The Relationship Between Religious and National Identity in the Case Of

CEU eTD Collection Geschichte Südosteuropas, Munich) ExternalResearch Advisor: Dr. StefanSienerth (Institut für deutsche Kultur und Advisor: Prof. András Kovacs NATIONAL IDENTITY IN THE CASE OF TRANSYLVANIAN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGIOUS AND In partialfulfillment oftherequirements forthedegree of Nationalism Studies Program SAXONS1933-1944 Central European University Budapest, Hungary Cristian Cercel Cristian Master ofArts Submitted to 2007 By CEU eTD Collection text. forManassarian finding the time toreadandmake useful and constructive onthe observations imperfections, hopefully not many, belong only me.to am I also thankful Isabellato The criticalencouragementand insightful suggestions regarding the history Transylvanianof the Saxons. contributionin assuring me a fruitful and relaxed stay in Munich. Iam also grateful Peterto Motzan for his Georg Aescht, Marius Babias and Matthias Volkenandtdeserve all my for theirgratitude help of Dr. Stefan thesis. for this do necessary research the meto enabled assistance financial whose in Munich Sienerth I amfür IKGS tothe indebted Kultur (Institut deutsche undGeschichteSüdosteuropas) deeply has definitely improved this thesis. Its Acknowledgements i CEU eTD Collection identity; Romania – German minority – national identity – national minority German – Romania identity; – religious minority German – Romania – radicalization; minority German – Romania Keywords the background of Hitler’s rise to power in Germany and of the Second World War. of Saxonthe identity into broader the German ‘imagined community’ thattookplace against thesubmissiveintegration Consequently, thesisand documents the contemporary documents. number of sources, such as articles from the official periodical of the Lutheran Church, diaries avarious of analysis the to I resorted argument, the of validity the prove to order In indicium. the Lutheran of by a relegation wasaccompanied in Romania minority Nazification of Saxon the the that religious community between 1933 and 1940from an identity studies perspective. My hypothesis is affiliation from the status of a criterion of identity to that of an This thesis analyzes the radicalization undergone by the Transylvanian Saxon Transylvanian by the undergone radicalization the analyzes thesis This : Transylvania; Romania; Romania –minorities; Romania –Lutheran Church; Preface ii CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Conclusions V. onSaxon War anditsImpact Second World Identity IV. III. Transylvanian Saxon Identity after 1933 Context andPolitical The Social II. Introduction I. IV.6. Comparative Observations IV.5. Between Identities IV.5. The Issue of the Religious Confirmation IV.4. Germans from the Reich inTransylvania and Saxons from TransylvaniaFighting forGermany IV.3. Looking at the Past: Between the Mythof theColonists and the Myth of Diaspora-Restoration IV.2. Replacing Saxonness with Germanness IV.1. Romania, Transylvanian Saxons and WWII III.6. Reactions to the Heim ins Reich Program III.5. Inclusion and Exclusion III.4. Attempts of the Lutheran Church toMaintain theMonopoly onIdentityProduction and Reproduction 34 Blätter III.3. TheOpenness of Ecclesiastical Representatives towards NationalSocialism As Reflected in Kirchliche III.2. Sources III.1. Theoretical Framework II.3. Saxons as a Minority in the Romanian State: The Background II.2. Saxon Identity under Dualism: Crisis II.1. Saxon Identity inTransylvanian Multiethnic and ReligiouslyDiverse Society I.2. Existing Literature I.1. Developing the Research Question Table of Contents 76 71 65 63 58 55 52 50 45 45 41 38 28 26 24 24 16 13 10 10 iii 4 1 1 CEU eTD Collection 1944 period is1944 period thework of Vasile Ciobanu, südostdeutsche Volks- und Heimatforschung, 1988). A more recent contribution to 1918- the Germans in Romania 1935-1945)(BadTölz: Im derArbeitsgemeinschaftVerlag für Fritz Cloos, relationship (Frankfurtgroups) am Main: PeterLang political Verlag, 1985).For the an apologetic view of the between of conflict the internal the as well as state Transylvanian Romanian the with and Reich Third SaxonsEthnic in Group Romania 1936-1944.The relationship of Germanthe Ethnic with Group the with National GruppenWiderstreit zwischen denpolitischen SocialismDeutschen Volksgruppe zum DrittenReichund rumänischen Staatsowie der interne see KarlDeutschland unddieDeutsche Volksgruppe inRumänien1936-1944.DasVerhältnis der M. ReinerthAlso Lang,Johann Böhm, & 1972). Peter Main: Herbert and Romania 1933-38.Acontributionnational-socialist to am ethnic (Bern, politics) Frankfurt nationalsozialistische Volkstumspolitik Das Dritte ReichunddieDeutscheVolksgruppe inRumänien1933-38. EinBeitragzur (Köln, Weimar, Wien:Böhlau Verlag, 1994).For post-1933the period seeWolfgang Miege, den SiebenbürgerSachsen (Ippesheim: AGK 1993)andHaraldVerlag, Roth, Republik 1919-1933 1 narrative in history focusing on studies the during theTransylvanian years war. the of Germany and German policies towardsRomania. As expected,we find same the type of and on Romanian consequences of relationships policiesstates towards these the emphasizes minority in Transylvania usually focuses onits relationships with Germanthe and Romanian Romanian tendbe studies, situated to somewhere inthe background. scholarly interest.Transylvanian Saxons, when remembered byeither Hungarian or and Hungarians and of theirinterethnic relationships is usually in of foreground the the history. From the vast variouson aspects of the Transylvanian multiethnic and religiously society diverse and number of topics that have been analyzed, the history Question Research the I.1. Developing of Romanians I. Introduction seeFor Johann periodBöhm,the 1919-1933 When it comes to the specificities of the interwar period, the analysis of German of the analysis the period, interwar of the specificities tothe itWhen comes Interwar Transylvania has been the subject of a significant number of studies,focusing Zur Geschichte derDeutschen 1935-1945 inRumänien (The Germans in andRomania the Weimar Republic1919-1933) (Political structures and streams at the Transylvanian Saxons) Transylvanian the at streams and structures (Political (The Third Reich(The Third and Germanthe ethnic in group (National Socialist Germany and the German Die Deutschen inRumänien und die Weimarer Contribu Politische Strukturen undStrömungen bei Ġ ii lacunoa Das Nationalsozialistische (On the history of the of history the (On ú terea istoriei sa 1 ú The ilor 1 CEU eTD Collection Saxons 1918-1944) (Sibiu: ed.hora,2001) transilv identity studies perspective. Thus, reference the identity tothe change model developed by happened 1933and between 1944 with Saxonthe community can beanalyzed from an to theissue canadd dimension anewthe to above. explanatory mentioned ones What –all authorities another indeed my approach partially are answering these However, question. Romanian the of pressures assimilationist the resist to attempt the elites, competing history of and between Saxons Transylvanian the 1918 1944.Lackof financial resources, them being the Church with its mechanismsvarious and instruments? Saxons totheethnic andcultural model by promoted various channels, most the important of happened with as Church the institution an and whathappened with allegiancethe of the itself? why language:what failtoreproduce Saxon plain In the system did and cultural ethnic arises: question aninteresting and‘Saxon’, ‘Lutheran’ namely categories, apparently different of Transylvanian identity, Saxon aswell thecommonly as overlappingaccepted of two crucial the heldin Lutheran the that production traditionally and reproduction role the Church knowledge on social the history Saxonthe of community. Consequently,intoaccount taking of identity overview can studies a broader level theactual provide enriching of situation, the 1944 is definitely a period of radicalization. Shifting thefocus of analysis from to politics subject. of fullthe the range German from academics originating Romania its notwithstandingand, merits, doesnot cover per se is Saxonsasagroup the of research on mostly different narrow task the seemingly Some valid answers to this question can befoundin alreadythe on studies the existing In the history of Transylvanianthe Saxoncommunity, period between the 1933 and ă neni 1918-1944 (Contributions to the knowledge of knowledge (Contributionshistory tothe of the of Transylvanian 2 CEU eTD Collection 3 111-141 HarvardDanielGlazer, University (Cambridge,P. Moynihan Press, 1975), Massachusetts: 2 conflicting their with cope individuals didSaxon How ideology? National-Socialist of pressure the was What in role of clerics the the disseminating/rejecting/attenuating Germany)? How did Church the react to identitythe pressures coming from outside (namely, from Nazi “surrogates” in identity definition and are“probabilistic andsubject tocontradiction” intomembership a group, latter the are evidence and markers it. of They can function as criteria andindicia of identity: theformer whereas areusedfor defining someone’s Saxons between 1933 and 1944. Donald Horowitz moved towards ethnicity or, in the German vocabulary of the time, towards of identity and gravity for center the the of Saxons ‘imagined community’ wasfacilitated the indicium identity.of Thus, theintegration Transylvanianof the into Saxons Germanthe replaced by a radical National Socialist model in which was religious identity, of affiliation acriterion of value was the had only an affiliation religious the in which Church, Lutheran Saxons, only itwas that the way other Theround. ethnic-religious model by promoted the of Muslimthe in group Bosnia. an indicium of identity can turn into a criterion of gives of example the Horowitz how indicium to amere it.article, In of above-mentioned the identity, his reference being the emergence background of relegationthe of Lutheranthe affiliationreligious from a criterion identity of Transylvanian Saxon community between 1933 and1944 can be better understood against the elements from Horowitz’s theoretical framework, I argue that the social history of the Ibid, 120 Donald L. Horowitz, “Ethnic Identity,” in “Ethnic Identity,” Horowitz, L. Donald In order to prove this argument, anumber of other sub-questions have tobe addressed. between makes identity, adistinction Horowitz on In hisobservations theoretical My argument isMy argumentsuch that placea transformation took in case of the Transylvanian the 2 can be of real use in the analysis of the ethnic identity of the Transylvanian the of identity ethnic the of analysis in the use real of be can Ethnicity. Theory andExperience Ethnicity. das Völkische , eds. Nathan 3 . Using . . 3 CEU eTD Collection archives in Germany. To an extent, the same can be said about the PhD dissertation of Johann Volksgruppe inRumänien1933-38 Volksgruppe 4 aspects. mentioned emphasis abovethe on this put thesis states. The three most significant books covering fully or partially the period under research in German and Romanian the with Saxons the of relationships by the and community the of life political the been has interest of point main the that reveals 1944 and 1933 between history Literature I.2. Existing Transylvanianthe history Saxon during communism. for events the of consequences the about remarks will conclusive I make some last chapter the possibility German-speaking in toother comparison of groups Central In and Eastern Europe. identification rights to theGermans of Romania. Atthe same time, during Second World the War the of the crucial momentfor Transylvanian the in Saxons: 1940 the Romanian granted state corporate Saxons with warwillthe be analyzedin The chapter. is fourth the division not arbitrary, as1940marks a Germany reached yearsthe be in and between 1933and 1940will documented chapter thirdthe periodof its fourth chapters, my willfocusanalysis on peak. period the 1933-1944, dividedinto sub-periods:two I willchapter will look into historical the background of Transylvanianthe Saxons. Inthe third and also touch upon questions. these answer the to intends thesis This self-consciousness? Saxon Transylvanian the in Saxon and Lutheran of categories the of equivalence the consideration into taking outside, from coming constraints identity the with interact identity religious the did How identities? Miege 1972 In 1972,Wolfgang Miege published study the A condensed ontheexistingoverview literature concerning Transylvanian Saxon second topic, tothe pertaining the literature existing the of After overview aconcise . 4 His research used mostly the materials found in the in found materials the mostly used research His Das Dritte Reichunddie Deutsche 4 CEU eTD Collection to develop this specific aspect of Saxonto develop history. of this aspect Transylvanian specific the itselfreligious identity in quo. toaccommodate he newthe However, not does order status try Saxon the of transformation the at hints also Zach ideas, national-socialist the for clergy Lutheran Saxon the of part of allegiance the documenting shortly and acknowledging By the other three authors previously mentioned, Zach tries tobroaden the perspective of analysis. in the political field, in the duringyears thatthe Saxonsspecific processes underwent the transformation 1930and 1944: mentalities and as regards the interethnic group relations. Unlike Geschichte der Deutschen inRumänien Geschichte derDeutschen German Third Reich is the apologetic work written by Karl M. Reinerth and Fritz Cloos, perspective. a political from only analyzed are community Saxon the within National-Socialism successof leading tothe internal The motivations political the developments. accompanying study of the topic, such contributions donot pay sufficientattention to socialthe processes Weimar, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 1995),115-132 (Köln, HaraldWorld First sincethe Transylvania ed. War), Roth nation-state: and (Minority options 1930-1944)in Optionen 1930-1944,” (The Transylvanian between Saxons tradition andnew political 7 6 5 Tradition undneuenpolitischen Optionen 1930-1944 use of past. a very inconvenient of a certain Saxons,whoafter SecondWorld the of the category perception Wartriedmake to asits source, secondary is lack more of objectivity Itrather says relevant on visible. self-the inRumänien1936-1944 Volksgruppe Böhm, publishedin 1985, Cornelius R. Zach, “Die Siebenbürger Sachsen zwischen Tradition und neuen politischen neuen und Tradition zwischen Sachsen Siebenbürger “Die Zach, R. Cornelius Reinerth and 1988 Cloos Böhm 1985 An attempt to offer new insights into Transylvanian Saxon history at the time of the of time the at history Saxon Transylvanian into insights new offer to attempt An In a study written by Cornelius R. Zach, Minderheit und Nationalstaat: Siebenbürgen seit dem Ersten Weltkrieg Das Nationalsozialistische Deutschland unddieDeutsche . 5 Though extremely important for the purely historical . 6 asa be considered to not is definitely book The , 7 the author differentiates between three between differentiates author the Die SiebenbürgerSachsenzwischen Die Zur 5 CEU eTD Collection much much as McArthurwider, offersacomprehensive description of historicalthe transformations McArthur’s, of Transylvanianthe Saxons. identity the for effects important had infrastructure” “corporational Saxon the of undermining individual Practicallymembers. speaking, argument the Verdery is proposes that the wasconsequence thathenceforth communitythe had tobe financially by supported its whose strength”, to the“Saxon communal blow asevere represented ‘20s in reform early the minorities. agricultural influence of The aimedthe economic of diminution atthe state, marginalization Saxons had to cope with, as a consequence of the policies of the Romanian 8 (Bin Benzenz called village in aTransylvanian life mixed inter-ethnically of threecenturies described Verdery Katherine example, For thesis. anthropologically oriented, providingthus some useful information the about topic of this yet are national identity tobewritten. and transitory identity the religious Lutheran the between interaction the on and identity Saxon on Studies discourse. scholarly the of foreground the occupying always are behavior their and elites political sequence of isevents in preferred detrimentthe of social history and consequently the interwar history is given by the kind of studies as those described above. History as a 9 name village isthe of Aurel contemporary Vlaicu. Ethnic Change Amherst, 1981) Saxons in Transylvanian Romania”Socialist (Ph.D.dissertation, University Massachusets, of originalWeber, transl.into German by Ursula Maurer (Köln, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 1990).The foreword English by Georg Weber, version with a sociological of the contribution book is by MarilynArmin Nassehi andMcArthur, Georg “The Politics of Identity: Katherine Verdery, Katherine McArthur,Marilyn An excellent anthropological study of the Transylvanian Saxon identity isMarilyn identity Saxon Transylvanian the of study anthropological excellent An At the same time, some works and studies can be cited inasmuch they more socio- inasmuch are they becan cited andstudies sametime, works Atthe some It would not be exaggerated to say that the mainstream trend in the study of Saxon The PoliticsofIdentity: Transylvanian Saxons in SocialistRomania (Berkeley, Angeles, Los London:University of California Press,1983).The Transylvanian Villagers: ThreeCenturies ofPolitical,Economic, and Zum Identitätswandel derSiebenbürgerSachsen Ġ in Ġ i). 8 Verdery drew attention to the economic tothe attention drew Verdery , edited and with a . 9 Its focus is focus Its 6 CEU eTD Collection responses theLutheran Church offered to identity the crisis Saxonsthe wereexperiencing. institution of Church.the His work is important for laying background the of variousthe wayswrong and avowal” (1933-1945). compromise,reorientation” and “readiness to (1920-1932) “perpetuation to and attempt Church: Lutheran Saxon the of history in the periods two distinguishes chronologically perpetuating cultural values. When commenting on post-1918the situation, Binder it as monarchy,acted and a preserver when of identity,strengthening national consciousness role during years Austro-Hungarian the of played the Church emphasizes the determinant the 11 Saxons) (Erlangen: Martin Luther Verlag, 1982) 10 Lutheran Church, in published 1982in Erlangen, on this specific topicexist. still fails Thus,to Ludwig Binder’sshortoverview Saxon of the relating to it can be extracted from a number of books and articles, but a comprehensive between period 1933 and 1944has yet beennot questions thoroughly Various researched. study gained within roots Saxon the community, displacing traditionalthe model.ethnic-religious profoundly modalitiesthe on whichthrough the ethnicmodel by promoted Nazi Germany Saxons between 1933 and 1944.McArthur’s is book helpful,partially but she doesnotdwell the of puzzle identity the solve to try necessarily not does analysis McArthur’s but attention that would eventually take place during the years of the Ceau identity and complete of Saxon dismantling culture almostmy the time preceding The study. for is relevant work the of half first The regime. communist the during Saxons Transylvanian the of identity of politics the of analysis the in main consists focus her suggests, version of the self-consciousness of the Transylvanian Saxons. However, as the title of the original Ibid 66; unless otherwise specified, all the translations in the text belong tome. Binder, Ludwig All in questionall, the of relationshipthe between religious and national identity in the Die Kircheder Siebenbürger Sachsen 11 Binder also touches on the generation gap within the within gap generation the on touches also Binder Die Kirche der Siebenbürger Die Kircheder Sachsen Siebenbürger (The church of the Transylvanian ú escu regime receives significant , 10 7 CEU eTD Collection Weimar, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 1994),69-86 Gegenwart in feeling attheTransylvanian Saxons) 16 178-1911998), Gündisch, Wolfgang HöpkenandMichael Wien:Markel Weimar,(Köln, Böhlau Verlag, eds. Konrad in in region), image Stereotypes a multicultural other the of Transylvania. centuries. over identity Saxon of evolution the at look scholars two the as do, shall I than identity and self-consciousness Saxon Transylvanian in Saxons) of theself-image Transylvanian identification patterns: as Sachsen“ (Self-stereotypes 15 1999) revised and published by (Saarbrücken-Dudweiler:Samuel Liebhart Pirrot Verlag &Druck, Jahren 1930-1945 14 ed.1949), by Johann Böhm Braeg(Dinklage:and Dieter AGK Verlag, 1997) bei den Nationalgefühl Siebenbürger Sachsen 13 1998) Verlag, Böhlau Wien: Weimar, (Köln, Communism) and socialism National life, minority leadership (Church above the abyss: Friedrich facing theprovocationsMüller Bishop of Herausforderungen durchMinderheitenexistenz, Nationalsozialismus undKommunismus 12 as Harald Roth’s Marilyn McArthur’s case, the focus is on another time frame than mine. Other examples, such of Klima,Hellmut villagepriest in region the of Hermannstadt (Sibiu). diaries of Viktor Glondys, Transylvanian the Lutheran Bishop between 1932 and 1941 relevant pieces of information pertaining to the focus of my topic. Similar sources are the to be rather asa understood biographical in one; however, biography Müller’s canfind one leaders of Lutheran the both 1944,beforeChurch Friedrich and after endeavor is Müller. His über dem Abgrund Wien’s Andreas is Ulrich in Romania regime communist the of installation the Paul “Nation Philippi,und Nationalgefühl Siebenbürger der Sachsen,”(Nation and national Zum Siebenbürger Selbstbild“AutostereotypeHarald der Identifikationsmuster. Roth, als Klima, Hellmut Pfarrer Viktor Glondys, Viktor Ulrich AndreasWien, Das Bilddes Das Anderen in Siebenbürgen. Stereotype ineiner multiethnischen Region At the same time, there are studies on Saxon self-consciousness and identity. In A more recent work offering valuableinsights into historythe of Churchthe before (The Transylvanian Saxons in history and in the present), ed. Hans Rothe (Köln, Rothe Hans ed. present), in the and in history Saxons Transylvanian (The Autostereotype als Identifikationsmuster . Tagebuch. Aufzeichnungen von1933bis1949 Tagebuch. Aufzeichnungen (From (From diariesthe of a Transylvanian student from yearsthe 1930-1945), 12 Wien attempts to come up with a monograph on the life of one of the Kirchenleitung überdem Abgrund:Friedrich Bischof Müller vor den Aus den Tagebüchern eines siebenbürgischen ausden Studenten Die SiebenbürgerSachsen inderGeschichte und 16 offer a much wider elaboration on 15 or Paul Philippi’s Paul or (Diary. from Notes 1933 to 14 Kirchenleitung Nation und 13 (The and 8 CEU eTD Collection apparently so important religious identity and the transient national identity. national transient the and identity religious important so apparently iteffects, is important toputunder spotlight question the of relationshipthe between the Saxons. But in order toideological motives behind thisbehavior to identity the crisis experienced by understand ordinary the the way thisfocus from behaviorthe of Saxonthe political leadership from and politicalthe and identity crisis studies as well, which developed,definitely enrich levelof the knowledge on topic,the as they shiftthe together are is not one.There other however,it the only approach; possible legitimate is a definitely with its history is by represented paradigmaticthe understanding history of as a sequence of It events. To sum up, it can be easily argued that the main trend in the study of Saxon interwar Saxon of study in the trend main the that argued beeasily can it up, sum To 9 CEU eTD Collection monograph about Transylvanianthe Saxons, affirms thatin their caseadistinctgroup identity excellent an of author Gündisch, Konrad definitions. external and internal of result a as privileges they enjoyed as a group helpedform and then preserve avery distinctidentity, both the territory called the in autonomy religious and judicial administrative, of status a specific enjoyed Saxons the soil, groups in the region) were more strict and rigid, as well as more internalized. Saxons from both Romanians and Hungarians (to name only other the mosttwo important the differentiating boundaries the that affirmation the supporting reasons distinct are there in ethnic about other While groups boundaries. canbe Transylvania, same argued the partially with strictly defined apparently group, cohesive arather ethnic Saxon community represented half of the 19 the of half autonomous group in Transylvanianthe society and of lossthe of autonomy this in secondthe an as history their of context in the understood better be can Saxons Transylvanian 1918. The internal connotation of the ideological and social radicalization of the Greaterinto placeboth incorporationbefore Romania,in Transylvania’s and after which took place roughly between is1933 and1944,it address important to situationthe Saxonsthe of Society Diverse Religiously and Multiethnic Transylvanian in Identity II.1. Saxon II. The Social and Political Context One of these reasons is that from the very beginning of their history on Transylvanian on history their of beginning very the from is that reasons these of One From its settlementin Transylvania during the Middle Agesto modernthe era the In order to better grasp the meaning of the radicalized identity identity taking orientations meaning of tobetter grasp radicalized the the In order th century. Königsboden (Crown rights and Land). Asa the consequence, (Crown 10 CEU eTD Collection Volkskirchen in Siebenbürgen,” (Religious tolerance and stereotype formation in a in formation stereotype and tolerance (Religious Siebenbürgen,” in Volkskirchen Zach,Krista Toleranz und “Religiose in Stereotypenbildung multikulturellen einerRegion. 