe wanted identifiesRoth those who century. twentieth the in society Saxon of breaches greatest the of one church
Ibid. , 122. , p. en masse en ie h Sca Dmcai mvmn, the movement, Democratic Social the Like
frantically strove in 1927 to create a political community comprising all members all comprising community political a create to 1927 in strove frantically
Volksrat - ved in 1930. Despite its perceived failure as a party, however, its its however, party, a as failure perceived its Despite 1930. in ved lrcl ( clerical
in a radical rejection of traditional conservative authority. This constituted This authority. conservative traditional of rejection radical a in - Unzufriedenen being of th of being - prta rl ta te churc the that role spiritual
stitutions, and emphasized thesamefor concern the and the dissatisfied the and Volksrat
ih atrlgö, odr anti sondern antireligiös, nicht - long tradition embodied by the Lutheran Church, for, to many, to for, Church, Lutheran the by embodied tradition long e nation and its individual members individual its and nation e
s eod ayr fe Hn Ot Roth Otto Hans after lawyer second ‘s predecessors had been: ―The byword [of the [of ―Thebyword been: had predecessors Sachsenbund
nttto a a oil n hsoia community. historical and social a as institution Sachsenbund t s ey neetn that interesting very is it 96
h had developed by the early twentieth twentieth early the by developed had h
was also less concerned with economic with concerned less also was Sachsenbund — - kirchlich were struggling for preservation for struggling were - religious, but rather as anti but rather as religious,
…‖
a eetal absorbed eventually was . hs characterization This ).
37 actually resulted in an in resulted actually
Inte When one considersone When
oh groups both Volk t rrl Saxon rural to , restingly, Harald Harald restingly, Sachsenbund , ornation. threats to threats — the the the
] -
CEU eTD Collection 40 e.g. 39 38 socialis‗popularof option the classeslower ItofferedSaxon the ideas. germinatingNazi [to] polit on take ideas.sympathize Socialist withNational ( popular on took soon movement the organization, s support to sought politicization overview an contain merely will section this thus liter Much Fabritius. Fritz by 1922 in the is others, the of all absorbed eventually d on emphasis similar groups‘ culturalnational preservation andunity. two the reveal they and unity, maintain to compromises the of willingness the demonstrate they community, Saxon wound a to relief temporary only providing the Saxon parliame 1927 the in voters of decision throug communities . Selbsthilfe . Selbsthilfe
Roth, Ibid. The The
KZ
dissatisfied members of the community. the of members dissatisfied social , 124 , p. Kronstädter Zeitung Kronstädter , Vol. , - Politische Strukturen Politische Romanian voting cartel as was customary, was another attempt at compromise with compromise at attempt another was customary, was as cartel voting Romanian The final dissatisfied movement which remains to be discussed, and the one which one the and discussed, be to remains which movement dissatisfied final The -
democracy, communism, bolshevism and class hate and show[ing] allegiance to allegiance show[ing] and hate class and bolshevism communism, democracy, 91, Nr. 4, 6 4, 6 JanuaryNr. 1927. 91, Volksrat - 126. ical dimensions. Cristian Cercel describes the movement as ―saliently opposed ―saliently as movement the describes Cercel Cristian dimensions. ical . Originally a social group, social a Originally. and
t he Erneuerungsbewegungen hout Transylvania in order to gain a better idea of local situations. local of idea bettera gain to order Transylvaniain hout
al nml rees n grees n tp o investment of type a in gardeners and breeders animal mall leaders to form a minority block with other, non other, with block minority a form to leaders , among other papers, followed these voting these followed papers, other among , , p. 106 p. ,
n tary elections, rather than rather elections, tary
- 107.
ature has already been written on the movement, and movement, the on written been already has ature
a 40
co
Nevertheless, even well into the 1920s, it did not did 1920s, it Nevertheless,well the even into 39 Selbsthilfe - 97 operative building society ( societybuilding operative
While these attempts were ultimately useless, ultimately were attempts these While
that had long since become infected in the the in infected become since long had that
of the group‘s development and eventual and development group‘s the of , or ―Self or , vö to create their own party list for a for list party own their create to lkisch - block negotiations with interest. See, See, interest. with negotiations block conservative dmnin ad ea to began and dimensions ) - Help‖ movement, founded movement, Help‖ - Saxon Transylvanian Saxon Bausparkasse
Volksrat
to make to - 38 credit ) that )
The m,‘
CEU eTD Collection A (Wissenschaftliche des (Munich: Verlag B Reihe Kulturwerks, Südostdeutschen des Veröffentlichungen of 22 Volume (1924 „Klingsor‟ Zeitschrift 44 at Internet the on available ― See, generation. 43 movement. theSocialist National embraced youth‖ ―entire the which with enthusiasm particular 42 1933 Saxons 41 Jugendbund journal compares he study case a As groups. two the of rift this that emphasizing fathers, their from generation on monograph his Saxons. older the by possessed tradition‘‖ of ―‗spirit the with disillusionment general ― of criticism a including fathers,‖ their of generation the from war of categories the mid the of movements social the to responsive particularly were War World First the during age came that youth the Romania, in community and Saxon the within both situation the with dissatisfied were they because part in and up, grown had they which under generation the who conservative the by decisive as viewed was youth Saxon over influence importantly, abroad.‖ from coming ideas internationalist the to and community the within conservatives the to both opposed
Sunhild Galter Sunhild Cristian Cercel, ― Cercel, Cristian See Walter Myß, Myß, Walter See See, e.g. ―Was muß geschehen,‖ geschehen,‖ muß ―Was e.g. See, - 1920s. controlled s il e eebrd rm h dsuso of discussion the from remembered be will As lhuh Taslain emn ot Ascain ( Association Youth German Transylvanian a Although Die Karpathen - 42 1944,‖ 1944,‖ ) had already been founded in 1848, it failed and other movements were largely largely were movements other and failed it 1848, in founded been already had ) the
For example, the first issue of issue of For example,thefirst
makes a brief but rigorous study of how of study rigorous but brief a makes
Die Zeitschrift Zeitschrift Die the youth held the reigns of the future. In part because they were resistant to resistant were they because part In future. the of reigns the held youth the Saxon youth. Saxon The Relationship between Religious between Relationship The MA Thesis, Central European University, 2007, 20. p. 2007, University, European Central MAThesis, Fazit nach achthundert Jahren. Geistesleben der der Geistesleben Jahren. achthundert nach Fazit Südostdeutschen social Klingsor
http://www. 41 (
- The Carpat 1939). Studien zur Kulturgeschichte der ältesten inseldeutschen inseldeutschen ältesten der Kulturgeschichte zur Studien 1939). life that unbridgeably that life
n atclr the particular, In Klingsor Klingsor
atr y as poi also Myß Walter SDT
Kulturwerk revistatransilvania.ro/evenimente.htm Vl 6, r 108 2 uut 93 p 1 p. 1933, August 2 18088, Nr. 60, Vol. , hians als Sammelpunkt der jungen Kriegsheimkehrergeneration,‖ p. 84, 84, p. Kriegsheimkehrergeneration,‖ jungen der Sammelpunkt als ). s, 1968). s, 44
Klingsor Selbsthilfe 98
separated the gener the separated
Klingsor Klings Transylvanian of Case the in Identity National and
, appearing in 1924, contained a ―list of a contained , appearing in1924, nts to the divide separating the war war the separating divide the to nts or
‘s contents mirror the sentiments of the war the of sentiments the mirror contents ‘s can be can trce Sxn oe cass and, classes lower Saxon attracted
to Alfred Meschendörfer‘s prewar prewar Meschendörfer‘s Alfred to
Siebenbürger h cnesoa shos the schools, confessional the
felt in the literary production production literary the in felt
(accessed (accessed Siebenbürgisch ation returning from the from returning ation gentrified ideas gentrified
Sachsen im Spiegel der Spiegel im Sachsen - 2, which mentions the the mentions which 2, April 2012 April Volksrat
- Volksgruppe Deutschen ; for those for ; ).
,‖ and a and ,‖ rbeiten) rbeiten) 43
of of In ,
CEU eTD Collection 46 222. p. 45 right a on of Because community. however, ideology, Socialist the National in interests increasing Fabritius‘ within participation popular democratic, more towards leaders. agains nation Saxon the of tide the turn to helped the Thus movement. youth conscious bias.‖ without and honestly existence of problem the solving on work in melt ideals utopian overheated ifits And table.clears the thus oldand the ideasrotted of the Namely, roots it up nev He cold. and hot Reisner hopes, high these Despite natur extreme the about concern expressed underway.‖ is … nation our of establishment the for process a that assume may we whether … future the for hopes high [our] to movements ―The movements: youth the work.‖ youth and [schools] renewing at aimed and priority a culture national of maintenance made Romanian ―the that writes Kroner Michael program, this with line advocate strongly to began decade and several when period, prewar the until unsuccessful
Erwin Reisner, ―Jugendbewegung,‖ ―Jugendbewegung,‖ ErwinReisner, Dr. Michael Kroner, ―Jugendbewegung,‖ in in ―Jugendbewegung,‖ Kroner, Michael Dr. Pfadfinder
45 This overthrow did not take place in a violent manner, but rath but manner, violent a in place take not did overthrow This
Erwin Reisner published an article in article an published Reisner Erwin ly, this tendency to overturn the ideas of older generations lay at the center of th of center the at lay generations older of ideas the overturn to tendency this ly, - wing bent with a specific focus on racial purity, Pa purity, racial on focus specific a with bent wing
groups were particular were groups ertheless concluded ertheless to a
fog and come face to face with utter emptiness, it can set itself to itself set can it emptiness, utter with face to face come and fog Selbsthilfe
question Klingsor
the right the l ‘s success in recruiting youths to its its to youths recruiting in success ‘s y successful in the 1920s and 1920s the in successful y , Year 2, January 2, Year , Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die
: ―The youth movement also has a productive side. productive a has also movement youth ―The : s hte w ae ih … o ik h youth the link to … right are we whether is e of the movements and their tendencies to blow to tendencies their and movements the of e 99 - wing
Kling
ideologies stemming from Germany. In Germany. from stemming ideologies t
youth - h conservative the s December 1925, 60 p. 1925, December or
in 1925 in groups arose. The arose. groups n - Germanism, a Germanism, questioning - German , publishe , in the latter part of the of part latter the in 46 er was a gradual push gradual a was er Volksrat
the movement took movement the - Perhaps not always not Perhaps 64. ranks
d by Walter Myß, Myß, Walter by d youth group[s] group[s] youth
Wanderv the future of future the
nd a ―blood a nd n church and
eventually ogel e
CEU eTD Collection 50 117. p. Myß, 49 48 p. 178 2001), 47 NSDR fifth the having politicizationa of inthis more role decisive the movement. Rumänien in ( Romania Germansin the social a remained church.‖ face a hazard to enough strong nation; Erneuerungsbewegungen community the with discontent of as well swe in already had numbers its later years influence movement‘s the reveal that the 1929, by Transylvania: figures provides also Ciobanu etc.‖ soil, econo of and ethnic of promotion race, same and terms Socialist National adopt to philosophy. soil‖ and
Roth, Ciobanu, Dr. Michael Kroner, ―Erneuerungsbewegung,‖ in ―Erneuerungsbewegung,‖ Kroner, Michael Dr. Vasile Ciobanu, Ciobanu, Vasile
Politische Strukturen Politische one year prior and the political agreement that Fabritius made with with made Fabritius that agreement political the and prior year one The political conflict between the between conflict political The Michael Kroner contends that ―by the early 1930s, Fabritius felt the movement was movement the felt Fabritius 1930s, early the ―by that contends Kroner Michael 49 Sachsentag Contribuţii
- n 92 Fbiis ul ebae po embraced fully Fabritius 1932, In The . 181 [ 181 . aad oh osdr Fabriti considers Roth Harald ). Contributions to t to Contributions otiui l cnatra soii aio taslăei 1918 transilvăneni saşilor istoriei cunoaşterea la Contribuţii movement , p. 184. p. , , or Saxon national Saxon or , 47
Selbsthilfe Vasile Ciobanu asserts that only after 1927 did the did 1927 after only that asserts Ciobanu Vasile , p. 179 p. ,
, or reform movements, movements, reform or ,
NSDR Selbsthilfe —
economic and political and economic - he History of the Transylvanian Saxons 1918 Saxons Transylvanian the of History he 180. and founded the National Socialist Self Socialist National the founded and : - regarding f wt te edrhp f h Sxn ain n o the of and nation Saxon the of leadership the with off Nationalsozialistische
became
had 1,620 members from 112 localities, but just two just but localities, 112 from members 1,620 had lled to 3,193, to lled assembly Volksrat
―a national community based on the same blood same the on based community national ―a 100 Die Siebenbürger Sachsen Lexikon Sachsen Siebenbürger Die
s flo lae, r Wlea Gs, as Gust, Waldemar Dr. leader, fellow us‘
mics of the family, living space, blood and blood space, living family, the of mics h fudto o te multiple the of foundation the , iia aims litical of October 1933, but the founding of the the of founding the but 1933, October of
and the the and hc soug which
48 situation in Romania in situation
a sign of its increased popularity, as popularity, increased its of sign a
Selbsthilfebewegung der Deutschen derSelbsthilfebewegung NSDR — the t o rnw te Saxon the ―renew‖ to ht 50
ultimately culminated in culminated ultimately
Se - - 1944 1914 l bsthilfe bsthilfe - Help Movement of of Movement Help ].
, published by Walter Walter by published ,
(Sibiu: Editura hora, hora, Editura (Sibiu:
and in the Saxon the in and Selbsthilfe Gheorghe a hitherto had
begin Cuza
CEU eTD Collection 23 18211, Nr. 60, Vol. Wahlergebnis,‖ ―Das 6; p. 1933, December 20 1. p. 1933, December 18208, Nr. 60, Vol. Wähler!‖, 54 53 Bra un ―Volksorganisation 52 ( Michael Archangel Legionofthe by I Codreanu‘s Corneliu preceded itself radical more even the by aside pushed be to eventually of leadership the under period interwar the during formed 51 and a Volksrat SDT objectionable late a dateat. be votingstandard, shouldnot Aslate wonderedstill as was if discipline 1933, the Similarly, pursued. being still was unity national ―united and community.‖ ―unfractured‖ an remaining to crucial as seen still were patience the and Romania in situation political the with the of policy the regarding chapter preceding the of conclusions the confirms organization and discipline national emphasize to continues m a over influence significant had still popularity, declining their despite who, leaders community conservative the of eyes the the in predecessors his Like leaders.In 1932, the May the and
―Zum neuen Jahr,‖ neuenJahr,‖ ―Zum See, e.g. ―Bedingungslose Volksdisziplin,‖ Volksdisziplin,‖ ―Bedingungslose e.g. See, The The şov, 7 May şov,7 1932. Dr. Wilhelm Depner and Michael Zerbes (from the Burzenland Saxon County Committee, Committee, County Saxon Burzenland the (from Zerbes Michael and Depner Wilhelm Dr.
hc cl fr ad ucsfly mlmn te practice. the implement successfully and for, call which greater democrati Liga Liga vulne German and Saxon of cluster a only but nation, a be to silently is action organizatio national our our for the and Fabritius by pursued road consequences The … nation entire devastating have could which discipline, national of breach open an
ainl hita ees League Defense Christian National was forced to give into the into give to forced was Apărării Naţional Creştine Naţional Apărării rable. 53 , practice within the Saxon community, as ev community,as Saxon the within practice ,
h poet f utrl nation cultural of project The 52
SDT d Selbsthilfe,‖ Selbsthilfe,‖ d , Vol. 59, Nr. 17615, 1 January 1932, p. p. 1. 1 Nr.January1932, 17615, 59, Vol. , zation of the Saxon nat of theSaxon zation lerated and not fiercely combat fiercely not and lerated
SDT , u ntoa dsiln, n pltcl mat I ti cus of course this If impact. political and discipline, national our n, Sachsenbund
called the SDT , or or , , Vol. 59, Nr. 17719, 10 May 1932, p. 1 p. 1932, May 10 17719, Nr. 59, Vol. , LANC Selbsthilfe jrt o te ouain Th population. the of ajority SDT Se , wsa oaa ainls,eteey anti extremely nationalist, Romaian a was , , Vol ,
lbsthilfe Fabritius had clearly overstepped his bounds in bounds his overstepped clearly had Fabritius 101 51 Volksrat SDT
ional program. ls wih bv al underscored all above which alism led to an outcry among Saxon conservative Saxon among outcry an to led .
‘s demands for a Saxon national gathering national Saxon a for demands ‘s 60, Nr. 18200, 10 December 1 December 10 18200, Nr. 60, ron Guard ( Guard ron Alexandru C. C C. Alexandru ed, then sooner or later we will no longer no will we later or sooner then ed, sivcto fvtn icpiea this at discipline voting of invocation ‘s iiin i te omnt, nt and unity community, the in divisions ‘s new political program andalliance‘s new political program - Selbsthilfe Selbsthilfe speaking people standing completely completely standing people speaking
in the early 1930s: despite disillusion despite early1930s: the in
inced by a series of articles in the in articles of series a by inced Garda de Fier de Garda
Legiunea Arhanghelului Mihail Arhanghelului Legiunea leads to the annihilation of annihilationthe to leads uza 54 (Gheorghe was his son) his was (Gheorghe
oee b 13, the 1933, by However is - 2. Originally published in in published Originally 2. ) movement, which was which movement, ) 92 asg that passage 1932 933, p. 1; ―Achtung 1; p. 933, - Semitic party party Semitic
national . It was It . ) .
CEU eTD Collection 9. p. 1990), Böhlau, – Beitrag soziologischen einem mit Studie, kulturanthropologische Eine 57 56 55 bourgeois petty the and peasants wealthy the in strength their based they individual; the of role the estimated always German;they very always were They centuries. for philosophy Socialist National the of elements core t 1936: in Transylvania journeyingin told been have to claims Macartney C.A. historian British Late purity. and unity national and institutions, and culture national of maintenance of emphasis the onpreservation aso long: similar for placedconservative both Saxons p been had that nationalism cultural of project the to opposed completely were ideals Socialism‘s National principle, In action. of course appropriate the seemed sa the point this At community. the into way its burrowed had propaganda Socialist National which to extent the shows it comical, the While conceded the power, to came Hitler since Ever community.the of hold taken had Socialism National how h could ―What entitled article August an defeat, admitting already SDT
o Amn ash ud er Weber Georg und Nassehi Armin von mußges ―Was nature by soul is that the Augustineclaims Inactuality, crifice to preserve the unity of the Saxon nation, and an acceptance of National Socialism National of acceptance an and nation, Saxon the of unity the preserve to crifice C.A. Macartney (1937), quoted in Marylin Marylin in quoted (1937), Macartney C.A.
tried to make sense of the change of direction within the community. In some ways ways some In community. the within direction of change the of sense make to tried Christian; true Socialists National been always the the gathering, this for preparation In S ocialist … ocialist
Selbsthilfe oi o ti saeet per ams peotru, n te eets almost defeatism the and preposterous, almost appears statement this of logic … SDT
chehen,‖ chehen,‖ A 55 s a known saying of the church father Augustine goes, the soul is by nature nature by is soul the goes, Augustine father church the of saying known a s
56 we can thus make the assertion that the Saxon sensibility sensibility Saxon the that assertion the make thus can we ,
gained the victory among us. It cannot be contested that we Saxons have have Saxons we that contested be cannot It us. among victory the gained SDT
, Vol. 60, Nr. 18088, 2 August 1933, p. p. 1 August 2 1933, Nr. 18088, 60, Vol. ,
, ed. Georg Weber, Volume 16 of Studia Transylvanica (Cologne: (Cologne: Transylvanica Studia of 16 Volume Weber, Georg ed. , sin ―‗… ce
our very establishment. We hold this statement to be to statement this hold We establishment. very our Volksrat McArthur, McArthur,
The Saxons have already been practicing all of theof all practicing beenalreadyhave Saxons The 102 Sachsentag national community national
corrupt
leaders were willing to make almost any any almost make to willing were leaders u Ietttwne dr ibnügr Sachsen. Siebenbürger der Identitätswandel Zum . See, e.g. Augustine‘se.g. See, . , in October 1933, the editors of the of editors the 1933, October in , e olwn b a ao while Saxon a by following he – - 2.
Identität, Ethnizität und Ge und Ethnizität Identität,
ave happened?‖ describes happened?‖ ave
is by nature N nature by is as higher than that of the of that than higher as City of God of City ut forward by the the by forward ut ationa .
l sellschaft
… Volk ‘ not ‖ 57 ,
CEU eTD Collection 59 58 interw the In neighbors. German Transylvanian their with collaborate should Saxons the not or whether to as debates were there century earlytwentieth the alreadycommunity:in the dividing onlyfactors the not were early1930s II. with Hitler‘s Pa community the sali within became cleavage the that 1933 after only was it However, 1933. before even increasing continually were ecclesiastical, and political both elites, Saxon mainstream Na Saxon new the Sachsentag NSDR between previousl the agreement complete a for hoped have could one … ago year a ―Perhaps continues: article the from more expect cannot We … closer inwardly [Saxons] the community, the of Transylvania and the fatherlands diverse of recognitions their in existed difference major bent. Socialist National a as identified be to came what had always had they that belief questionab is War World First the yearsimmediatelyfollowing the in made beenhavestatementcould this extend what To
Cercel, ― Cercel, Sachsentages,‖ des ―Vorbereitung Transylvanian German Transylvanian Tdy hrl ayn cn nug i sc hopes.‖ such in indulge can anyone hardly Today, . Less than one month before the the before month one than Less The social unrest of the mid the of unrest social The The Relationship between Religious Religious between Relationship The
ent.‖ were as the the as were n 59 - German National program.German Socialist
Shortly thereafter, the Transylvania Saxon community was synchronized was community Saxon Transylvania the thereafter, Shortly inl Program. tional Königsboden y - SDT existing majority inthe SDT
Collaboration Collaboration had predicted, with most of the of most with predicted, had wrote that its hopes were that the gathering ―would bring us us bring ―would gathering the that were hopes its that wrote
SDT e bt y h mid the by but le, , Vol. 60, Nr. 18122, 10 September 1933, p. p. 1. September1933, 18122, 10 Nr. 60, Vol. , — - s rsin ecl rts ― writes, Cercel Cristian As and in their Pan and intheir 1920s and the political con political the and 1920s Sachsentag and National Identity,‖ p. 19. p. Identity,‖ National and 103 and Volksrat
the ar years these discussions discussions these years ar -
90, ao laes a asre the absorbed had leaders Saxon 1930s, which was to decide the future direction direction future the decide to was which -
Rise of Pan Rise of German versus isolationist policies. German isolationist versus
and theSelf NSDR 58 Sachsentag
flicts of the late 1920s and 1920s late the of flicts ned te eut o the of results the Indeed, - The voices opposing the the opposing voices The Germanism ‘s demands adopted into into adopted demands ‘s - Help Movement ofthe Help —
…‖ Ruefully, the Ruefully, …‖ Germany versus versus Germany eae more became
The
CEU eTD Collection Hunga of rearrangement Trianon the after rule Hungarian under remained who Germans to 60 Germans, believed also Fabritius‘ leadership in1935. the leaderofthe the of Germans the and Swabians, Banat nation united newly the in groups German various ( Romania in Germans of Association the leadership, his Under century. the of beginning active Brandsch‘s Rudolf by a. The VDR andIts Kulturamt failed and they Transylvanian begantoreach their Germans. outto fellow conservativegraduallyas the changed views these how outline will sectionfollowingbriefbetrayal. Thenational to equivalentbeenhave would populations German other or Swabians the with cooperation close period, postwar of sentiments impeded that Germans) Transylvanian other the to as well (as Swabians the and Saxons the between distinctions confessional and government. to policy Saxon heated VDR
Andreas Möckel, ―Kleinsächsisch oder Alldeutsch?‖, p. 138. The term ―Hungarian Germans‖ can refer both both refer can Germans‖ ―Hungarian term The 138. p. Alldeutsch?‖, oder ―Kleinsächsisch Möckel, Andreas :
as some Saxons felt that the political situation in Romania in situation political the that felt Saxons some as ebn de Verband Brandsch Sax of views held leaders conservative all not course, Of ‖
and had had and A Saxon superiority Saxon i ol b n h et neet fteSxn t h to Saxons the of interest best the in be would ―it s include the other Germans in order to strengthen their representation in the the in representation their strengthen to order in Germans other the include VDR mentioned was not alone in his efforts. Lutz Korodi Lutz efforts. his in alone not was Dushn n Rumänien in Deutschen r ed hs iw ic te rwr period. prewar the since view this held
until 1931, and the associationabwasthe and 1931, until
in Chapter Two, there were major social, economic, linguistic, economic, social, major were there Two, Chapter in
. Thus, to most Saxon conservative leaders in the immediate the in leaders conservative Saxon most to Thus, . advocacy such Bucovina f Saxon of 104 collaboration Volksrat ws one i 1919 in founded was )
, Bessarabia, and Dobruja. Brandsch was Brandsch Dobruja. and Bessarabia, , - - wba claoain led a the at already collaboration Swabian ‘s isolationist policy‘s isolationist the early 1920s of state: the Saxons, the Satu Mare and and Mare Satu the Saxons, the state:
and, in many cases, amounted to amounted cases, many in and, ,
sorbed bythe sorbed a fellow teacher and politician and teacher fellow a 60
r Rcad sk (1886 Csaki Richard Dr. on superiority, as evinced as superiority, on mandated elp the other Hungarian other the elp
in order to unite the the unite to order in
NSDR
an expansion of expansion an ry‘s
borders under Fritzunder , or to or , - ,
CEU eTD Collection 64 63 Landeskunde und Jahr 62 56. (1907 Deutschland in Leben literarischen 61 nat their German,as groups border these of majority The Romania. not and Hungarian, claim comingto several Period, Dualist the during of assimilated completely or were partially citizens became and border the to closer lived who those of character international the emphasized Germany,‖ in life literary of 1931, in office the of closing the to connections Csaki‘s through again resume to Ostland Copony Grete marrying re he Budapest, and Bonn, contributions literary situation. ―initial was office cultural the of role the all,‖ ―above thus, side; Transylvanian the and German the both from regions respective the about known was little very War, World First the after that, fact the by complicated the to [ homeland connection German spiritual the maintain to and institutions cultural various of creation the throughGermans Romanian all solidaritybetween of feeling the strengthen ―to intended the of journal the of editor founderand the 1943),
Ibid., ― Nowotnick,
afe Wtsok rve o ―Grete of review Wittstock, Manfred ihea oonc, ― Nowotnick, Michaela
h Sxn journals Saxon the h undert. Bildkunst der „Verschollenen Generation‟ „Verschollenen der Bildkunst undert.
p. 94. p. VDR o hs at Rcad Csaki Richard part, his For
was first established in 1919 but discontinued publication after just two short years, short two just after publication discontinued but 1919 in established firstwas 63
s utrl fie ( office cultural ‘s Die Karpathen Die
53 (2010): 192. (2010): 53
ive language. ive in 1926. Its publication Its 1926. in Mutterland
and essays published in published essays and i Karpathen Die i Karpathen Die -
Csaki, a well a Csaki, , Ostland
und o i hmtw o Sbu n wre a a teacher, a as worked and Sibiu of hometown his to turned Ostland Kulturamt ].‖ , Klingsor 62 - Csaki 1939),‖ MA Thesis, Humboldt Thesis, MA 1939),‖
, VD Michaela Nowotnick Michaela
Ostland
- ie Taslain emn olbrto through collaboration German Transylvanian aided also folded. also known artist in her own right. As mentioned earlier, mentioned As right. own her in artist known , R - — ooy 1893 Copony, y o luiae n mdae te cross the mediate‖ and illuminate to ly Ostland ,‖ p. 56. p. ,‖ ‘s publically ‘s , salse i 1922. in established ), unlike that of that unlike Ostland , 105
Klingsor his journal his , by Ingrid von der Dollen, in Dollen, der von Ingrid by ,
and ,
64 , had similar views and was made leaderandmade wasviews similar had ,
Nowo Seebre ud en Bzeugn zum Beziehungen seine und Siebenbürgen . - 1990,‖ from the volume volume the from 1990,‖ - funded cultural office; thus with the with thus office; cultural funded Klingsor Klingsor Ostland
tnick, who made a detailed study detailed a made who tnick, explains that this latter task was task latter this that explains - Universität zu Berlin, 2007, p. 55 p. 2007, Berlin, zu Universität
61 n ter cnetos to ―connections their and . After stud After . —
h clua ofc was office cultural The was financially secured financially was Ostland Forschungen zur Volks zur Forschungen
Malerinnen im 20. 20. im Malerinnen y , especially as as especially , ing in Berlin, in ing - borders borders - -
CEU eTD Collection p. 23 June1919, and confessional for had, who apart. Germans grown of reasons, groups other different the between also but Romania, in nationalities w simply hopes, modest 68 67 66 Karpathen 65 Saxons, the of part the on supervision and tact much with handled be must It thing. delicate in wrote difficult. more relations future make would that superiority of attitude an reveal ―brothers,‖ German fellow their with collaborate to Saxons of willingness the live we which in state new the to culture German our of treasure wonderful the ―reveal to Saxons the of task the as it to referred similarly populations German of because and regions, German of because both Europe, Southeastern in declared Teutsch Friedrich Henc contributors. his of texts the in evident somewhat still is Saxon superiority of sense a yet issue, the on remarks several contains 1919, June from issue, first inter advocate to attempts Csaki‘s demonstrate years) later its regardin this under leadership Heinrich the Zillich. more of metropolitan the to contribute to Switzerland and Austria, German Greater a Germa from of authors recruit to efforts greatest Csaki‘s despite that concludes concept Nowotnick the on rely and nation German in statements the Saxons, Transylvanian the for only argued journal prewar the to compared
Rudolf Brandsch, ―Zunkunftsfragen des Ostdeutschtums,‖ Ostdeutschtums,‖ des ―Zunkunftsfragen RudolfBrandsch, Aufgaben!,‖ neuen―Vor Fr. Teutsch, Dr. Not all contributions expressed this superiority. In the same issue, for example, Lutz Korodi has more more has Korodi Lutz example, for issue, same the In superiority. this expressed contributions all Not Ibid.,
A glimpse at even the early contents of contents early the even at glimpse A p. 62. As noted above, a distinction can also be made between the content of of content the between made be also can distinction a above, noted As 62. p. , the latter of which contained more traditional subject matter. subject more traditional contained which of the latter , Klingsor - 25.
n 1926, in . ishing that the end of the war would bring peace not only between the various various the between only not peace bring would war the of end the that ishing 66
Lutz Korodi, ―Umdenken: Die Kunst des Gegenwa des Kunst Die ―Umdenken: Korodi, Lutz n h sm ise i wl b rmmee, uof rnsh had Brandsch Rudolf remembered, be will it issue, same the In
or so ―our
Ostland Ostland their i Karpathen Die Ostland -
ald omnl emn citizen German communal called their historic role as ― as role historic that the that Ostland , Vol. I, I, IssueVol. ,
geographical position in the middle of the other the of middle the in position geographical 106 Saxons must take the lead of all Germans in Germans all of lead the take must Saxons
Ostland Ostland , .‖ . She writes, ―While in in ―While writes, She . Ostland Klingsor Klingsor 67
Such statements, while demonstrating while statements, Such
1, June 1919, 14 p. June1919, 1, bea (Nowotnick‘s study addresses only addresses study (Nowotnick‘s , Vol. I, Issue 1, June 1919, p. p. 27 1919, I, June Issue1, Vol. , rers of culture of rers
was ultimately more successful more ultimately was Ostland - German collaboration. The collaboration. German rt,‖ rt,‖ - Reich 16.
Ostland 68 eeec te entire the reference y ean a very a remains ry
‖
As Hans Hedrich Hans As among i Karpathen Die .‖ Klingsor e in 1919, Dr. Dr. 1919, in e , Vol. I, Issue 1, 1, Issue I, Vol. , 65
Ironically,
the oth the
- and and 28.
ny, ny, Die er er
CEU eTD Collection July years. 25 for Banat the Tage in ideals [German] national di of This bearers sole years.‖ the and party, our of ―members as Swabians German the of members Swabian the abused which Neugeboren 70 354 p. 1926, September 69 j that point the makes article the Interestingly, us.‖ for effects disadvantageous have could Swabians the example with broached still was subject the however, 1924, reformsschool of afterth the politicians implementation clearTransylvania, toSaxon itbecame b. AChangein Brandsch, whofer inter of advocate greatest The neighbors. German isolationist resis to due years postwar Ostland self schools confessional their over control their especially Saxons, the of privileges traditional the that true is it but here, determined be cannot Transylvanians German other account. into taken be less other, the of envy and sensitivity the and
For example, i example, For Part of the article ―Rundfrage über das das über ―Rundfrage article the of Part
- 1920, p. 2. Articles continue to appear throughout the summer. See, e.g. July 14, 16, 17, and 18. and 17, 16, 14, July e.g. See, summer. throughout the Articlesappear to p. continue 2. 1920, s a
post dministration ―Eine Verwahrung Rudolf Brandsch‘s beim Kronstädter Krei Kronstädter beim Brandsch‘s Rudolf Verwahrung ―Eine Organizations such as the as such Organizations In spite of the glaring differences existing between the various German groups in in groups German various the between existing differences glaring the of spite In , were meant to overcome these tensions, but they largely proved futile in the early the in futile proved largely they but tensions, these overcome to meant were , ,
that lasted for weeks, attesting to the contentious nature of the subject in the immediate postwar postwar immediate the in subject the of nature contentious the to attesting weeks, for lasted that ust as there as ust oiyo clua preservation cultural of policy spatch sparked a debate between the the between debate a sparked spatch SDT n July 1920, he submitted a dispatch to the to dispatch a submitted he 1920, July n
in 1924 in Volksrat
ociously defended his Swabian allies against Saxon attacks.ociously defendedallies againstSwabian hisSaxon , had long been a source of contention. contention. , had a been long source of otie an contained - 355. ‖ - 69 were 1925 that some sort of collaboration must be attempted. Even in latein Evenattempted. be collaboration of must sort some that 1925
Policy
To what extent this ―envy‖ was actually felt by the Swabians and Swabians the by felt actually was ―envy‖ this extent what To ac fo those from tance
Saxons who Saxons
ril ta asre ta ―ls rel ―close that asserted that article VDR Siebenbürgisch
and its cultural office, as well as publications like publications as well as office, cultural its and did
and still looked askance at their Transylvanian their at askance looked still and 107
Volksrat not want to work with the Swabians, so Swabians, the with work to want not - SDT incorporated incorporated
- SDT etce Tageblatt Deutsche - Badc, n hs w ppr the paper, own his and Brandsch, , German collaboration remained Rudolf Rudolf remained collaboration German
protest
ato b cnevtv voices: conservative by caution - edr wo otne t fvr an favor to continued who leaders Swabian Swabian sausschuss,‖ sausschuss,‖
ing an ―inflammatory article‖ by Emil Emil by article‖ ―inflammatory an ing brothers [ brothers National ,‖ ,‖ SDT Klingsor tos ih h Banat the with ations Bruderstämme
Party. He describes the the describes He Party. , Vol. 47, Nr. 14167, 9 14167, Nr. 47, Vol. , , Year 3, Issue 9, 9, Issue 3, Year , 70
e Romanian e
and their and
Deutsche Deutsche ]
must also for for
CEU eTD Collection 71 the of broadening the to led probably the of merge 1926 the Fabritius‘ as such sources through community the infiltrate was policy th to contributing factor Another chapter. previous the in regionalism, described of rise the and Party Peasant National the of formation gradual the to part in and Romania, in situation political disorganized the to due part in was policy in change and condescend pos immediate and prewar the since shifted significantly had Transylvania in Germans fellow towards attitudes Saxon 1924, by that demonstrates privilege unequal nation Romanian description unfounded not be could they that were there
―Sachsen und Schwaben,‖ Schwaben,‖ und ―Sachsen were
often fearful of collaboration because they because collaboration of fearful often were ut w yas ae, oee, h cnevtv politicians conservative the however, later, years two Just question. Swabian the of treatment troublemakers malicious of success to order in However, … the that will free own ago their years of was it and several Saxons the with support, party parliamentary a formed Parliament in and representatives Swabian advice for Saxons the to turned In Swabians. [ the ideal to foreign national the Thus, ago. centuries attained already Saxons the that] one [the as same the is community national Swabian the aimof The
lal oe oclaoain a i cerfo eea atce i the in articles several from clear is as collaboration, to open clearly
— Swabians who view who Swabians ing, whetherconsciously not.He ing, continued, or h Ntoa Scait n Pan and Socialist National the h atce cnwegd ih rttd ta, u t te as f h new the of laws the to due that, gratitude with acknowledged article the Dsie h cam ht h Sain at ws weaker was party Swabian the that claim the Despite . — - incid udr utin ue. hs iea sii o te at f h author the of part the on spirit liberal This rule). Austrian under s
state, the two groups could be viewed as equals (in comparison to their to comparison (in equals as viewed be could groups two the state, ― patronized a patronized entally SDT
SDT
, Vol. 51, Nr. 15464, 13 December 1924, p. p. 1. December 1924, 13 Nr. 15464, 51, Vol. , protect th e most natural and reasonable decision that one can conceive of conceive can one that decision reasonable and natural most e
ed n Rdl Badc‘ daily Brandsch‘s Rudolf and order better to attain it, leading Swabians have occasionally occasionally have Swabians leading it, attain to better order nd
collaboration with distaste. The Swabians The distaste. collaborationwith the the bossed around bossed 71 sensitivities
, we will have to continually continually to have will we , - 108 SDT emn dooy ht a gauly eu to begun gradually had that ideology German
of further Swabian circles and and circles Swabian further of
‘s political horizons due to Brandsch‘s Brandsch‘s to due horizons political ‘s were ‖ Volksideal
by the Saxons the by
the weaker party and and party weaker the twar years; yet his tone remained tone his yet years; twar
o te aos s o longer no is Saxons the of ] Selbsthilfe De xrie caution exercise
; indeed, these fears were fears these indeed, ; tce Tage utsche
a aadnd caution abandoned had e . A final factor was factor final A . Volksrat to prevent prevent to , it was asserted,was it , therefore —
s n the in n accurate an post s shifting ‘s SDT the the which ,
fear . This . ed
CEU eTD Collection Roma Hungary, of Diaspora German the in 73 Conflict Ethnic of Slovakia.‖ Roots Social The Übermensch: Szelényi, Balázs labourers.‖ day and peasants farmers, uneducated poor, were base its at s and lawyers city were movement the of leaders German rural the ―among place taking process 72 German ―young whose Swabians, Banat the about was article the schools,‖ confessional Swabian the which to collaboration the late 1920s in out tested be ultimately would three all although collaboration, Hungarian and Romanian harm. any Germans do could it that seemed longer Germans no Transylvanian certainly fellow their with alliance an outlook, dismal this Considering stability, wereBrandsch, followingconditions: wrote the of leadership the under the since years seven in seventh the government, new a 1926, March of As situation. political present the in event‖ joyful only 1926 in Mare‖ Satu in Germans sleeping the of awakening pro pronounced
Rudolf Brandsch, ―Politische Umschau,‖ Umschau,‖ ―Politische RudolfBrandsch, Balázs Szelényi describes the development of ―a united Swabian ethnic identity,‖ as a belated and gradual gradual and belated a as identity,‖ ethnic Swabian united ―a of development the describes Szelényi Balázs the state schools are virtually romanianized; the law concerning the baccalaureate and and baccalaureate the concerning law the romanianized; virtually are schools state the n li In life. public language of trace a not finally, and annihilated, been has parishes our of autonomy the law; the of letters clear the against explicitly often treated, unlawfully been have we reforms, vi agrarian the through even Saxons; the for least and at treaty, peace autonomy educational our endangers gravely system school private — Past and Present and Past Allies: with whom the Sa the whom with h o ti cag o policy of change this of ght —
with the rise ofregionalismwith the rise Volksrat an article appeared in the in appeared article an -
73 emn iw. Indeed, views. German h shos f h Ctoi odr ad hrh r nt en tetd as treated being not are church and orders Catholic the of schools The
196 (2007): 196 a ebae Sain as. nild Clua Tra o Our of Threat ―Cultural Entitled cause. Swabian embraced had
Alexandr
xons at least at xons
230. u Klingsor establishment of the of establishment vrsu Frhr e Further Averescu.
- speaking peasantry in southern and western Hungary … The The … Hungary western and southern in peasantry speaking choolteachers, German language and literature professors, but professors, literature and language German choolteachers, . SDT Rudolf
, Year 3, Issue 5, May 1926, p. 192 p. May 5, 1926, Issue 3, Year , shared a common language common a shared 109 —
in August 1926 that demonstrated the extent the demonstrated that 1926 August in
from
rnsh e wa h cle ―h new ―the called he what met Brandsch ihs s o e on i ay ra of area any in found be to is rights an an
aebtn ti lc o political of lack this xacerbating Romanian state, had been elected been had state, Romanian isolationist 72
with jubilati with n a alac with alliance an And
stance — - on, labeling it ―the it labeling on, 196. was preferable to preferable was
―From Minority to to Minority ―From lts the olates
o inclusive to nia and and nia fellow
CEU eTD Collection ni werden 74 Saxons dissatisfied among only not support garner to able was Fabritius long, so for collaboration German was already of open increasing tothenumber idea, Socialist Pan National of policy the did later Only support. for populations Swabian rural poorer the Fabritiu that natural is it smallholders, to appeal to meant movement the for support local more gain to desire simple a Pan of perspective the from made much so not originallywere t of areas other from Germans recruit to efforts his that likely is It Transylvania. Fabritius‘ Fritz on Rudolf After state. latch to beganfirst who movements dissident Saxon the was it supporters, his and Romanian Brandsch created newly the in collaboration German embrace to c. culturalreigns body,creating the a German totake national in Transylvania. program in and political advanced more the as them, allowed it because collaboration, German greater superiority of attitude less as organizations cultural Swabian‘s the to refer explicitly to be can threat.‖ severe a facing] [were organizations cultural
―Kulturelle Bedrohung unserer schwäbischen Volksgenossen. Die katholischen Ordens katholischen Die Volksgenossen. schwäbischen unserer Bedrohung ―Kulturelle Dissident to the idea of cooperation with Germans outside of the Saxon community. Saxon Germans ofthe with cooperation outside of to the idea
seen as backhanded compliments from the side of the Saxons; for the article went on went article the for Saxons; the of side the from compliments backhanded as seen seily ic te conservative the since Especially As men cht als konfessionelle Schulen behandelt,‖ Schulen behandelt,‖ konfessionelle als cht
Collaboration andtheRise ofPan - Germanism begin to take hold, and it worked to Fabritius‘ advantage that he that advantage Fabritius‘ to worked it and hold, take to begin Germanism tioned at the beginning of this section, the thissection, of at the beginning tioned Selbsthilfe Selbsthilfe
n youth and — while not entirely unfounded entirely not while
rga ivle te oprto o al emn within Germans all of cooperation the involved program
bt lo mn Sain ad te Gra gr German other and Swabians among also but , SDT Volksrat 110 - Germanism , Vol. 53, Nr. 15937, 15 August 1926, 1. p. August15 Nr. 15937, 1926, 53, Vol. ,
74 — eand eitn t Transylvanian to resistant remained Selbsthilfe
his supporters. Again, such concerns, while sincere, while concerns, such Again, gave Saxon politicians l politicians Saxon gave Volksrat
- German ideology than out of of out than ideology German
- oeet A a minority a As movement. developed. This continued This developed.
was by no means thefirst no means was by s would have looked to looked have would s
-
und Kirchenschulen undKirchenschulen Indeed, part of everage in a a in everage he country country he us who oups
-
CEU eTD Collection Party). Nazi the Party, GermanWorker‘s 78 77 76 75 by characterized was period interwar the revealed, has chapter this As community. Saxon III. Conclusions the for implementation ofNazi ideologyand l way making community, Saxon the within changes political immediate almost Germany. s groundwor the laid or aims, these of many implemented the in position central a in together groups these of to according divided bodies fused tightly by [ fate of community national a Develop 1) to was 1932, later. months few a just the form to him enable would that alliances local making October), (in Bessarabia canvasse Fabritius Reich non Pan his time, this movement year, following the of spring themselves. represent to enough large or organized not were me 13, oeig i nationa his modeling 1932, ummer
Andreas Möckel, ―Kleinsächsisch oder Alldeutsch?‖, p. 144. p. Alldeutsch?‖, oder ―Kleinsächsisch Möckel, Andreas Ibid. Ciobanu, Ciobanu, lmntn al independents all eliminating - Saxon groups would serve to strengthen his argument for a synchronization with the with synchronization a for argument his strengthen to serve would groups Saxon
, 186. , p. when he stepped out against the against out stepped he when Ironically, this transition once again leveled out the political playing field within the within field playing political the out leveled again once transition this Ironically, 78 Contribuţii
Contribuţii no h Bnt mkn svrl ores hr ad holdin and there journeys several making Banat, the into
It is thus clear why Fabritius‘ victory at the October 1933 October the at victory Fabritius‘ why clear thus is It
- German intentions were clear, and the supporters he gained from other, other, from gained he supporters the and clear, were intentions German nt ny n h B the in only not d , p. 185. p. , p 187. p. , 76
His ultimate aim, as described as aim, ultimate His
NSDAP ‖ writes Ciobanu, ― Ciobanu, writes ‖
2 Ognz al xenl emn settle German external all Organize 2) ;
: Nationalsozialist porm lot xcl o ta o the of that on exactly almost program l eaving room for little resistance. Volksrat nt bt lo n uoia i f (in Bucovina in also but anat, national and economic standards economic and national 111
with the fou the with Fabritius sh Dush Arbeiterpartei Deutsche ische
Reich Volks in letter to the German the to letter in made great efforts to extend the extend to efforts great made . fr hi ipeetto, by implementation, their for k 77 ―At the end of 1931 and in the the in and 1931 of end the ―At ndation of the of ndation -
Furthermore, he had already had he Furthermore, und Schicksalsgemeinschaft und g
conferences Sachsentag et rus into groups ment ; and 3) Bind all Bind 3) and ;
(National Socialist Socialist (National NSDR l 13) and 1931) all
embassy NSDAP
in 1932. in .‖
NSDR led to led 75
By
in in ]
CEU eTD Collection 79 self in shift this Thus movement. larger the into absorbed was umbrella Germa ofTransylvanian nation Saxon the of identity The period. interwar the of that unity of notion the considers one when backward p large identity collective the back Saxons the gave apparently Transylvania in movement Socialist Marylin community. the the outnumbered conservative Pan the (embracing pronounced ethnically more also tra ofthe bounds outsidethe stepped they socially (inthat limiting thecommunity,ones split and was it eventually thelatter that traditi between tension The them. catalyzed Romania disorganized the collaboration, of policy open an versus nineteenth the in predecessors their had movements anti in culminating Fabritius‘ by effectively dissatisfie disorganized of demands movements fragmented and infightings bitter conservative leading the from unity for calls persistent Despite it. preceding period any than more perhaps uniformity, political of lack
McArthur, art of its appeal. appeal. its of art With the acceptance of reforms and more radical notions of ―nation‖ that were less were that ―nation‖ of notions radical more and reforms of acceptance the With — Zum Identitätswandel Zum made first by the Social Democrats, then by the bythe then Democrats, Social the by first made ‖ hc hd en ot n h ery newr period, interwar early the in lost been had which ,‖ - lrcl rtss ht hetnd omnl unity communal threatened that protests clerical
McArthur makes the argument the makes McArthur oee, h ach the However, Selbsthilfe , p. p. 9. ,
Volksrat n unity, even if the Saxons were at Saxons the forefront still ifthe even ofthe n unity,
- rsrain atc t b frhr icse i te next the in discussed further be to tactic, preservation — ee oe iiie vn hn oiia complaints, political than even divisive more were
paid the price for the reestablishment ofunitypaid thereestablishment within pricefor the eeet f hs olcie dniy a a step a was identity collective this of ievement 112 Volksrat
, the situation on the ground betrayed ground the on situation the , - - Volksrat century debates over an isolationist isolationist an over debates century German ―blood and soil‖ ideology), soil‖ and ―blood German ona
that ―in the beginning, the National the beginning, the ―in that economic and economic mds f huh ad modern and thought of modes l Unzufriedenen won leaders had at the beginning beginning the at had leaders
ditional Saxon nation) but Saxon ditional out. these of all While . 79 political situation in situation political
, and finallymore and , hs xliig a explaining thus euiy f a of security s Social ds.
CEU eTD Collection cultural chapter. thefocus antecedent next be ofthe will and historical a as Germany to relationship ambivalent This attitudes. Nazi other embrace identify continuedto Saxons Socialist National of fervent most the but all as questionable, remained however, synchronization, withthecommunity synchronization ofGerman theTransylvanian Volkspartei Sächsische si a restored leaders identity Saxon of loss counterproductive a rather implied chapter, Th as e Pan
ahr ecfl rniin wie o o cus eiiaig l dissension, all eliminating course of not while transition, peaceful rather ge oiia party political ngle - German sentiments beganGerman totake sentiments hold. — o oe. n un ti n this turn, In power. to — hs ie the time this Transylvania as their homeland, homeland, their as Transylvania 113
roig f ao pltc eald the enabled politics Saxon of arrowing NSDR
nta o te long the of instead Reich in the eyes of eyes the in even . The degree ofthis degree The .