19 18 89-91. Transylvanian Saxons), with the collaboration of Matthias Beer (Bonn: Langen Müller, 1998), half of the 19 Transylvania was not only nominally,butalso essentially a denomination. From 16 the Calvinist the mainly chose community Catholic the of out opted who Hungarians Saxons werenot theonly torespondgroup to appeal the of Reformation; however, the of and‘Saxon’. an categories the ‘Lutheran’ perfect overlappingalmost of Saxons ledto by also “wide massof Saxons”. the the half of the 19 second the with starting that was factor crucial a consciousness, ethnic Saxon Transylvanian confessional couldfirstone be established inthis In period.” shapingthe of this continues his“An argumentation: going ethnic consciousness beyond the political and the in integration concept the of a comprehensive and German superordinate cultural nation. Roth theadaptationgroup”, of designationthe for their language, own and submissive the ethnic entire the for anotion of advent “the factors: three with Roth, to according correlated, “ argues that Roth Harald patterns, self-identification Saxon the on essay an In whole. a as community identification of the elite, that only later, in the 19 17 mainly on the basis of the autonomous judicial system. was developedfrom starting 16 the For a detailed Roth 1998, 184 explanation of the meaning of the term Kna Gündisch, Konrad The outstanding success of the Protestant Reformation Reformation among Transylvanian the Protestant the successof The outstanding However, the Saxon self-consciousness that Gündisch refers to was probably a self- the th th century this self-consciousness was assumed not only by the Saxon elites, but elites, Saxon by the only not assumed was self-consciousness this century century”. The emergence of the Transylvanian Saxon self-consciousness was self-consciousness Saxon Transylvanian the of emergence The century”. ‘Transylvanian Saxons’ emerged in their own perception mostly in the second Siebenbürgen unddieSiebenbürger Sachsen th century onwards, the Protestant Lutheran Church in Church Lutheran Protestant the onwards, century th century, under the influence of theinfluence century, of under cultural the and elite 18 th century, was appropriated by century,wasappropriated Saxon the 17 Volkskirche Volkskirche (Transylvania and the (national church), see church), (national 19 (the term itself was itself term (the 11 CEU eTD Collection 22 21 Weber. (Köln, Wien: Böhlau Verlag,141 1985), Reformation und Reformation Humanismus nach Südosteuropa and Humanism in Protestantism) and– German Nationalism on South-Eastern20 Europe),religion, character of casesthe taboo of out-group conversion Zach etc. 1998, 111-113. edited by of from partner conversion another the expected mixed respectively of marriages avoidance Georg Weber basedand Renate on the belonging to a specific ethnicity, need for homogeneity, solidarity constraints, 109-153. Zach some109-153. notes of mostthe importantcharacteristics of a multicultural region. in Volkskirchen Transylvania) in Gündisch, Höpkenand Markel1998, the in Saxons Transylvanian the to feelings national distinct ascribe to not is intention wrote: Conze Werner Saxon community, the and Church Lutheran history of their ethnicCommenting group). the on specificities of relationshipthe between the used by intellectualsat beginningthe of Saxon the 20 Hungarian localities years overthe became Unitarianism or for Calvinism opted or Catholic remained that into thecommunity: wereaccepted believers Lutheran other nor migrants to Transylvania neither to thefact German-speaking Lutheranism that other and also faith” “Saxon the to with mentioning reference sources post-medieval to She drawsattention McArthur48-49 1990, Zach 1998, 139 (Lutheranism Deutsch-Protestantismus,” – Nationalismus und “Luthertum Conze, Werner Following the samelineFollowing the fact of the argumentation, that German the villages andtowns Historian Krista Zach provided accounts of the closed character group. Saxon of character the of closed the Zach accounts provided Krista Historian From the middle of the 16 members in very limited way as something ‘national’. Transylvanian Saxons was seen by many of itsand pastors the of Church the case, any In Church. Lutheran some (few) Bulgarians, Romanians, Romabelonging tothe belonging German tothe ingroup andTransylvania, also Starting early with somethe were Catholics 1700, there political argumentations in their sermons and learnings. significance, even itswhen didmake priests not national and and had the Church a decisive national political and based Protestant-Lutheran was self-consciousness national assuch church. that was aSaxon-Lutheran Church Lutheran the to belonged communities Saxon the All other. the into one melted been have Church Lutheran and 22 introductoryWithdiscussion. thismy into chapter, can be brought th century onwards, Saxon nation Saxon onwards, century Luther undSiebenbürgen: Ausstrahlungen von (Lutherand Transylvania: influencesof th century when looking back at the at back looking when century […] The Saxon The […] Volkskirche 21 20 : membership 12 CEU eTD Collection Following the annulment of the autonomous status and the disbanding of the of disbanding the and status autonomous the of annulment the Following fundamental role of Lutheranthe inChurch productionthe and reproduction identity.of dualism in 1867 and subsequent the assimilationist legislation,led to reinforcementthe of the of Transylvanian identity.Saxon into the events late 18 rights”. all in “equality with lands Saxon on membersto settle of Transylvanian groups the other revoked the autonomy,Saxon allowing of political the regulations game.” a body legislationof by perceived them as very solid was unhinged and bynewreplaced inSaxons starts 1791. Then, TransylvanianSaxonslived thejerk and which theshockthrough beginningthe of times forpresent Saxons. Inhis “The own words: for Transylvanian present Transylvanian Saxon autonomy within HabsburgEmpirethe is considered by Paul Philippi as Crisis Dualism: under Identity II.2. Saxon boundaries. theiridentity and group delineated translation revised byAlice Choyke etal. Akadémiai (Budapest: Kiadó, 1994), 419 History of Transylania 24 23 their with together identity later built. and status were national autonomous of The consciousness Saxons, the years,Reformation buttoemphasize the existence of a very solidwhich their upon basis ZsoltAmbrusTrócsányi and“The Miskolczy, Eighteenth in Long Century (1711-1830),” Philippi 1994, 69 The Josephinian reforms, with together impositionthe of Austro-Hungarianthe The end 18 of the in toto th , ed. Béla Köpeczi, transl. byAdrienne Chambers-Makkaietal., century such a decisive meaningfor theproduction and reproduction embracing of Lutheranism shaped the main elements of their of elements main the shaped Lutheranism of embracing th century that brought about the beginning of the loss of 23 The enlightened monarch Joseph II (1780-1790)partially 24 Nonetheless, it might be far-fetched to ascribe to far-fetched bemightit Nonetheless, 13 CEU eTD Collection in 26 Transylvanian Saxons Saxon nation act the through of belonging samethe to 19 28 ed. Nationsuniversität), WolfgangKessler (Köln, Wien: BöhlauVerlag, 1990),355 Nationsuniversität in und Folgen,” dissolution (The of Saxonthe prehistoryNationsuniversität: and consequences) 27 ed.1918), symbolically defended from the fortified churches against the Magyarization attempts.” Magyarization the against churches fortified the from defended symbolically customs and conventions, language and school, sorority and neighborliness schemes were second half 19 the of emphasize the fundamental role taken over by the Church following the political events in the 25 Consequently, most the importantsocial and religious figurefor Saxonsthe became the due alreadyto the position important heldby Churchwithinthe community. the Church became theleadinginstitution for Saxonsthe after 1876and that was this possible the stating that observations, makes similar Gottas Friedrich volume, pagesofthesamethe Saxons: Nationsuniversität Ludwig“Die Binder, Evangelische Kirche, (TheLutheran 1849-1914,” Church, 1849-1914) As Philippi notes, before the legislative reforms that took place in the second part ofthe in part place second the took that reforms legislative before the notes, As Philippi Vorgeschichte (1876): Nationsuniversität Sächsischen Auflösung“Die der Carl Göllner, The th Die Siebenbürger Sachsen indenJahren Siebenbürger 1849-1918 Sachsen Die century, the Saxons who were not living in the Crown Land had been “connected to the to “connected been had Land Crown in the living not were who Saxons the century, Gruppenautonomie in Siebenbürgen:Gruppenautonomie 500 Jahre siebenbürgisch-sächsische The same line of reasoning is followed by a number of authors,other who all Nationsuniversität Carl Göllner (Köln, Wien: 1988),238 Böhlau Verlag, language andculture. German preserve its job was to efforts, Magyarisation schooling system itand had todefendit against the of itthe German carrier was the Saxonpeople.of Since the specificity the of maintaining the about was it in which fields the state was had nation the The autonomy that within situation. created vested in it.The Church took over many toittasks, ascribed by That newly the was salient first of all in the (Groupautonomy in yearsTransylvania: 500 of Transylvanian Saxon , 25 visibly Lutheranthe Church identity-reproducer took rolethe for of the th century. Carl Göllner writes that “Saxon cultural assets, habits, assets, cultural “Saxon that writes Göllner Carl century. was the political, administrative and judicial institution of of the institution judicial and administrative political, the was 26 Church (Transylvanian Saxons between 1849- ” –in Philippi 1994, 70 27 In 14 28 CEU eTD Collection 31 Weimar, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 1994),129-141 den beidenWeltkriegen understanding of Transylvanianthe 1867 Saxons from to 1933),in Siebenbürger Sachsenvon1867bis 1933,” (SmallPan-German?Saxon or On Self-the 30 by reflected in Kessler coverageof 1990,375-376 the Journal), Transylvanian-German the andby end(The its replacement Church of Lutheran Tageblattes,” Nationsuniversität the the Evangelische Kirche im Spiegel der Berichterstattung des Siebenbürgisch-Deutschen 29 former autonomous statusand population. The imposition of Austro-Hungarianthe dualism,and dissolution the of the the Magyarization pressures, when interwar largely partof period, Romanianthe Transylvania was increasedinstate, size the creation of the Bismarckian Nationsuniversität partiallyBishop, thereplacing already inalready 16 References to “Germanissimi Germanorum” (the most German of all Germans) can be found new. completely something itwas not as surprise, come asa not does Germanness to resort assimilationist pressures coming from Hungarianthe authorities, morethe and more visible andthe loss of in thecontext of the resources and a reality been hadconstantly German space the and Saxons Transylvanian between relationships cultural The motherland. German the to fate,Habsburg Austriatotheir with more theSaxon identity respect andmore attachedgrew of and regard felt state sensewith attitude to the the German of betrayal Bismarckian with the self-definitionwere more lessor contextual and politicized,themain underlying question do them had to and self-consciousness 1867andbetween theFirstWorld War. of the Saxons.Andreas Möckel three importantconflictual counts withindebates the Saxoncommunity, Followingin general. self-consciousness and the identity Saxon and in particular creation behavior political Saxon the of the Verdery 1983, 144 durch die deren Ablösungund Nationsuniversität “Dasder Friedrich Ende Gottas, See der Selbstverständis Zum Alldeutsch? oder “Kleinsächsisch Möckel, Andreas See The second half of the 19 However, itwas in very first the However, that appeared relevantdebates period this concerning th century sources. century 29 . (Translvaniabetween the worldtwo wars),ed.Walter König (Köln, 31 th century is century understandingfor essential the in situation the Sachsenkomes 30 Even if the catalysts for the outbreak of debates the of outbreak for the Even if catalysts the , the former leader of leader Saxon of the former , the Siebenbürgen zwischen 15 CEU eTD Collection stemming from the policies of the Romanian state towards its minorities. At first glance, it glance, first At minorities. its towards state Romanian the of policies the from stemming and augmented edition Wien:(Köln, BöhlauVerlag, 1981),266-268 der Siebenbürger Sachsen 1191-1975 in Committee) Central enlargedSaxon the of of Mediasch, declaration (The Zentralausschusses,” sächsischen deserweiterten Anschlußerklärung “Mediascher Transylvanian Saxons agreeing to Transylvania’s incorporation into Romania, see 33 Assimilationist Pressure 1880-1925” (MA Thesis, 2000) CEU, Budapest, 32 (Media revolvingnamely from eugenics movementthe around doctor the originating Mediasch analyzededucational system. Sorrels aspecifickind of assimilationistresponse pressure, to assimilation, and fundslack accesstoresources towards of diminished forsupporting the by encountered Saxonswerethe the same paradigmatically authorities: under pressure both as is anew Partly, problems state, words: true, the sametactics. sameminority, this the the history of German-speakingthe minority in Transylvania under Hungarian Rule. Inother its identity can be readasacontinuation of the mechanisms the andstrategies underlying Background The State: Romanian inthe a Minority as II.3. Saxons inperiod. interwar would be that the shattered and appeal the of Pangermanism shaped in half second the 19 the of pressures outside asabulwarkagainst Church of Lutheran the emergence the German state, the official consent of the representatives ofthe Saxons, representatives the of consent the official well. from toresistinpressures Romanianauthorities order the as assimilationistoriginating the somethat of strategiesthe used for coping with Magyarization would eventually be nurtured eugenics namely movement, beginning1880 asthe and 1925as endthe of her research,show See Katherine Sorrels, “Eugenics and the Transylvanian Saxon Nationalist Response to Response Nationalist Saxon Transylvanian the “Eugenics and Katherine Sorrels, See For the text of the 1919 declaration of Mediasch, issued by the representatives of the of issuedby therepresentatives Mediasch, of 1919 declaration the of text For the ú From From of struggle post-1918 preserveview,one the point the of Saxon to community At the same time, the incorporation of Transylvania into Greater Romania, done with Greater Romania, done into of Transylvania incorporation time,At same the the ), Heinrich Siegmund. Heinrich ), 32 The dates she uses in order to show the continuity of the of continuity the show to order in uses she dates The , compiledWagner, andedited by second revised Ernst 33 brought forth new problems new forth brought th century identity a group Quellen zur Geschichte Quellen zur 16 CEU eTD Collection improved edition (Köln,35 Wien: BöhlauVerlag,1984), decisions: the Transylvanian Saxons inthe 20 in 34 affairs: in Church educational of the the authority complete led tothe 1924, from waspractically1918 to there avoid in field, legislation of educational the which back.clearly cut institutions, such as theLutheran Church, whose means tosustain schoolingthe system were Saxon and milieus rural and urban from individuals Saxon both impoverished reform agricultural thenationalist-oriented with leu,crowns fortogether one of rate two conversion inauthorities took fiscal the fieldsand agricultural severely hit Saxoncommunity:the the hardships caused by newpolitical the The measuressituation. thethat new Romanian Transylvania’s by annexation Romania, the Saxon community encounteredsoon the first notes: Oswald Teutsch ofAlba-Iulia, Declaration the respectto With to onits minorities territory. the rights for any collective clearly granting eliminated possibility despite the minority-friendly provisions from 1918, theRomanian Constitution from 1923 However, in Szeklerland. Hungarians the or Saxons the from coming demands ethnic-based of thepossibility aimednullifying were at Saxon the inTransylvania, communities and Szekler Iulia Alba of and of Peace the Treaties signedin Paris, stipulating and religious educational for autonomy Declaration the of provisions liberal-multicultural strikingly the that seem would Oswald“Der Teutsch, Anschluss 1919an Rumänien,” (The 1919annexationRomania), to Epoche der Entscheidungen: Die Siebenbürger Sachsen im20.Jahrhundert Epoche derEntscheidungen: Die However, it must be emphasized that in the first years of the interwar period, namely period, interwar in yearsmustfirstthe that itbe of the emphasized However, Though onJanuary 8, 1919therepresentatives ofthe Transylvanian agreedto Saxons glance into the political happenings of followingthe period. the ease also but developments, further for explanation The persistent life. of all domains in almost changes multiple with connected consequences In fact place this process took in longer timea spanandwas of relation with incorporationthe of into Romania.Transylvania the eventsIulia, December 1,1918,is in broughtforth commonly not only offer The date of Romanian National the from Alba Gathering an th century), ed. Oskar Schuster, second Oskar Schuster, ed. century), 34 (Age of 17 CEU eTD Collection 36 269 educational system of Transylvanianthe Saxons in interwarthe period) in König 1994,268- 35 Transylvanian Saxons union.scholars tothe “[t]heTransylvanian two further The engagement that averred liberty for all coinhabiting was peoples” the only reason for the unanimous consentof the expressed commitmentWeber, the by guarantee Romanian authoritiesthe to “fullthe national town priest Adolf andtheBishopSchullerus Friedrich Teutsch. According toWeber and (Sibiu) with Hermannstadt of union werethe Romania advocatingTransylvania’s approval the for the formulation of the union declaration.” Two of the mostimportant personalities (Senereu of Romanianthe In state. their monograph comprehensive about thevillage of Zendersch German-speaking community in Transylvaniain the face of minority-unfriendlythe politics atby frustration Saxoncommunity.autonomy the resented contributed the nationalizingenactment of policies bythe Romanian The state. losspartial of educational Transylvanian Saxons presumably increased subsequent the caused disappointmentby the for their practical fulfillment.” autonomy. After 1928, what followed were “the conflicts for the improvement of the laws and and was main 1928,the task of that self-imposed securingpossible highest the degreeof system of the Saxon community changed and the position itsof leaders shifted. Between 1924 effect, thesituation educational the took of newlegislativeFrom provisions as 1924 onwards, Ibid, 274 Walter König “Das Schulwesender Siebenbürger Sachsen in der Zwischenkriegszeit” (The Many of Many scholarsthe of of Saxon history pointed out disappointmentthe felt by the ú ), Weber and Weber emphasized the fact that the pastors wereseenas “accountable pastors fact the the that WeberWeber emphasized and ), andin were prints language.German acts andall authorities ecclesiastical of the plan educational the to according tongue, mother in the was curriculum in replacednot The language. byinstruction Romanian entire beginning (from November 1918toSeptemberit 1924) was the at and cancelled was language in Hungarian Instruction 36 period enjoyededucational bythe of autonomy The short 35 18 CEU eTD Collection Knopp also affirmed their allegiance to declaredleaders within suchas represented socialist community.Ludwig the Furthermore, Republic perse wasnotamodel for Saxons. the Social-democracy extremely was poorly Weimar the its borders, outside German minorities with the of relations the development in the interest showed clearly Germany Stresemann’s Though Saxons. the with Germany cleavagebecame salient. was only the 1933that thecommunity after within itHowever, before even 1933. increasing continually were andecclesiastical, political both Saxon elites, mainstream the opposing voices be noticed. The canalready germinate radically concernmainly observations before period 1933,whenthe some of seeds the wouldthat later the of essence wasthat the they received that patronage.response The state under the system educational 40 39 Lutheran Church inC. A. inRomania 1920-1944), König 1994,241. 38 255 1985), (Zendersch. A Transylvanian congregation under transformation) (München: Delp Verlag, 37 Romania.” whoin Mediasch, in 1919, expressed themselves for theunion of Transylvania with In many parishes, the activity of the priest “was identified with that of the community local upon were the projected leaders ofpractically caused by priests. Romanian state the policies the Transylvania, Ludwiggo Binder, in samethe direction. Hestated that disappointmentsthe would bemet.” not Romanianstate from the expectations of the theologians in would contextthis eventually lead tomisunderstandings as as soon the Roth Roth 1994, 97 Ibid. Weber, Renate andWeber Georg Ludwig“DieB. inBinder,A.evangelische (The RumänienLandeskirche 1920-1944,” At the same time, some words must be said about the relationship of Weimar The observations of the one of the most important historians of the Lutheran Church in Church Lutheran the of historians important most the of one the of observations The 38 Furthermore, there were even voices speaking out for the transfer of the of transfer for the out speaking voices even were there Furthermore, Volkskirche is to encompass all life expressions of the community. Zendersch. siebenbürgischeGemeindeimWandel Eine das Völkische . 