as they came to to came they as - established Volksrat
CEU eTD Collection today. common 2 1 the of importance the recognize to began Germany this that was period this during note of Particularly German the receive to began Saxons as especially concern, Romanian for cause a T cultural and War. World First the following progress structure, political its extent, lesser a economic to and, development, Germany‘s on focused continually was community two policies the however, government, Romanian the To exclusive. mutually as state Romanian the to loyalty and community‖ cultural German the to ―commitment their see not did Saxons the be the at confidently proclaimed Roth Otto Hans vain,‖ in given not were expect confidently we which liberties loyal the that obtained and citizens state Romanian the that prove will future The … state Romanian the to community cultural German the to ―commitment The pol aSaxon conservative the 1930s, by pursued was early state Romanian the the to loyalty into continued even and 1920s, late the into well that emphasized within divisions internal the addressed particular in chapter previous the and thesis, this throughout anticipated been has
Hans Otto Roth, ―Die Zeitschrift ‗Ostland,‘‖ Zeitschrift ‗Ostland,‘‖ ―DieRoth, Hans Otto Usually spelled spelled Usually he graduallyhewould have pressattention paidbybeen these theSaxon to increasing matters The ultimate turn of the Saxon community to Germany and the the and Germany to community Saxon the of turn ultimate The A
review of the Saxon press and literary publications in the 1920s reveals that the that reveals 1920s the in publications literary and press Saxon the of review External External Affairs — state and cultivated and state
of and cultural poli Auslandde utsche
Saxon society that prompte that society Saxon
in interwar publications, the alternate spelling alternate the publications, interwar in
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Germa Chapter Five Chapter SDT , Vol. 46. Nr. 13955, 14 September 1919, p. p. 1 September1919, 14 13955, Nr. 46. Vol. , ginning of the interwar period. interwar the of ginning 114 ny and Its and ny
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CEU eTD Collection Deutschland?‖ in Berufe akademische bieten Aussuchten Lennartz, K. See century. twentieth early the in appeal growing Germany‘s to witness bearing 1911, since students of number the double die ―Über 4 Verók, Attila p. 110 2004), Böhlau, Archiv(Cologne: ofSiebenbürgisches 37 Volume Zach, und and ―Kirchliches Jahrhundert,‖ Jahrhundert 16. Franke, im Kunst und Religion Politik, Siebenbürgen. und 16. Ungarn in Erhard im See 1944.‖ Sachsen until Sachse Siebenbürger der Siebenbürger Bücherverzeichnisse ―typical der as Musizieren universities schulisches identifi foreign Verók Attila visiting volume, visiting of same students the Transylvanian practice of to chapter due another century] in 16th Similarly, the universities.‖ of foreign middle [the since increased rather but ceased, [ exchange intellectual ―the that writes Franke 3 ab studying contributed sum. tothis students Saxon of number exact the giving not While year. previous the from 9,000 by increased had (132,000) universities German at studying century twentieth Reformation. the to centuries for back reached that lands two the between connection cultural a created had Germanyto visits student Saxon of pri a. Prewar Interest G in I. Transylvanian homeland. Germany for ma Romania kept factors abandoning several publications, Saxon of analysis an sincere their despite of government declarations Romanian the to loyal Saxons the keep political to little remained 1920s, the of end the By borders. its of outside
In an essay on Central European humanist influences on Saxon intellectual and musical development, Erhard Erhard development, musical and intellectual Saxon on influences humanist European Central on essay an In The author further writes that this number (132,000 students in 1932) was 20,000 more than in 1928, and 1928, in than more 20,000 was 1932) in students (132,000 number this that writes further author The Early or to the First World War. As was b was As War. World First the to or Distant Germany had always been an object of interest in the Saxon press, even even press, Saxon the in interest of object an been always had Germany Distant Ties toGermany Ties allegiance , and an an and , ermany 4
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following the war. However, as this chapter will explore through explore will chapter this as However, war. the following
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article from 1932 claims that the number of total students total of number the that claims 1932 from article ! Wie leben und arbeiten die deutschen Studenten? Welche Welche Studenten? deutschen die arbeiten und leben Wie ! n im 16. Jahrhundert.‖ Both essays can be found infound be can essays Both Jahrhundert.‖ 16. imn Geista riefly mentioned in Chapter Two, the long tradition long the Two, Chapter in mentioned riefly — ot motnl, h cmimn t the to commitment the importantly, most ustausch 115
SDT ]‖ between Saxons and Central Europeans ―never Europeans Central and Saxons between ]‖ 3 , Vol. 59, Nr. 17621, 10 January 1932, p. 11. January10 1932, Nr. 17621, 59, Vol. ,
This tradition continued tradition This ,
- eds. Ulrich A. Wien and Krista Krista and Wien A. Ulrich eds. y aos rm utterly from Saxons ny 111 and p. 2 and 111
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CEU eTD Collection Roth, Harald and Hausleitner Mariana in 1918,‖ nach Sachsen Siebenbürger den 7 Beer), Mathias of collaboration Sachsen the (with Gündisch Konrad in found luxemburg.html 2007, August 2 Luxembourg,‖ and ―Transylvania article the online and 6 1918 5 German the 18 in Bismarck late the in Germany proper. th German high, or standard, Transylvania to journeying before stemmed have to theorized are Saxons present in spoken dialect the to similar Sächsisch the as overemphasized, be not must Germans and Saxons Transylvanian ancestry. or heritage common a of confessio and language common Germany in apprenticed study to sons their sending by Germany in developed it as culture high German with IrinaLivezeanuearly writAs period. modern in theof tradition communities German splintered the of those from distinct remained Transylvaniathat political established own their had Saxons the as political, not and cultural http://www.sie
These theories, not ―based on historical sources, but rather on theses of language language of theses on rather but sources, historical on ―based not theories, These Bernhard Böttcher, ―Kontinuität des Ersten Weltkrieges im Frieden? Kriegerdenkmäler und Heldenkult bei bei Heldenkult und Kriegerdenkmäler Frieden? im Weltkrieges Ersten des ―Kontinuität Böttcher, Bernhard Irina Luxembourgian dialects,‖ are still of great interest great of still are dialects,‖ Luxembourgian - 1930 1930 Livezeanu, Livezeanu,
(Munich: Langen Müller, 1998), 30. p. 1998), Müller, Langen (Munich: s il e ihihe i ti section, this in highlighted be will As Notable (Ithaca and London: Cornell Cornell (IthacaLondon: and - ilc wih a us was which dialect ieenh etr, ih h uiiain f h German the of unification the with century, nineteenth benbuerger.de/ortschaften/petersberg/nachrichten/allgemein/5834
Empire (accessed November 2011), from which this quote was taken. Similar accounts are to be be to are accounts Similar taken. was quote this which from 2011), November (accessed
71. Bernhard 71. utrl oiis n rae Rmna einls, ain ulig & Building, Nation Regionalism, Romania: Greater in Politics Cultural political interest in Germany can first be observed among the Saxons only Saxons the among observed be first can Germany in interest political
, floig t establishment. its following ‖ ‖
5 ; in other words, these ties were seen as purely cultural, based on based cultural, purely as seen were ties these words, other in ; Böttcher points to the Saxon the to points Böttcher
at ed almost without exception in the community was more more was community the in exception without almost ed n (Lutheranism), and, to some extent, the vague perception vague the extent, some to and, (Lutheranism), n University Press, 1995), Press, University a adopted was
However, even the linguistic connection between the the between connection linguistic the even However,
- day Luxembourg (one of the areas from which the the which from areas the of (one Luxembourg day 116 es,
today within the Saxon community. See for example example for See community. Saxon the within today
―Transylvanian Saxons maintained―Transylvanian contacts Saxons n the in however, 7
p. p. 137. iey ti sit eutd rm the from resulted shift this Likely,
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hs oncin a primarily was connection this Sieben bürgen und die Siebenbürger Siebenbürger die und bürgen - siebenbuergen Reich affinity between the Saxon Saxon the between affinity
―orientation towards ―orientation eds., eds.,
ne Ot von Otto under n soe in spoken and e Enls von Einfluss Der 6 Siebenbürger
ta t the to than ) Ethnic Struggle Struggle Ethnic - und - or be or -
CEU eTD Collection Pragmatismus,‖ und Ideologie ―Zwischen (Munich: 1900 Perspective Historicalin Question Minority The Konferenz: Internationalen der Gerhard in Wandel,‖ historischen 20 im Sachsen im Exil 10 Deportation, 158. p. 2005), Verlag, IKGS (Munich: Flucht, Zeitgeschichte) und (Geschichte Reihe Wissenschaftliche Auswanderung, Mitteleuropa: 9 Archiv Siebenbürgisches in 1933,‖ bis 1867 von compromise. 1867 8 60. p. 2006), Verlag, IKGS (Munich: Zeitgeschichte) und (Geschichte Reihe Wissenschaftliche Ostmittel in Minderheiten auf Nationalsozialismus und Faschismus Ol the from Romanians of invasion front fronts western on stationed troops fighting soldiers German and Saxon both allied which War, World First the of outbreak the was century twentieth the in Germany connection. rather differences, confessional to due Vienna to draw the over Berlin to draw the contrast to order in often is it Germany, to attraction Saxon to point secondarydoes 1920s.When affairs literature inthe direct late little until influence inSaxon had Germany century, the of turn the at rise the on been have may interest political while and thesis, this in discussed authors the of many including Germany, in university gr Germany clear a is there pronounced, more became interest Saxon this which in date exact the over disagreements their of tra many lost just had they as period, this during instability political own Saxons‘
Indeed, Andreas Möckel traces this or this traces Möckel Andreas Indeed, Cornelius Zach ―Zwischen Ideologie und Pragmatismus,‖ in Krista Zach, ed. ed. Zach, Krista in Pragmatismus,‖ und Ideologie ―Zwischen Zach Cornelius e, e.g. See, iinl rvlgs olwn te Austro the following privileges ditional — u German but h frms eet ht evd o rn te aos no oiia cnat with contact political into Saxons the bring to served that event foremost The
R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1992), 1992), Verlag, Oldenbourg R. rsa ah ―‗ Zach, Krista 10 w taiy togr fe 1900.‖ after stronger steadily ew
See consensus -
utin ros cuid rnyvna n re t lbrt i fo an from it liberate to order in Transylvania occupied troops Austrian ―
ibnügn wshn e bie Weltkriegen beiden den zwischen Siebenbürgen (Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1994) Verlag, Böhlau (Cologne: Alldeutsch? oder Kleinsächsisch i whtn u dm Königsboden… dem auf wohnten Wir
that — ientation towards the burgeoning German nation further back, to the the to back, further nation German burgeoning the towards ientation
p. 158. 158. p. n h wrs f onlu Zach Cornelius of words the in — . 3, oe 5 Creis ah lo ae ti obs this makes also Zach Cornelius 55. note 134, p. Kndm n ae uut 96 Tee interactions These 1916. August late in Kingdom d enih ilc, o eape fuh o te Italian the on fought example, for Zillich, Heinrich Seewann, ed., ed., Seewann,
under the Habsburg banner. Not only were Saxon were only Not banner. Habsburg the under - 117 Hungarian 9
, p. 129 ,
n yt hl mn Sxn dd attend did Saxons many while yet And
Zum Selbstverständnis der Siebenbürger Sachsen Sachsen Siebenbürger der Selbstverständnis Zum Minderheitenfragen in Südosteuropa: Beiträge Südosteuropa: in Minderheitenfragen - 148. Ausgleich ‘ Identitätsbildung bei den Siebenbürger Siebenbürger den bei Identitätsbildung ‘ -
than to signify a specific political specific a signify to than
. Südosteuropa und Jahrhundert e. atr König, Walter ed. , f 1867. of — irto i südöstlichen im Migration - , Saxon Saxon
1990 Volume , Volume 107 of the the of 107 Volume ,
8
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14 April 1991), 1991), April 14 rltos to ―relations oue 8 of 28 Volume
91 of the the of 91 ervation in in ervation very very
CEU eTD Collection 1 p. 1919, 13 12 la a ―Kont and (Böttcher, failed, defense border Hungarian the contested, and threatened ―Ro negatively: existentially was homeland The more invasion. Mongolian medieval the much with compared was 1916 invasion in Transylvania] the characterizes Böttcher example, Romanians. For Transylvanian by sometimes also but accounts, Hungarian and German by only not abhorrence, por unusual sympathy.‖ an without also is unexpectedly but novelhostility, This ―without Zillich‘s 1916 that August in note Braşov to of invasion interesting Romanian is the It describes 306). p. 1992), Verlag, Oldenbourg R. (Munich: 1900 Perspective Historical in Question Minority The Konferenz: Internationalen der Gerhard in Selbstbetrachtung,‖ ethnische und ―celebrat and troops German the greet[ed]‖ novel autobiographical (1907 Deutschland ― 11 press, Saxon the in condition postwar nationGermany‘s Romanian established newly the in place self the for emulation political of object b. The Reich commun Saxon the self characterize that concludes example, for Böttcher, War, World First the following immediately period the of Speaking support. political for Germany on reliance continued which Germany, th of in decades early interest the throughout increased the that concede to quick be would the to connections increasing Saxons‘ the demonstrating heroes, liber and He invasion. the after year one 1917, September in Transylvania to visit II‘s Wilhelm Kaiser was note particular positive. as described largely are West the from Germans and Saxons the between i Karpathen Die
Böttcher, ―Kontinuität des Ersten Weltkrieges im Frieden?,‖ p. 72. p. Frieden?,‖ im Weltkrieges Ersten ―Kontinuität des Böttcher, See, e.g. ―Zur deutsch ―Zur e.g. See, Michaela Nowotnick, for example, characterizes them as opportunities for later literary collaboration literary later for opportunities as them characterizes example, for Nowotnick, Michaela
soldiers thattheGerman accompanied occupationof Transylvania. Early 1920s Indeed, following Germany‘s d Germany‘s following Indeed, - ; De auswärti ―Die 2; inuität des Ersten Weltkrieges im Frieden?‖, p. 60). p. Frieden?‖, im Weltkrieges Ersten des inuität , Ostland - 1939),‖ MA Thesis, Humboldt Thesis, MA 1939),‖ : Cultural Rather : Cultural ryl eas nral te oain nain f rnyvna s ecie with described is Transylvania of invasion Romanian the normally because trayal - wshn rne ud Zeiten und Grenzen Zwischen österreichischen Frage‖ and ―Deutsches Reich,‖ Reich,‖ ―Deutsches and Frage‖ österreichischen , ge Politik Deutschlands,‖ Deutschlands,‖ Politik ge Klingsor
Seebre ud en Bzeugn u literarischen zum Beziehungen seine und Siebenbürgen . ity tn ofcr rc vn aknan ee ecmd as welcomed were Falkenhayn von Erich officer ating a to equivalent means no by was century, twentieth e e[d] them as liberators.‖ (Quoted in Cornelius R. Zach, ―Weltkrieg ―Weltkrieg Zach, R. Cornelius in (Quoted liberators.‖ as them e[d]
Than PoliticalThan Allies ept te elns f rtriy ewe Sxn and Saxon between fraternity of feelings the despite efeat in the First World War, it became it War, World First the in efeat Seewann, ed., ed., Seewann, - reliant Saxons who were struggling to find their find to struggling were who Saxons reliant - Universität zu Berlin, 2007, p. 93. In his acclaimed 1936 acclaimed his In 93. p. 2007, Berlin, zu Universität 118 SDT , Heinrich Heinrich ,
Vl 4, r 180 7 ac 11, . 2 p. 1919, March 7 13800, Nr. 46, Vol. , idretnrgn n üotuoa Beiträge Südosteuropa: in Minderheitenfragen - 13 tt. hl atnin a pi to paid was attention While state.
h bree nation burdened the Saxons the how recalls Zillich
r SDT e oto o te ouain fled.‖ population the of portion ge , Vol. 46, Nr. 13746, 2 January 2 13746, Nr. 46, Vol. , Reich ai‘ srrs atc [of attack surprise mania‘s - eine otne to continued reliance - 1 . 12 990 e ms authors most Yet
(8
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CEU eTD Collection und Januar,‖ 18. 17. am undMühlbach Reußmarkt 15 14 cited. be could more manywhich of examples, Schicksalswende,‖ der an ―Deutschland Deutschlands,‖ Wiederaufbau ―Der Müller, August leaderswilling external were toconsider solutions. doubts nagging the reveals statement this borders;Romania‘s within lay communitythe of future the that adamantbeen had leaders Saxon period, postwar immediate the In aid. Saxon to come to enough strong Volksrat us.‖ help to enough powerful see I country, our of borders the Outside speech, same the in complaints, these of spite the for fighting [still] are we Hungary: with Transylvania of union the with ago, century a half in affairs of f state forward moved hardly have ―we that complaining the Romania, bemoaned Roth Otto Hans 1923, January in voters of assembly leaders. Saxon the for ally potential a being from it implemented excluded Germany were reforms school and land and drafted was constitution new the as Saxons the for worsened Romania in situation political the as Even end, war‘s the after years Hermanneditor Plattner, three 1921, July In unstable. politically and economically
Hermann Plattner, ―Volk und Parteien in Deutschland,‖ in Deutschland,‖ Parteien und―Volk Plattner, Hermann ―Rede des Abg. Dr. Hans Otto Roth über die politische Lage. Gehalten in den Wähle den in Gehalten Lage. politische die über Roth Otto Hans Dr. Abg. des ―Rede recognition the Both out. inside … willyield they forms the crystal which yetknow not but does elements therotating from occurs healing German the of until life domestic and open external remain must wound, puncture wounds a stab to due and fell Germany Fighting overnight. healed be cannot outcome its German the on inflicted wounds psychological and physical The leaders towards the Roma the towards leaders
of the fundamental rights of the the of rights fundamental the of -
in -
chief the of that had begun to penetrate, and shows that as early as 1923 1923 as early as that shows and penetrate, to begun had that 15
SDT hs seto hglgt bt te hnig tiue of attitude changing the both highlights assertion This ingvrmn adteble htGrayws not was Germany that belief the and government nian , Vol. 5 Vol. ,
SDT no potential allie potential no SDT Volk 0, Nr. 14885, 12 January 1923, 1923, January 12 14885, Nr. 0, 119 , asserted: SDT , Vol. 50, Nr. 14895, 24 January 1923, p. 1 January241923, Nr. 14895, 50, Vol. ,
is germinating and germinating is
he queries, ―Where are allies to be found? be to allies are ―Where queries, he SDT Vl 4, r 127 8 etme 12, . 4 p. 1920, September 8 14217, Nr. 47, Vol. ,
German , Vol. 48, Nr. 14460, 10 July 1921, 1. p. July10 14460, 1921, Nr. 48, Vol. ,
s [ s minorities in Romania.‖ Yet in in Yet Romania.‖ in minorities Faktoren rom the point where we stood we where point the rom Reich
fermenting. One can see see can One fermenting. , the uncertain future of of future uncertain the ,
through the war and and war the through ] p. 1 p.
that In a speech to an an to speech a In . rversammlungen von rversammlungen
These are but a few a but are These 14
are willing and willing are
- 2.
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CEU eTD Collection 1933 Saxons 18 3 p. 17 1. 16 chapter preceding the in provided community the within movement Democratic Social community the within represented Social Saxons. the for model a not was se per Republic Weimar the borders, its outside minorities German the with relations the of development ― emphasizes, Cercel Cristian conserva to unappealing was model political country‘s recovering the shortcomings, cultural and economic these to addition in Finally, model. cultural suitable nation!‖ a be considerednecessarilyto not was ally, culturalit considereda been have Germanymay no be can there leader national a without For nation. integrated leaders [religious] national such ―Because SDT the in article an community, the in leaders religious national of presence the on cohesion Luthera the to church Saxon the of the cohesion Comparing Germany. in those to superior as institutions own their of some viewed level cultural a on even situation, economic abysmal Germany‘s ( direction intellectual international an or national a take should it whether over turmoil inner its and hand one the on debts reparation as Germany the in printed Berlin from letter A leaders. Saxon among
Gustav Baron Bedeus, ―Eine Ge ―Eine Bedeus, Baron Gustav Charibdis‖ und Schylla ―Zwischen Cristian Cercel Cercel Cristian - 4.
elrd ht h Sxn ainl hrh a te ny of envy the was church national Saxon the that declared uig hs eid hwvr Gray a nt cniae o etra alliance external for candidate a not was Germany however, period, this During - 1944,‖ 1944,‖ lying between the twin terrors of ―Scylla and Charibdis‖ due to its monumental its to due Charibdis‖ and―Scylla of terrors twin the between lying ― The Relationship between Religious Religious between Relationship The MA Thesis, Central European University, 2007, University, European Central MAThesis,
fahr für unsere Volkskirche,‖ unsere für fahr Though Stresemann‘s Germany clearly showed interest in the in interest showed clearly Germany Stresemann‘s Though
(Letter from Berlin, 22 May), May), 22 Berlin, from (Letter .‖ 18
Indeed, the overview of the divisions caused by the by caused divisions the of overview the Indeed, Ge 120 istesrichtung r lcig n emn, hr i as no also is there Germany, in lacking are
and National Identity in the Case of Transylvanian Transylvanian of Case the in Identity National and n churches
SDT SDT
- p. 19. p. , Vol. 49, Nr. 14830, 4 November 1922, 1922, November 4 14830, Nr. 49, Vol. , de on ) SDT
mocracy was extremely poorly extremely was mocracy , Vol. 50, Nr. 14998, 1 June 1923, p. 1923, June 1 14998, Nr. 50, Vol. , in Germany, and basing this this basing and Germany, in
i h other. the n June 1923 characterized 1923 June n Reich tive Saxon leaders. As leaders. Saxon tive osraie Saxons conservative - emn churches: German 16
17 n diin to addition In
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CEU eTD Collection 21 20 1994), Verlag, (Cologne:Böhlau in Rumänien,‖ in Minderheiten ungarischen und ye deutschen der early Berücksichtigung besonderer mit these Südosteuropa, in even to look support did Swabians), for the as Germany (such ones weaker the particularly in Romania, of minorities German the that 19 political the to cultural. their view to preferring Germans, all of a state multifocal and belongingethnicminority toa state inthis no is ―there confirms: rather but citizenship of sense state Romanian theto membership their viewedfirstGermanandbe to themselves felt Romania Germansin nation [Romanian] the to commitment the the SDT to loyalty cultural distinguished clearly was This Germany Three. Chapter in detailed nation, on the emphasis of Saxon preservation strong cultural the to due explained be partially can This partner. cultural ally, political Saxon potential success Gustav Stresemann‘s under shorttenure. to witness bears
Cornelius Zach ―Zwischen Ideologie und Pragmatismus,‖ p. 158. p. und Pragmatismus,‖ Ideologie ―Zwischen Zach Cornelius undKulturnation,‖ ―Staatsnation Although the Saxons were less interested in a polit a in interested less were Saxons the Although Siebenbürgen zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen beiden den zwischen Siebenbürgen SDT notion
articles strove to clarify in the 1920s. 1920s. the in clarify to strove articles Yet despite these deficiencies, which, for the time being, disqualified Germany as a as Germany disqualified being, time the for which, deficiencies, these despite Yet In fact In VDR — : ―We have often emphasized it, and no reasonable person will deny the validity of of validity the deny will person reasonable no and it, emphasized often have ―We : For example, the early founding of the journal journal the of founding early the example, For
is o Germany to ties ht u cmimn t te emn utrl ain d nation cultural German the to commitment our that s utrl office cultural ‘s , conservative Saxon leaders utterly rejected the idea the rejected utterly leaders Saxon conservative ,
as h upplrt o te oe, ept t despite model, the of unpopularity the
subordinate‖ to this to subordinate‖
. For Romanian authorities who were striving to establish a a establish to striving were who authorities Romanian For . p.117. 19 SDT
ee en t est to meant were Germany continued to be referred to in the Saxon press as press Saxon the in to referred be to continued Germany , Vol. 53, Nr. 15761, 12 January 1926, p. 1. January121926, Nr. 15761, 53, Vol. ,
from political loyalty to Romania, a Romania, to loyalty political from ars. See ―Die Weimarer Republik und die Nationalitäten in in Nationalitäten die und Republik Weimarer ―Die See ars. , he does not use the use not does he , - state.‖ , ed. Walter König, Volume 28 of Siebenbürgische of 28 Volume König, Walter ed. , participation Even as late as 1926, the assertion was made in made was assertion the 1926, as late as Even 121 ical alliance with Germany, Lórá Germany, with alliance ical
20
hn onlu Zc wie that writes Zach Cornelius When bih n miti cultural maintain and ablish incompatibility
n h asrc Gra ―ain as ―nation‖ German abstract the in Ostland e onr‘ rltv economic relative country‘s he term ―German‖ in a political a in ―German‖ term
. in 1919 and its connections its and 1919 in 21
oes not contradict [our] [our] contradict not oes of a political association political a of
between citizenship in citizenship between fact nt Tilkovszky argues argues Tilkovszky nt
whi — ch several ch n not and s Archiv Archiv s ― t he a
CEU eTD Collection 22 Germans in interest increasing in take to began leaders its as and improve to began situation to turned was German eye an soil, Transylvanian the to committed remained and preservation cultural of policy a pursue to continued leaders Saxon conservative Although Germany. withi mid the in situation political his othercontemporaries. remained t of existence continued the to he committed 1930s, the in community Saxon the of synchronization Socialist the National accepting unwillingly after even steadfast; remain would Roth regard, latter this In of commitment the emphasize further together of descriptions His political. not were Germany to contact maintaining in community the of aims the that demonstrates clearly aggre ―imperialist an of idea the at repulsion Roth‘s Ostland Pan promoting to criticisms sharp with responded they homogenized
Dr. Hans Otto Roth, ―Die Zeitschrift Zeitschrift ―Die Roth, Hans Otto Dr. n the Saxon community, gradually led to a change in the political perception of of perception political the in change a to led gradually community, Saxon the n terms of journalistic phrasing, whose meaning will never be completely clear, is the slogan slogan the is clear, completely be never will meaning whose phrasing, journalistic of terms a not is ―pan ―Ostland‖ Thus activity. cultural Romanian common the a of in groups state German different the of pooling the represents [―Ostland‖] the time, word same the At west. German the from independence and autonomy to commitment ―Pan to commitment a represent not does ―Ostland‖ Yet a Yet … globe the on Germans all of aggregation an of imperialist pursuit political blackest ―Pan ‘s publication, Hansmade Roth Otto therevealing remarks: ‘ pors. hs a epcal tu a Grays cnmc n political and economic Germany‘s as true especially was This progress. y‘s - - Germanic emns. I sud lk a orbe denunc horrible a like sounds It Germanism.‖ s
oil ethnic, social, described in Chapter Three, the increasing disorganization of the Romanian the of disorganization increasing the Three, Chapter in described - emn etmns I rsos t tee cuain, n i dfne of defense in and accusations, these to response In sentiments. German ‖ ideal, but rather an inwardly an rather but ideal, ‖ specter
. What is it in reality? reality? in it is What . - and political state, this distinction was a foreign notion, and and notion, foreign a was distinction this state, political and 1920s, combined with the financial burdens and social unrest social and burdens financial the with combined 1920s,
Ostland ,‖ ,‖ Ostland SDT he Saxons in the Carpathian Basin, unlike some of some unlike Basin, Carpathian the in Saxons he 122 , Vol. 4 Vol. , Ostland - focused cultural ideal … One of the darkest darkest the of One … ideal cultural focused ‘s goals to gather the Germans of Romania of Germans the gather to goals ‘s
the Saxons to the Transylvanian homeland. homeland. Transylvanian the to Saxons the With 6, Nr. 13955, 14 September 1919, 1 p. September141919, 13955, Nr. 6, iation, like a terrible menace, like the the like menace, terrible a like iation, -
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CEU eTD Collection Klingsor Germans.‖ external and Germans border [the that ―wish[ed] frequen goings the about content enough contain not did paper the that complained 23 an both through established previously relations cultural The collaboration. of responsive tothe interest unrest political) later (and social the of Because borders. Germany‘s of outside living Germans ethnic or the on emphasis increased an to led Germany in nationalism ethnic of rise borders. Romania‘s Chapter of in described groups outside solution discontent political politically and socially the by Germany towards turn Saxon a this Accompanying in interest Saxon growing p external to attention more pre Saxon the of focus international as such journals revived or new 1920s, conservative the While publications. II. The conservative policyyears. isolationist characterizingimmediate postwar the self of policy Saxon the in shift another marked i new This borders. their of outside cesd cnmc n ltrr claoain ewe te aos n the and Saxons the between collaboration literary and economic ncreased
d schooling abroad facilitated the influx ofliteraryd schoolingabroadfacilitated the influx well. content as In the survey published by by published survey the In t
, Year 3, Issue 9, September 1926, p. p. 353 1926, September Issue 9, 3, Year , n sg o ti mta turn mutual this of sign One Klingsor Klingsor Mid
1920s: Mutual and Increased andIncreased Mutual 1920s: contributor and himself one himself and contributor within the Saxon community, Saxon the within SDT wud ie oe teto t te curne i Gray n t te ein of regions the to and Germany in occurrences the to attention more give would ]
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SDT a th was - time editor of the of editor time ―Rundfrag - Klingsor 362. ‘s pages did not vary significantly until the late the until significantly vary not did pages ‘s ocrig rm rud h mid the around from occurring , 123 Economic Economic e
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(from its founding in 1874 until 1885), 1885), until 1874 in founding its (from
Saxon groups were particularly were groups Saxon Siebenbürgisch
Literary Collaboration Literary — - on in Germany in on
a gradual expansion of the of expansion gradual a oe p o upeet the supplement to up rose - German ideas andGerman literary
that the that vrl edr o the of readers everal
- etce Tageblatt Deutsche
Auslanddeutsche wartime liaisons liaisons wartime
. SDT - Dr. Carl Wolff, Wolff, Carl Dr. 90, e to led 1920s, Reich would pay would
and , SDT 23 ,‖ a ,
CEU eTD Collection in narrative Roth‘s informative Harald 199 Verlag, Böhlau (Cologne: Transylvanica Studia of 24 the because part in others, and Roth by decried immediately was action This 1924. in Germany from aid financial the newspaper, floundering his to otherorder In deteriorated. Romania with relations and and worsened thecommunity of Roth situation financial the which as matter with this on rapidity views their the changed leaders reveals conservative it because telling is Roth, Harald r incident, the affairs; finance community handling to regards in Brandsch previous chapter. an causing 1924, incr in changed were regulations tax church clergy, the with cooperation in hence, community; the within problems financial these to solutions find to was Roth Otto of interest yearly becoming was confessionalschools froma. FinancialSupport Abroad community and the collaboration factors of preservation cultural the continue to way a it considering schools, confessional its and Church Lutheran
Harald Roth, Harald ae n taxes in ease — Even During the same year a personal conflict arose between Hans Otto Roth and Rudolf Rudolf and Roth Otto Hans between arose conflict personal a year same the During mid the By cnmc eain, h rs o ehi nationalism ethnic of rise the relations, economic — Politische Strukturen und Strömungen bei den Siebenbürger Sachsen 1919 Sachsen Siebenbürger den bei Strömungen und Strukturen Politische Volksrat in order to demonstrate how cultural connections between the Saxon Saxon the between connections cultural how demonstrate to order in the Saxon nation. The following section will address these three major major three these address will section following The nation. Saxon the
—
4.8 million million 4.8 copne b a ices i sca discontent social in increase an by accompanied Re - 90, h fnnil iuto o te uhrn hrh n its and Church Lutheran the of situation financial the 1920s,
ich edr eventuall leaders
beganwith politicalones. tooverlap Tagespost
Lei Politische Strukturen Politische etce Tagespost Deutsche . 24
desperate The initial policy of conservative leaders such as Hans as such leaders conservative of policy initial The
a t oiia od wt th with odds political at was wloe fnnil i fo ara fr the for abroad from aid financial welcomed y 124 . The church was in debt 20 million million 20 debt in was church The . 4) ,
p. 136. p. , p. 101 p. , Badc scesul pttoe for petitioned successfully Brandsch ,
The following short section section short following The - 104 and 135 and 104
n Germany in - 140 e — SDT , unless otherwise noted , unless otherwise s ecie i the in described as
gain support for support gain n Brandsch‘s and - 1933, Volume 22 Volume 1933, ad literary and , largely relies on on relies largely ecounted by by ecounted Lei
with a a with .