40 According to a report of the German 37 39 Binder’s 19 CEU eTD Collection turn out to be the core elements of Nazi ideology. In her words: theories and the ideaof superiority of race Aryan the being prominent) the most would that behalf ideason somepropensity (racial of appropriation Lutheranof of towards the the clerics 41 in Romania, Lutheran periodical Church of the official the a material as using period interwar in the Jews the towards community Saxon Church. Saxon-Lutheran the within positions various the of indicator an as seen be religious figureswithin organization of the Fabritius, such as Alfred pastor the can Csallner, Romanianthe Alexandruanti-SemiticC. Cuzawas party of nurtured. The presence of towards overture forthelike-minded membersof and adistinct organization the were ordered ideas Consequently, copies internationalist comingof the abroad. from the both “popular within conservatives andto the to community opposed the socialism”, of the loweroption Saxon classes ideas. offeredthe Nazi It germinating to allegiance showed and hate class and bolshevism communism, social-democracy, opposed saliently it Fabritius, by Founded Fritz soil. ideasTransylvanian on ofnational-socialist become the carrier organization, leaders of Saxons. the as the democracy in consul Timi Markel 1998, 85-106 and in Höpken of Features) Gündisch, SaxonImage Jews. Some the Transylvanian (The 42 Jewish in relationship Romania 1918-1938),312 1918-1938 Hildrun Glass, Nadia Badrus,“Das BildSiebenbürgerSachsen der über die Juden.Einige Anhaltspunkte,” In a convincing article, opinion Nadia Badrus the documented building of process the Of great interest for my focus is the fact that as early as 1922 a right-wing oriented (München: neighborship: Verlag, (Shattered Oldenbourg 1996) German- the Selbsthilfe ú representatives within ‘German the in Group Ethnic National-SocialistThe ambivalentposition Church the that held asregards the […] thought. open national-socialist to the were dignitaries racial its of and in Romania theory Church Lutheran the of Parts and especially as regards its oara, the German leaders in Banat were not as “unfriendly” towards German leaders notin German were as“unfriendly” the towards Banat oara, Zerbrochene Nachbarschaft: Das deutsch-jüdische VerhältnisinRumänien , emerged within Saxon the community. The organization would soon 41 Kirchliche Blätter . 42 Her findings point out a out Her findings point Völkischer Beobachter 20 CEU eTD Collection Gündisch in Gündisch 1998, 184. – in number” grow schools state cheaper in the enrollments the in Mühlbach Catholic, 46 45 44 43 Church. Lutheran the from withdrawals the and reasons financial for strikes foundedin 1922. In 1926, the beSaxon community in foundare to prior1933.Fritz period the was Fabritius’ movement to in and German German-language education culture Transylvania. German andstate on Germany-basedinstitutions such as Gustav-Adolf-Verein for supporting of economicthe by undergone difficulties wasthegrowing Saxons the dependency of the due totheir debts. outstanding 1932, in localities,ten 1417children allowed were not to enroll in theconfessional schools raising schooling had in that butthis taxes, obvious adverseeffects. Böhm quotes year the Saxons very frail. very Saxons of school system educational the exammadethe baccalaureate the regarding regulations the schools, minority for state-funding the of cut-back the schools, confessional in the place inspections taking the state Thus, process. anation-building towards directed were clearly policies actions and whose state, by Romanian the regulated system was entire educational the of schooling system.the 1940, itstill would Nonetheless, administration the preserve Until position. delicate very in a put was Church Lutheran the identity, Saxon of reproduction Idem, 236 Foraconcise outlook on matter, seeBöhmthe 223-236 1993, Ibid, 97 “Church withdrawals augment, in Braller about half of the Saxon population becomes population Saxon the of half about Braller in augment, withdrawals “Church As I have already mentioned, the first breaches within the stereotypically homogenous stereotypically the within breaches first the mentioned, already have I As was power its of preservation the for had Church the instruments main the of One With most itsof resources cut off, main the institution dealing with productionthe and believers. Romania’ mirrors in a certain measure the position of its 44 43 45 Similarly, a novelty for Saxon society were the teacher the were society Saxon for novelty a Similarly, Unzufriedenenbewegung (movement of the dissatisfied) the of (movement 46 Another result Another 21 CEU eTD Collection subjectively written,it can be a useful starting point for an insightful research of the topic. journal (München:‘Klingsor’) Verlag des Südostdeutschen Kulturwerks, 1968). Though quite ‘Klingsor’ imSpiegelderZeitschrift Siebenbürger Sachsen nach achhundertJahren. Geisteslebender not at all unitary. In otherwas itself,institution voices answer within the presence due to the the Of different of course, words, there was a difference, insideresponse both to and outside pressures,bean itoppositional a defeatist or response one. especially afterthus, 1933, between of theits inoverlapping eyesthe many of the Witnessing Saxons. continuous loss itsof authority and capacities were political elites and fact,religious elite. In old closer tothe conservative officially to produce reproduction of identity.Saxon Itheld akey role in the life of community the and was identity, the Lutheran simply more,even Germans. Church Transylvanian Saxons weremorehad and more open to becoming Transylvanian Germans and, to come the and topower resources, tohave prestige access newcomers wishing upSaxon elite the and with a conservative the opposing backgroundthe conflict of a generational policies against and and social level. Intheface of hardshipsthe from resulting minority-unfriendlythe Romanian an individual on both of community, the structure the werealready underlying orientations Saxons prior to 1933 leadstime. that at self-consciousness Saxon the of thereforeforeground the occupying dilemmas to the conclusiontowards a journal thatcloser from an apparently liberal periodical topromotetrying ideathe of a Transylvanian identity theto theseeds “blood ofand community. Its taking placetransition cultural and within of Saxon thethe the social changes soil” newideology identity gives intellectual circle around newlythe journalfounded cultural proof of the paradoxes and 48 47 Parliament. Romanian the of front in Church Lutheran the against petition a presented place of onthe study The only Roth 1994, 111 The Church as an institution was traditionally directly involved in the production and production in the involved directly traditionally was institution an as Church The An attempt toprovide abroad perspective on situationthe of Transylvanianthe (Exit after 800 years. Spiritual life of the Transylvanian Saxons, mirrored in the Klingsor in Saxon interwar history is Myss, Walter history interwar in Saxon Klingsor wasalsoan expression 48 47 Fazit The 22 CEU eTD Collection Romanian politicaland European situation. pressures resulting from from pressures resulting appeal the of the the of face in the responses individual the with also and 1933 after and before both Saxons These oftendignitaries. its of position ideological conflictingeffective the and Church the of position official attitudes are intrinsically connected with the identity orientations of the völkisch ideology, the economic crisis, the crisis, economic the ideology, 23 CEU eTD Collection contextual as well: self-definition and outsider-definition play an important role in their in role affirmation.important an play outsider-definition and self-definition well: as contextual very be can indicia and criteria Furthermore, identity. of indicia of status Inpowerful less otherthe to relegated be can they consequently, and, change identity of context the in away fade words, can character strong Their meaning. losesubstantial ofidentity inherently theircriteria can in-group criteria identity. of a criterion into indicium an of of identity in based on transformation the inBosnia, emergence, Muslimgroup the mid‘70s, of the the may differ according to the result in its being treated increasingly as criterial.” as increasingly treated being in its result the arisesin “thebetween two becauselongthat distinction may usageof part an indicium for example notes Horowitz within samecontext. the and societal developments one distinct have and mightbeindiciaoverlap. mightsharply Criteria usedinterchangeably might or They trace. always to easy isnot them line dividing since the context, theoretical outside the working with of andindicia categories criteria the of identity as puretypes is little use of not provide someone’s membershipin the buta group, are evidence ormarkers it. of Consequently, they do same degreeidentity, of certainty of alongside these criteria that explains a anseries of Horowitz to criteria defined according important when it membership in from that isDeparting seemingly truth the a group easily acknowledgeable comes role tois identityplayed analysisthe ethnicthe of identity of Transylvanianthe Saxons between 1933 and 1944. bydefinition. the indicia However, of identity. The latter do not define 50 49 Framework III.1. Theoretical TransylvanianIII. Identity after Saxon 1933 Ibid, 120 Horowitz 1975 However, the transformation can work in the opposite direction as well: namely, well: as direction opposite inthe work can transformation the However, Using the identity change model developed by Donald Horowitz 50 The example he was using consisted of 49 can be of help in help of be can 24 CEU eTD Collection 52 inGrosspold), Gündisch, Höpken and Markel 193-216 1998, Transylvanian Congregation: Transylvanian Saxons, Landler, Romanians and Roma in Sachsen, Landler,Bottesch, “Fremd- und Selbstbilderin einer siebenbürgischen Gemeinde. Siebenbürger Rumänenincreasing mixed numberof marriages and of ethnic blendingbetween groups: Martin two the und Roma in Großpold,”51 (Image of themselves and others in a identity was relocated, from confessional to ethnic. from Accordingly,1933 onwards. of center for the gravity Transylvanian Saxon group visible ismostly indicium mere a to identity of a criterion from Lutheranism of abasement the consciousness date at least from the second introductory part of first thesis,the questions and the pertaining Saxon dilemmas to self- half of the 19 find a clear intoidentity a much indicium weaker identity.of itwould Certainly, be far-fetched totry and date as affiliation of between1933and Saxons isthe its from transformation 1944 a criterion of the starting pointmother-tongue (dialect) was, for an insider, a very powerful criterion ofof identity. the Lutherans, both being but this history of moments different at localities respective inthe down development.(Sibiu) region: Neppendorf (Turni As twoI havedifferentof existence the of is that case asserted Transylvanian in the groups, example common most the indicium: the the Saxons inand a(local) represented speaking groups mother-tongue itsthe identity,of criterion usage being thethe Landler, in threedefined villages fromsomeone Romania,the the usage of any German dialect was probably a criterionHermannstadt according towhich he/she as being in German-speaking groups Greater between various the existingunawarethe differences of German. relevantwhen it comes toascribingidentities. a For AtRomanian from Oldthe Kingdom, the same isa notis group he/shememberof the extremely or of whether observer: the perspective time, for the members of the German- Seealso Zach 1998, 140 A very interesting article on the permanence of Saxon/Landler self-identification, despite an My hypothesis is that essentially what happened in the case of the Lutheran religious Lutheran the of case in the happened what essentially is that hypothesis My ú or), Großau (Cristian),or), Großpold (Apoldu deSus).Settled 52 th century. But my argument is that 51 25 CEU eTD Collection of of timethe wereplayed the backwithin with history the Saxonsof asa the people; “thein consequently, Scheerer’s conflicts wording, history of was“interlocked” Church andof the “amalgamated” TransylvanianSaxons the in Transylvania, among the Saxons”. the in among Transylvania, 54 Möckel (München: Selbstverlag des derSiebenbürgerHilfskomitees Sachsen,1980), 21 in of assistancethe of ed.Gerhard Transylvanian Saxons committee the springthe 1980), Frühjahr 1980 und Widerstand.einer Tagung desHilfskomiteesder Referate Siebenbürger Sachsen im so-called in ‘Kirchenkampf’ until yearTransylvania the 1945) in 53 between 1933and strugglebetween ( and 1945,the Church State Josef Scheerer bluntly andin the interwar period andmainly Hitler’safter power. coming to In a written intext 1980, righteously self-consciousness Saxon of question the affirmed to endemic rather become had that predicaments the that “compared to the situationChurch, in Germany opinion exchanges that found their place in the pages of the official periodical hypothesis byfour typesof differentcan betested resorting of debates the sources. First, to and the Lutheran Sources III.2. scholars. other by pinpointed already those with inconjunction read be to events, the on perspective different come rather to a slightly upwith but Transylvania, Saxons from of the radicalization the read asan meant accompanying purepolitical attempt todisregardthe historical and events by the community that theoretical provides framework a partial forexplanation the wouldNazification undergoneprocess enrich the actual level of research. My endeavor is not to be Ibid Josef Scheerer, “Der ‘Kirchenkampf’ sogenannte in Siebenbürgen bis zum Jahr 1945,”(The Taking into account the research possibilities at my disposal, the validity of the Reading socialthe history of Transylvanianthe Saxons between 1933 and 1944in this Kirchliche Blätter Kirchliche (Church between accommodation and resistance. Papers presented in presented a session Papers and resistance. (Churchbetween accommodation , are extremely relevant formy study. They obviously bear proof of 53 Volk However, as almost all scholars tend to agree, the agree, to tend all scholars almost as However, , that at the same time was the Church”. Kirche zwischen Anpassung Kirchenkampf ) didexist not 54 26 CEU eTD Collection strewn through various books and compilations. and books various through strewn Neppendorf Neppendorf (Turni Glondys, is that of OneViktor bytwodiariesecclesiastical kind of dignitaries. arerepresented materials most of the that important life Saxoncommunity time. The the of political during and social in the glances insider some offer also can they and level anindividual on resented of the time. They can offer a concrete example of how the relevant tensions and conflicts were semi-official and personal letters, memoirs) of people who were direct witnesses of the events Transylvanian Saxons. (monopolistic) role and as reproducer producer identity of and self-consciousness of the movement and its offspring,developments taking within place relationship the Churchthe of with the but are also indicativeChurch. Such documents (mostly circulars and ordinances) bear proof not only legalthe of as efforts of the Church to maintainunderstanding andidentity. its and politicalas thedilemmas and within purported confusions entirethe Saxon by community social the tensionsMost surely, the plurality of voices reflected ofthe multiplicity of opinions and positions, as well the time.out developingthe heterogeneity within ideally the homogenous institution of Church.the And these very but In plausible. pagesof the journal the aplurality voicesof found, can be thus pointing tensions artificially deduced, isnot community facts Saxon entire within of the level, state the a certain had consequences on Saxon self- 56 55 Klima 1999 Glondys 1997 The third of is type source byvarious represented diaries andaccounts other (official, Another sourceconsists of variousthe legal issueddocuments by leadershipthe of the Therefore, the presumption presumption articles the inTherefore, the that published 55 by the was written one The other 1941. between 1932and Lutheran Bishop ú or) priestor) HellmutKlima. 56 Other contemporary accounts can be found be can accounts contemporary Other Kirchliche Blätter mirror, on Selbsthilfe 27 CEU eTD Collection literar “Literatura caizb “Literatura work isSchlattner’s perceivedby both him by and critics,the seeEginald Schlattner, Theory andAnalysis ofLiteraturefor andCommunication Wilkomirski/Wiesel,” Memoirs: Holocaust Recent in Factuality and Memory of “Problems Suleiman, Robin Susan see this, from derived dilemmas London: Routledge, 1995),105-123.For use the memoriesof as historical andsources the of in Time’,”of Past Pastime ‘The Metafiction: “Historiography seeLindaHutcheon, metafiction” “historiographic its writing, factual inherent beingFor awareof limitations concept the in representation. of by himself Asitand recognized literary critics. such,canbe for usedas history a source autobiographicalexisting The of character past. his is works openly by affirmed author the 58 1998) eventsunitary in to the in their Germany reverberations response Transylvania was and to its personality despite leader, in strong itself the of However, reality a within Church the generation. younger the of movements political Nazi-oriented the with conflicts constant the by and Glondys Viktor Bishop, elected newly the of personality the by shaped internally be saidthatthe history of Lutheran the between as aninstitution Church 1932 and 1941was in Reflected As Socialism National towards Representatives ofEcclesiastical Openness The III.3. my mostly with topic of in relation the nextchapter. thesis the underperiod researchin I will However, this thesis. literary dwell on this andits piece within taking time place the social phenomena the for understanding relevant are characters before and during Second the WorldWar. attitudes, The behaviors and dilemmas of the andbetween religious identity ethnic of Transylvanianthe place Saxons,asit takes both 57 Hahn geköpfte by represented such literature as Eginald semi-biographical semi-fictional, Schlattner’s Eginald Schlattner, By writing a “historiographic metafiction” Schlattner is not less of a story-teller of an of lessa story-teller of is not Schlattner metafiction” “historiographic a By writing ă Before proceeding with the analysis of the articles from the Finally, a possible fourth Finally,source, paradigmatically fourth connectedwith apossible previousthe is one, 25,27iunie –3iulie 2001 . 57 The action of the novel is exemplary for understanding the relationship the understanding for exemplary is novel the of action The ă vire?,” (Literature as redemption?)interview byRodica Binder, vire?,” (Literature A Poetics of Postmodernism.History,A Poeticsof Theory,Fiction Der geköpfte Hahn Der geköpfte (The beheaded rooster) (Wien: Paul Zsolnay Verlag, Kirchliche Blätter Kirchliche Poetics Today.InternationalPoetics Journal 21 (2000): 543-559.For theway 21(2000): 58 Kirchliche Blätter (New York and (NewYork România , it must it , Der 28 CEU eTD Collection more broadly, Christianity) and National Socialism. The ambivalent stance towards National- (or Lutheranism between relationship the debating presence of articles theconstant ignore chapter. Skimming through issuesthe ofthe the of beginning the at forth brought succinctly framework theoretical the into integrated be 1933can theSaxon community within after arising of controversies the Romania, content the in Germans the of movement right extreme the and Church the of leadership the between ‘Christian ethos’. Our age does not find it anymore.” Zach comments: the truthfulness extremefuture supporter, in right which priestthe bluntly lostaffirms: “We thebelief have in of the anmovement. Zach article quotes 1933, written datedJuly by cleric20, the Karl a Reinerth, ‘ChristianErneuererbewegung ethos’. the of disciples the of style in the written attacks polemical to open was organ, Our fathers may have found a foothold in this Deutschen inRumänien the of development strong the and in Germany 61 Kulturwerk,2001), 109 Südostdeutsche Vierteljahresblätter 1951-2001 in andzeitgeist) missionary consciousness between Sendungsbewusstsein und Zeitgeist (The (1933-1940),” Lutheran Church in Romania 60 52 and Transylvania1933-1944in coverage of the ‘Kirchliche inthe Blätter’), Möckel 1980, 36- in1944 der Berichterstattung der‘Kirchlichen (The ‘Kirchenkampf’Blätter’,” in Germany Blätter 59 absent. 1933 can be considered as a turning point because of two reasons: Hitler’s comingpower to For an account of how the German the how of an account For Cornelius R. Zach, “Die Evangelische Landeskirche A. B. in Rumänien zwischen Rumänien in B. A. Landeskirche Evangelische “Die Zach, R. Cornelius , seeHans“Der Holzträger, Kirchenkampf in Siebenbürgen und 1933- Deutschland 59 Taking this into consideration and knowing the existence of permanent conflicts permanent of existence the knowing and consideration into this Taking Cornelius R. Zach sharply observed that observed sharply Zach R. Cornelius against the newdoctrine. the against fight its in Church the strengthen to meant not was a priest of he was not penalizedloss of belief. But he did not fordo this. He hisdid Reinerth had quithis not a job as as priest, a consequence ofhis withdraw observation. andif predication the of sincerity the doubt not could One Such a predication (movement of the renovators), the new name of the former , very visible on a political level. apolitical on visible very , Kirchenkampf 60 Kirchliche Blätter (München: Südostdeutsches Verlag was mirrored in the pages of Kirchliche Blätter 50 Jahre Kulturwerk,Südostdeutsches Nationale Erneuerungsbewegung der from 1933, , the official Church official the , 61 oe cannot one Kirchliche Selbsthilfe 29 CEU eTD Collection Romanization attempts” administerhad defense functions to andethnic infront positions of and Magyarization the “he At sametime, the situations. conflictual in asamediator hopeless acted priest Locally, the upon upon Germansthe in Transylvania as especiallywell. The factthat, in the countryside, the touched in had,aspects, a numberof evenifsecularization be cannot obliterated andhis status in of community the affairs the Saxon priest of the role all-encompassing The representatives. authority lifewithin of the variousthe congregations, through local the ofitsvoices religioussocially ethnicgroup,but that Church the speaking had traditionally highestthe community,his thefact that emphasizing role wasa of the Saxon community. radicalization of the the explanation for by crisisisrelevant lived tothe Saxons the response periodical organ ofplurality the Lutheranis a There Socialism. National to clerics the of allegiance the Church questioning articles of ofnumber voices,of texts in which opinions the openness ofmany towards clerics newthe movement. From 1933 onwards, onecan read a National Socialism and views. is seen as a Still, the very presence within the pages of the 62 voices aretobethe that found however, in community; an opponentof processthe through which National-Socialism withingained roots his been have might Glondys, Viktor time, the of Bishop Saxon The identity. of reproducer and radical positioning consisted mainly in the displacementof rolethe of Churchthe as producer of toacceptthis clerics some the newNazi-oriented of readiness Saxon community of the and Church and of socialthe underlying phenomena this structural transformation. by the undergone transformation the of proof bears priests of anumber of affiliation Socialist Weber andWeber 1985,604-605 Weber andWeber provide description anacute theroleof of Saxon the for the priest The main consequence of of The main importantpartof new of the an the consequence political positioning 62 This is not meant to imply that the Saxons were a profoundly a were Saxons the that imply to meant not is This total Kirchliche Blätter role, pervading all aspects of life. give evidence of 30 CEU eTD Collection response proposedadapt itsby messagesone of thein by model Lutheran the newpromoted theChurch. challenges, Churchwasunableto Facing a waypriests that would who preserve wrotearising, its inrole inbetween the life was dichotomy that the accustomed to,Möckel languagehemosthighlighted In the was of thethe community.prestigious The character of the ethnic identity and the abstraction of the Blätter Bra community. the from coming outside was the extremely significant. 