CEU eTD Collection Rumänien. Nationalitätenfragen, Strukturen Politische 25 and members clergy individual 1926, in result, a As needs. future its for provide to not and debt church‘s the offset to merely served sum this although granted, was Lei) million a half Reichsmark of loan a for Affairs Foreign of Ministry Germany‘s petitioned support, c Saxon the of leaders the Germany, from support garner to attempts Brandsch‘s refuted had Roth that year same very the In course. financial new a mandated thus and church the of existence very the threatened it that great so was strain other and Roth led soon than those dealing matters. withcultural the of Germans the to unrelated politically ―family‖ a as community Saxon the of perception His preservation. cultural of policy isolationist Roth‘s of thesis this in painted been far thus has that picture our of borders the outside carried be not may that affairs family intimate our are oppositions Inner … purposes political for Germany from us to comes money that prevent to want we threats, 30,000 of donation the significant pledged had who Berlin in councilor the to letter following the with capriciousness fi Romanian Brandsch‘s endangered state, Romanian the towards loyalty resolute of one still policy Saxon official the With Germany. to turned had Brandsch which with ―carelessness‖ the of because part in and goals, political furthering as seen was request
etr rm as to oh o rc Krahmer Erich to Roth Otto Hans from Letter u te iaca sri o te church the on strain financial the But community . Eventually, in March 1925, a loan of 600,000 of loan a 1925, March in Eventually, . , p. 103. Roth‘s source is Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amts (Bonn), R 73650, 73650, R (Bonn), Amts Auswärtigen des Archiv Politisches is source Roth‘s 103. p. , [ Reich Siedlung - ao rltos Rt rsodd eeety o Brandsch‘s to vehemently responded Roth relations. Saxon
Volksrat
r einforces the limited limited the einforces ]
.‖ Reichsmark 25
h harshne The edr o hneterplc; indee policy; their change to leaders
: ―In clear recogn clear ―In : 125 - ölneg n 1 oebr 94 qoe i Roth, in quoted 1924, November 21 on Möllenberg — s f hs el i i acrac wt the with accordance in is reply this of ss
h frms Sxn utrl institution cultural Saxon foremost the Volksrat aca fitto wt Germany with flirtation nancial lergy, certainly with the with certainly lergy,
interest in German affairs other affairs German in interest RM ition of domestic and external and domestic of ition
(approximately 30 million 30 (approximately d the extent of the of extent the d Volksrat
political — ‘s ‘s
CEU eTD Collection 1925 B: Series Roth, 26 for abroad, Germans the in arose interest increased an well, as side, German the ―from No Michaela policy. German of focus the became aims expansionist and nationalism ethnic radical more as increased only and isolated, not were remarks Such Germany‘s outlines clearly which combined economic,cultural, inthe Saxon andpolitical interest reply, following the gave Stresemann unknown, exch the of outcome the Although years. several next the over institutions‖ requ Minister, Foreign time bythis Stresemann, Gustav to 1927 in letter personal awrote Teutsch FriedrichBishop Sa Berlin, in Affairs Foreign of Ministry the to loan 1925 initial the back pay not could evidently institutions and political association Germany with were blurred mid becoming by the cultural Saxons‘ the between borders the nationalism, cultural of policy his of continuation cautious more a Brandschreceived soughttobedonation, Roth paid hadof a back, loans fundinginthe form 1924 in while Roth‘s: and funding of securing Brandsch‘s in difference major a out point ch the of preservation the namely purpose,recognizableculturalserveda abroad if it from justifysupport could financial Roth the leaders
Letter from Gustav Stres Gustav from Letter Reich oiice Strukturen Politische — [ nation German entire ofthe worstinjury economic the but also Europe, cultural of policy our this of of collapse result the be The only Southeast. not would the in Saxon base cultural this the lose necessarily of will we made, efforts not is greatest the despite that, Transylv circumstance the face now We G From nldn Hn Ot Roth Otto Hans including , though without success. In clear contrast to his behavior just two years before, before, years two just behavior his to contrast clear In success. without though , - 1933, Vol. VII (Göttingen, 1975), 48. p. VII 1975), Vol. (Göttingen, 1933, ania, the German educational system is on the verge of collapse of verge the on is system educational German the ania, ermany‘s side, however, the requests for financial support of Saxon cultural Saxon of support financial for requests the however, side, ermany‘s political step. Yet even if it could be asserted that Roth‘s actions were a were actions Roth‘s that asserted be could it if even Yet step. political piqued emann to the Minister of Finance Heinrich Köhler on 7 October 1927, quoted in quoted 1927, October 7 on Köhler Heinrich Finance of Minister the to emann p 18 Rt‘ suc is source Roth‘s 138. p. , esti
g otne spot fr ao shos n ohr cultural other and schools Saxon ―for support continued ng
an interest in foreign affairs. Because the Lutheran Church Church Lutheran the Because affairs. foreign in interest an urch and confessional schools. It is of course relevant to relevant course of is It schools. confessional and urch — strove 126
o gain to
ke zr etce asätgn oii 1918 Politik auswärtigen deutschen zur Akten
neednl aqie fnig from funding acquired independently - political expansion i expansion political Volk Deutschtum : . If .
an onc wie that writes wotnick n southeastern southeastern n - intervention intervention 1920s. ]. Volk ange remains remains ange 26
in
- 1933 xon xon ,
CEU eTD Collection 28 27 whyexplains would theyhave themselves and situation, financial hopeless seemingly the by aggravated their more the why all was explain discontent helps abroad from loans the about know not did Saxons of majority (in)ability their and leaders Saxon of credibility the upon badly reflect could it successful, were they before known made were they if and Saxon badlyupon self not was nation Saxon the that suppose to community the of members want not did leaders Saxon from dissatisfied the of leaders the the of unaware were of movements, majority the including Saxons, of majority the that writes Roth Harald Surprisingly, abroad. opportunities at jump to willing than more were the easterly weredefinitelyeyeingand most were, Germancounterpartstheir level, this collaborationon institutions. Saxon for protections offer would Germany that hoped and tendencies conservative had have might promised ‗ term the of usage wider the was development the whom
Roth, ― Nowotnick, Germany Politische Strukturen Politische As des As — government of the Weimar Republic felt responsible … An expression of this of expression An … responsible felt Republic Weimar the of government - and later given later and lying territories withmore andeagerness. more territories lying Die - ufcet frhroe te iaca rltos wit relations financial the furthermore, sufficient; cribed in the previous chapter previous the in cribed . 28
Karpathen
- These negotiations were probably kept under wraps for several reasons: several for wraps under kept probably were negotiations These Romanian political relations; and finally, the efforts were not guaranteed, not were effortsfinally, the and relations; political Romanian , p. 135. p. , hav not may leaders Saxon some Although , Ostland — by Germany was a critical selling point for those Saxons who Saxons those for point selling critical a was Germany by
, Klingsor Volksrat ,‖ p. 16. p. ,‖ turned to Germany support. for turned ‘s and clergy‘s attempts to gai to attempts clergy‘s and ‘s 127 , dissident voices within the Saxon the within voices dissident ,
auslanddeutsch
to negotiate. In turn, the fact that the the that fact the turn, In negotiate. to
‘ …‖ ‘ Gray ol reflect could Germany h 27
The external support external The be a oe to open as been e n financial support financial n
community
CEU eTD Collection 279. p. 29 The coincide). to happened often two the if (even ones ethnic on than rather restrictions, social on based been Saxons blood.‖ German the in lies it because civilization, western by buried be cannot which culture, German in believe we For ―… lines: concluding his in institutio these ( Academy ( Germans Orend world.‖ the menti further in areas settlement German all from events economic and cultural, newspaper, own be to bear the are found, are they wherever Germans, these that knowledge the in Germany outside living relation economic and cultural ―establish to order ( Institute Foreign German the of founding the to referred He east. the in organizations German of presence collaborations. cultural th mutual, were feelers these reveals, the towards extended first were that economic, or political not and feelers, cultural was it Thus, 1920s. remain community Saxon the in groups dissident the as b.
Misch Orend, ―Rundschau: Deutschland und die Auslanddeutschen,‖ Auslanddeutschen,‖ die und Deutschland ―Rundschau: Orend, Misch Establishment of LiteraryEstablishment of
However, financial support was harder to come by than cultural support, especially support, cultural than by come to harder was support financial However, had promoted an isolationist policy, this exclusion of foreign elements had largely had elements foreign of exclusion this policy, isolationist an promoted had nttt ü Grenz für Institut etce Akademie Deutsche Reich oned the recent establishment of the Institute for Border Germans and External and GermansBorder for Institute the of establishment recent the oned ns among the Saxons, though, is his use of use his is though, Saxons, the among ns
Deutsche e Auslanddeutsche Der e by groups such as such groups by rs of German cultural ideas .. ideas cultural German of rs Klingsor n uy 95 fr xml, ic Oed ecie te increasing the described Orend Misch example, for 1925, July In
Auslandsinstitut Connections
- ices nraig mhss n tnct i publi in ethnicity on emphasis increasing circle‘s
i Mnc. ehp mr ntbe hn i pooin of promotion his than notable more Perhaps Munich. in ) n Auslanddeutschtum und the the s otiuig o utpe ucsfl ieay and literary successful multiple to contributing us wih otie ―eibe eot o political, on reports ―reliable contained which , and Klingsor 128 ) , opened in Stuttgart already during the war in war the during already Stuttgart in opened ,
the Politicization of Ostland of the Politicization and Klingsor
.‖
The institute, wrote Orend, published its its published Orend, wrote institute, The circle bten the between s ed small and fragmented in the mid the in fragmented and small ed . As Stresemann‘s assertion above assertion Stresemann‘s As . i Mrug ad h German the and Marburg, in ) Reich 29 Klingsor
lhuh n h ps, many past, the in Although - German ethnic propaganda ethnic German Reich , Year 2, Issue 7, July 1925, 1925, July 7, Issue 2, Year ,
n te Germans the and cations
-
CEU eTD Collection say could one 32 word, a in cautious, too reserved, Ostland too is it that is Ostland journal monthly the 31 30 the opening the January1926 edition: paragraphsof of editions later these 1924), (in ( 1919 neutral, more Abroad subtitle new the under was it 1926, in publication resumed it When title: its in manifest was shift this of sign first The whole. f five a after 1926 in resurfacing the to respond to journal only the means no by was it Hoch, Karl more easily and quickly be could Germany from journals and books and houses, publishing German increasingly in published authors Transylvanian that was relations strengthened the of achievement Auslandsdeutsche [of convergence the of tendency general ―the that confirms Nowotnick mid the throughout Monatsschrift für die Kultur der Ostdeutschen der Kultur die für Monatsschrift an rom
It will It ―Zur Einführung,‖ ―ZurEinführung,‖ ― Nowotnick, , Year 2, First July Issue, 1920 First July 2, Issue, Year , Despite unbelieving. and small, usmade calculating, hearts,and The it. with and we limbs our constricted and has and us on older, gray and heavy grown lies civilization has world The least! the in bloodletting this German the of power ―minorities‖ suspicion with viewed be to come as have Things be remembered that in its second year (1920), the editors had written, ―The main reproach made of made reproach main ―The written, had editors the (1920), year second its in that remembered be ( obstinately Ostland: vom geistigen Leben der Auslanddeutschen der Leben geistigen vom Ostland:
guests Die Karpathen Die
and Klingsor Ostland
md isl fl o te ok akt n i junls … A … journalism in and market book the on felt itself made ] … changed since that time, and the [ the and time, that since changed
richly presented with honor, the freemen and masters of their territories, have have territories, their of masters and freemen the honor, with presented richly
-
- Saxon journal Saxon Yes, the times have changed, and we with them. Where now is the effusive the is now Where them. with we and changed, have times the Yes, of influx an demonstrated 1920s late 91 subtitle 1921 , Year 1, Issue 1, January 1926, p.1 January1926, Issue 1, 1, Year , procured ‘s often more outspoken contributors, such as Heinrich Zillich and and Zillich Heinrich as such contributors, outspoken more often ‘s
, Volk
Ostland , that could send out the currents of its best blood without sensing without blood best its of currents the out send could that ,
- , introducto , year hiatus, year Ostland ,
in Transylvania.‖ Klingsor 31
Ostland: From the Spiritual Life of the Ger the of Life Spiritual the From Ostland: Monthly Journal for the Culture of East Germans Germans East of Culture the for Journal Monthly
htd y l, te hv become] have [they all, by hated , to one much more focused on the German German the on focused more much one to
expressed a more romantic tone, clearly evinced in evinced clearly tone, romantic more a expressed ,‖ p. 17. p. ,‖ rypages. 129 Ostland Germans in Romania in Germans
) . Like the newly founded jou founded newly the Like .
30
, too, had evidently changed its profile its changed evidently had too, ,
32 - 2.
Reich ), as opposed to its previous, its to opposed as ), ], previously welcomed previously ], Reich - emn das Indeed, ideals. German
souls, hardened our hardened souls, prse German oppressed ‘s literary call. After call. literary‘s Reichsdeutsche burden rnal mans Living Living mans — too Saxon.‖ Saxon.‖ too
Volk of Klingsor
further
s a as and
CEU eTD Collection 34 33 newspapers inTransylvania‖: on note following the jotted he 1925, In publication. doomed had that failures the overcoming for strategies had and create, could readership limited a that dangers the of aware very was Csaki abroad. unsuccess largely as attempts Csaki‘s describes Nowotnick Yet authors. German with connections in issues cultural on emphasis the to opposed (as differentiate to during made were others while Berlin, in days university his from were connections his of Some west. work who Zillich, editor, its of personality radical thestart. from (1927). of politicization‖ and ―radicalization increasing an to points also Germany, in authors with collaboration literary German to reference mid the by community anti the betray only not lines These
Ibid., Ibid., ― fromNowotnick, Quotation p. 62. p. 33 because usually a narrow group of dispositions stands behind such a journal and wil and journal a such behind stands dispositions of group narrow a usually because of danger Also, … severe very literature of area the in Danger subjects same muchhalf in] [results colleagues oriented truly and stimulating enough of Lack narrow. too [is] materials and staff of pool the also But Both journal. anintellectual T Klingsor he readership in Transylvania and also in the whole of Romania [is] too small to maintain maintain to small too [is] Romania of whole the in also and Transylvania in readership he
ful, especially as compared to Zillich‘s, who received frequent contributions from contributions frequent received who Zillich‘s, to compared as especially ful, Klingsor
the war, or simply during his journeys abroad. Alt abroad. journeys his during simply or war, the Ostland ‘s major advantage over its new competitor competitor new its over advantage major ‘s to udret iia cags atog is otns a be more been had contents its although changes, similar underwent too, , , narrowing of viewpoints, danger of unfertile polemics, strong local nature. nature. local strong polemics, unfertile of danger viewpoints, of narrowing ,
Volk ‘s Ostland - 90, u as te nitain of infiltration the also but 1920s,
content from that of of that from content Die Karpathen Die
n bod Nwtik wo ae n in an made who Nowotnick, blood. and
Die Karpathen Die s ieay rbi‖ n h scn ye second the in ―rubric‖ literary ‘s - Romanian sentiments that had cropped up in the Saxon the in up cropped had that sentiments Romanian ,
Ostland - baked [material]. Frozen in the eternal cycle of the the of cycle eternal the in Frozen [material]. baked
ed tirelessly to establish literary contacts in the in contacts literary establish to tirelessly ed a 130 nd , Klingsor Klingsor Ostland
Klingsor
[in its early years] failed due to this. this. to due failed years] [inits early ,‖ p. 60. p. ,‖ ―Previous experiences with German with experiences ―Previous
by inserting more political articles political more inserting by ), forming 34 Reich
Ostland
he, too, tried to make literary make to tried too, he, Ostland hough Richard Csaki sought sought Csaki Richard hough
an intellectual clique, clique, intellectual an vocabulary: - s is to years two first ‘s depth study of Saxon Saxon of study depth r f t publication its of ar
a te gregarious the was l, due to due l,
through the the through of of
CEU eTD Collection 37 Ostland 88 p. 95, D. FLC, NaH, in [1925] Kulturamtes des Zeitschrift zur ―Gruendsätzliches Rumän 36 in Deutschen den in Weltkriegen,‖ unter Auseinandersetzungen innenpolitischen See intellectuals. den to exclusively ―Zu almost catered it that fact the to due ideas its spread to base support enough 35 German of canvassing successful more Zillich‘s to due European outlook. broader a to shifted journals literary the collaboration), regional of acceptance of exception mid the in arose private affairs political and cultural keep to preferred who those and world external maintain. many that profile cultural isolated the considering radical very as radical as not are east the of Germans German ―entire the to references several are there Germany, of made is mention specific no Although countries.‖ other ―all and Romania, Poland, from E the of ―Germans the list to on goes He Ostland
―Zur Einführung,‖ ―ZurEinführung,‖ utdi oonc, ― Nowotnick, in Quoted that asserts Reinerth M. Karl .
ofthe east. settlers German other the with exchange lively the in development national our of moments do intellectual nation[ same the kinsmenof apply to the In growth. fertile to path the obstruct ourselves would the and we domain, this Saxons to ourselves limited we if Transylvanian But focus. main its be the must Romania of Germans of life cultural and intellectual the that understandable is it and Saxons, Transylvanian the of center spiritual the Sibiu, in published is journal Our balanceCsaki‘s effortscreateare foreignandclear from this local between to new the of currents artistic and intellectual decisive heritage. own ofone‘s specifics the neglecting without Germany to connection the maintaining] of instin circumstances, the Klingsor ‘s newof In itsfirstissue 1926, content.thefollowingwas proclaimed:
- 90. hl te conservative the While 1920s.
gi te age the Again Siebenbürgen zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen beiden den zwischen Siebenbürgen ‘s shift to a National Socialist agenda was more exaggerated than exaggerated more was agenda Socialist National a to shift ‘s 37 Ostland Klingsor
i Karpathen Die , Year 1, Issue 1, January 1926, p.2 January1926, Issue 1, 1, Year ,
but different branches of the same the of branches different but - old cleft between those Saxon who wished to seek help in the the in help seek to wished who Saxon those between cleft old ‘s politicization around the same time, such content was in fact in was content such time, same the around politicization ‘s Klingsor c tively form a clique in a negative sense negative a in clique a form tively
o,fl vci oti agr n ws o bet tana wide a attain to able not was and danger, this to victim fell too, , , Ostland Volkstum SDT ast‖: from the Baltic and the Sudeten territories, Sudeten the and Baltic the from ast‖: , 131 Klingsor
], and we can glimpse one of the fullest future fullest the ofone glimpse wecan and ], agl kp is sltoit rfl (with profile isolationist its kept largely
,‖ p. 61. Nowotnick‘s source is Richard Csaki: Csaki: Richard is source Nowotnick‘s 61. p. ,‖ , ed. Walter König, p. 150 König, p. ed.Walter , - 3.
authors.
German Volk 36 35
Volksrat … [Thus the importance importance the [Thus … ‖ and implications that the that implications and ‖
lhuh t fcs on focus its Although family. main, no borders no main, ien zwischen den beiden beiden den zwischen ien -
91; and Richard Csaki, Csaki, Richard and 91; members sought to sought members - 151.
While perhaps perhaps While
Ostland
the the ‘s
CEU eTD Collection 41 wereleft thejournal For 1931. following 40 77). (p. theat latest 1930 by safelyproven self the to affinity 39 p. 405 1925, Parteien,‖ reichsdeutschen die und Wesen politisches ―Unser Pomarius, 38 health, ―national through members‖ nation‘s the of health racial and physical as well as for need Saxon the of Pan implying terms avoiding Although state. nation Romanian the within implementation for meant notably disseminated, being were on based agendas explicit 1932, October from Program‖ s wereideas Nazi that philosophy, political Hitler‘s to or socialism national to common, a for together band to began 1933 the preceding air Saxon the in was and literar its Germany to Transylvania of attachment strengthened ―the to related directly was shift this criticism,‖ without almost Reich Third the of politics cultural the of p this after that observes she Sibiu; 1933 October the and Germany in Socialism National of takeover the after 1934, in beginning truly as orientation‖ ―new this identifies Nowotnick Unsurprisingly, concent and profile ―pluralist‖ a abandoned in shift definitive a notice authors other publications, of years first its in earlier much already began Germany
Ibid Nowotnick, ― Nowotnick, s s vne b sc ar such by evinced is As oee, oonc as gvs xetos o thes to exceptions gives also Nowotnick However, ., p. 75 p. The prevalence of these topics in early in topics these of prevalence The - - 308. 77. y marketfollowingFirst War.‖ World the Die Karpathen Die
- proclaimed Third Reich and his overt sympathy for the idea of National Socialism can be be can Socialism National of idea the for sympathy overt his and Reich Third proclaimed - oriented. See Nowotnick, ― Nowotnick, See oriented. example, she cites the case of case the cites she example, eeping into Saxon politics. Inthe politics. Saxon into eeping Lebensraum ticles as ―Our Political Existence and the the and Existence Political ―Our as ticles
, Ostland
, Klingsor
, and furthermore cites ―vigorous national reproduction, national ―vigorous cites furthermore and , oint, oint, Reich Die Karpathen Die Klingsor Klingsor ,‖ p. 84 p. ,‖ Klingsor Klingsor 132 Sachsentag - - German s German - oriented cause. oriented rated almost exclusively on on exclusively almost rated 1930s articles bear witness to the change that change the to witness bear articles 1930s ever e
. Nowotnick further claims that ―Heinrich Zillich‘s Zillich‘s ―Heinrich that claims further Nowotnick . ‘s content only in 1930, after which time it time which after 1930, in only content ‘s
―took over the fascist and racist attitudes racist and fascist the over ―took contributor Peter Huchel, whose seven pieces in in pieces seven whose Huchel, Peter contributor , - Ostland oe right more 41
a te aiu dsaife groups dissatisfied various the as , 40 ympathies, the article speaks openly speaks article the ympathies,
Klingsor - page ―Draft for a Saxon National Saxon a for ―Draft page , Klingsor ainl Socialist National Klingsor Reich Even without direct reference direct without Even - leaning tendencies in the period period the in tendencies leaning - ‘s contents make it clear it make contents ‘s German Parties.‖ See Alfred Alfred See Parties.‖ German , Year 2, Issue 11, November November 11, Issue 2, Year , ,‖ p. p. 91f. ,‖ 40
n anan that maintains and 38
oonc and Nowotnick Reich Sachsentag
terminology affairs
. in 39 -
CEU eTD Collection p. 176 May Issue and 5, 1932, 142 Staat Nationalsozialismus: des Philosphie 43 42 anti anti of opponents its example for Socialism, National of thecommunitywithin be inthefollowingwill outlined section. brief thesis, this of scope outside somewhat lies topic This community. the of members some among role aplayed institutions Saxon and homeland Transylvanian the to attachment the was community the within ideology P III. TheSaxon conservative daily press. more much was ideology German large and by but below, section the in discussed be will as character, Hitler‘s Adolf from T Socialism, National of principles basic the upon explicitly more he which in 1932, April in Pomarius Alfred by published piece process. this in youth the of role important the and body national the of maintenance physical and spiritual [ community national the of rep national and hygiene, racial hygiene,
he work i work he ―Entwurf zu einem sächsischen Volksprogramm,‖ Volksprogramm,‖ sächsischen ―Entwurfzu einem lrd oais ― Pomarius, Alfred Several leaders of the church were particularly resistant to some of the basic tenants basic the of some to resistant particularly were church the of leaders Several Sociali National of adoption complete the to hindrance greatest the Although s practically a regurgitation of regurgitation a practically s 42
- aradox: aradox: The cont The — Semitism, the issue remained secondary to inter to secondary remained issue the Semitism, a matter which will be discussed below discussed be will which matter a u Piopi ds ainloilsu: Rasse Nationalsozialismus: des Philosphie Zur as these questions arose in the mid the in arose questions these as en Kampf Mein
ents of the October article bear a striking similarity to a lengthy a to similarity striking a bear article October the of ents Accommodating - Volksgemeinschaft 183.
- . Volk 43
f ore nt l atce ae o akn i local in lacking so are articles all not course, Of wf and swift - Persönlichkeit,‖ Persönlichkeit,‖ roduction‖ as necessary for the basis of existence of basis the for necessary as roduction‖ Reich Klingsor 133
Reich Politics Reich
. aiy aus r epaie, s s the is as emphasized, are values Family ]. -
eiim However, Semitism. this time without mentioning the Saxons. the mentioning without time this propaganda, including several quotations several including propaganda, opee hn ht of that than complete , Year 9, Issue 10, October 1932, p.1932, 364 October Issue 10, 9, Year , Klingsor - late 1930s, late — and , Year 9, Issue 4, April 1932, p. 131 p. 1932, April 4, Issue 9, Year , questions of conscience also also conscience of questions - Volkstum
Saxon Tradition Saxon - Saxon affairs. This m This affairs. Saxon
Klingsor but - Judentum‖ and ―Zur ―Zur and Judentum‖
ept individual despite the basic tensions basic the Ostland ‘s adoption ‘s
expounded expounded
- 404. 404. r the or
the ust
of st -
CEU eTD Collection 44 text own its of Nachbarschaften the of incorporation ―The continues, Cercel example, For events.‖ and actions distinct of number a in found matter ―the community, Saxon the t of appeal the by forth brought constraints ideological organization. its to threats S Church.‖ Lutheran the of affairs internal the in institutions ― was rights, corporate granted Romania 1940 of organization the in meddling for it resented nevertheless movement, the leaders, church Many tradition. of questions about conscience of questions about concerned less were community rhetoricSocialist seeping thatwas press theSaxon andjournals. into National the of because rather but interest, Saxon to due not arose issue the that evidence Saxon in appearance late This up. picked really topic the was 1933 of fall element fundamental a was the in articles few Surprisingly it propaganda. although neglected, largely was question opponents. thoseofpolitical weaken their ranks or their strengthen to order in terms ethnic in Jews the framed often who countries, European Central neighboring in communities German the of several to contrast in mentioned be
axon national church undermined the centuries the undermined church national axon Cercel, ― Cercel, Volksgruppengesetz t em ta toe lry ot poe t te ie f ainl oils in Socialism National of rise the to opposed most clergy those that seems It The Relationship between Religious Religious between Relationship The - books for schools and the side effects of the interdiction of using text using of interdiction the of effects side the and schools for books
(neighborliness schemes) under the authority of the Church or the creation the or Church the of authority the under schemes) (neighborliness Bruderschaften Bruderschaften
Cristian Cercel writes that in face of the of face in that writes Cercel Cristian o ehi mnrte lw, hc gatd h Gras of Germans the granted which law), minorities ethnic (or
- of - fact endeavors of the Church to keep its role are to be be to are role its keep to Church the of endeavors fact (bro and National Identity,‖ p. 49. p. Identity,‖ National and followed by a deep involvement of Third Reich Reich Third of involvement deep a by followed therhoods), therhoods), 134 SDT
- old structure of the church and posed deep deep posed and church the of structure old
address the Jewish question, and only in only and question, Jewish the address Within the Saxon communi the Saxon Within not necessarily opposed to the tenants of of tenants the to opposed necessarily not he Nazi he Schwesterschaften 44 - oriented German identity‖ in identity‖ German oriented
The
ie anti like
―developing social and social ―developing Reich
srrte) and (sororities) the church. The The church. the t - koe o the of akeover ulctos is publications Semitism ty, theJewish - books Reich
than the
CEU eTD Collection 47 46 45 leadership their of out edged as aconsequence.positions were and agenda radical its rejected 1932), Glondys in Viktor (elected bishop Saxon the including notably Others, role. sign this in a organizations played and Socialists National active National towards stance ―ambivalent an C Lutheran the of study his members. community for mid the in ―identities‖ or ―nationalisms‖ competing presented Natio success.‖ more with Saxon presumably Transylvanian the by promoted distinctly [ activities similar that coincidence a all at not is It … community the of identity the adjusting and te as perceived easily be new this to resistant collective particularly were church the in leaders traditional that out points mid the in experienced had it fragmentation the of light in appeal its of part great a was community Saxon the gave movement Socialist National McArthurwa usage self Saxon the of strings the pull Germanyar in published
Ibid., Cercel, McArthur,
p. 29 p. enocs n o te an taeis f the of strategies main the of one reinforces ― The Relationship between between Relationship The identity; such as physical exercise or or exercise physical as such - Zum Identitätswandel Zum 30. s quoted in the previous chapter as saying that the ―collective identity‖ that the identity‖that ―collective the that saying as chapter previous the in quoted s
as an example he cites he example an as e relevant for understanding the attempts not to lose the capacity tocapacity the lose to not attempts the understanding for relevant e
ntative efforts ntative Ultimately t Ultimately hurch during this period, Cercel concludes that that concludes Cercel period, this during hurch
, p. p. 9. ,
Religious 46
- The Lutheran Church and National Socialist movement Socialist National and Church Lutheran The osiuns. Ide, ecls eeec t textbook to reference Cercel‘s Indeed, consciousness.‖ he Lutheran clergy Lutheran he
and National Identity,‖ p. Identity,‖ National and to affirm and reaffirm the reaffirm and affirm to aig rpr ae f aih ri orchards] fruit parish of care proper taking - the oils affiliation.‖ Socialist 135
church‘s
fcn pr i ifunig h youth the influencing in part ificant NSDAP
publication of circulars of publication - were divided on the issue; the on divided were 1920s.
a Scait oeet and movement Socialist nal 35.
- o pel o ot. Marylin youth. to appeal to late 1930s in a battle waged battle a in 1930s late
45 47
However, Cercel right Cercel However, monopoly on regulating regulating on monopoly eea ceg became clergy Several the church took church the , which , thus in thus
were ―can ly
CEU eTD Collection 49 (1892 father: 48 proces This not. did which those from worldview their National into fit that of Socialism elements those isolate to churchgoers Saxon many of ability the illustrates ( Lutheran the defended Transylvania.‖ and loved who pastor a of perspective the from wrote rather but Germany, in camps concentration instituted newly the of facts hard Century Twentieth as such Socialism, National of texts core the neither analyzed works, father‘s his of description Möckel‘s, Andreas son, his Accordingto re not did he Volk language,custom belong and insecond only place.‖ rac blood, territory, nature, contrast, By faith. Christian the of articles [ mo the saw He joy. with Socialism National of principles the welcomed initially Romania, regimes changing the throughout figures spiritual Saxon leading the leaders. Lutheran by ambivalence with viewed been have may it why reveals Socialism National of acceptanceexamination onelater initial to thepastor‘s rejection movement;and a of brief Volksgefühl
Andreas Andreas Konrad Möckel, Konrad vement as utterly compatible with the Christian faith, claiming that claiming faith, Christian the with compatible utterly as vement
- and national unity national and 1965) mäpt Vlsice Lbn n Wre ds evangelisch des Wirken und Leben Volkskirche: Umkämpfte Yet it is this ve Yet this is it Thus, Möckel focused on the one element of National Socialism National of element one the on focused Möckel Thus,
Konrad Möckel Konrad Möckel, Möckel, , Volume 42 of Studia Transylvanica (Cologne: Böhlau, 2011), 123. p. 2011), Böhlau, (Cologne: Transylvanica ofStudia Volume , 42 ] belongs to the eternal existence of creation and is involved in the primary primary the in involved is and creation of existence eternal the to belongs ] ject the movement‘s other tenants, but relegated them to a secondary position. position. secondary a to them relegated but tenants, other movement‘s the ject 49
Idealismus und Wirklichkeit und Idealismus Umkämpfte Volkskirche Umkämpfte hl ti sud tie n sset oig rm h pn f i sn it son, his of pen the from coming suspect and trite sounds this While , or the program of the NSDAP or of the of or NSDAP the of program the or , ry radical agenda that first attracted manyagendaryfirst thecommunityradical attracted of thatmembers —
(1892 that seemed to be in accordance with his ideals of Christian unity; unity; Christian of ideals his with accordance in be to seemed that
- 1965) , p. 122. p. , , pastor of the of pastor , (1933), p. 17, quoted in Andreas in quoted 17, p. (1933),
136
48 Honterus Parish in Braşov and one of one and Braşov in Parish Honterus
- sächsischen Pfarrers Konrad Konrad Pfarrers sächsischen Erneuerungsbewegung Mein Kampf Mein
Möckel‘s biography of his his of biography Möckel‘s
―the ―the in , itr, culture, history, e,
— Volk twentieth , ―Konrad Möckel―Konrad The Myth of Myth The its emphasis on emphasis its national feeling feeling national s is similar to to similar is s Church ) , nor the nor , - century Möckel
the of
CEU eTD Collection 50 publications. Saxon of contents the b the political andl mid the By tradition. Saxon preserving of way a as movement the of focus national and cultural the saw mistakenly who proponents, na totalitarian the to opposed were stance. neutral more a take to tried who Saxons many were as collaborator, Nazi a being of accused was he communism under later although movement, instead. emphasized he feelings,‖ and thoughts our tainted also has worse, even and, affairs our and all us poisoned inwardly has power for struggle ―The rebuked power‖ for ―struggle a as decried he which movement a church, the politicize to sought who those from isolated become already had he 1933, isolating of Lutheran German the unify to aims the that recognize to began Möckel Church, the politicize to made were efforts more As resolved. be not totalit could Socialism the and Christianity between tension the however, described below the . Commitment to
Ibid.
otaitr atmt t acp bt ―Small both accept to attempts contradictory
p. 174 p. For a pastor such as Möckel who was truly concerned with the unity of his flock, his of unity the with concerned truly was who Möckel as such pastor a For Even the degree of this literary control can, however, be questioned when examiningwhenquestioned be however, can,literarycontrol degreethis ofthe Even
those who sought only power and neglect and power only sought who those - other races other 175.
. iteraryorganscommunity. ofthe
the Transylvanian Homelan — 50
were ultimately at odds with t with odds at ultimately were
hs convic This
ture of National Socialism were soon drowned out by its its by out drowned soon were Socialism National of ture Although by the mid the by Although in e Mce t aadn h Ntoa Socialist National the abandon to Möckel led tion he - 1930s, the latter group had gained control of bothof control gained had group latter the 1930s, wrote 137 d
i n 1936; ―what does ―what 1936; n ed the spiritual unity of the Saxon Saxon the of unity spiritual the ed - ao‖ n ―Pan and Saxon‖ he spiritual tasks of the believer. By believer. the of tasks spiritual he - (― 1930s e Kmf m i Macht die um Kampf der arian elements of National National of elements arian Klingsor hs, ie ökl who Möckel, like Those, Volk - God Ge
had adopted more adopted had mn solutions, rman‖ —
want from us?‖ us?‖ from want at the expense expense the at ‖) Volk . He He . .
CEU eTD Collection p. 1926, 52 Klingsor themes. 430 p. 1932, November 11, Issue 9, Sendung,‖ siebenbürgischen unserer Sinne ―Vom Schafer, Gerhardt e.g. See, 1930s. early the 51 Volksrat l before affairs own their cultivate to minorities German of duty the was it that warning overt an was This political unification withthe ( spiritual the emphasized Plattner Hermann community. their within the with unification political on views its outlined Pan of acceptance an excluded east the in belonged latter the that simply was Saxons the beliefs. Socialist National for primed been always had community the that notion the accept to began Saxons many chapter, preceding the of end the at out pointed years.As later in Socialism‖ National into transformed was culture‖ German of ―bearers as Saxons the of interwar concept early the how see to difficult not is It east. the in duties spiritual their perform hand frequently have may they to commitment continued radical
For example, example, For Hermann Plattner, ―Auslanddeutschtum und Grenzenlandeutschtum,‖ Grenzenlandeutschtum,‖ und ―Auslanddeutschtum Plattner, Hermann i ws mle ta te ao rl wti te rae Pan greater the within role Saxon the that implied was it ,
Ostland , that its contents would have similarly become more radical. more become have would similarly contents that , its 1 work his in thrive manageto world his and himself with peace made not has who minds, two of spiritually is who a than different no are nations regard, this In … areas economic and cultural, national, in work own one‘s through nation own one‘s strengthen and maintain spiritual a from emerge never to wanted … minority German a If htrc hn either than rhetoric -
2. and editors of the the of editors and
Klingsor Klingsor
ceased publicatio ceased ooking to those of the the of those to ooking On the other hand, t hand, other the On still contained pieces that reveled in the wonders of the Transylvanian spir Transylvanian the of wonders the in reveled that pieces contained still
focused on focused Transylvania as the spiritual center of Saxon life, even though though even life, Saxon of center spiritual the as Transylvania SDT n in 1931, and it is plausible that if it had continued into the 1930s, as did as 1930s, the into continued had it if that plausible is it and 1931, in n Reich Ostland Ostland
- 433. While While 433. . 52
- were still focused on Transylvanian regionalist solutions as solutions regionalist Transylvanian on focused still were
emns t sm extent some to Germanism
conflict … For each German minority it is important to to important is it minority German each For … conflict would cause: would cause: adjust he difference between difference he Reich Reich r the or Klingsor
its politics to [be unified with] the the with] unified [be to politics its
138 . At this point in Saxon history, of course, the the course, of history, Saxon in point this At . occurrences or intellectual trends. intellectual or occurrences SDT
articles were consistently more focused on German German on focused more consistently were articles al he publications three all , Re ich
and the role of German minorities minorities German of role the and
the Germans of the Reich and Reich the of Germans the . ad hs es o belonging of sense this and , n individual man: the the man: individual n SDT In 1926, the the 1926, In Vl 5, r 188 6 June 6 15878, Nr. 53, Vol. , - emn cee a to was scheme German seelisch Reich
eosrtd a demonstrated , it woul it , SDT ,
51 ) harm that a that harm ) cannot cannot Klingsor
baes of ―bearers On the On man
explicitly d it, even in in even it,
, Year , one
CEU eTD Collection 1996), Macmillan, 54 capabilities. political and economic t war, the of end the at had it the that proclaimed article same the attention, international of object definite 53 repara war their paying in the period, interwar Saxons. the of attention the drawn have would necessarily Romania) worsening a by (accompanied Germany in improvements these years, of armies the occupation.‖ of cleared was Rhineland the 1930 June of end the and 1929 September Weimar the ease was reparations treatof burden The consideration. to more with Republic began War World First the in powers victorious The favourably. socio general the 1920s late entire the of attention world.‖ the of focus the becoming more ever is ―Germany proclaimed, change. rising the to Romania from in Minorities National shifted had focus political the that show 1929 in Policy‖ the Foreign ―Germany‘s or Germany,‖ of Rights ―The German,‖ is ―Who as such Articles affairs. the Romania, the of to minorities promises German its fulfill to able be not would Party Peasant National elected recently on the continued their explains partially which fact a Three, Chapter describedin
―Vorwärts und aufwärts!,‖ aufwärts!,‖ und ―Vorwärts Jaroslav Krejčí and Pavel Machonin, Machonin, Pavel and Krejčí Jaroslav Reich But by 1929, when it was becoming clear to conservative to clear becoming was it when 1929, by But 53
The opening article of the Saxon Saxon the of article opening The
Jaroslav Krejčí and Pavel Machonin Pavel and Krejčí Jaroslav . 54
Especially in light of Saxon attitudes towards Germany in the early the in Germany towards attitudes Saxon of light in Especially p. 15. p.
KZ , like the like , KZ
en years prior, demonstrating that the Saxons still had doubts about Germany‘s Germany‘s about doubts had still Saxons the that demonstrating prior, years en tions, making improvements to t to improvements making tions, , Vol. 92, Nr. 1, 1 January 1928. Despite the fact that Germany had become a become had Germany that fact the Despite 1928. January 1 1, Nr. 92, Vol. ,
Reich
- economic and political climate in Europe developed developed Europe in climate political and economic SDT Czechoslovakia, 1918 Czechoslovakia, . The The . , contained reports contained , SDT SDT
began to pay much more more much pay to began Kronstädter Zeitung Kronstädter 139
a nt h ol da only the not was
confirm this shift in shift this confirm - 92: A Laboratory for Social Change Social for Laboratory A 92: on Germany‘s continued pro continued Germany‘s on heir country, and making a move a making and country, heir
Reich Reich nNw ersDy 1928 Day Year‘s New on Volksrat
ily paper to make this this make to paper ily focus, writing, focus, appeared as ―impotent‖ as as ―impotent‖ as appeared Throughout the entire entire the Throughout teto t German to attention d and between mid between and d
f h stain in situation the of reluctance
leaders that the that leaders interwar
(Oxford:
― to rely to i n the n gress -
CEU eTD Collection 56 in situation political noti a is there 1932, In Saxons. the for ally political potential the by attention 55 achievegoal: this Transylvanian ( intellectual and spiritual community‘s the renew to longing Saxon the of spoke He Romania. Greater in situation Saxon of hopelessness seeming the proclaimed artic an contributed Orend Misch 1925, In existence. Transylvanian a maintain and relations German cultivate of Some Zeiten und Grenzen Zwischen 1936 his example, (for writings personal their both in themes Saxon on concentrated still the to loyalties political their shifted who Zillich as such Authors Socialism. National the of acceptance moderate spiri Transylvani a on emphasis continued a and affairs, local on concentration continued the pull. Germany‘s to resistance much still was there and Saxons, the the join to
Misch Orend, MischOrend, Beginning Volk t in the t in T will be ofeyes hundreds return, youth the when then, And experience. vivid with us to brought be can life accomplishme newest the that so Germany, of that with pace keeps it that Germany of that and life intellectual Transylvania‘s between relationship the establish to order in Germany to sent are youth the that circumstance the is contradictory more Even
ee s a is here Klingsor . conservative among irredentism into translate not did still Germany in movement League of Nations. of League vn fe 13, ay Saxons many 1933, after Even n 96 Grays oeta acpac it te ege f ain ws olwd ih rapt with followed was Nations of League the into acceptance potential Germany‘s 1926, in SDT ―Vom geistigen Leben in Siebenbürgen,‖ Siebenbürgen,‖ in Leben geistigen ―Vom SDT otx, u te pitd u te otaitr mas mlmne to implemented means contradictory the out pointed then but context, , the Germany.
‘s earliest content reflects this paradox between the simultaneous desire to desire simultaneous the between paradox this reflects content earliest ‘s a sc a acpac wud ae biul icesd emn‘ rptto a a as reputation Germany‘s increased obviously have would acceptance an such as , Reich iia ted o e on in found be to trend similar opened to examine everything that comes down here … here comes down that examineeverything to opened KZ e nild Fo te nelcul ie f rnyvna which Transylvania‖ of Life Intellectual the ―From entitled le , and
s the as Ostland
55 , which ,
Yet this interest in, and even occasional identification with, identification occasional even and in, interest this Yet Vaterland .
is largely set in Trans in set largely is ee a th as even , — 140 n nt ut h conservatives the just not and
Klingsor ceable increase in increase ceable Klingsor ey accepted the basic principles of of principles basic the accepted ey , Year 2, 2, January Year , s pages ‘s ylvania) and in their journals. journals. their in and ylvania) This was evinced through evinced was This 56 SDT
atog i i more is it although , - nts of intellectual intellectual of nts December 1925, 13. p. 1925, December
articles pertaining articles geistig — eitd the resisted ) life in the in life ) –
so Reich
to the to
an
CEU eTD Collection 261 57 and community the within change political for desire the between tension the ameliorate to (―Germany‖ loved who Saxon the pseudo this By day. present the to up community nation German being of [ community German great the to Stephan‘s belonging of of consciousness vastness full the in entered Kingdom They developed. already was culture national a as German unified the left ancestors the of those with accord in been always had Saxons the of aims national the that argument romantic the to resorted too, He, explained. clearly so not was Pan and Saxon‖ ―Small question: ―and‖ an rather but Pan the communitywith Saxon unifythe to decision the that readers his told He community. the dividing was which conflict the ignore culturalisolationist nationalism oftheTransylvanian Saxons. the of ideals modernizing quickly the say, their to Needless maintaining Transylvania. in life while of way traditional model cultural a as Germany to look to sought who members paradoxical. is nation own their Germany as such ties cultural of tradition long a had nation foreign a to look would Saxons the that idea very The Wesensgemeinschaft
Dr. Karl Hoch, ―Siebenbürgisch Hoch, Karl Dr. - Reich 262.
Even one of the staunchest proponents of National Socialism, Dr. Karl Hoch, did notHoch,Karl Dr.did National ofSocialism, proponentsstaunchest the of oneEven , which included such endeavors as Pan as endeavors such included which , — of the twelfth century). twelfth the of — rgntn i the in originating ].
‖ i hmln (Transylvania) homeland his - German factions. factions. German Hoch
- sächsisch oder gesamtdeutsch?,‖ gesamtdeutsch?,‖ oder sächsisch
the Saxons could and should be open to aspects of both the the both of aspects to open be should and could Saxons the went Orend‘s words reflect the frustrations felt by felt frustrations the reflect words Orend‘s - speaking territory, the consciousness of Ge of consciousness the territory, speaking
on to claim that this consciousness of belon of consciousness this that claim to on twelfth 57
These are the types of arguments that were put forthwereput that argumentstypesofare These the How this compromise was to be made, howev made, be to was compromise this How -
141 German movement should not be an ―either/or‖ ―either/or‖ an benot should movement German ce ntury
- Germanism, were not comp not were Germanism, - historical justification, or justification, historical — a also was otne t eit ihn h Saxon the within exist to continued — Klingsor n re t ipoe n preserve and improve to order in
— be o l to able , Year 10, Issue 7, July 1933, p. 1933, July 7, Issue 10, Year , even one with one even Reich v hs Fatherland his ove :
― As our Saxon Saxon our As atible with the with atible relativization rman culture culture rman
community which they which ging to the to ging er, er, ,
CEU eTD Collection 58 how matterRomania the unstable no Germany, to turning of optimism and stability the about doubts readers of these as such Reports in Nazism of nature GermanyThe readers. tohis author‘s containan foreboding: statements ominous true the reveal to purported Germany, in correspondent a author, the transpiringactually was what refutes 1930s Saxons. role its and Germany Pan of community absorption the of impression different a gives 1933 br A 1930s. the into the like papers conservative plausible, more ofnotion a uniqueSaxon culture. Pa as such ideals Socialist National of incongruence the
―Die innere Lage Deutschlands,‖ Deutschlands,‖ Lage ―Die innere K Z — .
While for the more liberal readership of readership liberal more the for While o collapse the for himself. deceiving hope to entitled be could who anyone or resistance, a by opposed be could decision [Hitler‘s] Germany in somewhere the because decisions I … com Hitler and exclusively is happens actually what that forget never Germany considers may who one months, past the in as Now, Hitler? of person the mentioning aforemention the of makeup the discuss to be one must superficial How Germany. in current the with do to nothing have ideas of all diversities all that and deviations knows things understands better who one the But Party. Socialist National fa the and into groups work artificially to tries one Germany, in parties no are there Because
P otie a atce eciig Te ne Stain f emn, i whic in Germany,‖ of Situation Inner ―The describing article an contained even more reserved than the than reserved more even I n contrast to journals to contrast n art of the delay in the in delay the of art
and supports the idea that many Saxons had Saxons many that idea the supports and t is … conceivable that many officials may lose lose may officials many that conceivable … is t ief
n system may have proven to be. To a great extent, these fears help to help fears these extent, great a To be. to proven have may system n as a suitable environment for the political aims of the Transylvanian the of aims political the for environment suitable a as 58
xmnto o te Braşov the of examination Führer Hitler‘s authoritarian rule rule authoritarian Hitler‘s KZ
on like ‘s decision goes against their will … Anyone who assumes that that assumes who Anyone … will their against goes decision ‘s turn of turn , Vol. 98, Nr. 276, 2 December 1934. 2 Nr. 276, 98, Vol. ,
the German political landscape. As late as December1934, as late As landscape. political German the
Klingsor SDT KZ KZ , which was known for its passionate passionate its for known was which , editors to Germany to editors 142 , the Kronstädter Zeitung Kronstädter te ainl oils rgm, ol be would regime, Socialist National the f
Klingsor KZ
- maintains ae diy rm h yas following years the from daily based would necessarily have given Saxon Saxon given have necessarily would
n second thoughts about the rise of rise the about thoughts second their posts in the case of grave grave of case the in posts their such arguments might have been been have might arguments such - Germanism with the prevailing the with Germanism
was due to misgivings about misgivings to due was a - ed groups without once once without groups ed emns i te Saxon the in Germanism reserved pletely determined by determined pletely
remained skeptical well well skeptical remained
tone well into the into well tone ctions ctions
at and rants its h
CEU eTD Collection 59 on paths pursue must we whether or now, until used have we that methods and means same the with struggle political our continue can we whether decided be must it which at policy politica of change Germany. within developments the on kept was eye keen a protections, minorityof implementation Romania‘s for pleading ex of sort some without community theexternal for powersRomania orGermany. of supportto pract most the not while preservation, own their for work and people]?!‖ in believe to readers Saxon [their the to challenge defend and work they because live therefore and believe who t doomed are who those ask He hand. helping Saxon the of spirit unquenchable the rather but article, the of conclusion the in implied rescuer, Saxons‘ The them?‖ rescue can what before, never as threatened piece to transfer the that implies minority iden still in publications expressed solutions regionalist for desire continuing the explain
―Neujahrsgedanken,‖ ―Neujahrsgedanken,‖ s were all inplace.s were The author of the New Year‘s edition dramatically lamented, ―Our Saxon cities are are cities Saxon ―Our lamented, dramatically edition Year‘s New the of author The Despite these expressions of Saxon patriotism, the authors of the ofthe patriotism,authors Saxon of expressions theseDespite iis oai a is ―common its as Romania tifies was discussed
extremely frustrated. This acknowledgement of Romania as the fatherland fatherland the as Romania of acknowledgement This frustrated. extremely cl ouin dmntae that demonstrates solution, ical l environment. ― environment. l KZ ed
, Vol. 99, Nr. 1, JanuaryNr. 1, 1 1935. 99, Vol. , here
o destruction, whose people damn them to destruction, or to those to or destruction, to them damn people whose destruction, o his readers to pause and consider ―whether they want to belong to belong to want they ―whether consider and pause to readers his
enl aid ternal was . Indeed, the New Year‘s edition of the of edition Year‘s New the Indeed, . the
neither Romania nor Germany (which is not mentioned once), mentioned not is (which Germanynor Romania neither Reich y pi 13, the 1935, April By
ihu adut w aecm o rsras n our in crossroads a to come have we doubt, a Without h Sxn ain a gety nagrd Tu, w Thus, endangered. greatly was nation Saxon the ‘s
oiy a nt e cmlt, vn f h political the if even complete, yet not was policy Vaterland 143 Saxons several
Volk ‖ let n wt wih h Saxon the which with one albeit ,‖ KZ KZ
n toe h wud ed hm a them lend would who those and expressed the need for a drastic drastic a for need the expressed
tl peerd hi internal their preferred still Kronstädter Kronstädter
KZ l o te Saxon the of all wereaware from 1935 from 59
This
hile that
CEU eTD Collection 1924). Verlag, Grenz vom Deutsche jeder Was Großrumänien 62 61 60 asserting gap, this to attention called war, the following Sibiu in settled who officer Reisner, later. years self two statement similar a groups‘] made Reisner, Erwin contributor, two [the of formation follow the has accord, consciousness own its ―Of factors: external of the of part the on misunderstanding Gottfried article, this of average, 1933 the at Program National continuedresistancethe explainto to help that of the to Program National Saxon the of adjustment the after years two 1935, in written were they the of pages the from territory.‖ our national the or rights our achieving at away chipping of or of fragmentation the through even intention, or irredentism through propositions faintest the have we do less even least, the in interested not are Germans ―We 1935: May in later month a appearing article Yet a advocating finally is author a and Romanian of rejection the that reader the to seems it claims, despairing these we which
―Minderheitenschicksal I.,‖ I.,‖ ―Minderheitenschicksal Deutschen Partei,‖ der Erklärung die verliest Roth ―Dr. H.O. Dr. Gottfried Fittbogen, ―Reichsdeutsche und andere Deutsche,‖ Deutsche,‖ andere und ―Reichsdeutsche Fittbogen, Gottfried Dr.
even this ―crossroads‖ did not mean a transition to irredentist means, according to an to according means, irredentist to transition a mean not did ―crossroads‖ this even h etmns xrse n uof rnshs journal Brandsch‘s Rudolf in expressed sentiments The Reichsdeutsche have never tread … [paths on] which we have hardly anything to lose.‖ to anything hardly have we which on] [paths … tread never have Reich
, Volume 2, Issue 5, May 1922, p. 2 p. 1922, May 5, Issue 2, Volume , .
61 KZ
It is somewhat surprising to read these conservative words coming words conservative these read to surprising somewhat is It
had very little little very had K
Z rather than from the the from than rather d ifrn hsoia developments.‖ historical different ed itoe, isl fo te emn, anand ht this that maintained Germany, the from himself Fittbogen, , Vol. 99, Nr. 111, 17 May17 Nr. 111, 1935. 99, Vol. , -
turn to Pan to turn n Ausland und
Sachsentag Reich understanding - - Germanism and foreign assistance from the from assistance foreign and Germanism etctm isn muß wissen Deutschtum
. the Germans was not a product of ill of product a not was Germans - Already in 1922, in Already 144 3. Fittbogen was also also was Fittbogen 3. R eich
SDT
, and even more surp more even and , despite the official change of the Saxon the changeofficialof the despite KZ
for the for
, Vol. Vol. , 99, Nr. 79, April 1935. Nr. 4 79, 99, Auslanddeutsche the journal the
the author of such publications as publications such of author the (Munich and Berlin: Oldenbourg Oldenbourg Berlin: and (Munich Deutsche Politische Hefte aus aus Hefte Politische Deutsche Deutsche Politische Hefte Politische Deutsche 62
A frequent frequent A rising to read that read to rising declared that ―On that declared - will, but rather but will, .‖ The author author The .‖ a Viennese a
Klingsor 60 Vo Reich
From that lk ‘s - .