65 Frankfurt am Main, 2005), 48 onthein German (Documents A Lang: Romaniaselection) 1937-1945. Ethnic (Peter Group ed., Popa, Klaus West, über die Faktionskämpfe in der NS-Bewegung in Rumänien unterrichtet wird,” in Polizeipräsidium West, im SS-Oberabschnitt Siedlungswesen und im Rasse Führer Hofmann, Stabsleitersmade them in ludicrous a derogatory slobberingor way.”“Abschrift des Schreibens des Fabricius (sic!)derFabritius priests 58. read between of circle Fritz the Group, Ethnic within the conflicts internal Saxons andtothe fromSS-Standarte, the pulpritand smallthat64 articles of fromthe63 ‘Schwarzer more Dr.Korps’ radical and Heinrichthen Alfred Rübel,Bonfert: SS-Hschf.,“He heard with inhis demown earsSS-Oberführer how from of articles the relevance” of field “political hadLutheran pastor an roleimportant toplay in Georg andRenatewhat Weber call the An observer Ibid, 605 from the Third Reich wrote in 1937, referring to the internal politics of the (Should‘völkisch’?)be‘völkisch’we sein?,”Möckel,“Sollen wir Konrad ú ov (Kronstadt) priest ov (Kronstadt) KonradMöckel, wrote on April 16, 1933: , Nummer 20April 16,Hermannstadt, 1933 An opponent of the radical orientations touching upon the fate of the Saxons, the Saxons, the of fate the upon touching orientations radical the of opponent An its whole reality. whole its beingnot usedand asa that cannotconsequence be grasped in maybeimportant, evenurgently isneeded, butsomething that – more yearning?than Yearning for something, surely very for most people –aslong as they can connectsomething toit about belief? givenWhat Is that greatness. extremely concrete Ethnic feelingismanyfor persons anot-to-be anddoubted Akten umdieDeutsche inRumänien1937-1945.EineAuswahl Volksgruppe Kirchliche Blätter 63 means that the position of the priest as concerns the pressures the as concerns priest the of position the means that 65 was most probably transferred towards the members the of towards wasmosttransferred probably 64 Thus, the openness to be found in some found be to openness the Thus, Kirchliche Blätter , Josef Scheiner, Kirchliche 31 CEU eTD Collection Germany seemed to be capable from imported Socialism theNational needed grant the while anymore security, to able of doing not it. was Saxonness Mere With Saxons. the of hardships financial manythe of and state Romanian representatives of the on backgroundthe of difficultiesthe in coping with Church assimilationthe of pressures the rather Socialism of National of appeal mainly the consisted stimuli” external “certain Church. The an consciousness, towards ethnic-based nucleus, overtaking role the held by before the religious-ethnical identity nucleus, establishing patterns of behavior andmolding self- from a socially atransition as canbeseen Saxons the of identity of ethnic of gravity’ ‘center of ethnic identity seem related to the persistence of certain external stimuli.” model. ethnic its over ethnic the unconsciously that allowed by model promoted primacy National-Socialism gains less or more Church the Saxons, the of identity the managing institution the traditionally comprisedparadox in expressionisthis evident of situation intricate the focus.under Being the ethnic-churchly thought lived in a “tensioned symbiosis” with National Socialism. National with symbiosis” in a“tensioned lived thought ethnic-churchly the of parts component traditional the that affirms Wien Bishop), a as elected was Glondys when itsof flock.of radicalization the front in in Transylvania Church Lutheran the of response unsubstantial rather the of evidence 69 68 67 Kirchliche Blätter 66 it” of out makes one what becomes Socialism “National that view, Scheiner’s Church. the namely “evangelizeto theunavoidable” Horowitz 1975,118-119 Wien 1998, 61 Ibid Josef Scheiner,“Das Unvermeidliche evangelisieren!,” (Evangelise theunavoidable!) As Donald Horowitz notes, As Donald notes, “[m]ore or Horowitz less permanentshifts in ‘centerthe of gravity’ When commenting on the situation within the Lutheran Church after 1932 (the year (the 1932 after Church Lutheran the within situation the on commenting When , Hermannstadt, 20 , Hermannstadt, April 1933 66 , proved in the end to have a boomerang effect on 69 The shift in the shift The 68 The 67 32 is CEU eTD Collection youth youth camps competing and,more generally, existence theregulation of for the authorities of between 1930and by marked regardingorganization the 1940was conflicts particularly of thedecade Especially astheir moreyoungsters adherents. andmore toincorporate sought which movements, oriented right-wing the from especially coming aspect, in this competition sororities and brotherhoods in the participated girls, and boys Saxons, young the Traditionally, administeredandinformal of education youththe within Transylvanian the Saxon community. by the Church. However, the interwar period witnessed a raising May 1933, Hermannstadt 70 Tranylvanian Saxons) with National-Socialism was debated. In it we read: the of consequently, (and, Lutheranism of relationship the in which issues of a series after anchors)May on position25, 1933,the boardof editorial is the appears published.The text identity, with Nazi German alongside identity (Saxon-Lutheran ofidentities coexistence published in as appear nowadays surprising. samesharing the articles in view, asthe Kirchliche Blätter At this point itis worth making some observations about the significance of the formal An extremely interesting fact is that, alongside with the various contributions various the with alongside is that, fact interesting extremely An Kirchliche Blätter which we must bepleased. a profession but of about faith, external of the appearance, When youth the Church,attends this a this isnot preservation –thesearesignsattended of demand word. a true of God’s be so service religious that the campsis interrupted the service, when,it as is constantly to us,evenreported in work Schäßburg (Sighi namely Sundays,the butwhen campthe leaders in gathered incourse, its enterprisesitmust make useof freethe days, religious aspirationa serious, can be Church, noticed the with within whatsoever this youth.connection no Of almost not seem as bad as he thinks it is. While theconcerns prewar the Church alienationyouth of this youthhad the situation does Weadd want to to theremarks Hans of priest as Roth that , “Nachwort der, “Nachwort Schriftleitung,” (Epilogue25 Editorial of the Board), ú and supporting National-Socialism and possibility the of oara) unanimously took part in unanimously Easter the took oara) 70 Kirchliche Blätter show, the transition does not does transition the show, 33 CEU eTD Collection quintessential specificity of Saxon identity, Saxon of specificity quintessential Saxon community, especially in 19 late especially Saxon community, life of internal the the sameaspectof the pinpointed external observers numerous same time, 72 Staedel Staedel youth and the work) 71 between equivalence intellectual important and figures religious of Saxon history, Friedrich Bishop Teutsch, the and Church between unity the of understanding ideal the to made be to have references community, Saxon the of life in the Church the of place the Reproduction and Production Identity on Monopoly the toMaintain Church Lutheran the of Attempts III.4. body of thought. appearedinthat period, standsfor that specific opennessthis Nationalthe towards Socialist written board’, contributions as an text, with other together of editorial quoted the ‘epilogue The above- newtendencies. tothe overtly consented or who tacitly figures, ecclesiastical authority infront of youngerthe generation. However,this happened with helpof the dignitariesyouth towards the work camps organized outside the Lutheran Church. of for theconfictual situation understanding time,the aswell the ofchurchly openness as the informal education of the youth. The above-quoted passage stands as extremely significant For equivalencethe between Lutheran and see Saxon Binder 1994,237-239 See also Dietmar Plajer, “Pfarrer Wilhelm Staedel und die Jugendarbeit,” (Priest Wilhelm (Priest Jugendarbeit,” die und Wilhelm Staedel “Pfarrer Plajer, Dietmar See also When bringing into discussion the discourse of discussion When clerics bringinginto discourse topicthe the the upon touching of its lose constantly would Church the by promoted model ethnic the years, the Over German scholars stood in connection, but at the same time same the at but inconnection, stood scholars German Theycentury. the of turn the at life Saxon church of observation the reflectSuch judgments, can that be springincreased, arbitrarily from the disposition of those circles with which 71 evangelisch Zeitschrift Zeitschrift siebenbürgischefür Landeskunde 25 (Lutheran) and (Lutheran) th and 20 early 72 working both inclusively andexclusively. At the th sächsisch century. Ludwig Binder notes: Volk . Affirmed by one of the most (Saxon) was seen as the as seen was (Saxon) (2002): 6-29 (2002): 34 CEU eTD Collection and French. Even own historical geographical werepublished.atlases and The mustquality Volksschule for the were integrally own compiled text-books hadeffect: secondary Germany apositive 76 75 1934, Hermannstadt on word national the the andpresent) churchly questions of 74 1984, 89 73 (neighborliness underschemes) authority the theof Church Bruderschaften its role are to be found in a number of distinct actions forlorn status of Churchthe identityas preserver of and bulwarkoutside against pressures. and events. The incorporationNazi-oriented the of of appeal by the forth the brought constraints ideological and social developing the Germanof front identity was represented by this type of effort, to revive the not so Germany for schoolsbooks and published of sideeffects the interdiction of the using text-books in butby a ecclesiastical, people andin that end,the theunity was given neither by a solely SaxonsTransylvanian Church know the that decisively asto theircontributed a aggregation unity the reference to “the instance,he For outthatisChurch andof people points striking. permanent the texts Glondys’ of many reading Thus, flock. Saxon Transylvanian its to regard understanding the integrative claims expressed by Lutheran the inChurch Romania with for isrelevant ideal this of existence the time, same At the thesis. inthis research factsof by many moderate clericsthe of and in ecclesiastical dignitaries periodthe under König293. König “The 1994, writes: interdiction oftheintroduction oftext-books from Binder 1984,95 Viktor Glondys,Wort zudennationalen “Ein kirchlichen (A Fragen und der Gegenwart,” Ludwig“Volkskirche Binder, als Lebensform” (Volksirche life) asaform of in Schuster Going beyond the discursive level, the matter-of-fact endeavors of the Church to keep to Church the of endeavors matter-of-fact the level, discursive the beyond Going What Binder calls a 76 pull loseto the capacity for notto the attempts understandingthe are relevant and for secondary schools as well, with the exception of Physics, Latin, Greek especially as it was expressed at festivities. at itwas expressed as especially Saxons, Transylvanian the of ethnic the consciousness indicate (brotherhoods), völkisch Lebensform -ecclesiastical community.” -ecclesiastical Schwesterschaften (form of life) was clearly perceived as the ideal state (sororities) and 73 74 75 in response The main defensive or the creation of its own text- own its of creation the or Kirchliche Blätter völkisch Nachbarschaften , nor by a solely , 4January 35 CEU eTD Collection Hermannstadt Diasporapfarramt betr. die Pfarrer- und Lehrergärten,“ die betr. Pfarrer- Diasporapfarramt „Rundschreiben Presbyterienan alle Bezirkskonsistorien, und(Kirchenräte) das und das diebetr.Diasporapfarramt Belebung derLeibesübungen auf dem Lande“ and 78 77 traditional element.” remained speaking, text-books the school traditionally comparatively a enshrined; remained ways: other curricula, not andschoolcertainly through text-books the Until administration. 1940/1941 through ‘30s the in system schooling Saxon Transylvanian the on influence The National Socialist body andof thought the national-socialist terminology have gained Romanian and usedin schools. state the in werealsoin some havetranslated of been used others good: text-books Germany; the traditionally churchly fields.”work “the churchly originally structured youth waswork the forpointof departure invasionthe in monopoly on formalthe and informal of education youngerthe generation. AsWien writes, the hold to in Romania Group Ethnic German Nazi-oriented the and Church Lutheran the both generation. This simple fact offers a sharply outlined explanation for the efforts undertaken by and the main reproduction, audience istarget most surely by represented younger the strings of Saxonthe Whenself-consciousness. it comes to processthe of ethnic production teachers to take proper care of the fruit orchards in their parishes. fruit orchards of care the proper take to teachers affirm and reaffirm monopoly the on regulating andadjusting the identity of community.the and political from history 1933 onwards, they can be easily perceived astentative efforts to context Saxonsocial of the broader lifeinto the of them all integrating to pervade and spheres are not to be left out of the explanation for such manifestations. Still, reading them as attempts members its with Church any of relationship the of characteristics internal course, Of Saxons. during period that pinpoints attemptsthe of regulating, top-down, the consciousness of the institutions and mechanisms leading toidentity production and reproduction. the them, Wien 1998, 68 See for example“Rundschreiben an alle Bezirkskonsistorien, Presbyterien (Kirchenräte) One can One can read circulars supporting physical exercise counseling or the and priests At the same time, a short glance at the official circulars issued by the Lutheran Church völkisch movement(s) managed lay the ground to stonefor the appropriation of 77 andBuilding structures attracting parallel in youth the Kirchliche Blätter 78 , 11January 1934, It is not at all a 36 CEU eTD Collection the formalthe informal and of education youngerthe generation weresubtly“To attacked: bring showing up at the Church on Sundays would imply. The claims of the Church to regulate both mere the actof than more inner religiosity displayed younger generation the can one read that of “photographic report” Day the of Germanthe Youth place took that in (Halchiu),Heldsdorf became harshermore and radical, with open accusations. Inabrochurein published 1937 as a Group Ethnic German of the of representatives the approach the deteriorated, contrary, 6 November 1932) in Miege 1972, 287 79 Socialists in Mediasch,from as early as 1932 contained the wording: National the of meeting the following declaration official The imperatives. ethnic the of front in subordination its but Church, the of role the of elimination complete the not initially version, somehow in for Nazism its more endGerman-Romanian Saxons andmore(in who the saliently opted mimicking the superficial Nazismnewshapingboundaries. of identity For disappointedthe and young disoriented of the Thirdin less and,or more the consequently, definition anew in identity a decisive role creating Reich) had community the of life internal the theof regulation the for fight the aimbehavior, their regarding of the conflict appropriatedecisionsthe upwardsin look accustomed totake order to group, minority ethnic was National Socialistcoincidence that similar by were distinctly activities Transylvanianpromoted the Saxon movement and presumably with more success. For the members of a 11. 1932”(DecisionMediasch,in “Entschließung NSDRin the 6. Mediasch, derNSDR of As time went by and the relationship with the Church did not improve, but on the on but improve, not did Church the with relationship the and by went time As regeneration of individual. of German the regeneration we ask from them guidanceresponsible in internal the but sustainment; their for sacrifice possible any make to ready force sources of sources force Volkskirchen our for future, the fight in the that We acknowledge and our German schools are the most powerful völkisch accumulation. That’s why we That’s are accumulation. 79 37 CEU eTD Collection 81 fromphotographic report Day the Germanthe of Youth 1937 Heldsdorf)in 2005, Popa 52-53 80 been) have might context social internal the different however Romania, of regions other the Germany. Simply said: for the by be asitpromoted important, GermansNazi morewas perceivedto by promoted and, Nazi Germany of Transylvania (but also for those of Banat and of Exclusion and Inclusion III.5. clerics. and they are tobe intotaken consideration when judging and analyzing responses the of the schools, for financial reasons. Lutheran Church) and how in some cases Saxons preferred to send their children Romanianto and tothe Romanian (tothe state the double rejected taxation peasants Saxon localities authority had tobe exercised. Inhis diary, Glondyshownotes in Viktor various rural mere the whom upon those of support financial the on depending more and more was that was an almost tangible reality for the members of the Saxon community. Nationale Selbsthilfebewegung inRumänien by represented more andmore radicalizedthe youngeraround the grouped generation, authority Saxon the community? over influence, of centers other The appearance of German Ethnic Group issuethe was one of authority, main the being: question whohas leadership’ that forbids them to participate in the Youth Day.” youngstersthe to such it an excitementsomething takes more than an ecclesiastical ‘youth Deutschen inRumänien Glondys 1997,32,40,119 See “Broschüre: vom ‘BildberichtTag derDeutschen Jugend1937Heldsdorf” (Broschure: Saxons were more than prone to respond to the appeal of it was appeal respond as to the Germanness more Saxons of to than prone were Church of the authority the In fact, financial. was,of course, main reasons One the of Fundamentally forspeaking, both Lutheranthe Church in Transylvania and the , later 81 Deutsche Volkspartei inRumänien Social, political and financial pressures were highly important highly were pressures financial and political Social, , later NationaleErneuerungsbewegung der 80 , led to a conflictual situation conflictual a to led 38 CEU eTD Collection 84 83 82 samecould Atthe time, havebeen used as acommon meansof communication. that German High the not and dialect Saxon the practically became village in the language official the used as exclusion mechanism: the Landler by they because were oppressed Saxonmajority the in village. the were not allowed rights, minority their to of make recognition internal the use requested of Landler the theirin Großau that wrote dialect and Glondys Viktor Bishop his In diary, religious affiliation. theirTheresa, dueto Protestant groups were still a reality, as the case of the Landler shows. neighboringother Old groups. German-speaking behavioral and patterns exclusion such of by a changeinidentity. a practical On integration still acceptthe level,not did Saxons of necessarily prefaced was not identity German broader tothe their allegiance we can say that willprestigious groups as magnetsact forincorporation” in many affirms “more cases that Horowitz than value Saxonness. rewarded (perceived) more andmoreof a wasbecoming Germanness onecan saythat easily context, political aswell social and Romanian as the context, international political into account the Taking Germany everything related to highly appraised and anduncritically mimicked.was accepted accompany, rather than precede, identity identity change” precede, than rather accompany, a broader German one. into consciousness the radicalizationwas new was What Saxon the newfor community. atall something was not identity German of this identity and the almost subordination of the Saxon self- Glondys 1997,213 Ibid, 124 Horowitz 1975,123 The Landler, German-speaking Lutherans forcefullyThe Landler, Lutherans German-speaking sent in Transylvania by Maria On the other hand, Horowitz again notes that “cultural change may follow or follow may change “cultural that notes again Horowitz hand, other the On 83 . Applying this case tothe of Saxons,the 82 . At the same time, the resort to a 84 The Saxon dialect was dialect Saxon The 39 CEU eTD Collection some cases neither did the use of Lutheranism as a criterion identity.of Situations such as that in and night over disappear not did identity of level Saxon The contexts. of multiplication 89 Südostdeutsche Vierteljahresblätter Considerations on buildingthe of a common Romanian German consciousness) Saxons and the otherGerman ethnic in groups Romania in yearsthe 1918-1944. rumäniendeutschen Gesamtbewußtseins,” (Therelationships between Transylvanian the deutschen Volksgruppen Rumäniens in den BetrachtungenJahren 1918-1944. zur Bildung anderen eines den und Sachsen Siebenbürger den zwischen Beziehungen “Die Kroner, 88 87 86 brought forth by paradoxes newappealingGermanidentification.the village,85 to the common history a.s.o. However, my point is tocontext.” show the intricaciesemerging group means an often that scales is reference internalized “the of Horowitz existence useful: and in a new context communism. during visible more bemuch may eventually would Germany, still be to emigrated communities these members of the once a German identity psychologically into be transformed to later identity, a Romanian-German of front in identities Swabian and Saxon of away fading tied of Klausenburg (Cluj). to the old, skirmishes andtensions taking Saxonand between place Swabian University students atthe narrower members.” aswell with its Landler congregation, as dialect, so that dialectboth Landler Saxon andthe the who mastered “HeNeppendorf of only wasthe priest he could develop a close trustingbody). contact their Landlerself-identification excluded them from churchlythe with the Saxon members of his Horowitz 1975,131 Klima 1999, 116 Maria KlimaandSamuel Liebhart, Of course, in this very case attention could be paid to the internal relationships within the For the emergence of a Romanian German self-consciousness after 1918, see Michael 85 With With situation made respect tothe between another observation by 1933 and1945, In theforeword to diarythe Klima,Hellmutof hiswife and his brother-in-law wrote: 89 This is very easily applicable to the Saxon case. In it, we can talk about a 87 The actual cultural wouldchange that speak about usto enable the 34 (1985): 33-39 34(1985): Foreword toKlima 1999, 7 86 Another example is given by the verbal the by is given example Another Körperschaft 88 (corporate 40 CEU eTD Collection Swabians as well) as compared to other