CEU eTD Collection 9. p. December 1933, 31 65 64 Klingsor 63 the Sibiu, decisive the after months two just 1933, December In follow. to soon was ideology.By 1926, Socialist popularizi in instrumental was and connections literary making at adept Zillich‘s Heinrich generation. war younger the by initiated un social Germany.The with associations political and economiccultivate to begin community mid the since 1937, IV. Conclusion wholesalePan acceptance of German.‖ not is he as far so in Transylvanian ca Saxon ―the
Nowotnick, ― Nowotnick, Emil Neugeboren, ―Die Erneuerung und das das und Erneuerung ―Die Neugeboren, Emil Erwin Reisner, ―Die nationalen Fehler der Siebenbürger Sachsen, wie sie der Binnendeutsche steht,‖ steht,‖ Binnendeutsche der sie wie Sachsen, Siebenbürger der Fehler nationalen ―Die Reisner, Erwin rest and financial distress within the community contributed to this shift, which was first was which shift, this to contributed community the within distress financial and rest 64 ,
The offici The in movement and motherland, the greater the of context the within times, recent in distorted and obscured only far their with thoughts social the reestablish also must it Now destiny. its was this indeed, national; been has paper our existence, its of days first the From it. to way the find help to and movement the of aims entire SDT our [ contradicted movement renewal a in too, rescue We, have our … and see us seized also people] not would had movement th the spiritual monumental with a It [of such if affiliated immemorial, spirits closely conquered. the been has seized and which century, development, through sixteenth the broke in church successfully the of that to year This Hitler. Adolf history, German greatestin the to whobelongs man, ofone name with the linked forever is war.It ofthe theby outcome abyss deep a into thrown was which [Germany], motherland our in arose worldview new A although as this chapter has revealed the turn to Germany had been in the works the in been had Germany to turn the revealed has chapter this as although Year 1, Issue 8, November 1924, p. p. 293 1924, November Issue 8, 1, Year SDT
in this struggle to renew the nation? … Its chief Its … nation? the renew to struggle this in Die Karpathen Die
n only be German in so far as he is not Transylvanian, and can only be be only can and Transylvanian, not is he as far so in German be only n - contained thefollowing of loya declaration 90. is vee a a utrl ly ol gauly i te Saxon the did gradually only ally, cultural a as viewed First 1920s. s
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rsin ecl ― Cercel, Cristian Agitation Agitation s ut n o te utpe tncly emn gr German ethnically multiple the of one just As hs eto wl deal will section This - German i German - 1944,‖ 1944,‖ Transylvanian Saxon Turn - ald uee Gras ( Germans Sudeten called h Rela The and MA Thesis, Central European University, 2007, p. 2007, University, European Central MAThesis, deas among the German populations inhabiting t inhabiting populations German the among deas
Renewal tionship between Religious Religious between tionship
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A German Sudeten and of Comparison Chapter Six Chapter - n si n a ain, n ay ae ifclisi gaining in difficulties faced many and nations, war zes, and geographic location vis location geographic and zes, Sudetendeut 147
s and National Identity in the Case of Transylvanian Transylvanian of Case the in Identity National and
It will It pe Tre Tu, utpe comparisons multiple Thus, Three. apter to National Socialism National to
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Nancy M. Wingfield, Wingfield, M. Nancy ns
eeecs xliig iiaiis n dfeecs f h Sdtn emn t the to Germans Sudeten the of differences and similarities explaining References ard University Press, 2007), 232. p. 2007), Press, University ard . This will be followed by a differentiation betw differentiation a by followed be will This . n zcolvka n ter aims their and Czechoslovakia in ,
n te ecpin f prsin ht aiiae te eeto o Pan of reception the facilitated that oppression of perception the and 2
i te mid the in a tt, h sca ad cnmc atr i Czechoslovak in factors economic and social the state, y in Transylvania and its political leaders will be interspersed throughout. interspersed be will leaders political its and Transylvania in y Flag Wars and Stone Saints: How the Bohemian Lands Became Czech Became Lands Bohemian the How Saints: Stone and Wars Flag Reich Reich
tlzd oa eeet t sra Pan spread to elements local utilized - ae 90 wl b dsrbd A hr catr conclusion chapter short A described. be will 1930s late
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148 tity of the state,‖ but as artificial as it may have have may it as artificial as but state,‖ the of tity a i nihr h Sdtn o te Saxon the nor Sudeten the neither in as ,
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CEU eTD Collection Pan its and Germany to turn to begun had 1933 nation these rejected gradually governme ethnicity. or religion, language, tr grantedminoritywere pe to resolved soon they status, semi a desired initially communities political both of leaders privileges. the traditional Although their of diminishment the with deal to had both and War, World nation de greater the after Czechoslovakia) and a(Romania of part becoming suddenly of shock same the underwent groups German both Similarly, crownlands). Czech the of Austria Habsburg and Transylvania, non their despite century, nineteenth the into well positions dominant and privileged these maintained diasporas German both centuries, several over Leaping region. the of dwellers peasant largely the among existence politica eventually and economic favorable a enjoyed had Bohemia, in those particular in territory, Czechoslovakian later was what of inhabitants Since long. as almost for Silesia and Moravia the while century, twelfth thirteenth the in the settled Germans in Bohemian Transylvania in arrived Saxons The Ages. Middle High the during territories respective their to traveled Germans Bohemian the and Saxons differenforregions Germanic althoughdifferentmigratingfrom histories: similar somewhat had groups both Firstly, Saxons. Transylvanian the with comparison for I. A Brief Historical A BriefHistorical There are a few reasons that the German populations in the Czech landswerethechosenCzech in Germanpopulations the that fewreasons a There are nts, whose nationalizing aims were at odds with their own, both German groups German both own, their with odds at were aims nationalizing whose nts, Comparison eaties that proclaimed equal rights for all citizens regardless of their their regardlessof citizens all forrights proclaimedequal that eaties - states, and by Hitler‘s takeover of the Weimar Republic in Republic Weimar the of takeover Hitler‘s by and states, aceably join the newly established nation established newly the join aceably
fe svrl er o futain ne ter respective their under frustration of years several After
- ruling cisions of the Peace Treaties following the First the following Treaties Peace the of cisions 149
tts utl11,Hnay a i cnrl of control in was Hungary 1918, (until status etr. emn groups German century. that period, both the Saxons and the German the and Saxons the both period, that
- German propaganda as a political refuge political a as propaganda German sau, ept ter minority their despite status, l
had been present in in present been had t reasons, both thereasons,both t - states, and both and states, - autonomous - state state
CEU eTD Collection communities political German inhabited w the of members among caused freedom political such of option theoretical the that controversy that describes Bruegel J.W. Yet solutions. self pop of German principles Wilson‘s autonomy of for desire this in unusual basis little was There determination. democratic the on government autonomous 1919. September in Germain St. of Treaty the at Czechoslovakia of borders new the of settling itself. community sta Czechoslovak the between struggles external from much so not arise to began problems Czechoslovakia, State Czechoslovak the into II. Incorporation theright with opinions, rather Germans‖; ―Sudeten as years self common their despite region, the in Germans among unifor a not was there below, demonstrated be will As Czechoslovakia. nation respective new their of joining the towards populations German the of attitudes early the examine to necessary is it first shift, this for backdrop Pan to turn their of made be to comparison asymmetrical Czechoslovak regimes. f o te ntttoa oppression institutional the rom Du h prle dvlpet o tee w Gra gop alw productive a allow groups German two these of developments parallel The In deed, this multiplicity is multiplicity this deed, ig hs ie te emn o Bhma Mrva ad iei bify se briefly Silesia and Moravia, Bohemia, of Germans the time, this ring hat become wouldsoon Czechoslovakia ltos otn te politi the dotting ulations
e n is emn ouain a bten h mmes f h German the of members the between as populations German its and te The first troubles arose in the short period between the war‘s end and the and end war‘s the between period short the in arose troubles first The -
wing winning politics strand o of evident from the fact that in that fact the from evident — hte ra o imagined or real whether there existed a multiplicity of political voices and and voices political of multiplicity a existed there a lnsae f eta Europe Central of landscape cal 150
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ut only in the end. ut only inthe - identification in the later interwar later the in identification - emn rpgna Yt as Yet propaganda. German -
states, particularly those in those particularly states, the early postwar years in years postwar early the — f h Rmna and Romanian the of , and many and , pltcl trend political m
desired similar similar desired other small small other t up an an up t
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CEU eTD Collection 1948 3 1920s, the ―in that writes He Czechoslovakia. in Germans the of leanings political the discussing when 1930s other many nation new first but below, discussed economic and social the their were as solutions leaders. political sundry the to sensitive as not was population general limite largely were Bruegel by described voices common their did statu minority nor aspirations, political their together bind simply to work not did nat Czechoslovak new the the of of part become all should that factions German decreed Germain St. of Treaty the Although political. then social more initially was dissension Saxon the although Four, Chapter in Saxons the among explored Germans the of C future inhabiting political formerly the over dissension the of much start, the from Thus
J.W. Bruegel, ―The Germans in Pre in Germans ―The Bruegel, J.W. , ed. Victor S. Mamatey and Radomír Luža (Princeton, N.J., 1973), p. 168 1973), N.J., Luža(Princeton, Radomír MamateyVictorS. ,and ed. through the to or German state one with in Czechs join the with join to conditions, certain under whether, freely decide self demanded Democrats, Social German the somehow of col thinking certain a through Monarchy were them which of territories the of Most unity the Germany. maintaining on bordering Silesia and Moravia, direct a of dreaming self wayhow the about mind one of not were they but mind, one of were parties political German all respect this In The political trends of the Sudeten Germans during the interwar period, as well as well as period, interwar the during Germans Sudeten the of trends political The
-
state scholars, clearly distinguishes the early interwar period of period interwar early the distinguishes clearly scholars, s in the same state serve to unify their interests. Nevertheless, these dissentingthese Nevertheless, interests. unifytheir to serve state same the in s after the Treaty of St. Germain St. of Treaty the after Anschluss … the the … - isleithania Au Anschluss
ofGerman stria and then, perhaps, to become part of the Weimar Republic Republic Weimar the of part become to perhaps, then, and stria - ass f istsato wt te zcolvk tt, il be will state, Czechoslovak the with dissatisfaction of causes the general German population and their attitudes towards their towards attitudes their and population German general the determination should be exercised in case it was granted. Some were Some granted. was it case in exercised be should determination majority of the Sudeten Germans … gradually … gradually … Germans Sudeten the of majority
- War Czechoslovakia,‖ in Czechoslovakia,‖ War
to to laboration b laboration mre fo wti; iia int similar within; from emerged - Germany of the western and northern regions of Bohemia, Bohemia, of regions northern and western the of Germany Austria. 3
etween the new national states states national new the etween 151 formerly -
eemnto ol i odr o e be to able be to order in only determination will be examined be will d to the sphere of political elites, and the and elites, political of sphere the to d A History of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918 Republic Czechoslovak the of History A
had made up the Austro the up made had - . Josef Korbel, along with along Korbel, Josef . 169. ion … Others, mainly Others, …
ra tnin were tensions ernal - the 1920s from the from 1920s the tt, hs decision this state, - Hungarian Hungarian developed a developed -
CEU eTD Collection 1948 5 p. 115 1977), Press, University 4 adjacentalternativeas an new Germany tolivingCzechoslovak inthe nation joining about enthusiastic necessarily not were Czechoslovakia of populations German Ger the of border the on immediately situated alliances; political for options more them gave umbrellaenlarged ofanRomania. come to willing were Saxons most minorities other and Saxons to willingness Bu new the and Maniu Iuliu instituted. legally nation new the to loyalty their pledge to chose region the in Germans other the with concomitantly equally. citizens its of all treat to pledged which government, Czechoslovak new the reject to need little was there prohibited.‖ religion their or language, their race, their be whatever rights political and civic equal enjoy shall and law the before ― citizens Czechoslovak all that declared laws Czechoslovak 1920, June in Romania of borders the settling Trianon of Treaty the at drafted St. at promised protections minority the to due partially was po
Quoted in Jeremy King, King, Jeremy in Quoted Josef Korbel, Korbel, Josef sitive attitude toward Czechoslovakia as their own state.‖ own their as Czechoslovakia toward attitude sitive man , (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002 Press, University , (Princeton: Princeton - state in Alba Iulia in December 1918, even before any minority protections had been been had protections minority any before even 1918, December in Iulia Alba in state Unlike the Saxons, however, the geographic location of the Czechoslovak Germans Czechoslovak the of location geographic the however, Saxons, the Unlike Reich 5
n ih o tee rmss wih ee n at eivd y ay Germans, many by believed fact in were which promises, these of light In , the potential existed for irredentism. irredentism. for existed potential the , Twentieth rvd eul oiia, eiiu, n euainl potnte fr the for opportunities educational and religious, political, equal provide Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848 Politics, Bohemian of History Local A Germans: and Czechs into Budweisers - Century
- n oai, o, hs a the was this too, Romania, In 116.
… in return for their political loyalty. Left with few other options, options, other few with Left loyalty. political their for return in
zcolvka Te enns f t History Its of Meanings The Czechoslovakia: vr mne wasee o forcibl of whatsoever manner Every
ne wa te blee wud e h protective the be would believed they what under ), p. p. 162 ), 152
- 163. hrs gvrmn hd elrd their declared had government charest
Yet
Bruegel supports the idea that the that idea the supports Bruegel
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CEU eTD Collection 6 its towards policy tolerant more much a implemented not than often more and advocated of leadership the under government, wellke as agitation with by as status, social and institutions, rights, traditional their preserve to struggle the with do to had this of largepart a Saxons, the with as and manifold, are Germany to Germans Sudeten the with As citizens. Czechoslovak as behave Pan how German of ambivalence the chapter, inCzechoslovcommunities preceding the in examined war, the Germany following the of condition political and economic questionable the Considering nation. nat new the in populations Czech the over status industrial and economic, political, privileged their maintain could they that thought they perhaps Or nationalism. ethnic discouraged beenthat policies multicultural have may It antagonism. of Czech the of Germans the because tradition a had relations Prussian and Austrian and Austria, partof citizens been had crownlands in was rule German of idea the of rejection Pan and Socialist National means no by to prey fall was eventually would Germans it Sudeten the War, later and Bohemian World the that inevitable First the of wake immediate the in words, other In
Bruegel, ―The Germans in Pre Germans ―The Bruegel, untried new and been and decline a in Czech their from off cut result being might Germany industries their into of incorporation extinction an that feared anti industrialists or nationalistic furiously a in means no by were Austria, old in enjoyed had they position privileged the of loss the over unhappy representatives their to contrast In htvr hi raos o peern te zcolvk tt, h qeto arises question the state, Czechoslovak the preferring for reasons their Whatever - emnpoaad ok od mn amnrt ht t is see iln to willing seemed first at that minority a among hold took propaganda German
. 6 -
ion War Czechoslovakia,‖ p. 169 p. Czechoslovakia,‖ War - y political figures. Yet unlike with the Saxons, theyunlike withthe Saxons, Czechoslovakfigures. politicalYet akia towards the emn pro German
- state, an edge that they might lose if they joined the German the joined they if lose might they that edge an state, Isiciey te emn ouain ilkd h ie of idea the disliked population German the Instinctively, … h interland and brought into a comb a into brought and interland
… oá Masaryk Tomáš
eas o Eprr rn Jsp‘ traditional Joseph‘s Franz Emperor of because the German population as a whole, though naturally naturally though whole, a as population German the aad ad un o emn. ehp te initial the Perhaps Germany. to turn and paganda - zc mo a te n o 1918 of end the at mood Czech 153 Reich Reich
aos te esn fr h tr o the of turn the for reasons the Saxons, is not surprising.is not - 170.
n, fe 13, of 1935, after and, ination which would have would which ination
Te German The . dad Beneš Edvard ,
CEU eTD Collection the German of Foundations Social 1933 Relations, Luža, Radomír by work authoritative the see 7 space: prestigious more a occupied Germans the agriculture, c of realm the in Even Czechs.‖ were plants engineering and mines, textiles, industries, and heavy porcelains, the glass, whereas quality high of production export the in predominated workers German skilled ―The Crane, Sylvia and John to According populations. Slovak and Czech the by more inhabited land the than industry of and economy advanced tradition a had Bohemia, particularly Germans, Sudeten the by inhabited land affe German developed particularly ramifications economic These Europe. Central bypass bewill discussed below Czechoslovakia, of minorities German Sudeten addit the among In dissatisfaction century. political nineteenth the in Germans regional the of status the into delve situation Saxon the to a. I administrative to as malevolence to disorganization financial and difficult circumstances. due much so not was state Romanian the of part than rights language and educational religious, minority of terms in tolerant less far was it in actuality minorities, its towards stance tolerant a professed legally government Romanian the t populations German
I For a much more comprehensive overview of economic and social factors leading to Czech to leading factors social and economic of overview comprehensive moremuch a For I. E conomic The Sudeten Turn to Germany to Turn The Sudeten In exploring the turn of the Sudeten Germans to Germany, it is necessary is it Germany, to Germans Sudeten the of turn the exploring In was the Czechoslovak. As detailed in Chapter Three, however, this failure on the failureon this Three,however,in Chapterdetailed As Czechoslovak. the was and Social - 1962
(New York: New York University Press, 1964), esp. the ―Introduction: Economic and and Economic ―Introduction: the esp. 1964), Press, University York New York: (New - inhabited regions of Czechoslovakia. of regions inhabited — han did the Romanian government in the interwar period. Although Although period. interwar the in government Romanian the did han , the late 1920s brought worldwide economic difficulties thatnotthe late did economic 1920sbrought , worldwide difficulties Factors to distinguish the early from the later interwar period, as well as to as well as period, interwar later the from early the distinguish to
- Czech Problem,‖ p. 1 p. CzechProblem,‖
and
the Rise ofaCzech The Transfer of the Sudeten the of Transfer The 154 - 20.
- German EthnicGerman Divide 7
As described above, much of the of much above, described As
Germans: A Study of Czech of Study A Germans: ify and by manned hiefly
especially by the by especially td h more the cted - German conflict, conflict, German
— - similar German German o to ion which which
CEU eTD Collection ―nineteenth that theory Marxist Czech nature.‖ an economic wasof basically whosestruggle groups bourgeois the to conflict this Views,‖ 9 73. 8 citizens German and Czech between waged‖ … struggle ―bitter the describes who Szelényi failedforms woulddirectly totake War. thatit World theviolentfollowing theFirst however, lines, ethnic along society divided which competition economic this Even status. social and industry, institutions, educational and political of terms in status equal towards had Bohemia of markets.‖ Empire Habsburg and Bohemian the control to going was who was stake at issue The predominant. definitely growth unequal the was bourgeoisie German the and Czech the between conflict the of cause ―the that asserts Laudiero Alfredo excel. and compete to free were groups both lines, ethnic along drawn the between competition economic the although G dominant traditionally words, other In War. World First the to prior Monarchy the of citizens to import fundamental of was that such, as ethnicity as War, beWorld will seen below. First the following change to was coexistence peaceful fairly this Monarchy; Habsburg the of citizens been both had Czechs and Germans the while divides societal serious any beets.‖ sugar the grew Czechs the and hops, Bohemian famous the of most raised farmers ―German
John O. Crane and Sylvia Crane, Crane, Sylvia and Crane O. John Alfredo Laudiero, ―Nineteenth Laudiero, Alfredo
8 The Slavonic and East European Review East European and Slavonic The Under Habsburg ru Habsburg Under There were, of course, exceptions to this, as is somewhat overstated by Balázs Balázs by overstated somewhat is as this, to exceptions course, of were, There
However, these status differences, which had existed existed had which differences, status these However, made significant economic and political gains and were inching their way way their inching were and gains political and economic significant made f aiaim n oei, hr te emn tnc lmn was element ethnic German the where Bohemia, in capitalism of erman and the upward the and erman
le, however, it was Habsburg loyalty, and not Czech or German or Czech not and loyalty, Habsburg was it however, le, - Century Bohemia in Contemporary Czechoslovak Historiography: Changing Historiography: Czechoslovak Contemporary in Bohemia Century 9
Nevertheless, by the end of the nineteenth century, the Czechs the century, nineteenth the of end the by Nevertheless, Czechoslovakia: Anvil of th of Anvil Czechoslovakia:
68, 68, 155 Nr. -
3 (1990): 480. Laudiero links the economic nature of of nature economic the links Laudiero 480. (1990): 3 moving Czech populations of Bohemia was Bohemia of populations Czech moving - e Cold War Cold e century Czech nationalism sprang from the the from sprang nationalism Czech century
for centuries, had not caused not had centuries, for (New York: Praeger, 1991), p. 72 p. 1991), Praeger, York: (New
-
CEU eTD Collection Machonin, Pavel and Krejčí 13 Jaroslav cent.‖ per Change Social for Laboratory 4.5 only constituted they Slovakia in while cent, per 30 about up made Germans the Crown Bohemian the of Lands the In 1930. in cent 12 See in Czechoslovakia. parties Socialist theNational Pan earlier between connections makes also Luža 10. p. 1939 1971), Press, Resistance, National of Failure The Rule: Nazi under Czechs Pan that admit Mastny and Szelényi nineteenth a Moravia as and Schönerer Bohemia of Provinces Historic 11 ofCzech source as a reliable Slovakia.‖ and Romania Hungary, of Diaspora 10 source equallyandimportant second aconflict, ethnic of ―W that claiming Empire, Habsburg the breakupof the referenceto furtherwith step a goesSzelényi noticeably,‖ sharpened were conflicts ―class that comments Crane society. Czech ear the of crisis economic the and period, early interwar the in Empire the of breakup the of crisis the of effects the 1920s, the groups. necessarily minority, numerical a became German representation. and Czech between forth and back continual a creating favorites, play to rulers Habsburg the forced divisive times at although rule Habsburg under Germans and Czechs between competition the however, century, populations Czech neighboring the ―[liberation] Schö von Georg in
Crane, cons census Germans 1921 the ―In
Ibid. Szelényi‘s source is Elisabeth Wiskemann, Wiskemann, Elisabeth is source Szelényi‘s Ibid. aás Szelényi, Balázs h nntet century. nineteenth the 12 Yet the formation of the Czechoslovak nation Czechoslovak the of formation the Yet Czechoslovakia cont social hile
Even though the Germans remained economically dominant throughout much of much throughout dominant economically remained Germans the though Even from the ‗racial impurities of the Habsburg Empire Habsburg from ofthe impurities the ‗racial
nerer Fo Minori ―From , p. p. 80. ,
- ext is ext etr for century a oe uh oal ecpin h agesvl avctd the advocated aggressively who exception notable such one was - German conflict in Bohemia and uses less problematic, m problematic, less uses and in Bohemia Germanconflict
(Oxford: Macmillan, 1996), p. 12 1996), Macmillan, (Oxford: 10
—
critical to understanding ethnic identity formation and the and understandingto formation criticalidentityethnic i nt oe tra t te vrrhn sae I anyt If state. overarching the to threat a pose not did o eape te rmnn right prominent the example, For ty to Übermensch: The Social Roots of Ethnic Conflict in the German German the in Conflict Ethnic of Roots Social The Übermensch: to ty
tituted 23.4 per cent of Czechoslovakia‘s population, dropping to 22.3 per 22.3 to dropping population, Czechoslovakia‘s cent of per 23.4 tituted - Germanism as such did not truly develop until later. See Mastny, See later. until develop truly not did such as Germanism rne o Ntoa Scait Pan Socialist National of erunner
y 90 pae a udmna rl i te iiin of division the in role fundamental a played 1930s ly . 11
ept sc ecpinl iue i te nineteenth the in figures exceptional such Despite Past and Present and Past
Ofr, 98, s. . 40 p. esp. 1938), (Oxford,
156 The Transfer of the Sudeten Germans Sudeten the of Transfer The changed societal dynamics between the two two the between dynamics societal changed zcs n Gras A td o te tuge n the in Struggle the of Study A Germans: and Czechs
- - state, in which the German population population German the which in state, 13.
196 (2007): 196
stems from the effects of an abrupt abrupt an ofeffects the from stems - - 1942 German movements and the later rise of of rise later the and movements German -
German propaganda, though both both though propaganda, German (New York: Columb York: (New , - ‘
enn Asra politician Austrian leaning - ‖ which of course inc ‖ which 233. King‘s monograph is more is monograph King‘s 233. 2 Vjeh aty ons to points Mastny Vojtech 42. Cz colvka 1918 echoslovakia, ore balanced terms. balanced ore , p. 63ff. p. , ia University University ia
13 hing, it it hing,
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The The —
CEU eTD Collection p. 31 2010), Press, University European Central (Budapest: Paton Derek by translated (1770 Turda; Marius and Europe Trencsényi, Balázs Manchev, Southeast Boyan Kopeček, and Michal Kechriotis, Vangelis Central in Identity Collective of 16 26 p. 1988), Press, University Princeton N.J.: (Princeton, 15 14 struggles.‖ and friction to rise give ultimately will and desperation into hope … Empire] the [in peace change will resistance inevitable its and rights, its assume will nature ―then foretold, he not, did it If all.‖ to justice same ―the apply remain) to wished play to roles and qualities own its having as nation Czech each saw but nations of equality the maintained to due 1920s the in out break would that nineteenth form. territorial a took necessarily defensiveness this settled, were Czechoslovakia homogenizingRomanian inthe same nationalismform took period. that se Austrian the in predominance as revival national Czech the identifies Leff Carol groups. the between conflict to contributed positi disadvantaged a in left naturally institution the with disappeared Germans we Germanness disappearing quickly theregion. enough from of signs that complaints Czech to response in Bohemia of parts in out broke violence unexpected union, this of wake the in However, stability. industrial and economic, political, for state Czechoslovak the join to eager even and willing were crisis.
Szelényi, ―From Minority to Übermensch,‖ p. 218. p. Übermensch,‖ to Minority ―From Szelényi, František Palacký, ―The Idea of the Austrian State‖ (Národ, 1865). Reprinted in Volume III/1 Volume in Reprinted 1865). (Národ, State‖ Austrian the of Idea ―The Palacký, František Leff, Carol Skalnik, Skalnik, Carol Leff, en mre b a dfnie character‖ ―defensive a by marked being ‖ 14
in modern Europe. Palack Europe. modern in When the mediating force that the Habsburgs had played between the Czechs and Czechs the between played had Habsburgs the that force mediating the When
It has already been mentioned above that the majority of the German populations German the of majority the that above mentioned been already has It - ce ntury work of Czech statesman Franti statesman Czech of work ntury National Conflict in Czechoslovakia: The Making and Remakin and Making The Czechoslovakia: in Conflict National
ctor of the empire.‖ the of ctor ý
demanded that the Habsburg Empire (within which he which (within Empire Habsburg the that demanded n ad h rs o Ceh ainls further nationalism Czech of rise the and on, of the Czechoslovak state, the Germans were were Germans the state, Czechoslovak the of
157
in response to centuries of ―ethnic German German ―ethnic of centuries to response in -
27.
15 š - ek Palack ek
emn optto. e vigorously He competition. German One is reminded of the defensive and defensive the of reminded is One - 1945) - es Amt ro, aij Górny, Maciej Ersoy, Ahmet eds. , 32.