German-speaking other Swabians aswell) groups. to ascompared Banat the of (and group ethnic Saxon the of distinctiveness the ascertained subtly Saxons as adisseminator of German culture Europe, inthe leading figurestwo South-Eastern the of minority Saxon Transylvanian the Perceiving region. in the influence German the diminishing Saxons into Third the Reich and their converged: arguments suchan action would conduct to Schwaben” (On the question of the resettlement of the Transylvanian Saxons and Banat and Swabians), in 2005,73-80 Popa Saxons Transylvanian the of resettlement the of question the (On Schwaben” 92 Eastern Europe), in 2005,70-72 Popa from ‘Volksdeutsche’ the issue of on resettlement the speech the of Hitler’s concerning thematisiert”Stellung zuHitlers Rede,die dieAussiedlung der‘Volksdeutschen’ aus Osteuropa 91 in Europe Central- ThirdReich. andSouth-Eastern the (Writer90 Heinrich Zillich takes position in a letter to Dr. Csaki from DAI, program the of issue the in Saxons the of representatives different ideologically the to Reactions III.6. still existed. inbear proof Großau of confusedthe situation.inclusive Inertial andexclusivemechanisms following 1940Ribbentrop-Molotov the Pact). Union of Sovietthe time,part (atthat in already Bessarabia those and Dobrudja or Bukovina of the plan touchedrelocating ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe into the Reich. In the end, the implementation upon Hitler’s planof towards issueshad attitude totheof approaches avery similar community,the the fateconflicting rather for standing time same the at and life political Saxon ofTransylvanian other of Romania’sTransylvania. Heinrich Zillich Roth,and Hans both Otto of them very figuresimportant in Germans, such as the ones in SeeHans “Zur OttoRoth, Frage derUmsiedlungder Siebenbürger Sachsen und der Banater Literally: home in the Reich. Nazi initiative, destined to resettle ethnic Germans from Germans ethnic resettle to destined initiative, Nazi in Reich. the home Literally: See “Der Schriftsteller Heinrich Zillich nimmt in einem Brief an Dr. Csaki vom DAI vom Csaki Dr. an Brief einem in nimmt Zillich Heinrich Schriftsteller “Der See On another level, an interesting fact is represented by the reactions of by is of facttwo reactions level, represented the aninteresting On another Both Zillich Both 90 in community theSaxon fateof the upon havemight it touched way the and 91 Roth and Heim ins Reich Heim 92 Transylvanian the of relocating idea mere the opposed Program heim ins Reich 41 CEU eTD Collection relevant, ashe envisaged the strengthening German inthe of presence on Transylvania the 94 93 (Sibiu)(Bra Kronstadt and Germans of Dobrudja andfindwould Bessarabia place their proper between Hermannstadt GermansBukovinain of could bebrought region the between Bistri 35,000 the Sathmar Swabians should berelocated to Banat, next totheir ethnic kin.The nation”, of German the “outpost German Reich. At the samein relocated inSlavonia than Transylvania bebetter and would and Bukovina” the Banat time, Roth, departingsuggested specific regions.Itjustin Germans the that Dobrudja,“Bessarabia, possibly South from the same premise of the Saxons as time. the German-speakingother is groups relevantfor the comprehension identity of the dilemmas of envisagedZillich byboth and Roth, of once again colonizing Transylvania and Banatwith press articles to literarywould eventually lose their identity is very invisible various written texts in period,the from works or official The fearthey that Saxons the identity. of shattered a can beseenasattempts to reinforce declarations of place Saxon of berelocation necessarily shouldn’t Germany,the but Transylvania and Their Banat. proposals view their in politicians.However, solution. salutary a be would Dobrudja in ones the or The Union possibility, in Soviet the Germans of the displacement fact the the that with agreed Thus,they Banat. as far include asto the possibility augmentingof the numberofGermans in Transylvania and went topic) the on views similar expressed Roth as such elite, Saxon old the of conservative a and Zillich as such ideology, soil and blood the of exponent an how see to interesting Ibid, 79 Ibid, 75 It is incidental probably not Zillich’saim proposal in that not does specific groups at is (anditin proposals their region, culture the strengthen German In order to ú ov). 93 94 provided much more concrete proposals. According tohim, The attention Roth gave to the confessional cleavages is cleavages confessional the to gave Roth attention The Ġ a and Reghin, whilethe 42 CEU eTD Collection consciousness. It wouldconsciousness.be It far-fetched to talkthis newly about installed heterogeneity either self- managementof Saxon the smooth the for wasaprecondition that character homogenous of Saxonsthe after 1933. To sum up, wecan say theLutheranthat Church ended uplosingits untothem framework abroader understandingof Horowitz’s situation provides the theoretical broader German identity. identity respondunable to to psychic the and social of desiderata community,the the unlike made Saxon in factbears that up with proof of a proposal that this very transformation, with words:unwillingother fully to in give the pressuresto of identity German and coming tobe unwilling in relocated Reichthe but willingaccept Germans to other Or, asneighbors. level. Furthermore, they also identity reveredthe identity, German on a superior Saxon identity placing became a weaker gave evidence of the confusedlack situation of of a the properSaxon minority: by bringing other ethnic Germansinto the region. Compelled tobe a minority growthnoticingand the rate in could have been that identity, reinforced favorof the andmore German prestigious a broader that period, Zillichsame ‘imagined andcommunity’ Rothincorporating suchlarge of numbers people sharing thesame language and being part of the revealsunconsciously that Saxon identity of coping with issuesthe broughtforth by crisisthe situation. However, themereidea of acceptedper se was starting that from parts Europeof other German-speakingRomania groups, wasseen and Eastern as away to fade away in perceived was identity see how Saxon We also can consideration. much into too to cleavages these take be in crisiswith religious identityand by the conservativehow elites,a whereasgrowth the younger Zillich did not inseem to important. was numbers,Catholicism in Banat whereas affiliation, religious Lutheran throughand ethnicity German both of basis incorporation of other Reading thearticles in Reading in wecan was still identity seen ethnic From two discern how correlation the texts Kirchliche Blätter and the documentsother and applying 43 CEU eTD Collection radicalization radicalization inof subtleand tothe Saxon it.community identity the change accompanying the to contributed Church the of stance the that argued be can it But situation. the happened with Saxon self-consciousness had the Lutheran Church had approach adifferent to changed) the self-image Reichof the Saxons.offered We newcannot identificationin Third the model existent copying the movements radical The its congregation. of desiderata answer the question possibilities of whatWhat wouldcan be saidhavethat is thatstrengthened the Church in this context. typerelationship toestablish of acause-effect erroneous logically probably reached (but the pointat the where same itevents held under scrutiny washere weredefinitely interconnected,but itwould time be difficultand unable subtly to respond to the The community. Saxon the within process Nazification of the asaconsequence as acauseor 44 CEU eTD Collection beyond the borders of the German Reich. In a very recent publication about the history of the of history the about publication recent avery In Reich. German the of borders the beyond territory between OctoberRomania entered officially waristhe place the“1000-Mann-Aktion” thattook on Romanian 1939 and June 1940. It was the first massthesis. recruitment of the Northern Transylvaniainto this paper,such an beyondundertaking would go scope the of this SS 1944. Though itmightseem integrateappropriate to an analysis of Saxonthe communities in Swabians) is strictly with connected history the of Hungarianthe state between 1940 and of Hungary fate of and the ingroups German-speaking the region the (Saxons andSathmar became well. Saxon territorially Transylvania part two, the community as Northern dividing Arbitration Vienna war.TheSecond the community Transylvanianthe of Saxons was directly hitby politicalthe accompanying events citizenspass wereallowed to on Romanian territory, beinggrantedrefuge. In1940,the offensive against USSR. the whereas Hungarians callita Treaty. Hungarians whereas found Romanian acommon denominator: historians 1940 document refer tothe as toaDiktat, 95 much before the 22 of unleashed Worldcitizens by Second by Warwerewitnessedthe outbreak Romanian the the lost one year before following the Ribbentrop-Molotov had that been andBukovina Bessarabia territoriesto reoccupy of crossed riverthe the Pruth Pact. However, effects of the turmoil WWII and Saxons Transylvanian IV.1. Romania, IV. World Second War andits Impact Identity onSaxon yetmany have historiography Romanianas on On andHungarian others, not point, this Another relevant aspect for the internal history of the Saxon community before community Saxon the of history internal the for aspect relevant Another In 1939, following Hitler’s attack against Poland, an important number of Polish Legally speaking, Romania enteredWWII only inJune 1941,when Romanian troops nd of of June, 1941,thedate of beginning the of German-Romanian the 95 , signed onAugust30, 1940,cut Transylvania into 45 CEU eTD Collection sides, there would still be Romanian Germans enrolled in the German army or in the SS, in the or army German in the enrolled Germans beRomanian still would there sides, losingwithout theirRomanian incitizenship. Therefore, May Romania 1945, after changed 63000 Transylvanian Saxons andBanatSwabians ended upenrolled in Waffen-SS,the Romania. sufficient attention (if at all) by the historians and researchers of the German minority in declaring war on former the ally Germany. 1998 Schlattner 1944, the day when Romania quit alliancewiththe joined Axis andthe theAllied by Powers, 96 between time, the of terminology the use to (or, Saxons and Germans between interactions the of consequences psychological socio- and social the mentioned, already have I as However, identity. their on and Saxons the of program implementation the of the minority German in war,historian Romania during the Paul offersMilata adetailed account portrayed are German soldiers, who were still in the town of still of F in the whowere town areGerman soldiers, portrayed some of secondary characters the inwhich novel example case.See for Schlattner’s the of period time, beingsubsequently senton However, Eastern the Front. always thiswas not 97 Weimar, Wien:Böhlau Verlag, 2007) SS Germans from the Reich, for a significant period of time were staying troops Romanianon territory, beginning with Many October 1940. of soldiersthe and officers with families of ethnic1943. Germans recruitment of almost ethnic 63.000 Germans from andTransylvania in Banat SSinthe year from Transylvania. for thethat Saxons(andfor also Swabians) Banat the future the program the announced thisThe kind outside the dailyGerman Reich. At the same time,presence retrospectively speaking it can be said of Paul Milata, See Of course, most of the German soldiers and officers stayed in Romania only for a short (Between Hitler, Stalin and Antonescu: Romanian Germans in the Waffen-SS) (Köln, Waffen-SS) in the Germans Romanian Antonescu: and Stalin Hitler, (Between Citizens of a country that was an ally of the almost mythologized German state, about Another important, yet factor is important, Another under-evaluated Nazi the 500,000 presence of almost Zwischen RumäniendeutscheinderWaffen- Hitler,undAntonescu: Stalin 96 Reichsdeutsche that would constitute a model for later operations of and 97 presumably had impact asocial on Volksdeutsche ăJă ra ú on 23 the on ) were not given not were ) rd Augustof 46 CEU eTD Collection IKGS53-72 Verlag, 2006), (München: Mariana Roth Harald eds. and Hausleitner Europe), andEastern South-Eastern Südosteuropa in Einfluss vonFaschismus und Nationalsozialismus aufMinderheiten inOstmittel- und Saxons), Transylvanian the at heroes of cult the and monumens War peace? during Heldenkultbei den Siebenbürger Sachsennach 1918” (Continuity of firstthe world war 99 98 the of identification the and Transylvania visit to monarch German first the was Wilhelm and Germans from Transylvania foughtside by side. During the FirstWorld War, Kaiser seen as a continuation of 1916-1918spiritthe of whenbrotherhood Germans from Reich the neutral. The way identitythe of Transylvanianthe Saxons was shaped during WWII can be of Romanian (and Hungarian) population, suchasSchäßburg, theirmessage wasmuch more in while bond the between Saxons and with soldiers, German places a higherthe percentage homogenous places, such as the former two, were much more German-oriented, emphasizing Cisn defending ruins the of Berlinfrom advancementthe of Alliedthe troops. expressions of the cult of heroes in localities inhabited by Germans (Rosenau-Râ different three Analyzing communities. Saxon Transylvanian in the War World First article a significant wrote Bernhard Böttcher the Romanian army, Firstthe World War, Transylvanian Germans hadfought alongsideTransylvanian on territory against with the soldiers of the Wilhelmian of hugethe waves migrationof during Cold the Warand atthe very beginning 1990s. the of background the on Reichcompleted eventually was that one German broader the into identity armies. Saxon In 2006, 1933 onwards. Placing itin another timeframe, itsignals theforthcoming dissolution of the during WWII,providing evidence of radicalizationthe by undergone communitythe from Saxons the of history political) (and social in the moment key another was recruitment SS’ “Kontinuitätdes Ersten Bernhard Weltkrieges imFrieden? Böttcher, und Kriegerdenkmäler Milata 2007,295 ă die, Schäßburg-Sighi die, At the same time, an extremely interesting continuity point can be emphasized. During (The influence of fascism and national socialism on minorities in Central- minorities on socialism national and fascism of influence (The ú oara), Böttcher noticed how the monuments in ethnically monuments rather the how noticed Böttcher oara), 99 the following memory politics the of about 98 The ‘Wehrmacht- ú nov, Heltau- Der 47 CEU eTD Collection (New York,London: Holmes & 10-11 Meier Publishers,1980), CentralMinorities andtheThird Reich:EthnicGermans Europebetween of East theWars Stockwell, andRebecca Komjathy Anthony Nazi See party. tothe Germans ethnic the Reich with the was Its task to coordinate “relationsthe of differentthe institutions and organizations within 104 103 ethnic from groups 20 November 1940)inWagner1981, 300 102 from 30 August 1940)in Wagner 1981,298 101 100 by been nominated Mittelstelle Volksdeutsche the radical married Nazi,Transylvanian daughter tothe of Gruppenführer, Gottlob Berger, SS had twothese dates, In-between Septemberon Schmidt, aratheryoung 27,Andreas obscure, and as the corporate body representing the Germans Romanianthe jurisdiction from 1940 granted corporate rights to all Germans in Romania. was the all-encompassingthat the latter stipulated the granting of corporate rights to the TransylvanianEthnic Saxons, whereas Group. Alba Iulia from 1918 andin PeaceTreaty the from Versailles. of Declaration in the stipulated rights corporate the granted finally was Romania in minority Reich. German the with agreement an prerogatives traditionally held by Lutheran the Church. On August 30,1940, Romania signed managedthe toovertake that Ethnic Group German by the of actions the much determined consequences. during the SecondWorldWar, although on a differentbackground andwith more radical waspredominant. Saxons Germans the with 27January subordinatedInstitution established to ministry. Germanforeign 1937, the on Ibid “Das vom rumänische Volksgruppen-Gesetz 20. November 1940,”(Romanian law on Philippi 1994, 80 (German-Romanian1940,” protocol August 30. vom “Deutsch-rumänischesProtokoll Starting from November 20,1940, legalthe entity recognized by Romanianthe state very was War World Second the during Saxons the of history political and social The Volksdeutsche organizations abroad, in order to secure the loyalty of the 101 One of its consequences was that the German 100 A similaridentification would be inforce 104 as leader of the German Ethnic Group in 102 It is however worth saying worth however is It German 103 48 CEU eTD Collection towards National-Socialist ideas. This very openness is one of the reasons that made the made that reasons the of is one openness very This ideas. National-Socialist towards identity of place took on backgroundthe of a distinct ofmembers openness of Church the indicium a mere into a criterion from Lutheranism of transformation the chapter, previous the history of in community the between situation the 1933and 1940.As in Ihave demonstrated identity on production and reproduction belonged to Germanthe inEthnic Group Romania. schemes. The same happened with churchly the women’s unions and with neighborlinessthe youth Bishop, by the associations disbandingthe priorly administered Lutheran Church. the education of youth. the main competitor (in the late ‘30s) of the Lutheran Church over the field of the informal 108 107 Lang, Europäischer Verlag derWissenschaften, 2006),109-128 of Germanthe inethnic group Romania before and 1945)(Frankfurt after am Main: Peter Hitlers Vasallen derDeutschenvor VolksgruppeinRumänien und nach1945 106 Jahren in 1940-1944”, Roth 1995,150 105 the of National-Socialist affiliation took his place. It is worth adding that Staedel had been the leader clericoriented in who 1936 hadbeen prohibited from occupying churchly due itsdignities to GlondysforcedBishop toresign was February and1941, Wilhelm on 16, Staedel Church. Lutheran the of affairs internal the in institutions Reich Third of involvement a deep of the Saxons, was fulfilled with the help of Nazi Germany and was subsequently followed by leader from as their wasnominated Berlin. Romania. Binder 1994, 259 SeePlajer 2003 Michael Kroner,“Zur politischen Rolle der‘Deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien’ in den For a concise and critical depiction of Staedel’s life and activities, see Johann Böhm, see Johann lifeactivities, and Staedel’s of depiction andcritical a concise For Deutscher Jugendbund inRumänien Obviously, cansee one theprefiguration of developmentsthese within political the On May 5, 1941an agreementwas signed between leaderthe of Ethnicthe and Group The granting of corporate rightsThe grantingto of Germanscorporate the in for alongRomania, yearned wish 108 105 In themonopoly theory,with 1940-1941 in aswell period the startingas practice, The last elements of autonomy of Romania’s Germans had disappeared as soon disappeared had Germans Romania’s of autonomy of elements last The 107 (German Youth Association in Romania), the (Hitler’s vassals (Hitler’s 106 , a Nazi- 49 CEU eTD Collection probably probably onlynot means accommodate a toideologicalthe comingfrom pressures Berlin, but was Swabian) (Saxon, identities old the erase to trying saliently Saxons: of mainly consisted Group of Ethnic leadership the the At sametime, the Catholics. whowere latter, of the favor in clearly was Romania in Swabians and Saxons of division proportional the circumstances, of background arbitrary of the the newagainst Saxoncommunity.the division the Under identical not and belief canalsobe areconsidered religious discourse Staedel’s anymore”. “Germanness Therefore, groups”. two least in at “divided were they affiliation religious their to with respect However, movement”. National Socialist Adolf of Hitler’s impact powerful a new the unity under to fatherland aspire of people our “the German situation: changed he toadmitexistenceof since the feelsa new,radically timesthe of Luther, compelled Saxons. Though Staedel Staedel Churchandadmits that Saxons. Though abandonmentof oldthe self-imposed of task Church,the namelymanaging the identity of the Andreas Schmidt. The recentlytext, by published Klaus Popa,signals theofficial Group, Ethnic leaderof the inwith the of ameeting context the Church of Lutheran the Bishop positioning of is Church the Wilhelm speech, held Staedel’s shortly nomination hisafter as Germanness with Saxonness IV.2. Replacing their existence? dididentity? How Saxon the population react to thathad events the impact aprofound on with religious the interact identity arises ethnic ishowdidthat (new)self-perceived the years aboutthe from comingand war,thequestion the Whenspeaking outside. of pressures incapable of answerLutheran Church providing andwell-structured acoherent to the tensions One of the main documents of relevance for understanding the new unautonomous new the understanding for relevance of documents main the of One Volk have been two sides of the same coin 50 CEU eTD Collection “foreign” words with “original German” vocables. with words “original German” “foreign” changes in the 1937 version of his novel, example of writerthe Adolf Meschendörfer shows.He operated stylistic andlinguistic Germany. Greater asapartof themselves celebrations from rural the Saxon population)”. The Germans in Romania perceive had to prohibited in all administrative offices (while HighGerman was only a language used at “Transylvanian Germans”. Moreover, “theuse of Transylvanianthe Saxon vernacular was use started to beregulated. accepted usage was The anymore notbut Saxons”, “Transylvanian language the became Group, leader the Andreas Ethnic once of the that Schmidt pointing out “German Legends from Transylvania”. of the book was changed: of He thepublication about one SieversSievers,announcedof his toDr. the titleworks. that instead ethnologistthe Misch to theReichsgeschäftsführer Orendwrote Dr. SS-Ahnenerbe,the of of “Legends of the andbroader more prestigious German one is also visible in aspects. On other April 10, 1941 Transylvanian Saxons”, it would be Verstrickung –Ausgrenzung in Reich’) ‘Third the of field literary the in Zillich Heinrich and Meschendörfer (Adolf Reiches’,” ‘Dritten 112 111 Reichsgeschäftsführer der SS-“Ahnenerbe”, Dr. Sievers”, in Popa 2005, 226 Kultur und Wissenschaftder DViR in wissenschaftlicherSachen Zusammenarbeit an den 110 Wilhelm Volksgruppenführerthe Staedel into AndreasSchmidt) Bishop newLutheran of Official visitthe Ethnic Group. order of German the corporate Volksgruppenführer Andreas (IncorporationSchmidt,” of Lutheranthe Church in the Volksgruppe. Amtl. Besuch des neuen ev.Bischofs Wilhelm Staedel beim 109 Romania. also a means to maintain the hierarchical status quo within the German Ethnic Group in Philippi 1994, 83 sichfürAmts mit“Der Schreiben 527/41O/Bdes Misch Orend wendet Volkskundler Stefan Stefan Sienerth, “Adolf undMeschendörfer im Zillich Heinrich des Literaturbetrieb deutschen der Gemeinschaftsordnung die in Landeskirche evang. der “Einordnung At the same time, they wanted to synchronize with Nazi Germany, as the paradigmatic The getpressure to rid traditionalthe of Swabian identities,inSaxon and favor of the 109 Deutsche Literatur inRumänien und das “Dritte Reich”: Vereinnahmung – (German literature inRomania Reich’: reception literature ‘Third (German and the 110 111 Die Stadt im OstenDie Stadt process, thisPaul Philippi Historian synthesized 112 Language purification and orthodoxy of ( The Town inEast Popa 2005,Popa 214-216 ), replacing), 51 CEU eTD Collection 114 andSocialScience Academy ofPolitical 113 116 Verlag, 2003), – entanglement– eds. marginalization), Michael Markel Motzan and Peter (München: IKGS awaiting of the Germaninhabitants Puzzlingly,Transylvania”. intoconsideration taking the Romanianthe army threatening to attack was itTransylvania was and “cleardestiny what was to Germansthe as “Savingthe Army”. Thetextrecalled the days from September 1916,when referring Folberth, Otto by acertain written can 1941 we read anarticle 7, from January issue reviving periodthe when Germansthe from Reichthe were fightingfor Transylvania. In the of France. invasion after Germany’s Alsace right the fatherlandnumber of articlesor connected to a the Second seriesWorld War: letters of German soldiers fighting for of joiningGermany’s waron side, wecan reada the of officialdeclaration and Romania’s after articles emphasizingthe complete theidentification German samethe aim: towards conjoining themes, at least of three persistence the recurrently observe characterof the TransylvanianKirchliche Blätter of Strasbourg Saxons with Germany.and Firstly, both before Diaspora-Restoration of Myth andthe Colonists ofthe Myth the Between the Past: at Looking IV.3. of instead traditional blue-redone. the issued bythe Lutheran Church Consistory theobliging churchestofly swastikathe flag change significant Another in use the identity of indicia is by represented 1941ordinance the itssome butwere similar. mechanisms of different, was Saxons case of Transylvanian the in India. movement Sikh the and in Spain case Basque showed, using change, asHorowitz are the asexamples ethnic practices often accompanying Blue and red were the Saxon colors. Saxon the were Blue red and EthnicChange,” and“Cultural Movements Horowitz,Donald Secondly, an important placeby Secondly, articles wasoccupied animportant FirstWar, about the World the hadmeasures an also integrative in echoThe (Pan)German churchly the organ . Whilelooking attheissues from 1940 and the firsthalf of 1941, wecan 114 433 (September 1977):12 113 The pattern of ethnic change in the change ethnic of pattern The Annals of the American 52 CEU eTD Collection of which the emigrant-colonist myth is of relevance: “They carry with them their values, their them with carry “They relevance: is of myth emigrant-colonist the which of of “emigrant-colonist”the pattern.Anthony aboutD. Smith writes nations the for thesurvival alsobut toanembedded “emigrant-colonist” self-consciousness. administrative,the jurisdictional and cultural consequences followingfrom recognition,this distinct wasduenotgroup, only theirto as suchby Hungarian recognition the crown, with all Transylvanian Saxons from 12 the communal-demotic, emigrant-colonist and diaspora-restoration. Looking at the history of the University 135-138Press, 2003), 116 115 groups. regarding patterns the of ethnic leading survival persistence,to the time, over of ethnic defending the native soil of the oldest German colonists.” “Thefrom hadmomentan miracle happened: German on, were apotheosis: that soldiers appear, prefiguring arrival the Germanthe of troops. The end of articlethe has something of suddenly officers Prussian three miraclethe comes: come. miracle for Of course, a to knees Mediasch (Media hope is ubiquitous within the Saxon community.The author describes a religious service in Empire. People are running away from the advancement Transylvanianof Saxons once theRomaniansGermany declaredwar to and Habsburg the the Romanian armies, the lack of byof starts of situation the thediscouraging conventions time:the author the describing reference population “enemy”. wasmadetotheHungarian of No Transylvania. of military political and situation time,the the Romanianswereconsistently toasthe referred Otto Folberth, “Das rettende Heer,” (The saving army) Anthony Smith, Anthony 116 The self-stereotypes of the Transylvanian Saxons included a somewhat softer versionsofter The self-stereotypes of includedasomewhat Saxons Transylvanian the At this point, we can introduce some of observationsthe of Anthony D. Smith literary in to kitschy isthe The text accordance obsolete-romanticist written Smith detected existencethe four of patterns of ethnicimperial-dynastic, survival: ú ), offering a desperate account of situation: account of the peopletheir praying), offering on adesperate Chosen Peoples: SacredSources of National Identity th century it can be century onwards, argued theirthat survival, asa 115 Kirchliche Blätter (Oxford: Oxford , 7January 1941 53 CEU eTD Collection cannot functioncannot forproperly aminority group. fought for Germany. It might simplyand went men Saxon the of most be end in the that and success theclear a was emigrant-colonist nationalism German pattern described by Smith in name the of mobilization and political Theeducation community’. German ‘imagined the of part more and more became Saxons Transylvanian Germany, Hitler’s of ally an meantmake of was anyway propaganda of to fifth in out them column a sort a that a country Though unwilling tobe part of the colonists, pointing migration out their an inhabited to andwildland that they civilized. of colonists.Saxon historiography would remain attached self-identification tothe as is obvious example American thatof the they colonies) ceasedtoemphasizenever their status degree the of autonomy and independence that othercolonistsin history have (the most since ideal. managed Saxonsnevertoattain that, the observed acivilizatory rather McArthur regeneration through education mobilization.” regeneration through and political ancestral home involved not merely physicalthe of return a people,also but its spiritual myth. version diaspora-restoration the of inconsistent byarather be slowly replaced to starting was thismyth that warshow the years of 120 McArthur 1990,40-41 119 118 117 and shield”of Christianity. themselves asbeingtherepresentatives and defenders higher of the Christian culture, “wall rarely envisaged such revolutionary ideals, inaugurating as anew society: they however, saw that will abolish the old memories and traditions, regarding themselves aschosenby fororder a God providential destiny and inaugurate a new society” Smith 2003, 138 Roth 1998, 179-190. Ibid, 137 For some remarks on the Transylvanian Saxon self-identification as colonists, see Referring to Adamantios Korais, Smith argued that “the restoration of a diaspora to its 118 included Saxons Transylvanian the self-perceptionof The heim insReich program, the events taking place in the place taking events the program, 117 120 . It might be that the Saxons the be that might It . war intense of Subjects 119 54 CEU eTD Collection Sachsenbauern in Rumänien,” (Transylvanian hospitality. German soldiers visit the Saxon the peasants in Romania) in visit 2005,Popa 180 soldiers German hospitality. (Transylvanian Rumänien,” in Sachsenbauern 121 Nägler stated: days”. couple of for a least at soldiers, German to the toofferaccommodation peasants Saxon the wish of is “it greatest the in Tartlau (Prejmer) that information the provides German soldier They were enthusiastically territory. theGerman members of numberRomanian army on of important an presence of received by the Saxon population. A contemporary account of Germany for Fighting a Transylvania from Saxons and inTransylvania Reich the from Germans IV.4. Nazi Germany. by represented Germanness the total to the adherence and community’ ‘imagined German words, though it was still used, it became softer and softer, not hindering the integration in the other In self-identification. Saxon in the role significant its of more and more losing was it only myth that was still there, colonizing The radicalization. changeand of ethnic process myths of Nazi Germany havenot happenedanda more could this less without or subtle Transylvanian Germans thanTransylvanian They Saxons. fully tothe idealsadhered and Transylvanian territory. However, during the Second World War, the Saxons were much more observed, especially itwas as used inorder to back bond upthestrong of Saxonsthe with the be can myth the of continuity A functional such. as identity Saxon the of preservation the help to manage not did it nowadays, be encountered still can expressions such though and exist to Kurt Neher, “Siebenbürgische Gastfreundschaft. Deutsche Soldaten besuchen die besuchen Soldaten Deutsche Gastfreundschaft. “Siebenbürgische Neher, Kurt 121 The third recurrent themeThe thirdin recurrent pagesof the the ceased never myth the of expressions though Saxons, Transylvanian the of case the In In his monograph about the locality of Birthälm (Biertan), the historian Thomas historian the (Biertan), Birthälm of locality the about monograph his In offered to them, they andguests celebrated they they were to them,offeredwere was best the everywhere, and Permanently families. Saxon in pairswith or separately wereaccommodated The soldiers Kirchliche Blätter had to do with the with do to had 55 CEU eTD Collection Sibiu/Hermannstadt, 21 Sibiu/Hermannstadt, January 1941 122 (We are rolling towards Romania. Life experiences of of soldier) a German Romania. Life experiences towards (We arerolling 125 soldier) by a German – seen church 124 123 Stiftung, 152 2004), Bishop’s See Birthälm in Transylvania) (München: der Siebenbürgisch-Sächsischen Verlag were the agents of model.this level in the new National Socialist onaninferior hierarchical wasintegrated theChurch one: opposite the was altogether effect ethnic model. the However, flock. Saxon Transylvanian Thein the introduced soldierswas model ethnic new the which attending the religious beattending areligious can service readasalimited attempt serviceintegrate sources the to through piously soldiers showing German of a photograph Theuse service”. areligious attending in “Soldiers titlereproduced Germanphotographs Army waseloquent: of the journal.the Its month before, on frontthe page of issuethe from December 17,1940we find of one firstthe theGerman soldiers. welcoming Saxon population the enthusiasm of the of in front bewilderment happy showing one other the and Saxons the for typical such accounts, one revealing the “deep unity Germannessof and belief in Christ” population can be found in the welcomed in Neppendorf. were soldiers German the inwhich way positive the about observations some makes also Klima Hellmut pastor the diary, his from style writing succinct and rigid the Despite Thomas Nägler, Thomas Soldaten” deutschen Erlebnisse eines nachRumänien. “Wir Fuchte, SoldatRudolf rollen Soldat H.A., “Unsere Heimatkirche – von einem deutschen Soldaten gesehen,” (Our home Klima259, 1999, 258, 269 Accounts of the way in which German soldiers perceived the Transylvanian Saxon Transylvanian the perceived soldiers German inwhich way the of Accounts Birthälm. in honors military with and population the of participation deadly injured during an exercise was buried with high not clouded by any incidents. A Staff Sergeant whohad been Saxons were the with The relationships […] enthusiastically. Marktort und Bischofssitz Birthälm in Siebenbürgen 122 123 Kirchliche Blätter Kirchliche Blätter aswell. OnJanuary 21, 1941we find two , Sibiu/Hermannstadt, 21January, Sibiu/Hermannstadt, 1941 125 Approximately one Approximately (Market town and town (Market Kirchliche Blätter 124 , so , 56 , CEU eTD Collection consent of the Romanianclass soldiers -,anti-Bolshevism, Germany existence of the a strong myth, obvious the authorities as of second- an army aretreated perception Saxons with and Germans widespreadwhere the to the recruitment,pragmatism –strongly connected with poorprestigethe of Romanian the army among the the assimilationist in made were enroll of army. German reasons number the (andSwabians) that Saxons These pressures of a population detected of success of Milata action German-speaking Romania, the the amongst the Swabians into Wehrmacht andSSdivisions. Inhis analysis motivationsthe of thatled to the Banat and Saxons Transylvanian the of recruitment the on monograph excellent an published recently Milata identity. German the of infront identity Saxon of dissolution mental the of bears of proof lost, would success action bethe the thewar obvious eventually that was rather identity. new theirGerman accepting Saxons wereuncritically the identity-management, of pole alternative true any Without Group. Ethnic the of position Kirche,” (About the dogma of the church) the of dogma the (About Kirche,” Kirchliche Blätter 126 in the mirrored Church the of position the identity, Saxon the manage to power theoretical) least (at the thus, and, community Saxon the within place central the lost Having nationhood. German the into integration profound for theGerman model aresigns of to of an uncritical these the allegiance time andof attempts the Bibel,” (Hitler and the Bible) andthe (Hitler Bibel,” Holy Writing. When he went out, he would tend to say: ‘now it goes on’.” See “Hitler und die sources. Then he would lock himself in his room and indulge for hours in study the of the on stormycould bereadasearly as 1933:“Hitler usedtolivein a Munich at Lutheran housewife. Often, days,1940. Atthis itis mentioning point, worth an interesting that Hitler’s reference to religiosity he would borrow Luther’s Bible from her, as we are told from reliable references to Hitler’s profession of faith, of representation German the understood army justwar, leadingas anarmy paradoxical a the Adolf Hitler, “Und wenn Weltdie voll (If Teufel wär…,” worldthe full were devils…)of This is most visible in the 1943 enrollment in the Waffen-SS. At a moment when it The constant presence of the war in presence of pagesof war the the The constant , Sibiu/Hermannstadt, 19March, Sibiu/Hermannstadt, Adolf1940; “VonDogmaHitler, der Kirchliche Blätter Kirchliche Blätter 126 the revival of the First World War memories – all – memories War World First the of revival the Kirchliche Blätter , Hermannstadt, 20April 1933 was fundamentally identical to the to identical fundamentally was Kirchliche Blätter , Sibiu/Hermannstadt, 28May , Sibiu/Hermannstadt, and the self- 57 CEU eTD Collection probably probably some important other also aspectsrelated issue.to the and decreased ceremony numbersactually the confirmation the of children the attending whether reveal could localities Saxon-inhabited in all ones local the as well as in Sibiu ones 128 For motivationsthe leading tothe massive success of program the see 174-214 Schutzstaffel. Milata 2007, the and Wehrmacht the between difference no made Saxons Transylvanian enrollment of theMilata says SS”. mistake as that wasprobably to enablethe deliberate, future possible the youngstersin “Wehrmacht- the beenrolled would it, Germans of the Romania to in according authorities: German and either Romanian between agreement the of wording ofvery in the lies the important most The two. reasons. of number a to due At theinterchangeably almost SS and army same Wehrmacht/German time, it is rather obvious127 that inRomanian interwar and period state the inter-community the pressure. discussed in discussed previousthe chapter. identity, of indicium an to a criterion from affiliation religious Lutheran of abasement role incanbe identity for an proving personal one’s of affirmation usedas the argument the itslost central had confirmation that perception speculative same Atthe time, the identity. still try could Church the to that Lutheranism to use affiliation of markers few the for of one was confirmation the (albeit limited) make thatthis was agrowingThe anumbersources reality. usbelieve of Nevertheless, preservation meaning theSaxon for in its yearscommunity central the WorldWar. of Second the of its role in the to lose started hadsaliently confirmation that theLutheran management allegation orrejectto confirm the of Saxonbeen doneas nois hasyet research It ritual. true, to confirmation the granted importance the Church in front of the new model promoted by the German Ethnic Group Confirmation Religious of the The Issue IV.5. is represented by to resistfrom pressures coming the Germany. Saxon identity and of mainthe institution producing andreproducingit, the Lutheran Church, subsumed into a broader psycho-sociological motivation: the incapacity of the Transylvanian The documents of the comprehensive archives of the Lutheran Church, both the central the both Church, Lutheran the of archives comprehensive the of documents The Even though most of them were enrolled in SS divisions, I am using the words Finally, another important indicium pinpointing the loss of grip of the Lutheran the of grip of loss the pinpointing indicium important another Finally, 127 They can all be all can They 128 58 CEU eTD Collection life in Books (Norderstedt: transit) on Demand, 64 2006), 130 in Transylvania), Harald Roth, “Die ‘Deutsche Jugend’ (DJ) in Siebenbürgen 1939-1944,” (The German Youth 129 Even poor. was church attendance the “Despite celebration, the notes: Klima from 1942, June confirmation the After community. the of life inthe rite the of role diminishing the underpin regarding the absence of children from classes. preparatory children the from the confirmation, of the absence ignores the who local priest, of the agreement tacit of the in the context some ofIn theend, theyoung boy, with together his sister are confirmed. However, this happens only his observations tend to notes: attitudeabout the of peoplethe atthebeginningof ‘40sit,the towards Hermann Schmidt of age andit stands for his/heradulthood. Writing passinginto abouthis confirmation and more figure represents than potential 90% of the members. Consequently,in 73.719members. organization 1943the counted boys between 10 and 18years old andfor the girls between 10 and 21years old. from 15,October 1940 “officialthe ofmembershipduty” in DJ the was introduced for the The latter. to the both Group, formalthe informaland education of youngthe Transylvanian Saxons pertained Hermann Schmidt, Milata 2007, 93; For a more detailed depiction of the German Youth in Romania see in Romania Youth German the of moredetailed depiction a 93; For 2007, Milata Another source on the topic is Klima’s diary. Though he never makes remarks makes never he Though diary. Klima’s is topic the on source Another The Lutheran isconfirmation totakeplace supposed when is individual the 14years Ethnic German the to Church Lutheran the from authority, of transfer the Following against it. time they otherare the arepro, time they one doubts: their have my parents Even children. the confirm to appropriate is still it whether themselves ask people Some life. religious the newspiritencroach of Currents the […] confirmation age. the reached I upheaval political the of time the In Zeitschrift fürSiebenbürgischeZeitschrift Landeskunde Deutsche Jugend Vom Alt zur Alb: unterwegs inmeiner Zeit 130 (German Youth) wasfounded on Marchthe 1, 1939 and, 10 (81) (1987): 60-69 10 (81)(1987): (From the Olt to the Alb: a 129 Percentage-wise, this Percentage-wise, 59 CEU eTD Collection when saythe Lutheran to they good-bye they bysayingpastor “Siegheil!”answer hitting their refuse preparatory notgirls ofhis to the classes anddo confirmation. Nonetheless, age go the and boys the peers: his among exception is an novel the of character main The conflicting. clearly were imperatives two place, the novel takes of the in action the which context andof religious commitment” the “theof language”nation imperative and on inner withinthe conflicts Saxon the between 1867 andcommunity 1933,“theimperative tensions it raisedis Eginald novel, (autobiographical) Schlattner’s allegiance to two masters” to two allegiance psychological conflicts. One of the main depicting beginning the of endthe reasonsfor Saxon the community in Romania. for inner tensionsreflection is his of refusalthe social model,by promoted Nazi itsGermany to local and adherents. Itis probably bestliterary the “swear historyethnic new the and affiliation of religious the of the criterion the including Transylvanian Saxons, the of model ethnic old the of demands the Saxonsin-between caught Saxon young is a novel the of character main in the interwar and war period, sign of alarming secularization.” they not lay do any value anymore on going with their the Confirmation children A to Supper. 1944confirmation:the “Somefailed appear, even fathers to they though are athome, because without attending proper the Confirmation ceremony. yearlater, nosuch isremark found. Nonetheless, a girl to comes Confirmationthe Supper 135 134 133 132 131 some parentshave missedit. Somemissed mothershave Confirmation the Supper.” Möckel 1994, 139 Schlattner 1999,115 Ibid, 340 Ibid, 319 Klima 1999, 300 A literary A literary regarding Confirmation the of source theimportance and theidentity The main character of the novel is an adolescent who experiences severe experiences who adolescent is an novel the of character main The 134 . He is caught between what Andreas Möckel in called an between . Heiswhat AndreasMöckel essay caught 133 132 after comments more makes Klima Der geköpfte Hahn Der geköpfte 135 . In the historical 131 . The One 60 CEU eTD Collection say “Heil Kaiser Franz!” instead of And,instead points of author “Heil as the say “Heil “Sometimes KaiserFranz!” out: Hitler!”. exemplary: not he does succeedin making her stopusing Nazi the greeting, buthe makes her young niece whohas just learnthow to talkis in depicted a ratherludicrous manner, butis Nazification. the old way being polite,of showing thus inherent theirrefusal of noveltiesthe broughtin by in or stick they aretakingcontext who maketo the claim part to to they characters and want social the according to Gott” “Grüß to Hitler” “Heil shiftfrom who Hitler!”, characters “Heil only using almost characters are for community: there of the identity the crisis indicator in(or, lacksome cases, and respective interest) the is it of personal self-identification; an affiliation political relationships, social defining for high isextremely novel the of characters traditional traditional “Grüß Gott” behavior of a known identities.conflicting When wants adolescentthe his toshow dissatisfaction regarding the Nazi, he manifests his opposition religious isaffiliation by eloquent. greeting him withitwould seemmore to useeither appropriate greetingsgreetings neutral or showing their the religious- when in situations usageof markers their communication identity Nazi typical confirmation, 21 (1998):69 socialism) national of time inthe women Saxon in Liebig,“Siebenbürger Sabine des Nationalsozialismus” Sächsinnen zur Zeit (Transylvanian her habitual ‘Grüß Gott!’, whereon one of them she received a60%discounton German –shemet withofficers,railways retorted: whom she greeted ‘At us, this is called Heil Hitler!’” possible people, whom she approached very openly. train In the – asaGerman from – abroad had learned in Transylvania and that’s why she rapidly in engaged discussions with all – because for her it was the safest place on earth, inhabited by the most honest people – so she womenthe she interviewed: “In 1936 Mrs. B traveledany without fear toGermany, byherself 137 136 in Youth. learned way German the the they heels together Ibid,19. Seealso Sabinewhat Liebigsaysabout thejourney Hitler’s Germany to of one of Schlattner 1999,117 The relationship between the grandfather, ex-officer in the Habsburg Army in Army Habsburg the and the ex-officer grandfather, the between The relationship The usage of greetings by the characters of the novel is evidence of the existence of existence the of is evidence novel of the characters by the of greetings The usage instead of “Heil Hitler!” “Heil of instead 137 Zeitschrift fürsiebenbürgischeZeitschrift Landeskunde The importance of the greeting used by the by used greeting the of importance The 136 not refusingThough they were 61 CEU eTD Collection and swastika.” the pocket breastof his marine uniform, everyone could sothat brown the flax recognize binding 139 138 an insight into the by Ethnicthe and Group its leaders. An interestingextremely article by Swen offersSteinberg life of an ordinary the by represented andbetween figure oldthe of priestthe new authority, represented one, Saxon congregation, Haschagen (Haanswers they were supposed togive. Strictly speaking, Confirmation the turns to afailure. the confuse anymore one children the and pre-established the isnot order of confirmands the ritual was disturbed and it subsequently not follow does path theappropriate anymore. The local leader of the Ethnicand the priest leaders(the two between the confrontation an interpersonal sothat and disorder, Group) takes place. On a is German “Siegheil!” Theexclamationscauseconfusion the noise, organized. Ethnic Group personal level, the of contest sport the building the of thefront in Church, in the pastor confirmation the receive to wins. But the especially whenitcomesSchlattner, Confirmation tothe ritual. While childrenarepreparing markers.identification internalizeddisorientation in a very Nazi-oriented of manner, somebe aJew,heheld the to considered butparts paradoxicallyhe duetothewasoften name “Since generations: Goldschmidt going backtwenty-five of the proud of being aTransylvanian Saxon,refuses “800hundredyears old!”, of pure German descent, community: extremely he is but community, Saxon the of most Nazification by the brought changes the of of the Naziheidentification is of theproud older Saxon generation.she He is notof a sympathizerused his of the Nazi regimetoGerman and say ‘Heil descent, Kaiser Hitler!’”