ý
foreshadowed the conflict conflict the foreshadowed
After thebordersof g of a State, 1918 State, a of g 16 of
into unrest into
Palack Discourses Discourses The late late The e not re - 1987 ý ‘s
CEU eTD Collection 17 Czechoslovakia when populations German and Czech ethnic existed the between already competition of tradition a Thus, them. with compete to opportunity the had least at had they century, nineteenth the in Germans neighboring their dominated means Czechs ethnic while Conversely, nonexistent. almost was groups the between competition economic of history the peasants, Romanian and townsmen Saxon the between minoritytolerantpolicies. implement to sought government Czechoslovak the although irredentism, of fear constant kindled border Germany from distance compared threat irredentist majority. Romanian Sax the Romania, to view their new nation began Czechoslovakia of minorities German the how on influence decisive a had certainly 1920 ―After actions.‖ that writes King their Although curbing and legitimizing simultaneously lawbreakers, gendarme the a accompanied and captain district new the ―Indeed, authorities: Czech the by arrests any German Bismarck, ― Budweis/ of town Bohemian Czech traditionally in War World First the of wake the in immediately almost out broke conflict as off, far not were predictions ofsae portraits confiscated
King, King, Budweisers into Czechs and Ger and Czechs into Budweisers t s oeoty ht n h ery er floig h uin f rnyvna to Transylvania of union the following years early the in that noteworthy is It
with the Germans in Czechoslovakia, Czechoslovakia, in Germans the with
by the Romanian government: t government: Romanian the by ons did not experience such violent repercussions at the hands of the the of hands the at repercussions violent such experience not did ons - language signs, and similar items similar and signs, language hs a partially was This f ebr o te asug n Hhnolr dnsis bss of busts dynasties, Hohenzollern and Habsburg the of members of . -
state. The close proximity of the Czechoslovak Germans to Germany‘s to Germans Czechoslovak the of proximity close The
B 17 udějovice that culminated culminated that udějovice
mans , p. 163 ,
- Furthermore, due to the traditional social separationsocial traditional the to due Furthermore, … German regions. German u t te at ht they that fact the to due
158 such cr such - 164.
was non he ude methods almost disappeared,‖ they they disappeared,‖ almost methods ude
in large part related to their geographic their to related part large in . ‖
- threatening status of the Saxons, as Saxons, the of status threatening Notably, these riots these Notably,
Jerem in the Czechs publicly burning burning publicly Czechs the in igrprs it i the in riots reports King y
ee o vee a an as viewed not were was formed, and and formed, was
did not end in end not did a b no by had
CEU eTD Collection in 750,000 Poland, in 216. p. Übermensch,‖ million to Minority ―From one Czechoslovakia, in Kingdom the million in 700,000 three Romania, estimated an with conclusion, war‘s 18 most in can government Romanian the towards Saxons the of dissatisfaction the Three, which period, interwar the in government Romanian the characterized that instability political the to due Germans subverted toaninferior one. a within and, status dominant held previously had who group minority the by perceived was it extent what to and real was oppression this extent what to determine to try to is field this in researcher a for question difficult Transylva most The included. and Germans Sudeten the discrimination, political of complain nation new their in living inhabited. they territories i position political privileged previously a held had whom of many situation, same War. World b Czechoslovak new their in ho treatment political and ethnic their of perception German the to bound closely was moreover but issue, economic or sociala merely not was Germany t section, following the in shown be will as Yet, case. Romanian the and statuses social distinct The in competition such ofdevelopment the precluded Romanians Saxonsand the of Empire. institutions Habsburg the after exaggerated became it . Oppression? Czechoslovak
Apoiaey e mlin emn bcm ntoa mnrte lvn i Es Cnrl uoe fe the after Europe Central East in living minorities national became Germans million ten ―Approximately meland. The case of the Transylvanian Saxons is a bit more clearmorebit a is Saxons Transylvanian the caseofThe First the after status minority new their in alone not were Germans Sudeten The
Millions
of ethnic Germans throughout Central Europe found themselves in the in themselves found Europe Central throughout Germans ethnic of
greatly affected Romanian affected greatly
18 - tts svrl f hs daprc emn ouain bgn to began populations German diasporic these of several states,
fe js a e yas i sm css vn fw ots of months, few a even cases some in years, few a just After
and of Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia, and 500,000 in Hungary.‖ See Szelényi, Szelényi, See Hungary.‖ in 500,000 and Slovenia, and Croatia Serbia, of
Sudeten German German 159
- Saxon relations. Saxon Perspec tives -
cut than that of the Sudetenthe of that than cut hr pro o tm, was time, of period short
As described in Chapter Chapter in described As e uee tr to turn Sudeten he in Saxons nian the n
CEU eTD Collection Versailles Paris in Conference the at Diary My 19 status minoritynew their populations German the while drawn, boundaries new the of result natural the as this perceived government Czechoslovak The ―downgrading.‖ economic and political of th in minority a as status new Germans‘ the success willingGermans citizens.‖ as which incorporates with it the exi the almost perhaps and States, New on prospects―the that belief greatestthe liberality‖Germansthe in the treatwith [to] ―intention Committee the of conclusions the to according fact, have would leadership political stable fairly its theory, in and oppression, of not and tolerance, of one was stance official Czechoslovakia‘s 1930s. late the until autonomy them grant to refused and citizens German were leaders Czechoslovak the however stance, tolerant minorities. German nation‘s the towards stance tolerant official an propagated in Romania presidents Czechoslovak both Furthermore, Czechoslovakia. in absent of were period interwar characteristic leadership and government of changes frequent and downsand politicalups The country 1948. the until exilein backand in later then and 1938, presi period. interwar the throughout stability by characterized was Romania, of that unlike situation, political Czechoslovakian the foremost, Bucharest. of part the on corruption later and disorganization, policy, inconsistent to traced be cases
Bruegel, ―The Germans in Pre in Germans ―The Bruegel, dent from 1918 from dent Nevertheless, as in most Central European states including Romania, it is clear that clear is it Romania, including states European Central most in as Nevertheless, , vol. X, p. 61 p. X, vol. ,
However, the case of the Sudeten Germans was much different. First and and First different. much was Germans Sudeten the of case the However, - - 62, also 122. also 62, 1935, and he was succeeded by succeeded was he and 1935, — tended t tended - War Czechoslovakia,‖ p. 172 p. Czechoslovakia,‖ War tne f h nw Cehsoa] tt wl dpn o the on depend will State [Czechoslovak] new the of stence
(Ne o identify it as oppression. Perhaps there is some truth to truth some is there Perhapsoppression. as it identify o w York, 1924), Vol. XIII, p. 78 p. XIII, Vol. 1924), York, w e Czechoslovak state would necessitate a degree degree a necessitate would state Czechoslovak e 160 oá Masaryk Tomáš
allowed it to fulfill these tolerant policies. In policies. tolerant these fulfill to it allowed
- Edvard Beneš Edvard 173. Bruegel‘s source is David Hunter Miller, Miller, Hunter David is source Bruegel‘s 173.
nevertheless r nevertheless -
80 and 162 and 80 a Cehsoai‘ first Czechoslovakia‘s was , who led the nation until nation the led who , 19
esolved to retain theirretain to esolved - 163; Also 163;
From the outset, the From Beneš Despite their Despite — unused to unused
La Paix de Paix La a the had
the
CEU eTD Collection 23 (Budapest: Turda 22 Marius and Trencsényi, Balázs 207. p. 2010), Press, University CentralEuropean Manchev, Boyan Kopeček, Michal Kechriotis, Vangelis in Identity Collective of 21 20 con be must it society, of levels all on policy official occurredyears was constitutions inRomaniathree drafted. new its laterwhen minorit the on oversights political such of ramifications The writing. its in part took minority other any nor Germans the Neither citizens. Slovak and Czech ethnically of only consisted notably drafters the minorities,‖ 1920. February in ―protection equal the Constitution on paragraphs containing Czechoslovak Although the of drafting the is implementation state.‖ po too far the by heeded always ―not Bruegel, of words the in matter‖ ―over spirit of ―triumph‖ a in warmer‖ … ―hearts and enlightened‖ more … ―heads making by ideals‖ human universal of spirit the in … ―proceed to advice optimistic other In population. general the this to down filtered not) way was (or was policy the in existing as problem the highlights Bruegel yet policy, tolerant a touted coalitions.‖ government v bythe pursued policies chancethe andto leftwas much and subject,tacklingfor the nation Czechoslovak new the in ethnicities was non the of rights ― that asserts Bruegel While view.latter this
Quoted in Korbel, Quoted in Pre Germans ―The Bruegel, inReprinted 1895). (Prague, Question‖ Social the and Question Czech ―The Masaryk, G. Tomáš Ibid., never 22 p. 186 p. Although the Czechoslovak government was having trouble implementing its its implementing trouble having was government Czechoslovak the Although
One telling example of this unbridgeable gap between official policy and its actual its and policy official between gap unbridgeable this of example telling One any systematic attempt to master existing difficulties existing master to attempt systematic any - 187.
- Twentieth Slav population Slav eta ad otes Erp (1770 Europe Southeast and Central 20
-
Century Czechoslovakia Century - t h tp f h pltcl pcrm Msrk n later and Masaryk spectrum, political the of top the At War Czechoslovakia,‖ p. 178. p. Czechoslovakia,‖ War
,‖ in interwar Czechoslovakia, he also agrees that ―there ―there that agrees also he Czechoslovakia, interwar in ,‖
ppltos r cer ad smlr situation similar a and clear, are populations y - there can be no question of a suppression of the of suppression a of question no be can there 161 state: ―There was no precise government plan plan government precise no was ―There state: , p. 117. p. ,
- 1945) ee ta te emn minorities German the that ceded
f ainl rlgos n racial and religious national, of es Amt ro, aij Górny, Maciej Ersoy, Ahmet eds. , ‖ that existed between the between existed that ‖ efl ueurc o the of bureaucracy werful
words, Masaryk‘s words,
Discourses Discourses 21 arious Beneš
was,
23
CEU eTD Collection inPre 26 25 24 ne and institutions, educational and religious, social, dominant) (sometimes own their maintain to continued Germans the populations, Sudeten the throughout wildfire Repu the of 1939.‖ dissolution the until schools Slovak and Czech the over advantage slight its upheld minority German the concerned were Czechoslovakia in education tertiary as regarded be hardly people.‖ oppressed could genuinely they that so Parliament, to deputies own and their councilors, elected own their and churches, schools, houses, own opera their own ―had their Czechoslovakia newspapers, of speakers German the that out‖ pointed pertinently oppression.‖ of accusation reasonable no be could there that order ―in citizens German its towards efforts conciliatory to sought France and England and pitch fever reach to begun had sentiments separatist Sudeten when press. international the of ears the reached eventually that oppression period. interwar the during Czechoslovakia‖ did as opportunity educational such minorities its offered Europe goes even Korbel Czechoslovakia. in policy educational tolerant extremely an enjoyed Germans Sudeten the secondary, and primary both subject, the on literature most to According oppression. perceived and real between minority of example The headlines. international complaints the from significantly varied often ground the on picture the and oppression, of degrees divergent experienced themselves
J.M.K. Phillips, ―The Czechoslovakian Debacle,‖ Debacle,‖ Czechoslovakian ―The Phillips, J.M.K. Ibid. Krejčí, Krejčí, - War Czechoslovakia,‖ p. 184 p. Czechoslovakia,‖ War , 118. , p. 26 Czechoslovakia, 1918 Czechoslovakia,
vn t hs ae ae we Pan when date, late this at Even anan h pae f eta Erp, rge a avsd y rne to France by advised was Prague Europe, Central of peace the maintain
24
Nevertheless, the Sudeten Germans registered constant complaints of complaints constant registered Germans Sudeten the Nevertheless,
-
92 To this accusation, this To , p. 14. Bruegel 14. p. ,
- 25 185.
ned Krej Indeed,
charts these gradual educational changes in ―The Germans Germans ―The in changes educational gradual these charts The Australian Quarterly Australian The 162 - so far as to conclude that ―no other country in country other ―no that conclude to as far so emn etmns a aray ped like spread already had sentiments German č — rprs ht a fr s h scnay and secondary the as far ―as that reports í Beneš
often exaggerated often dcto hglgt tee disparities these highlights education
(according to J.M.K. Phillips) ―ra Phillips) J.M.K. to (according
10, 10, — Nr. that made their way to way their made that
4 (1938): 34. (1938): 4 On May 18, 1938, 1938, 18, May On vertheless, they they vertheless,
lc in blic make ther a
CEU eTD Collection 27 and political German of statistics the policies, tolerant its implementing in succeed status. economic century their lost had they that words, other in nation, Czechoslovak to cause had really they comp which about thing only the that claiming Germans, Sudeten the of complaints the minimalizes He generously.‖ more latter the of spirit the interpreted period. same the during ―Czechoslo community their on strain the despite financial neighbors Transylvanian their of some than off better remained and circles in the in edge competitive their lost not had institutions economic and social, political, German Sudeten ways. many in system educational the modernize 1867 the followed that Ausgleich Transylvania in efforts Magyarization the Similarly, reality. German to it attribute to seems literature of majority the and real, p in shifts these However, late the in Saxons the of case the also was This century. twentieth the of decades two first the in ground economic and political much lost had elite German the that the actual situation. to minorities German the of complaints bitter the comparing when lines the between read must One state. Czechoslovak tolerant the by oppressed being as themselves viewed still
Krejčí, Krejčí, lain was that they ―were not considered as partners but only as a minority‖ in the new the in minority‖ a as only but partners as considered not ―were they that was lain On the one hand, when compared with thei with compared when hand, one the On Czechoslovakia, 1918 Czechoslovakia, , which we which , vakia not only honoured its commitments laid down in the Peace the in down laid commitments its honoured only not vakia terwar period; likewise the Saxons the likewise period; terwar 27
Although it cannot be denied that the Czechoslovak state did n did state Czechoslovak the that denied be cannot it Although
re vehemently decried by conservative Saxon leaders, also served to to served also leaders, Saxon conservative by decried vehemently re
- 92 wrdd o ma ht zc prsino h emn was Germans the of oppression Czech that mean not did ower , 14. , p.
163
still maintained thriving literary and press and literary thriving maintained still r previous status in the region, it is true is it region, the in status previous r
Beneš
was correct in asserting that that asserting in correct was perception Krejčí claims that that claims Krejčí - - nineteenth century. nineteenth og oiia and political long
Treaties, but Treaties, , rather than rather , ot always ot
CEU eTD Collection 30 29 28 non of favor in generally were they observe to order in Czechoslovakia in parties political German interwar citizens. Czechoslovak as live to willing on act to willing Germans negative,‖ those between root gap large at a remained was citizens German its and state Czechoslovak the between limited.‖ was impact their support, Pan of spreaders Socialist foundedBohemianinfamous Germansearly by the and thecentury, in its twentieth the identifies also Mastny Vojtech by. influenced been have to claims Hitler Adolf even von who Schönerer, Georg mentioned: been already has ―prophet‖ such One ignored. be cannot region the in movement the of forerunners Germany, in Socialism National of rise the by as well as divide, class subsequent and depression economic the by catalyzed 1930s, and 1920s the between point turning critical a identify above quoted sources the of most Whi began. actually agitation this when to as literature There the in oppression. views conflicting perceived remain this of part large a constituted 1930s, the in shape taking c. oppression was more than perceived real. minority that fact the to attest period interwar the of end the at representation institutional
King, King, 233. p. Übermensch,‖ to Minority ―From Szelényi, Mastny, Pan - Budweisers in Budweisers German Agitation German h eitne f Pan of existence The
The Czechs under Nazi Rule Nazi Czechsunder The namesake two decades later.‖ decades two namesake lns ewe te emn ainl oils Wres Pa Workers‘ Socialist National German the between ―links - separatism. Pan separatism. - Germanism, Szelényi concludes that ―because th ―because that concludes Szelényi Germanism, to Czechs and Germans and Czechs to
-
emn gtto, einn aray n h 12s u truly but 1920s the in already beginning agitation, German - German ideas wer ideas German , p. p. 10. , 29
, p. 166. , 28 Even if, as Jeremy King claims, claims, King Jeremy as if, Even
30 and forerunners these of existence the despite Yet
164 In fact, one can simply look at the agendas of agendas the at look simply can one fact, In
e not embraced by most parties, although parties, most by embraced not e
hs etmn ad those and sentiment this ey did not receive state state receive not did ey te relationship ―the
Czechoslovak t ( rty NS National D there there AP le )
CEU eTD Collection 32 31 hold ―took nationalism this that asserts King Germans.‖ German a nationalism‘ calls ‗homeland Brubaker Rogers ―what of increase the to depression the with dealing succe Hitler‘s attributes King borders. Germany‘s of outside supporters gain to 1930s Pan the join to Germans Sudeten convince to failed methods these When East. the of populations German ―oppressed‖ the for homeland alternative an as Germany offered he finally, and op perceived of sentiments to appeal to sought he then spokesman, local a found he first trifold: was agenda His sympathy. their gain to which from platform a find to had Be r Hitler‘s after only democracy Czechoslovak to threat pangermanism, of idea the followed voc ― propaganda. this in role personal a took himself Hitler and Pan attributed only tothe right of spread the of role large a a to and limited minorities, werethe of Germans minority the from oppression of cries that evidence further is This were Bruegel, writes inopposition,‖ goals.betweentheir differences otherexisted
Ibid. in Pre Germans ―The Bruegel, cause most Sudeten Germans were content to live within the Czechoslovak state, Hitler state, Czechoslovak the within live to content were Germans Sudeten most cause iferous and extremist minority among the German population of the country that that country the of population German the among minority extremist and iferous
Republic. Czechoslovak ofthe framework within the collaborate ready to stood The strongest such. the as as 1920 state of party German elections Czechoslovak first the the from to emerged who opposition Democrats, in Social German were time, that numerical at not were important who very Socialists, National German and Nationalists German the only National Socialism in Central Europe was largely spread by Pan by spread largely was Europe Central in Socialism National - German cause, threats were used. Furthermore, Hitler used the dep the used Hitler Furthermore, used. were threats cause, German
…
and held that position until 1935, were advocates of national national of wereadvocates 1935, until position that held and —
- wing and inthe only late parties, this 1920s. - preto o Gray s h mte state mother the as Germany of perception a War Czechoslovakia,‖ p. 178 p. Czechoslovakia,‖ War
‖ writes Bruegel, ― Bruegel, writes ‖ 165
―While up to 1926 all German political partiesGermanpolitical all 1926 to up ―While
- 179. ise to power in Germany in 1933. in Germany in power to ise
German nationalism became a real a became nationalism German
…
to some degree in official official in degree some to hl tee a awy a always was there While - emn idea German
autonomy but but autonomy - 31 German agitators, German
ression of the of ression o l ethnic all to ly ly cn be can s pression, ss in ss ‖ 32
CEU eTD Collection 36 35 34 extern in recruiting played ofthe depression 33 he ―[Denyingthat] aims. political alleged his in lay appeal Henlein‘s of part large A threats. double agitation, his through supporters gained also conditions social and about this economic to Naturally, contributed period. interwar the in carry could Party the of presence local the by strengthened irred stimulating in state.‖ Czechoslovak the accept to ones NSDAP 1932 and number between 1930 [Party] Socialist National German ―Czechoslovakia‘s that grievances.‖ gi to turmoil enough up stirring trouble little had ―Hitler explains, Crane As populations. Czechoslovak the to position political and economic dominant their of loss the after them to appeal to sure was that victimization extern for care to part Hitler‘s on ―obligation‖ This well and liberties their assure to frontiers Germany‘s beyond living nationals its Ge pa Hitler‘s in phenomenon society.‖ civil in so more even but policies
King, King, 113. p. Ibid., Crane, King, King, rmans in 1938: Hitler, along with ―the Third Reich felt obliged to rectify the wrongs to wrongs the rectify to obliged felt Reich Third ―the with along Hitler, 1938: in rmans ), led by Konrad Henlein. by KonradHenlein. ), led Budweisers into Czechs and Germans and Czechs into Budweisers Budweisers into Czechs and Germans and Czechs into Budweisers eli poie a utbe xml o js hw uh egt n politic one weight much how just of example suitable a provides Henlein
Czechoslovakia in Germany. What is more, the new members were much less willing than the old the than willing less much were members new the more, is What Germany. in 35
King gives quantitative evidence of Hitler‘s and Germany‘s and Hitler‘s of evidence quantitative gives King nit n Pan and entist , p. p. 105. ,
- ae f h Sdtn emn, u h hmef singlehandedly himself he but Germans, Sudeten the of face
enlsi dcaain o responsibility of declarations ternalistic
, less because of its own actions than because of those ofthe ofthose because ownactions than ofits , lessbecause - emn sympathies German al Germans. See Germans. al , p. 169. , , p. 169. Luža and others also mention the role Hitler‘s handling handling Hitler‘s role mentionthe also others and Luža 169. p. , 36 ve the Sudeten Germans a prima facie case for their their for case facie prima a Germans Sudeten the ve
As helpful as Germany‘s influence may have been been may have Germany‘s influence as helpful As ueedush Partei Sudetendeutsche 166
33
- handed diplomacy, and eventuall and diplomacy, handed rn poie a at ecito of description apt an provides Crane The Transfer of the Sudeten Germans Sudeten the of Transfer The l emn cnan a eeet of element an contains Germans al Hte‘ apas ee manifestly were appeals Hitler‘s ,
…
a is ebr dul in double members its saw
( SdP oad te Sudeten the towards Sdtn German Sudeten :
influence, citing influence, , p. 68. p. , y through through y - being.‖ l voice al
this 34
CEU eTD Collection 37 political background serveda timelyofHenlein‘s that as basis appeal: his of unaware were who Therefore government. leaders Czechoslovak to the appealed relations international soften to plans declared in Henlein‘s participation from banned been had Czechoslovakia,‖ of Party Nationalist Czechoslovakia, German the and Party Socialist National German the both result, As territories.border Czechoslovakia‘s to threat major aposing was them, of recruitingall mid unleashed Germany in Socialism National of upsurge the of repercussions natural the ―to rather but himself, Henlein in qualities‖ magic be not to order in France swallowed Germany. upby Hitler‘s and England with contact in remain to imperative as it saw country the of leaders Czechoslovakian ethnic The population. the of proportion sizeable Czechoslo in also but France, and England in only not concern, great with met was 1933 in power to ascent Hitler‘s and War, World First the in defeat its after rise the on was Germany least. the say to tense, were Germany and rela 1935, April in Party German Sudeten the become later Sudetendeutsche Heimatfront Germany.‖ Czechoslovakia and friendly between relations Ger and England between rapprochement a see to wanted ―he him), of suspected was (as rule,‖ totalitarian at aiming dictator a was
Crane, - 90, ilrs gtto o the of agitation Hitler‘s 1930s, Brueg Czechoslovakia
wv o ntoa fntcs aog h Gras usd Gray‖ y the By Germany.‖ outside Germans the among fanaticism national of wave a l anan ta Hnens nxetd ie o oe ―a nt u t any to due not ―was power to rise unexpected Henlein‘s that maintains el whom , p. p. 135. ,
Bruegel describes as ―agencies of the Berlin government in in government Berlin the of ―agencies as describes Bruegel
ulterior motives to act for Berlin himself. Bruegel describes the the describes Bruegel himself. Berlin for act to motives ulterior
(Sudeten German Home Front) Home (Sudeten German
Sudeten Germans, even if not initially effective in in effective initially not if even Germans, Sudeten T … 167 he decisive factor was that Hitler‘s success success Hitler‘s that was factor decisive he vakia where the Sudeten Germans made up a up made Germans Sudeten the where vakia
37
tions between England, France, England, between tions When Henlein first founded the founded first Henlein When in October ay n a etrto of restoration a and many
Henlein claimed that claimed Henlein
1933, 1933, which would a
CEU eTD Collection 1937, 19, November Hitler,‖ 41 drawn will be section Germans Sudeten 141 pp. 304, 800/v. FO 1938, 19, 40 81. 1948 Czechoslovakia Crane, See votes.‖ German all of percent ―63 of figure 39 38 included aims national G external of protector the as itself selling was who Germany from attack an provoke and Germans Sudeten the by oppressive as perceived be might that action any cease to Prague to order aforementioned area,Silesian Reich …‖ the within and Moravian, Bohemian, whole the of nay territory, German Sudeten of incorporation ―[The that declaring Hitler to letter aims. irredentist advocating overtly and people‘‖ the of enemy ―‗an it calling persecution,‖ and discrimination on ―[carrying] of government pro his the SdP parties, Henlein‘s backed Germans Sudeten of majority the oppression, Czech of German rhetoric Henlein‘s two of disbanding the after options fewer Possessing
Crane writes that Henlein captured ―some 70 percent of the German Bohemian votes,‖ while Korbel lists the lists the Korbel while votes,‖ GermanBohemian the of percent ―some70 captured Henlein that writes Crane in Pre Germans ―The Bruegel, Quoted in Crane, in Quoted Quoted in Mastny, in Quoted
SdP , which gained which ,
(New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1963), p. 16 and Luža, Luža, and 16 p. 1963), Praeger, A. Frederick York: (New believed. generally wasnot soil Czechoslovak on policy Hitler‘s of executor the simply was Henlein that democrats German d the of members the give to subterfuge a only was this that beginning the from realized Many Czechs. the with terms scene p Socialist National German the dissolved government Czechoslovak the when moment the at fore the to come had Henlein t a i ti yea this in was It
- was fully backed by the by backed fully was ai Pan Nazi,
… , p. 119. See also Paul E. Z E. Paul also See 119. p. ,
t h peet time present the at H] rfse lyly o h Cehsoa Rpbi ad edns t cm to come to readiness and Republic Czechoslovak the to loyalty professed [He] Czechoslovakia
for secondary sources. I apologize for thisfor inconvenience. apologize I sources. secondary for The Czechs under Nazi Rule Nazi under Czechs The - over 60 percent 60 over emn ltom Drn ti ya, e cue te Czechoslovak the accused he year, this During platform. German ermans. Marshal Hermann Göring declared that one of Germany‘s of one that declared Göring Hermann Marshal ermans.
Documents on German Foreign Policy Foreign German on Documents
te eepin rm prsin f h Gra mnrt in minority German the of oppression from redemption ―the - War Czechoslovakia,‖ p. 182. p. Czechoslovakia,‖ War - 142. Because I do not have direct access to primary sources dealing with the dealing sources primary to access direct have not do I Because 142. r of heightened fear and agitation that France gave the the gave France that agitation and fear heightened of r
, p. 133. For Crane‘s source, see footnote 9: ―Runcim 9: footnote see source, Crane‘s For 133. p. , sovd ate a e ad ae pafr, u te anns of warnings the but platform, safer and new a parties issolved
u t lnug barriers language to due NSDAP 38 41
ry n rmvd h Gra Ntoait at fo the from party Nationalist German the removed and arty
of German votes in the crucial year of 1935. of year crucial the in votes German of SdP
inner,
] at heart … desires nothing more ardently than the the than ardently more nothing desires … heart at ]
in Germany, and Henlein c Henlein and Germany, in
Communist Strategy and Tactics in Czechoslovakia, 1918 Czechoslovakia, in Tactics and Strategy Communist , p. 15. For Mastny‘s source, see footnote 19: ―Henlein to ―Henlein 19: footnote see source, Mastny‘s For 15. p. , 168 Czechoslovakia
40
, the majority of my primary sources in this this in sources primary my of majority the , n Novembe In The Transfer of the Sudeten Germans Sudeten the of Transfer The
[ DGFP , p. 82 and Korbel, and 82 p. , ], D, II, 57. D, II, ], p.
13, eli woe a wrote Henlein 1937, r ould openly speak from speak openly ould
an Mission,‖ August August Mission,‖ an Twentieth n sird by stirred and 39
By 1938, By - Century , p. 80 p. , - -
CEU eTD Collection 46 45 130 pp. FO 800/309, 1938, 14, 44 Germany, 43 54 pp. FO 800/313, Foreign Office,‖ to 42 German Sudeten the for strategy the and government was but Hitler, by Germans rejected Sudeten the to concessions tremendous granted which Plan, Fourth suicid ―almost an terms Krejčí what in 1938, the for schooling for ―facilities that insisted German 1938 in still and minorities, German the of pol foreign on had Henlein, through channeled rhetoric, and threats Hitler‘s that effect powerful the demonstratechanges These boards. school German and Czech of separation as well as ratio, o amount the increase for whatever excuse no behalf.‖ given Sudeten‘s] [the be on intervention should Germans ―the that so concessions make to Agreeme Munich 1938 September the foreshadowing ominously time,‖ months‘ three or two in … considered be would steps active more Sudetendeutsch, the to autonomy of degree suitable a give not did re intelligence an 1938, in autonomy.‖ ―full receive Germans Sudeten the that demanded and Czechoslovakia‖
Krejčí, Krejčí, Ibid. Quoted in Crane, in Quoted Quot utdi Crane, in Quoted
ed o mlmn cags n re t peev Cehsoa unity. Czechoslovak preserve to order in changes implement to need
ed in Crane, Crane, in ed - Czechoslovakia, 1918 Czechoslovakia, ‖ FO 800/309, p. 152. FO 800/309, ‖ speaking children are actually better in better actually are children speaking icy. Although Although icy. Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia hs unn ay hne a rcniito bten h Czechoslovak the between reconciliation at chances any ruining thus SdP nt. Gra rpeettvs n oenet o elc te population the reflect to government in representatives German f .