. The grandfather is the exponent of the self- Schlattner 1999,133-137 Schlattner 1999,13 The confirmation issue shows that in latent conflict therewasa orovert some issuethat places shows The confirmation by arevery well depicted Group Ethnic the Church and the between The conflicts 138 The attitude of the old Saxon grand-father is indicative for the for indicative is grand-father Saxon old the of attitude The Ahnenpaß (genealogical document) ostentatiously in the ú ag), in the year 139 62 CEU eTD Collection 142 141 Siebenbürgische Landeskunde priestthe Simon Zank from Haschagen leadershipwith youth local 1940) the of resistance? The conflict (Defenseor 1940,” mitder Landesjugendführung aus Haschagen 140 Youth. German the evening religious services because they were attending physical the organized by exercises the attend not did generation younger the Haschagen, In models. identity contradictory 1940. saliently 1933.Theprestigeafter associated to Saxonness and belief the model the that In thecase of Transylvanianthe Saxons, this is whathappened in interwarthe period, most Identities IV.5. Between Group. Ethnic German the of and Transylvanian itstoregulate attempts Saxonidentity were seenas into intrusions the field as Churchmorean “alien and the notes, andmore was regarded treated body” Steinberg status. Intheend, the priestZank wassent, ondisciplinary toanothergrounds, parish–as indicial an to relegated was affiliation religious but displaced, totally not was Church The belonged Ethnic the theChurchaddress only to Group, meantto was only religiousthe issues. facto autonomy and despite the local attempts of some of Church. its representatives to makeand the beingother ethnic the obviously one contradicted the traditional of position the use of a conflict was won by the latter.the unofficially, and The officially completeBoth Group. Ethnic the with separationconflict into enters Zank Simon of plans, one being the religious one, Ibid, 74 Ibid, 67 Swen Steinberg, “Verteidigung oder Widerstand? Der Konflikt des Pfarrers Simon Zank prestige,it could not revive its ethnic and social model. The education of childrenthe 140 Periods ofidentityPeriods crisis are periods when validity the beliefsgroup of is questioned. The conflict in Haschagen shows that the Church had almost completely lost its The conflictual issues can be seen as epitomes of the broader conflict, between two 141 Losing strings the traditionally belonging Church,the to local the priest 27(2004): 59-79 27(2004): Zeitschrift für 142 63 de CEU eTD Collection Anthony D. Smith’s observations on the meaning of national identity for an individual: an for identity national of meaning the on observations Smith’s D. Anthony 144 143 markers Saxon the traditional of However, hardships. following severeeconomic orientation by promoted Churchthe was nolonger capableof ensuring cohesion and asense of prestige and security provided by identificationthe with Nazi Germany. Theidentity model Many of “divided the Saxonand disoriented” individuals found shelter andrefuge in the pitifully, even Jews. Whereas Lutherans are Germans. Only the Anna, because Catholicsthe can be Hungarians, orRomanians, Frenchmen,or yes, and, imbued with Nazi ideology. And madean affirmation by of friend-fiend the mainthe an character, unabashed young man,he says: “One has to beware ofone another andCatholics, then use them according to their purposes. I use again a quote from Schlattner, sofrom elements says relevant borrow to tried myseparately, out taken aunt identities, both thus and sudden priorthe overlapping of the two identities (Lutheran and Saxon) could vanish not all a of by promoted Lutheran the inChurch was itspart replacedgreatest by newthe is model. It true, ethnic change whoseroots are to be foundin precedingthe The period. model identity of disappeared. practically for theSaxon community of Church the place central were beinggroup Theinterrogated. answer tothis interrogation was radical. Subsequently, the traditionally promoted by the Lutheran Church is able to ensure their survival as a distinct Anthony D. Smith, Schlattner 1998,166-167 The identity crisis of the Transylvanian Saxons can be very well synthesized by synthesized well be very can Saxons Transylvanian the of crisis identity The radicalized signsthe of ofidentity bears the affirmation war, In the the yearsof the changes and uncertainties of the modern world. modern the of uncertainties and changes vast the with contend to had have who individuals disoriented ‘authentic soit self’,has or tomany dividedappeared and the ourselves, we‘rediscover’ culture that rediscovering By know ‘whowe are’in to contemporary enabled the world. culture.distinctive its and personality collective the of prism the It defining andlocating individual selves in world,the through is through…a sense of national identity provides a powerful means of a shared, unique culture that we are National Identity . (London:Penguin 1991), 17. Books, 144 Führer is a Catholic!” 143 64 CEU eTD Collection (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2003) Westdeutscher (Wiesbaden: Wanderungen al., Weber et Georg 145 for a long period of time a holistic cultural concept,ethnically “The defined groups: historiography according Germansof in followedthe Europe Eastern to which culture was seen as a inarticle historiography wrote arecent to the scholar dedicated Gerhard Seewann of ethnicin groups that into endthe integrated wider the got nation. German German The of many consists different In category the reality, in Europe. Eastern and Central minorities category within of German ethnicgroup broader of as an the evidence their specificity Observations IV.6. Comparative of lastthe especially between century, 1945. 1933 and half first the from events the of background the against understood better be might Germany decisions. rolein theauthoritarian important hadin personal their regime an Romania overlooked: But the hugecontext waves ofindevelopments that tookplace in secondthe half of 20 the migration,which most from of Romaniathe samethe valueasbefore. Germanshave not could Church by the to promoted model ethnic the As such, the Nazi. by things more, even Federalfrom Romania lostits central Republicplace in Saxon self-identification, being mostly replaced by things German and, decided of Saxonthe childrenof probably still the attended Confirmation. things However, Saxon had to novel maketoboth Schlattner’s references Transylvanian literature.Most andSaxon German emigratein characters The Germany. in Hitler’s it found Saxons “self”, their losing of afraid Being cannotidentity be were still visible; but they did not constitute essential affiliation criteria anymore. For a comprehensive sociological analysis of the emigration of Transylvanian Saxons, see Saxons, Transylvanian of emigration the of analysis sociological comprehensive a For The social history of the Saxons following Hitler’s rise to power in Germany is also is in Germany power to rise Hitler’s following Saxons the of history social The later the envisaged identity German an essentially to recourse sametime,the At the (Emigration of the Transylvanian Saxons: Studies on East-West migrations) East-West on Studies Saxons: Transylvanian the of (Emigration Emigration derSiebenbürger zu Ost-WestSachsen. Studien 145 th century. Of course, the political the Of course, century. 65 CEU eTD Collection 147 den deutschenSiedlungsgebieten Südosteuropas ethnically in defined groups) 146 Transylvanian Saxons, importantthe factor to cope with was, theoretically, overlapping the of the of case the In nation. German broader the into integrated submissively groups These differences. of deletion old was the migration suchasforced effects the direct after same. not the premisesweredefinitely is the main that difference The National-Socialism. fate whothe substantially of different responded groups German of other to the appeal of 19 promoted by the Lutheran Church. In some ways, the process of ‘ethnic change’ started displace hadto embeddedrelated model,intransformations adeeply ethnic the one aswas the identity- its and process Nazification the case, their In self-identification. astrong with group by promoted Nazism was not necessarily an replacing older andmuch internalized model. model German the inasmuch Nazification, of object they easy were an heterogenous, more much Structurally self-identification. weak arather with groups ethnic were former historythe of Transylvanianthe Saxons enables us to speakrather about “ethnic change”. The “emancipation”, about wecandefinitely talk or Sathmarthe Swabians Germans Bessarabia subtly group. ethnic terms) (but on an emancipated different already “emancipate” to managed it Saxons Transylvanian the of case the In “indispensable”. was it such, as and, minorities” theprocessof for ethnic of emancipation construct was usedasan “ideological is contesting paradigm The Seewann rather social,anddialectal. historical, aspects: cultural, livingspeaking groups beyond the borders of Germanthe weredifferent instate a number of forms of andlife.” ensemble of closed distinct specific th Ibid Gruppen,” history the (On of definiterter “Zur ethnisch Gerhard historiographie Seewann, century, but reached a peak in the ‘30s and’ 40s. The fate of the Saxons was not For theethnicFor living Germans one abroad, of the mostimportant social consequences, ethnic an already were who Saxons, Transylvanian the with case the not was This If,in the case of such ethnic groups as the Volga Germans, the Dobrudja Germans, the Danubiana Carpathica. JahrbuchfürGeschichteDanubiana Carpathica. undKultur in (München:Oldenbourg Verlag,2007),7 146 But the reality is that the German- the that is reality the But 147 66 CEU eTD Collection Saxons in Romanian politics stands for the existence of premises. for of theexistence different politics stands Saxons inRomanian Transylvanian the with cooperation political substantial of absence The factor. differentiation fundamental a is also Swabians Banat the of structure social The Saxons. Transylvanian the from differentiation of marker important an beginning very the from out sets d=7427 http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1422&fuseaction=topics.publications&doc_id=8280&group_i November 2001, Wilson Comparative Study German in the of Diaspora Woodrow Hungary,and Slovakia,” Romania International148 Center for Scholars, East European Studies Meeting Report 244, 7 identification was “colonial the pride” their self- of of pillars the Saxons. One of the that fate with shared asimilar as they state. of new the Czechoslovak made them subjects Hungary,and assimilation envisaging strongly VersaillesPeaceTreaties the opposing that with relationship more little Zipser hada The difficult. bit a comparison totally different the Reformationhad,in part, a similar history with thedid one of the Transylvanian Saxons. However, the fact that not have in actual 13 from Slovakia the territory on the Settled of Zipser Slovakia. the same influenceAta first view,interesting observations. be most suitable the with would comparison the as in the casecrisis by German-speaking wouldundergone forother groups the some ground provide of the Saxons makes the notas asurprise. do appear events by anymore Churchwasnot the as viablefrom seen within subsequent the the institution, National-Socialist body of thought made the situation easier. Since the ethnic model promoted the towards dignitaries churchly of openness the However, ethnic. and religious identities: 149 Ingomar Senz, A Central Europe: in East Conflict Ethnic of Roots Social “The Szelenyi,Balasz (31May 2007) The Banat Swabians of Romaniamightalso offer aground for comparison, especially An attemptto compare identity the crisis of Transylvanianthe Saxons totheidentity Die Donauschwaben (Bonn: Langen Müller, 1994),29 149 ; however, their predominantly Catholic affiliation Catholic predominantly their ; however, 148 th century, the Zipser the century, 67 CEU eTD Collection both cases both oldthe young vs. dichotomy present. Consequently, radicalization was the process in and hand, other the on Germanness to and hand one the on state Czechoslovak/Romanian process of rethinking their allegiance, first to the Austrian state, then to the Both the elites of the Bohemian Germans and of the Transylvanian Saxons were caught in this Nationalities Papers of Habsburg the Attempt Monarchy, the a‘Sudeten to Create and German’ Identity”, 150 Bahm notes: of that Transylvanianthe toone Making Judson’s Karl of Saxons. Pieter reference works, F. affected them as well Habsburg Monarchy, centrifugal the evolutions from secondhalf the of 19 the and made them question Though Europe. they had been developing identity their in Cisleithanianthe part of the their own identification, in a differently. wayunderstood be to are similar transformations identity relevant to characteristics,internal various the to Due ‘diaspora’. German the the of groups other the message with happen not brought by Nazism fellreligious affiliation from onthe status differentof a criterion of identity to the one of an indicium, grounds. this did by of was accompanied byNazification Lutheran relegation brought the the ethnic change Consequently, the in If thecase Saxons process the of of differences. structural of number Transylvanian the asignificant samebutthe displaying German culture, at time to theirthrough allegiance uniteddifferentgroups, ideology offermanaged an messageto to attractive National Socialist Karl F. Bahm, “The Incoveniences of Nationality: German Bohemians, the Disintegration the Bohemians, German Nationality: of F.“TheBahm, Incoveniences Karl The SudetenGermans also wereasignificant German-speakingin group Central is that remarks frombe comparative extracted these to important observation most The liberal politics. liberal nationality, German the who sought to inject a greater concern for the self-interest of andguarantee of German and the rights privilege, best the as patriotism Austrian supranationalist of defenders by a growing tension between the between tension agrowing by liberalism…German in Austria was aftercharacterized 1870 27(1999), 378 27(1999), 150 as a nationality, into traditional into nationality, a Alten , the old-guard, the Jungen , th century 68 CEU eTD Collection radicalization. In the first case, we can read the radicalization process in terms: FredrikIn case,wecan process Barth’s first read the radicalization the radicalization. groups, Transylvanian Saxons and Germans, Sudeten had undergone arather similar of a million. a quarter wereonly Saxons the whereas in Bohemia, living were Germans 3million than more significant: extremely were differences numerical the time, same At the lands. Czech in the Germans the from difference significant another Hitlerism, to opposition relevant any produce not did Saxons Transylvanian ittime,hindered the possibility havingof acriticallook at eventsthe from Germany. The the physical distance Saxons, In Transylvanian caseof in the the state. a German integration World the War), First from the German statewas an elite who had alreadyimpeded envisaged,in some moments of the recent history (the end of the such hopes groups place differentbackgrounds.took case,there In one radicalization of against two the and dreams. At the same the in effects, similar quite Though party. bythe social-democrat played role significant the (religious and ethnic), casebut thereof the were the In Sudetenrelevant. are nation otherGerman the into integration the by Germans, importantfollowed radicalization, ethnic for constitutive example, not elementsonlyidentity. was thereas well,The no of different suchreproduction such and preservation in the role overlapas akey such patterns had Church the whom for group ofleading identities the various German groups outside Germany to their one. a very make thecomplex narration that differences about relevant make usforget the not should narration and samehistorical the touched on both ethnic in groups Butthe ‘30s. the possibility both integrate casesto into one In this context, the most interesting aspect is that despite these differences both ethnic both differences these despite is that aspect interesting most the context, this In Among in German-speaking the the groups Saxons Europe, Eastern weretheonly dichotomization between members and outsiders allows us to allows outsiders and members between dichotomization mayyet continuing factgroup the – of change indeed,be transformed, organizational even the form of the maylikewise of members the and cultural characteristics the thatsignal features The cultural boundary may the change, 69 CEU eTD Collection (Bergen-Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1969), 14 151 descendants from nobles was more important such as the suchas Germans. Baltic the important more from nobles was descendants in Dobrudja groups,a without poorer very as theGermans regional such rather self-identification, strong or in program was notdestined toresettleBessarabia the Transylvanian Saxons or Banatthe Swabians, but members of theseor groups groups were differentmost of the radicalized mechanisms that and cases,The in instruments striking. some for each andfor every one speaking groups outside German the Reich, evenif between differences the ofwhom groups were, these them: the the self-identificationaway from beginningthe of ‘30s.the Transylvanian identity, tobe found in journalthe of youngthe intellectuals, as any fact anddidactually toemphasize of not a Theattempts tensions. sort produce noblesa given as taken was it but Saxons, Transylvanian the of self-identification in the orimportance neighboring German state. It is true that regionalthe identity hadits not-to-be-discarded inhabitants of and province) the identity, their their emphasizing German allegiance tothe be Czech the shared identity (to with their regional main werebetween the tensions Germans, Sudeten the With ethnicity. on emphasis by an replaced being identity, of indicium The cultural form and content changed, namely the religious affiliation turned into a mere in “Introduction”, Barth, Fredrik The reality is that National Socialism managed to exercise an appeal to all German- cultural form cultural content. and thechanging investigate continuity, and of nature specify the Ethnic Groups andBoundaries Ethnic Groups 151 , ed. Fredrik, ed. Barth Klingsor heim ins Reich heim ins , faded 70 CEU eTD Collection answer the question whether a minority minority be church a a can question whether answer the Beintker triedMichael to specialist the theological Democratic Republic, former German in the Church Lutheran the of fate the about astudy In forth. be brought can Church Lutheran The reasons, of course, are multiple. Religious reasons pertaining to the dogma of the De Gruyter, 1994), 303-322 undNeuzeit: 300JahreTheologiein Reformation Halle Jahre TheologieinHalle in and perspectives) experiences East-German on Reflections Volkskirche? bea Church minority a (Can Perspektiven” und Erfahrungen ostdeutschen 153 21 Verlag, 2003), IKGS (München: Sienerth Stefan and Wittstock Joachim ed. Europe), in South-Eastern quickly’:(‘Please, respond daily life, politicsand by reflected culture German corespondence Politik undKulturbaldige Nachricht”: Alltag, im Spiegelsüdostdeutscher Korrespondenz 152 son, deported to USSR: the new Lutheran Bishop Friedrich Müller, Michael Klein wrote in a letter addressed to his V. Conclusions Lutheran Church would never recover and would never attain the ideal state of never ideal state anda the attain never recover would wouldLutheran Church Transylvanian Saxons to1944, prior constituted that researchtopicthe of thesis.this it history of anddebates also the but social underlying the the conflicts notably summarizes War and the inauguration of a new The notabove-quoted text only signals new the hopes kindled by endof the SecondWorld the Bishop as the head of the Lutheran Church in Romania, Michael Klein, “Schreibenvom 25. Juni1945”(Letter from in 25 June1945) Michael Beintker, “Kann eine Minderheitskirche Volkskirche sein? Reflexionen zu In 1945, after the end of the Second World War, with the occasion of the election of Klein’s hopes would soonprove unsubstantial. FollowingSecond the World War, the disappear. we then ifitdisappears, us; carries Church that the life, our of of carrier the our thing, main is the Church being. the no, – existence It is not us thewho carry the Church,Away with falseasifthe attitude, Church the bewould only external but it is form, the visible container of our (Reformation and Contemporaneity: 300 theology years in Halle), in Halle), in years theology 300 Contemporaneity: and (Reformation 152 , ed. Udo Schnelle (Berlin, New York: Volkskirche Reformation und Reformation Neuzeit: 300 völkisch . 153 gettingtoo Without Volkskirche “Bitte um 71 . CEU eTD Collection the local Saxon communities, this openness was mostfor rolepriest of accountthe the into Taking Germany. on dependence complete probablybefore the transferred to the members of distinctly showed a certain openness towards the National-Socialist body Church of thought, Lutheran the even that shown I have myth, Germany political and cultural embedded schooling system and tothe overburdening of Saxonsthe with taxes and beyond deeply the of knowledge on topic,the tributary mainly politicalto and economic interpretations. history of Transylvanianthe between 1933andSaxons enriching 1944,thus level the actual a in war. In have newintroduced study this of social thesis, Ianalysis of the perspective the in volumes on the Saxon (political) history between the two world wars and in the years of the and by analyzed they of scholars to political a number the of them were related context were for anumber Many failed, of andethnic reasons. religious (Lutheran) the (Saxon) categories based of model, ethnic ontheoverlapping tomaintain before.traditional the than efforts The a became muchindicium, affiliation basismere religious a having weaker Lutheran identity, of criterion a from that showed have I Horowitz, of framework theoretical the Using Church. by Saxon accompanied of socialTransylvanian the status of community was a relegation the Nonetheless,have out, asI previously pointed the Nazification undergonebythe process Lutheran inChurch Transylvania continuedin to‘appear’, some aspects,asa 154 conclusion: indeep his since arguments, they from all depart premises, wecanmaketheological its use of Ibid, 321 Beyond the financial hardships leading to the incapacity to properly maintain the maintain properly to incapacity the to leading hardships financial the Beyond Laying the emphasis on words such as ‘show’ or ‘appear’ is important. After 1933, the Volkskirche. Volkskirche type. So,aminority church can asa appear the of features essential show can church minority a Inother continue toexist.[…] of words: a Volkskirche can typical characteristics inEven situation, minority insecure an 154 Volkskirche 72 . CEU eTD Collection Westfalen has its symbolic meaning. symbolic its has Westfalen thethat sponsorship for them by was taken over predominantly the Catholic Nordrhein- and Bavaria in Catholic found be to are Saxons Transylvanian the representing institutions main fact the the that but forGerman new somecitizens; of the was important Saxon priest Transylvanian the of role the locally be that might It Staedel. Wilhelm or Zillich Heinrich defeat by the Allies toGermanymigrants consisted of soldiers whohadthe remained inGermanyfollowing the or some Saxon Transylvanian of generation important of first The before. as the affirmation radical no importantbe would there Of course, in Romania. regime figures communist the of installation the and Germany who had promoted Nazism, such demise.its own to contributed rather TheChurch weight. much greater as a have would ethnicity German in which one, a new of favor in Church by the solely almost figures were implicitly explicitlyor breakpinpointing the with oldthe ethnicmodel sustained intellectual and political important Saxon other and clergy the of members ordinary the both model, the articles in articles the model, Though theleadership effect. promote of Churchwas,until the oldthe 1941, tryingto ethnic substantial any have not did they National-Socialism, of importance growing the counter of Saxon betweenthe if, wereattemptscommunity. Even to especially 1939,there 1933 and radicalization the for way the paved extent an to Church the Socialism, by National embodied identity criterion to that identity of an indicium had totakeplace.of of a status from the affiliation religious Lutheran the a relegation of beaccepted, to Socialism for National identity. German In order integrative appealing partof the an considered becauseitwas Nazism was essentially Church. wasthataccepted, the consequence The Elements of the new model would be perpetuated even after the fall of Nazism in Through its lack of a coherent response to the ideological and societal pressures Kirchliche Blätter , together with other documents and sources show that show andsources documents other with , together 73 CEU eTD Collection American Ethnologist 157 156 ‘empty’) interview by Rodica Binder, “minority “minority selling” affecting Jews andGermans made ethnicity languageand the two most integration of living intoitsethnic Germans society abroad and Romania’s of policies migrationenvisaged West possibility of to Germany. towardsthe policies Germany’s main identity,German had whose marker due becomethelanguage, wasimportant to the Church as well lossthe at identity”,Lutheran of prestige hinting “decliningthe of the salienceof about (marriages without anthropological study on a mixed Transylvanian village in communistthe era,Verdery wrote church ceremonies). in Saxon villages. connotation, ideological any without sung, be sometimes still would how Nazi songs notes Philippi instances. in some be visible still would identity of markers German Nazi Socialism, National of times the lived and ‘70s as well. At the same time, for the older members of the Saxon generation, who had 155 war”. the during and ‘30s in the Nazis the with collaboration the reproached students, young the “We were in permanent conflictfollowing affirmationsabout therelationship of itswith generation with onethe of his parents: a part of the local ruraljournal, theGerman cultural Romanian a for population writerinterview an In Germans. whom Romanian of that we, identity: Richardcommon Wagner,previous internal Transylvanianrelevance, andSaxons Swabians Banat ended upsharing a originatingcreatingpastits anewlostand Sharing one. with cleavagehaving recent religious the the fromparents. However, refusing itdid not mean goingback to previousthe ethnic model,butrather Banat and now settled in Berlin, made the EthnicCollectivity:“TheKatherine Germans,” an of Transylvania’s Verdery,Unmaking Philippi 1994, 84 “CWagner, Richard 155 The equivalence of Lutheran and Saxon notan issuewas definitely anymore. In her The new generations of Transylvanian Saxons refused the radicalization of The new Saxons of refusedof the radicalization their generations Transylvanian youngThe same for from the late ‘60s true students Transylvanian the was Saxon 12 (February 1985): 62-83 ăUĠ ile ‘pline’ ile ‘pline’ ú Observator cultural i cerul ‘gol’,” (Books that are ‘filled’ and a sky that is that are ‘filled’ andasky that (Books ‘gol’,” i cerul 156 157 317-318,20April – 3May 2006. However, the preservation of a of preservation the However, 74 CEU eTD Collection weaker indicium indicium identification. weaker of and partially also afterTransylvanian Saxons and Banat Swabians, very 1918relevantin the years of the Habsburg Empire was not important between differentiation Lutheran/Catholic The for identification. criteria important anymore, as it only stood for a weaker and 75 CEU eTD Collection ______. Böhm, Johann. Böhm, ______. “Volkskirche als (VolkskircheLebensform.” as a form of life) in “Die______. evangelische A. Landeskirche in B. Rumänien (The1920-1944.” ______. “Die (The Evangelische Kirche,Lutheran Church, 1849-1914.” 1849- Binder, Ludwig. zu Reflexionen sein? Volkskirche Minderheitskirche eine “Kann Michael. Beintker, Barth, Fredrik. “Introduction”. In Bahm, Karl F. “The Incoveniences of Nationality: German Bohemians, the Disintegration Badrus, Nadia. “Das Bild derSiebenbürger Sachsen über die Juden. Einige Bibliography ethnic group with the ThirdGerman in ethnic group Romania 1936-1944.The relationshipReich of German the and with the Romanian Gruppen denpolitischen zwischen state as well as the Dritten Reich und zum rumänischen Staat sowie der interne Widerstreit Rumänien 1936-1944.DasVerhältnis der Deutschen Volksgruppezum Verlag, 1993 Germans inRomania Ippesheim: AGK andtheWeimar Republic 1919-1933). Köln, Wien: BöhlauVerlag,1988. Transylvanian Saxons from 1918),1849 to edited by Schuster 1984 Lutheran inChurch Romania 1920-1944).In König 1994,237-263. 1914). In 1914). Saxons). Erlangen: Martin Luther Verlag, 1982 322. Berlin, DeGruyter, NewYork: 1994 Contemporaneity: 300theology years in by Halle), edited Udo Schnelle, 303- undReformation Neuzeit:in 300JahreTheologie in Halle perspectives) and experiences East-German on Reflections Volkskirche? a be Church minority a (Can Perspektiven” und Erfahrungen ostdeutschen 1969 9-38. Bergen-Oslo: Universitetsforlaget,London: George Allen & Unwin, Identity.” of Habsburgthe Monarchy, a‘Sudeten Attempt the and toCreate German’ in and Höpken Gündisch, Markel 1998, 85-106 (TheAnhaltspunkte.” Transylvanian Saxon of Jews.the Image Some Features) Das Nationalsozialistische Deutschland unddie Deutsche Volksgruppe in Die Deutschen inRumänienunddie Weimarer Republik 1919-1933 Die Kircheder Siebenbürger Sachsen Nationalities Papers Die Siebenbürger Sachsen inden Jahren 1849-1918 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries Ethnic Groups and 27(1999): 375-405 27(1999): (National-socialist Germany and the (The church of the Transylvanian the of church (The , edited by Fredrik Barth, Carl Carl 227-242. Göllner, (Reformation and (Reformation (The (The 76 CEU eTD Collection Glass, Hildrun. “Luthertum Conze, Werner. –Deutsch-Protestantismus.” und Nationalismus Gottas, Friedrich.Gottas, “Das undEnde derNationsuniversität derenAblösung durchdie Viktor. Glondys, ______. Ciobanu, Vasile. Ciobanu, Bottesch, Martin. “Fremd-undin Selbstbilder einer siebenbürgischen Gemeinde. des Ersten Bernhard.Böttcher, “Kontinuität Weltkrieges imFrieden? Kriegerdenkmäler Weber, 137-155. Köln, Wien: BöhlauVerlag, 1985 Humanism South-Eastern on Europe), edited by Georg Weber and Renate Südosteuropa Siebenbürgen: Ausstrahlungen vonReformation undHumanismus nach In Protestantism). German – Nationalism and (Lutheranism 2001 1944). Sibiu:hora, ed. (Contributions to knowledgethe of history the of Transylvanian Saxons 1918- Deutschen Tageblattes.” (The end of the Nationsuniversität andits (The end Nationsuniversität the Deutschen of Tageblattes.” Evangelische Kirche im Spiegel Berichterstattung des der Siebenbürgisch- 1997 to 1949), edited by Johann Böhm and Dieter Braeg. Dinklage: AGK Verlag, relationship in Romania 1918-1938).München: Oldenbourg Verlag, 1996 Rumänien 1918-1938 Verlag, 1985 Frankfurtam Lang political between the Main: Peter groups). internal conflict and Markel1998,193-216 Höpken in Gündisch, in Grosspold), Roma and Romanians Landler, Saxons, Transylvanian Congregation: Transylvanian ina others and themselves in of Rumänen Roma Großpold”und (Image Sachsen, Landler, Siebenbürger München:53-72. Verlag, IKGS 2006 Europe),edited by and and Roth, Hausleitner Mariana Harald South-Eastern in Central-Eastern minorities on socialism national and fascism of influence Nationalsozialismus inOstmittel- aufMinderheiten undSüdosteuropa Transylvanian Saxons). In first world warduring peace?Warmonumens and cultthe heroes at of the und Heldenkultbei Siebenbürgerden Sachsennach 1918” (Continuity the of Wissenschaften, 2006 1945) Frankfurt amMain: Lang, Peter Europäischer der Verlag 1945 (Hitler’s vassals of the German ethnic group in Romania before and after Hitlers Vasallen derDeutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänienvor und nach Tagebuch. Aufzeichnungen von1933 bis1949 Zerbrochene Nachbarschaft:Dasdeutsch-jüdische Verhältnis in Contribu (Luther and Transylvania: influences of Reformation and Reformation of influences Transylvania: and (Luther Ġ ii lacunoa (Shattered neighborship: the German-Jewish the neighborship: (Shattered ú terea sa istoriei Der Einfluss von Faschismus und ú ilor transilv (Diary. from Notes 1933 ă neni 1918-1944 Luther und (The 77 CEU eTD Collection Klima, Pfarrer Hellmut. Klima, Pfarrer Klein, Michael.“Schreibenvom 25. Juni from 1945,” (Letter 1945)in 25 June Gündisch, Konrad,Wolfgang Höpken and Michael Markel, ed. Vorgeschichte (1876): “Die derSächsischen Nationsuniversität Göllner, Auflösung Carl. Kessler, ed. Wolfgang, Hutcheon, Linda. “Historiography Metafiction: ‘The Pastime of Past Time’.” In ______. “Ethnic In Identity.” Donald.Horowitz, “Cultural andMovements Ethnic Change.” Holzträger, Hans. “Der Kirchenkampf in inDeutschland und Siebenbürgen 1933-1944 Gündisch, Konrad. Transylvanian-German Journal).In Kessler 1990,367-388 the of coverage in the reflected Church Lutheran by the replacement Dudweiler: Pirrot VerlagDudweiler: Pirrot & Druck, 1999 revised1930-1945), and by published Saarbrücken- Samuel Liebhart. Jahren 1930-1945 Joachim Wittstock and Stefan 21München:Sienerth, IKGS 2003 Verlag, by reflected in German corespondence by edited South-Eastern Europe), Korrespondenz baldige Nachricht”: Alltag, Politik undKultur im Spiegelsüdostdeutscher Transylvanian Saxon Köln, Nationsuniversität). Wien: BöhlauVerlag, 1990 sächsische Nationsuniversität consequences).In Kessler 1990,355-366 und Folgen.” dissolution (The Saxonthe of prehistoryNationsuniversität: and Routledge, 1995 of Postmodernism. History, Theory,Fiction HarvardPress, 1975 University Massachusetts: Cambridge,Moynihan, 111-141. andDanielP. Nathan Glazer Academy ofPolitical and Social Science In Blätter’). Möckel 1980, 36-52 Germany and Transylvania 1933-1944in coverageof the ‘Kirchlichethe der Berichterstattung der‘Kirchlichen Blätter’.” (The ‘Kirchenkampf’ in Langen Müller, 1998 Transylvanian Saxons). With the collaboration of Matthias Beer. Bonn: Wien: BöhlauVerlag,1998 other in Transylvania.Siebenbürgen. Stereotype ineiner multiethnischen Region Stereotypes in a multicultural region). Köln, Weimar, Siebenbürgen und die Siebenbürger Sachsen Siebenbürgen unddieSiebenbürger Gruppenautonomie in Siebenbürgen: 500Jahresiebenbürgisch- Aus denTagebücherneines siebenbürgischen Studentenausden (‘Please,quickly’: respond life, andculture politics daily (From the diaries of a Transylvanian student from years the from student a Transylvanian of diaries (From the (Groupautonomy in Transylvania: 500 years of Ethnicity. TheoryandExperience Ethnicity. 433 (September 1977):6-18 . New York and London: DasBilddes Anderen in Annals of the Annals of American (Transylvania and the (The image of the , edited by “Bitte um A Poetics 78 CEU eTD Collection Milata, Paul. Miege, Wolfgang. McArthur, Marilyn. Liebig,“Siebenbürger Sabine. Sächsinnen zurZeitdes Nationalsozialismus” ______. “Zur politischen Rolle der‘Deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien’ in den und Sachsen Siebenbürger den zwischen Beziehungen “Die Michael. Kroner, König, Walter,König, ed. König, Walter. “Das Schulwesen der Siebenbürger Sachsen in der Zwischenkriegszeit,” Anthony Stockwell, Komjathy,and Rebecca Köln, Weimar,Wien: BöhlauVerlag,2007 Waffen-SS). in the Germans Romanian Antonescu: and Stalin Hitler, (Between Verlag, 1990. intoand Weber, German transl. Georg byKöln, Maurer. Wien:Böhlau Ursula foreword by Georg Weber, with a sociological contribution by Identity: Transylvanian ArminSaxons in Socialist Romania), and edited with a Nassehi 1972) socialist Germanthe in ethnic group national-Romania 1933-38.Acontribution to ethnicEin Beitragzur nationalsozialistische Volkstumspolitik politics) Bern, Frankfurt am Main: Herbert & Peter Lang, between the two world wars). Köln, Weimar, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 1994 siebenbürgische Landeskunde Socialism), National during women Saxon (Transylvanian Romania’ in years the 1940-1944).In Roth 1995, 133-162 den Jahren 1940-1944.”(Onthepolitical of role ‘Germanthe in Ethnic Group Vierteljahresblätter building of a common Romanian German consciousness) ethnic in groups Romania in German yearsthe 1918-1944.Considerations on the other the and Saxons Transylvanian the between relationships (The Betrachtungen zur Bildung rumäniendeutschen eines Gesamtbewußtseins.” anderen deutschen Volksgruppen Rumäniens in Jahren den 1918-1944. edited by Walter König, Köln, 265-299. Weimar, Wien: BöhlauVerlag, 1994 denbeidenWeltkriegenzwischen in Saxons) Transylvanian educational system (The the of London: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1980) GermansofEastCentralEuropebetween theWarsEthnic Zwischen StalinundAntonescu: Hitler, Rumäniendeutsche inderWaffen-SS Das Dritte Reichunddie Deutsche Volksgruppe inRumänien1933-38. Siebenbürgenzwischen den beidenWeltkriegen Zum Identitätswandel der Siebenbürger derSiebenbürger Sachsen Zum Identitätswandel 34 (1985): 33-39 34(1985): 21 (1998): 57-76 21(1998): (Transylvania between between world (Transylvania the two wars), German Minoritiesand theThirdReich: (The Third Reich and Reich Third (The (The Politics of (Transylvania Südostdeutsche Zeitschrift für Zeitschrift (New York, Siebenbürgen 79 CEU eTD Collection Roth, Harald. “Autostereotype als Identifikationsmuster. Zum Selbstbild der Reinerth, Karl M. and Fritz Cloos. Thomas. Nägler, Myss, Walter. Popa, Klaus, ed. Popa, “PfarrerDietmar. WilhelmPlajer, Wilhelm die (Priestund Staedel Jugendarbeit.” Staedel Philippi,“Nation Paul. und Nationalgefühl Siebenbürgerder Sachsen.”(Nation and ed. Möckel, Gerhard, Möckel, Andreas. “Kleinsächsisch oder Alldeutsch? Zum Selbstverständis der 191 image of Transylvanian inSaxons) Gündisch, Höpken and Markel 1998, 178- Siebenbürger Sachsen“ identification (Self-stereotypes as theself-patterns: Heimatforschung, 1988 für undVerlag Volks- derArbeitsgemeinschaft südostdeutsche 1945 selection). Peter Lang: Frankfurt am Main, 2005 Auswahl des Südostdeutschen Kulturwerks, 1968 Transylvanian mirroredSaxons, in journalthe München:‘Klingsor’). Verlag ‘Klingsor’ Spiegel derZeitschrift München: Selbstverlag des Hilfskomitees der Siebenbürger Sachsen,1980 of Saxons inthe Transylvanian 1980). of spring the assistance committee the in a session presented Papers resistance. and accommodation between (Church Tagung desHilfskomitees der Siebenbürger Sachsen imFrühjahr 1980 6-29 and the youth work). Verlag, 1994 present)the edited by Hans Rothe, 69-86.Köln, Weimar,Wien: Böhlau der Geschichte undGegenwart In Saxons). Transylvanian the at feeling national Siebenbürgisch-Sächsischen Stiftung, 2004 Bishop’s See Birthälm in Transylvania). München: Verlag der König 1994,129-141. Self-understandingthe of Transylvanianthe from Saxons 1933).1867 In to SachsenSiebenbürger von 1867bis 1933,”(Small Saxon Pan-German?or On Fazit Siebenbürger nachachhundertJahren. Geistesleben Sachsenim der (On historythe of Germansthe in 1935-1945). Romania Bad Tölz: Im Marktort und Bischofssitz Birthälm in Siebenbürgen Akten umdieDeutsche Volksgruppe inRumänien1937-1945.Eine (Documents (Documents on Germanthe Ethnic in Group A Romania 1937-1945. Kirche zwischen undWiderstand. Anpassung Referate einer Zeitschrift für siebenbürgische Landeskunde25 Zur Geschichte derDeutschen inRumänien (The Transylvanian Saxons in history and in and in history Saxons Transylvanian (The (Exitafter 800 years. Spiritual life of the Die SiebenbürgerSachsen in (Market town and town (Market (2002): 1935- 80 CEU eTD Collection Senz, Ingomar. Gruppen.” “Zur ethnisch history (On the definiterter Seewann, historiographie Gerhard. Oskar, ed. Schuster, Smith, Anthony. Smith, des Literaturbetrieb im Zillich Heinrich und Meschendörfer “Adolf Stefan. Sienerth, Hermann.Schmidt, ______. ______. “Literatura ca izb______. Eginald. Schlattner, ‘Kirchenkampf’ in Josef. bisScheerer, “Der Siebenbürgen zumJahr sogenannte 1945.” ______, ed. ______. “Die ‘Deutschein Jugend’ (DJ) Siebenbürgen (The1939-1944,” German University Press, 2003 13. München: Oldenbourg Verlag,2007 Geschichte undKulturindendeutschenSiedlungsgebieten Südosteuropas of ethnically In groups). defined second revised edition, (Köln, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 1984) Jahrhundert life in(Norderstedt: Books transit). on Demand, 2006) edited by Michael Markel and Peter Motzan. München: IKGS Verlag, 2003 Romania andthe‘Third reception Reich’: – entanglement– marginalization), Reich”: Vereinnahmung–Verstrickung –Ausgrenzung in Reich’) ‘Third the of field literary the in Zillich Heinrich and Meschendörfer (Adolf Reiches’,” ‘Dritten Binder, Rodica Weimar, Wien:Böhlau Verlag, 1995 Köln, War). World First the since Transylvania nation-state: and (Minority 1994 Verlag, 1998 Möckel 1980, 21-35. (The so-called ‘Kirchenkampf’ in Transylvania until In year1945). the 60-69(1987): Wien: BöhlauVerlag,1994 Weimar, Köln, Saxons). Transylvanian the at streams and structures (Political Youth Youth in Transylvania), Politische Strukturen undStrömungen beiden Siebenbürger Sachsen Die Donauschwaben Chosen Peoples:SacredNational Sourcesof Identity Minderheit und Nationalstaat: Siebenbürgen seit dem Ersten Weltkrieg Vom Alt zurAlb: unterwegs in meiner Zeit Der geköpfte Hahn Der geköpfte Epoche der Entscheidungen: Die Siebenbürger Sachsen im20. (Age of Transylvaniandecisions: Saxons in 20 the România literar Zeitschrift SiebenbürgischeZeitschrift für Landeskunde (TheDanube Swabians)Bonn: Langen Müller, ă vire?.” as (Literature redemption?)interview by Deutsche Literatur Rumänienunddas“Dritte in (The beheaded rooster). Wien: Paul Zsolnay ă 25,27June –3July 2001 Danubiana Carpathica.Jahrbuch für (From the Olt to the Alb: a (German literature in literature (German . Oxford: Oxford th century), 10 (81) , 3- 81 CEU eTD Collection http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1422&fuseaction=topics.publications& 244,Report 7November 2001, Studies for Scholars, European Meeting Wilson Center East Woodrow International andSlovakia,” in German Romania of Study Hungary, the Diaspora Comparative Balasz.Szelenyi, “The Social inRoots Conflictof Ethnic A East Central Europe: Susan Suleiman, “Problems and of Robin. HolocaustMemory in Factuality Recent Wagner, Ernst, ed. Wagner, ______. “The Unmaking of an Ethnic Collectivity: Transylvania’s Germans.” Steinberg, Swen. “Verteidigung Widerstand? oder Der Konfliktdes Pfarrers Simon Zank to Response Nationalist Saxon Transylvanian the and “Eugenics Katherine. Sorrels, Wagner, Richard. “C Katherine. Verdery, Trócsányi,Zsoltand Ambrus Miskolczy,“The Long Eighteenth Century (1711-1830).” Teutsch, Oswald, “Der Anschluss 1919an Rumänien.” 1919annexation (The to doc_id=8280&group_id=7427 ______. 3 May 2006. ‘empty’) interview by Rodica Binder, Theory and AnalysisofLiterature andCommunication Wilkomirski/Wiesel.” Memoirs: 79 American Ethnologist Press, 1983. leadership 1940) The conflictaus Haschagen mitder Landesjugendführung (Defense resistance? 1940,” or of the priest Simon Zank from Assimilationist Pressure 1880-1925.”MA Thesis, 2000 CEU, Budapest, Haschagen with the local youth augmented edition. Köln, Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 1981 (Sources on history the of the Transylvanian Saxons), second revised and and EthnicChange Akadémiai 1994),419 Kiadó, (Budapest: by Alice etal.,translation 415-458 Choyke Makkai etal.,revised in Romania). 1984, In Schuster 35-44 History of Transylania of History National Identity ăUĠ Transylvanian Villagers: Three Centuries ofPolitical, Economic, Quellen zur Geschichte der Siebenbürger Sachsen 1191-1975 ile ‘pline’ Zeitschrift für Siebenbürgische für Zeitschrift Landeskunde (31May 2007) . Berkeley, Angeles, Los London: University Californiaof 12 (February 1985): 62-83 . London: Penguin 1991 Books, ú i cerul ‘gol’.” (Books that are ‘filled’ and a sky that is , ed. Béla Köpeczi, byAdrienne transl. Chambers- Poetics Today.InternationalPoetics Journal for Observator cultural 21(2000):543-559 317-318,20April – 27(2004): 59- 27(2004): 82 CEU eTD Collection Zach, Krista. “Religiose Toleranz undStereotypenbildungin multikulturellen einer ______. “Die Siebenbürger Sachsen zwischen Tradition neuenund politischen zwischen in Rumänien B. A. Landeskirche Evangelische “Die R. Cornelius Zach, Weber, andRenate Georg Weber, Weber, Georg et al., Wien, Ulrich Andreas.Wien, Ulrich 1998, 109-154 Region. in Volkskirchen Siebenbürgen” in Höpken Gündisch, and Markel political 1930-1944)in options Roth 1995,115-132. Optionen 1930-1944.” (The Transylvanian Saxons between tradition and new 107-112 (München: Verlag Südostdeutsches Kulturwerk, 2001) Südostdeutsches Kulturwerk, SüdostdeutscheVierteljahresblätter 1951-2001 In andin missionary between Romania Zeitgeist). consciousness Sendungsbewusstsein (1933-1940).” (The und Zeitgeist Lutheran Church C.A. Köln, Weimar,Wien: BöhlauVerlag,1998 facing the provocations of minority life, National SocialismKommunismus and Communism). den Herausforderungen durch Minderheitenexistenz, Nationalsozialismus und Verlag,migrations) (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher 2003) Wanderungen Delp 1985 Verlag, München: transformation). under congregation A Transylvanian (Zendersch. Kirchenleitung überdem Abgrund: BischofFriedrich Müllervor Emigration derSiebenbürger Sachsen. StudienzuOst-West (Emigration (Emigration of Transylvanianthe Saxons. Studies onEast-West (Church leadership above the abyss: Bishop Friedrich Müller Zendersch. Eine Zendersch.siebenbürgische Eine GemeindeimWandel 50 Jahre 83 ,