46 - Beneš had so adamantly decried accusations of Czech oppression Czech of accusations decried adamantly so had Beneš 43 131. -
port from Ger from port 92
Beneš‘ concessions were to no avail, for Hitler‘s and Henlein‘s and Hitler‘s for avail, no to were concessions Beneš‘ In response, British minister Basil C. Newton convinced Beneš convinced Newton C. Basil minister British response, In , 18. , p.
, p. 107 p. , , p. 112. For Crane‘s source, see footnote 45: ―Memo from G. Ward Price Ward G. from ―Memo 45: footnote see source, Crane‘s For 112. p. , , p. 107. For Crane‘s source, see footnote 25: ―Intelligence report from report ―Intelligence 25: footnote see source, Crane‘s For 107. p. , -
57. Party was that that was Party
- 108. For Crane‘s source, see footnote 26: Newton, Prague, March Prague, Newton, 26: footnote see source, Crane‘s For 108. many similarly warned that ―if the Czechoslovaks the ―if that warned similarly many 44
ocsin icue te rms t gradually to promise the included Concessions 169 al sacrifice,‖ al
― Czechoslovakia than in Germany,‖ he saw saw he Germany,‖ in than Czechoslovakia we must always demand so much that we we that much so demand always must we Beneš went so far as to draft his draft to as far so went Beneš 45
n September In 42
Early
CEU eTD Collection esp. 4. note 233, 50 49 192, 194. p. 2010), University Press, Central European (Budapest: Turda B Kopeček, Michal Kechriotis, Vangelis Górny, Maciej Ersoy, in Reprinted 48 p. 198. II, D, 1938, 28, March Hitler,‖ and Henlein between conversation 47 German several 1935, in victory overwhelming Henlein‘s of spite In party. the within those th among divisions the overcome to however, the of aims nationalist the hide remainedimperativetobecause it out that won moderatemethods moreHenlein‘swas it but is at worst.‖ nationalism German Sudeten ―represented Frank while Czechophobe,‖ virulently never was … ―Henlein Frank: Hermann Karl and Henlein figures, leading two party‘s the the Within whole. a as population German Sudeten the the within neither reigned aims unified hand, one the On reasons. several which had nore Pan Hitler‘s how demonstrate Henlein and Hitler between recorded those as such statements and late, too much was it however, the in th language Republic‖ or restored religion origin, of distinction without equal as State the of citizens loyalall ―consider[ing] treatment, this continue to promised he Furthermore, Republic. First in minorities language the all to regard with equality democratic ―maintained had nation the that asserted again Beneš Freedom‖ satisfied.‖ be never can
Mastny, See Luža, See Quoted in Mastny, in Quoted Edvard Beneš, ―Czechoslovakia‘s Struggle for Freedom,‖ (London: The Dalhousie Review, 1941). 1941). Review, Dalhousie The (London: Freedom,‖ for Struggle ―Czechoslovakia‘s Beneš, Edvard 49 ned sc fril mas eae eesr t uiy h Sdtn emn for Germans Sudeten the unify to necessary became means forcible such Indeed,
The Czechs under Nazi Rule Nazi Czechsunder The The two leaders‘ differences were a constant so constant a were differences leaders‘ two The
The Transfer of the Sudeten Germans Sudeten the of Transfer The icuss f olcie dniy n eta ad otes Erp (1770 Europe Southeast and Central in Identity Collective of Discourses
gardconciliatoryfor efforts. The Czechs under Nazi under Czechs The t e toe o mlmn fo eie n England. in exile from implement to strove he at 47
n i 14 rfetos nild Cehsoai‘ Srgl for Struggle ―Czechoslovakia‘s entitled reflections 1941 his In
, p. p. 13 , SdP
from the Prague government. Prague the from - - 14. German propaganda eventually devolved into threats into devolved eventuallypropaganda German Rule the country‖ throughout the entire duration of the of duration entire the throughout country‖ the
, p. 73 p. , , p. 14. For Mastny‘s source, see footnote 18: ―Note on a on ―Note 18: footnote see source, Mastny‘s For 14. p. , 170
e Sudeten Germans as a whole than to patch to than whole a as Germans Sudeten e
- 74; and Wingfield, Wingfield, and 74; Documents on German Foreign Policy Foreign German on Documents oyan Manchev, Balázs Trencsényi, and Marius Marius and Trencsényi, Balázs Manchev, oyan SdP urce of tension within the party, the within tension of urce
,
Mastny links this division to division this links Mastny Flag Wars and Ston and Wars Flag 50
It was more difficult, more was It 48 - 1945) SdP
t hs point, this At
es Ahmet eds. , nor among nor e Saints e
[ DGFP , p. , ],
CEU eTD Collection 54 53 52 51 infiltrated Czechoslovakia‘s SudetenGerman population. Pan Henlein‘s vote.‖ Sudeten the pro other with along and panicked, moderates Sudeten ―The Crane, describes the from pressure s in Agrarians‖ and Socialists, Hod outl the towards efforts conciliatory [ the joined and … disbanded parties Social Christian and Agrarian Frightened borderland. the in Party German ―Sudeten the democr against terror that of campaign a unleashed asserting terms, violent more much in pressure this writes movement,‖ Henlein the of members became who workers G many and community, national the from ―non Germans: Sudeten outlying the pressure to advantage courage.‖ wi Germany‖ to attachment its and Sudetenland the to joined and 1921 Communist Party went―secession asfar so the inthe1930s, tooppose ofCzechoslovakia of March in founded Party, Communist The agenda. irredentist remain Party, Socialist the and Christian Union, German Agrarian German the Democratic, Social German the notably parties,
Crane, Krejčí, Luža, Korbel, SdP ž SdP atmtn t ―[esta to attempting a The Transfer of the Sudeten Germans Sudeten the of Transfer The
Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia, 1918 Czechoslovakia,
Twentieth ].‖ o rae lnsie aoig eli ta nw osiue 8 pret f the of percent 83 constituted now that Henlein favoring landslide a create to 51
53 Yet this resistance was soon met with threats by the the by threats with met soon was resistance this Yet
y h tm Cehsoa lae dd ae h peec o mn t make to mind of presence the have did leader Czechoslovak time the By - 54 German propaganda, directly backed by Berlin‘s policy and funding, had had funding, and policy Berlin‘s by backed directly propaganda, German
- Century Czechoslovakia Century hte te h they Whether SdP , p. p. 114. ,
n unwilli and
- 92
ls] akn rltos ih oeae oein Germans, Bohemian moderate with relations talking blish] , 17. , p.
rn 13, t a ―o ltl, o lt. Fcn increasing Facing late.‖ too little, ―too was it 1938, pring d en rl cnetd r eey ocd no the into forced merely or converted truly been ad
g o opoie ih h Cehsoa government, Czechoslovak the with compromise to ng , p. 115 , ig uee Gras wt Pie iitr Milan Minister Prime with Germans, Sudeten ying , p. 76. p. ,
erman employers favored those employees and and employees those favored employers erman - 171 116. d poe t the to opposed ed atic Germans and against the Czech officials Czech the against and Germans atic
th what Josef Korbel labels ―particular ―particular labels Korbel Josef what th
- Henleinists were ostracized ostracized were Henleinists SdP SdP Luža , who used its political its used who , s Pan ‘s . 52
Krej - - Nazis, joined Nazis, emn and German č í describes í SdP ,
CEU eTD Collection ceded were that lands the inhabited Germans million three approximately while And level. the to their was groups two the proximity their toGermany and between differences prominent most the of One ideology. in the interwar period paths different very took they War, World First the following concessions minority similar granted were both while and century, nineteenth the in neighbors Romanian and Czech privileged and development historical early groups both While chapters. preceding in described Saxons, the of turn IV National agenda. Socialist coerc to order in advantage their to 1935 in gained the Nevertheless, aims. unified with body political his agitators, these of most successful the be to proved Henlein Konrad Although borders. Czechoslovakia‘s within and pro by performed was Germany to turn complete the of outside solutions nation Czechoslovak for the of look framework to minorities German Sudeten for impetus first the provided Germany in crisis economic the of handling adept Hitler‘s oppression, proclaimed minoritie its integrate evenly to government Czechoslovak the of most failure real) sometimes (and the perceived the and unrest factors, social and economic being multiple important of combination a was ideas Socialist National and German . Concluding Compa Concluding Reich s s la fo te artv aoe te un f h Sudet the of turn the above, narrative the from clear is As Several questions are raised when comparing the Sudeten turn to the the to turn Sudeten the comparing when raised are questions Several
enabled an enabled —
even if even easier infiltration of the of infiltration easier risons:
both paths eventually led to an embrace of Nationalembrace Socialist ledtoanboth pathseventually of
size. The close geographic distance of the Sudeten Germans Thegeographic size. distance closeofthe Sudeten Agitation Agitation Sudeten ueedush Part Sudetendeutsche - state. But the most s most the But state.
172 socio
NSDAP - - Nazi agitators, working both from Berlin from both working agitators, Nazi economic status vis status economic and SdP otyn Sdtn emn it the into Germans Sudeten outlying e , both on a physical and ideological and physical a on both ,
ei
Saxon Renewal Saxon sd h pltcl ucse they successes political the used
was by no means a streamline streamline a means no by was ignificant role in achieving a achieving in role ignificant . n diin o this to addition In s. - n emn t Pan to Germans en à - vis their ethnically their vis
shared a similar similar a shared Reich
to the to -
CEU eTD Collection tight the to Czechoslovakia of proximity the that imagine would one Saxons, and Germans Sudeten Pan to turn the While time. same ideo Socialist that regions diverse served centralizing its tocomplicate agenda. more incorporate to forced being Romania with nations, new two an ethnic, historical, different the to due largely was This regard. this in aims similar their of spite in state, Romanian the than policy minority liberal more much a enforce to able was government Czechoslovak the that demonstrated been com German two the to external politics of terms in Furthermore, shared. nineteenth any outweighed far groups German two the of structure social and political the in diversity The arise. groups political mid the in Only sense. political the in party a strictly even not ―party‖ one only of comprised structure, political mult in The ostracized. community consistently were German they where nation the Saxon the in in unlike Czechoslovakia, force powerful a were Democrats Social the Notably, cha was group latter the above, described as Furthermore, Czechoslovakia. of groups variousGerman the of that than stronger much remained 1920s, the in rose that divisions social popu small This 300,000. under well was population Saxon the war, the following Czechoslovakia to atrzd y oiia dvriy n icue mlil pris ih ifrn aims. different with parties multiple included and diversity political by racterized Reich - i - nt easterly knit, at aflain f zcolvk emn sod n iet otat o h Saxon the to contrast direct in stood Germans Czechoslovak of affiliation party h qeto ta te aie i lgt f hs mn dfeecs s h National why is differences many these of light in arises then that question The
w lation created a cohesiveness within the Saxon community, which, despite the despite which, community, Saxon the within cohesiveness a created lation ould have accelerated its acceptance. Likewise, one would think that the small, the that think would one Likewise, acceptance. its accelerated have ould logy managed to effectively crop up in both communities at approximatelythe atcommunities both in up cropeffectively to logy managed - yn Sxn omnt wud ae en be o eit t pl for pull its resist to able been have would community Saxon lying - Germanism was of course not concurrent among the the among concurrent not course of was Germanism - century economic similarities that they may have have may they that similarities economic century 173
— the Sächsische Volkspartei Sächsische d administrative makeup of the of makeup administrative d - 1920s did any compet any did 1920s munities, it has it munities, — which was which ing ing
CEU eTD Collection p. 76. 2004), Verlag, R.Oldenbourg (Munich: Zugehörigkeiten in Solidarität,‖ konnationaler und Loyalität staatbürgerlicher Zwischen Minderheiten Nationale Stühlen?: vielen minority between Ge network to proximity the close German‘s confused conclusively German power specific co of a solidarity, takeover to Socialist unique nationa National the not ―For the Europe: was Central Europe], of solutions populations German all regionalist by felt and was rather ideas but minority, Socialist National of mixture this 55 like channels cultural Klingsor through ideals Socialist National of infiltration the community, a Saxons the between spirit German Pan enabled that community Saxon the within Sudeten million three of i that group seems it Thus, Germans. diverse a such to appeal cultural common a create to Pan in community the uniting populations Sudeten the of nature diverse politically and large the of Because political. to opposed as cultural and literary the to connections its and 1930s, early the in forces active such Sudete the Pan within Germany, Nazi from directly of presence the was territories two the to Socialism Czechoslovakia, isanother. the until Democrats Social the by up put front the as just resistance, this of example one is chapter, preceding the in described authors, Saxon of regionalism persistent Sax mid the by and 1933, by But longer.
Interestingly, in speaking of the Germa the of speaking in Interestingly, oaiäe i dr shcolwkshn eulk 1918 Republik Tschechoslowakischen der in Loyalitäten n hd dpe Ntoa Scait htrc dsie sltd cs f eitne The resistance. of acts isolated despite rhetoric, Socialist National adopted had ons hs hpe hs eeld ht h frms dfeec i te ped f National of spread the in difference foremost the that revealed has chapter This were perceived as relatively innocuous by many Saxons. By contrast, an abrupt an contrast, By Saxons. many by innocuous relatively as perceived were - national solidarity, and loyalty to the state in which they lived.‖ Thus despite the Sudeten Sudeten the despite Thus lived.‖ they which in state the to loyalty and solidarity, national
— Vl 11 of 101 (Vol. o e ped hog clua mas Bcue hs clua connections cultural these Because means. cultural through spread be to d the nd
eöfnlcugn e Cleim Carolinum Collegium des Veröffentlichungen 55 rmany, they, like the Saxons, harbored regional sentiments. See ―Zwischen ―Zwischen See sentiments. regional harbored Saxons, the like they, rmany,
- Reich t was the very tradition of cultural and institutional cohesion institutional and cultural of tradition very the was t German aims; the aims; German , such cultural means would not have been sufficient for for sufficient been have not would means cultural such , ns of Czechoslovakia, Sabine Bamberger Stemman maintains that that maintains Stemman Bamberger Sabine Czechoslovakia, of ns
were generally acknowledged by all members of the the of members all by acknowledged generally were
- 90 a te aet bt te uee Gras and Germans Sudeten the both latest, the at 1930s 174 - Germanism n community. The Saxon community lacked community Saxon The community. n
Reich - 98 Politische 1938:
Germans would not have been able been have not would Germans — - or the belief in an overarching overarching an in belief the or emn gttr, controlled agitators, German Reich ), ed. Martin Schulze Wessel Wessel Schulze Martin ed. ), ntoae n kulturelle und nationale , were predominantly were
mid l minorities [of minorities l - 1930s in 1930s
CEU eTD Collection 131. p. April 1932, Issue4, 56 Henlein, politicaltakeover had a made swift inCzechoslovakia. Volk the to proximity their to due earlier much occurred havewould Sudeten turn the that would suppose althoughone approximatelytime, same the Transylvania tactic in differences These above. described policies agitation threatening the as such populations German methods Sudeten extreme more utilize to had Hitler fragmentation, this eliminate efficiently to order in Thus, fragmented. politically instead were and 1920s, the they saw preserving theircommunity. still aimcultural as Saxon the heritage ofthe when even that Four Chapter from Erneuerungsbewegung remembered be will It community. Saxon like the early the in publications Saxon in again over [ movement Socialism National definition, own its to ―According that 1932 proclaimedin Pomarius Alfred Indeed, movement. Socialist National the of nature political the softening thus publications, Saxon unity of ideals spiritual 1933 October the While tradition. Czechoslovakia takeover political
Alfred Pomarius, ― Pomarius, Alfred
da hd o oe te aos y h mid the by Saxons the over won had ideas By contrast, the Sudeten Germans had no such unified social or political aims in the in aims political or social unified such no had Germans Sudeten the contrast, By SDT
is not a political party in the traditional liberal sense, but rather a nationalrather a renewal liberal but traditional sense, the party a in is not political ) as it was this message that was most suited to the cohesive,culturally to the suited most messagewas was that this as it ) Volkserneuerungsbewegung — ep o xli wy oh emn rus und o ainl oils at Socialism National to turned groups German both why explain to help — would have been perceived as a shocking betrayal of local Saxon Saxon local of betrayal shocking a as perceived been have would Zur Philosphie des Nationalsozialismus: Rasse Nationalsozialismus: des Philosphie Zur
n h mid the in
of the mid the of
n a rae clua mvmn wr cniuly mhszd in emphasized continually were movement cultural greater a and — political agitation in Czechoslovakia a Czechoslovakia in agitation political
- 1930s - Sachsentag 1920s became politicized in the last years of the of years last the in politicized became 1920s — ].‖ uh s h oe mlmne b the by implemented one the as such 56 175
- hs a te esg epaie oe and over emphasized message the was This
mid 1930s (even by such conservative org conservative such by (even 1930s mid did ultimately amount to a political takeover, political a to amount ultimately did
- 1930s, by which time Hitler, utilizing utilizing Hitler, time which by 1930s, Reich - Volkstum . Thus the gradual infiltration of infiltration gradual the Thus .
- nd cultural persuasion in persuasion cultural nd Judentum‖
and effectively and Klingsor
to unify the the unify to
- oriented oriented , Year 9, 9, Year , SdP SdP decade, ans ans in
CEU eTD Collection with the age the Germany, with cultural preserving ties interest an historically in cohesivecommunitymaintained had which geo more SdP the into members outlying coerced that solution political harsher a necessitated Sudetens the to Pan of formsvery different two that reveal to seems groups two the of turns the of comparison initial an constraints, in - et eaiain f h mte cud o b uiie i ti catr u t research to due chapter this in utilized be not could matter the of examination depth ti ws aiiae b Cehsoai‘ coe pro close Czechoslovakia‘s by facilitated was this ; Reich While primary sources for the Sudeten case that would naturally allow a a allow naturally would that case Sudeten the for sources primary While - political control. In the case of the Transylvanian Saxons, a distant, small, and small, distant, a Saxons, Transylvanian the of case the In control. political - old strategy that youthat with honeyold strategywith vinegar.flies more catch than n h mid the in Reich -
90. h lre ouain n dvre oiia mku o the of makeup political diverse and population large The 1930s. rather chose chose rather - German propaganda were used to rally t rally to wereused propaganda German to transmit a message of spiritual unity in accordance in unity spiritual of message a transmit to 176
iiy o the to ximity he Sudetens and Saxons and Sudetens he Reich gvn Hitler giving , much more much
CEU eTD Collection attempt an preserve to sought had they differences cultural turn maintenance self at aimed originally had who elites political had who those by entity inviolable an as regarded still was nation Saxon The community. the Saxon self continual a Thus Romania. to alternative there raised and born were the and T to loyalty continued a there was onlyNot authors. Saxon many of attachments in homeland Transylvanian the in interest continued that therecontinual weremisgivings Nati the adopt change policy Saxon complexi local the demonstrate to order in 1935, until years, two further a extends study present The pol Saxon of analysis concludeshis the from stemming agendas Socialist National and German Pan the of embrace an and policy Saxon traditional of abandonment an part large in return, not wholeheartedly embraced leaders Harald Roth identifies the fifth the identifies Roth Harald n o te rmr rsac qetos ht hn emerges then that questions research primary the of One I Königsboden n particular the quotations from the from quotations the particular n ties
o rsre the preserve to
ht copne ti cagoe. hl Rt i cret n setn that asserting in correct is Roth While changeover. this accompanied that , onal Socialist rhetoric of the of rhetoric Socialist onal
even after political concessions had been made with dissident members of members dissident with made been had concessions political after even ed
o the to — d irreparably after this date, and while most publications largely did largely publications most while and date, this after irreparably d a natural sentiment considering that most authors cited in this work this in cited authors most that considering sentiment natural a — Reich but there were also doubts that the that doubts also were there but Einheit in the early 1930s 1930s early the in Socialist National itical currents, which covers the period from 1918 from period the covers which currents, itical , or unity of the community, and in fact they were were they fact in and community, the of unity or , well into 1935 into well Conclusions Sachsentag 177 Kronstädter Zeitung Zeitung Kronstädter Reich - reliance still ch still reliance -
. It has been shown that shown been has It . preservation conceived in terms of cultural of terms in conceived preservation , this thesis has provided clear evidence evidence clear provided has thesis this ,
of October 1933 as a sort of point of no of point of sort a as 1933 October of about the decision toturnGermany.
ideology. Klingsor in a step that would abo would that step a in
Reich aracterized many conservative many aracterized , reveal the abiding regionalist abiding the reveal ,
Reich in Chapter Five, but also a also but Five, Chapter in . He therefore prematurely therefore He
s h toe Saxon those why is was a viable political viable a was their doing so was so doing their lish the very the lish ransylvania - 1933.
-
CEU eTD Collection 1933 Saxons 1 even the1930s.Cornelius Zach into writes: unified highly remained Saxons the Six, Chapter in described 1920s, late the in Germans theThirdunion with Reich. by annihilated gradually be would Saxons the of identity linguistic and religious, social, the the of differences self Pan to publications belonging. a and Socialism National of adoption 1933 the beyond Saxons the study of usage the resist to publications Saxon for impossible nation. marked a Germans,‘‖ ― the Rumänien in Volksgruppe Deutsche that writes Cercel Christian Romania. in Pan of embrace official the by undermined again was Reich‘s Third the to synchronized officially was press Saxon the when Just Saxons. of ranks dissatisfied and conservative the reunited at implemented democratization the as regard, this in successful
Cristian Cercel, Cercel, Cristian - preservation, because Pan because preservation, cetd sae a nt nmr ‗Transylvanian anymore not was useage accepted 1 h Taslain aos xiie a om f non of conside never form groups, a other Excluding exhibited Saxons Transylvanian The e Nevertheless,
fe ti atv ipeetto o Nz plc i Taslai, t became it Transylvania, in policy Nazi of implementation active this After
- 1944,‖ 1944,‖ n ih o tee ofitn interests conflicting these of light In ― The Relationship between Religious Religious between Relationship The MA Thesis, Central European University, 2007, p. 2007, University, European Central MAThesis, Auslanddeutsche - German ideology is the most most the is ideology German pcal when specially lw o the to blow
- Germanism at its core would eventually eliminate the local local the eliminate eventually would core its at Germanism .
Thus it was almost certain that the the that certain almost was it Thus oil rlgos ad linguistic and religious, social, ( DVR Sachsentag oprd o h pltcl lrls of pluralism political the to compared ig xaso, o te ot at hy atd to wanted they part most the for expansion, ring otna strong continual : German Minority Group in Romania) in 1940, in Romania) in Group Minority German : fe Ades cmd ws ae edr f the of leader made was Schmidt Andreas after
178
and National Identity in the Case of Transylvanian Transylvanian of Case the in Identity National and
curious and curious n re t rva te tension the reveal to order in te liae hf i Sxn interwar Saxon in shift ultimate the , - - G grsie u tgt nationalism. tight but aggressive
such terms. such ermanism
es of sense 49. Saxons fascinating aspect of strategic of aspect fascinating
a few years later, however, however, later, years few a by It is worthwhile then to to then worthwhile is It ‘ u ‗Transylvanian but ,‘ ainl and national identity h 1933 the German communities German communal communal
in 1937 in of
h Sude the
Sachsentag , this unity this , h Saxon the
unity and and unity between regional regional ten
CEU eTD Collection Perspective Historical in Question 1900 Minority The Konferenz: Internationalen der Beiträge Südosteuropa: in 2 recognizes one journals, the of contents the scans one when authors: of pool communal journal liberal the to contributors Saxon conservative the of members vocal being Despite community. the within mobility literary nation. Saxon ―pillars‖ community the of significance the recognized cross even or regional of value the saw groups dissident Volksrat ach for means different advocated groups social competing two The the of policy the of Chara dissatisfied emphasis latter leaders dissidents. social Saxon similarities has thesis this account, into taken be must community the within Though
Cornelius Zach, ―Weltkrieg u ―Weltkrieg Zach, Cornelius - 1990
cter, School, and Church,‖ is evidence of this goal, and is almost an exact reiter exact an almost is and goal, this of evidence is Church,‖ and School, cter, calling for a greater democratization of institutions, both institutions, of democratization greater a for calling
edrhp o xml,Hn Ot Rt n uofBadc eebt frequent both were Brandsch Rudolf and Roth Otto Hans example, for leadership, that everything rights. to threaten theirancient appeared refused they ever; as autonomous as preferably unmixed, exist to continue One of the greatest proofs that both groups had groups both that proofs greatest the of One
desiring to perpetuate their elite control of political and social institutions social and political of control elite their perpetuate to desiring
this
leaders (8 on the preservation of cultural institutions and national unity. The moniker of the the of moniker The unity. national and institutions cultural of preservation the on
- 14 April 1991) (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1992) Verlag, R.Oldenbourg (Munich: April 1991) 14 ewe te self the between
Sachsenbund assertion cannot be taken at face value, a value, face at taken be cannot assertion
initially initially
Volksrat
W favored an isolationist policy within Romania within policy isolationist an favored
nd ethnische Selbstbetrachtung,‖ Selbstbetrachtung,‖ ethnische nd movement, hile pos hile
as -
rsrain taeis f conservative of strategies preservation shown Klingsor sessing radically different social goals, with th with goals, social different radically sessing
by the majority of majority the by Pltcl at fr h Mitnne f National of Maintenance the for Party ―Political 2
. Similarly, . 179
in Gerhard Gerhard in nd the social and political variances political and social the nd
Klingsor Klingsor a similar agenda was the degree of degree the was agenda similar a
, ecie i Catr Two Chapter in described SDT p. p. 305. - odr collaboration border
quotations in Chapter Three. Chapter in quotations Seewann, ed., ed., Seewann,
groups in fact in and ieving this objective this ieving Ostland Ostland Volksrat Volksrat
, while many social many while , placed the greatest the placed several highlighted Minderheitenfragen Minderheitenfragen drew from a from drew edr and leaders — e u both but
and the and
former o the to ation —
CEU eTD Collection traditions 1930s of propensity w identity to reference tendency a reveal community Saxon the in entities competing the of aims cultural shared the homogenous,‖ ―internally demonstrate Four Chapter and group, bounded‖ ―externally an represented means no by Saxons the that shown have community Saxon a attribute ― to erroneous even misleading is as just and group, it a of members to that ―sameness‖ fundamental One, Chapter in outlined criticisms, Brubaker‘s everyday from arising demands social the and Saxon not taking plac was views political or social differing holding Saxons between collaboration literary that journals. rather seem often publications to th of many with Contributions incestuous, journal. cultural a and organ press daily a of functions different the to due part in extent, lesser a to this although contributors, wa the there establish articles, to press difficult of more authorship is it While publications. both in names familiar many groups national identity national o ok o themselves to look to This ‖
, and to their regional their to and , This as such, a clear continuity clear a such, as ill
surprising correspondence in cultural aspirations bespeaks an enduring an bespeaks aspirations cultural in correspondence surprising a common cultural identity. cultural common a struggle
hs Saxons those e overlap
even in later interwar years inlatereven interwar
members
o xli a rca fco o Sxn itr drn ti period. this during history Saxon of factor crucial a explain to of authorship demonstrates that the community was not so divided so not was community the that demonstrates authorship of
notwithstanding s
that e same authors writing for many, if not all, Saxon pap Saxon all, not if many, for writing authors same e
h wr not were who uig h itra period. interwar the during — Transylvanian homeland Transylvanian Volksr o hi long their to can be i be can at at as oelp between overlap also s
the gulf between elite between gulf the T leaders and social dissidents were far from being being from far were dissidents social and leaders hose . 180 wholly dentified
- salse sca isiuin ad cultural and institutions social established
theorists
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