Chapter 1 Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten

Preschool and kindergarten are the most important grades! I say this to preschool, kindergarten, primary, middle school, junior high, and high school teachers. I passionately share this with administrators, parents/ caregivers, and politicians. I want to yell it from the rooftops! The research is clear. School systems working with families have a small window of opportunity in which to get children off to a strong start. Research indicates that children who begin third grade struggling in reading and writing rarely catch up with their age-appropriate peers and tend to struggle all the way through high school (Snow 1998). All children deserve a strong start. Early childhood is crucial to later success in school and in life. Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten Can Change Lives

Emerging literacy results at the end of kindergarten are very predictive of All I really need to know I reading and writing achievement levels at the end of Grade 1. This finding learned in kindergarten. is extremely important because research indicates that there is close to a (Robert Fulghum, 1988) 90 percent probability that children struggling with reading (and often writing) at the end of Grade 1 will remain poor readers (and often writers) by the end Although first-grade of Grade 4 (Allington, 1998, 12). Kindergarten teachers can predict at the interventions are necessary end of the kindergarten year where most of the children will be in literacy for some children, the best learning by the end of Grade 1. The good news is that teachers, beginning intervention is well-designed in preschool, can prevent this negative spiral from occurring for at least kindergarten instruction 95 percent of young learners. What preschool and kindergarten teachers (CIERA 1998a). (and other primary teachers) do or do not do really makes a difference.

Research indicates that preschool education is a sound investment academically, socially, and economically. (Barnett and Hustedt, 2003).

Figure 1.1

Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten 11 In fact, research indicates that what happens in preschool and kindergarten is long lasting and powerful. Kindergarten literacy learning even affects classroom achievement in middle and high school. Longitudinal research by Ralph Hanson and Diane Farrell (1995) tracked close to 4,000 students from kindergarten to Grade 12. Approximately one-third of the students had been taught to read in kindergarten. The other two-thirds had not learned to read in kindergarten. Reading had not been a kindergarten focus area in their classrooms. “The major finding of this study is that students who learned to read in kindergarten were found to be superior in reading skills and all other educational indicators as measured as seniors in high school. This finding held up across districts and schools, as well as ethnic, gender and social class groups. Also, there was absolutely no evidence of any negative effects from learning to read in kindergarten” (p. 929). These students not only displayed higher grades but also had better attendance in school. The study concludes, “Any school district with a policy that does not support kindergarten reading should be ready to present new and compelling reasons to explain why not . . . !” (929).

Receptive vocabulary refers to words that are understood Other research also confirms that children’s language and literacy by a reader or a listener. skills in preschool and in kindergarten are strongly related to later Expressive vocabulary refers academic success. “The receptive vocabulary scores of kindergarten to the words that one uses to students near the end of kindergarten were strongly related to the end communicate as a speaker of seventh grade vocabulary and reading comprehension” (Dickinson or a writer. and Sprague 2001, 273). Additionally, the quality of writing support given to 4-year-olds is highly related to their literacy growth at the end of kindergarten and Grade 1. And of course the children’s vocabulary levels and background knowledge have a significant impact on their writing. The IRA and NAEYC Joint Position Statement states that “Failing to give children literacy experiences until Develop Strong Readers and Writers they are school age can severely limit the reading The landmark work of Catherine Snow, Susan Burns, and Peg Griffin and writing levels they (1998) indicates that young children develop into strong readers and ultimately attain” (1998, 6). writers when their teachers focus on these foundational areas of literacy development: • Alphabet letter knowledge/letter recognition • Phonological (including phonemic) awareness • Letter–sound correspondence (phonics) Oral Language is the • Concepts about print and books foundation of literacy • Oral comprehension and vocabulary (listening and speaking, learning. receptive and expressive language)

12 LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten Figure 1.2 This is an important message!

Predictors of Literacy Success

As stated earlier, kindergarten teachers can predict at the end of the PREDICTORS OF kindergarten year where most of the children will be in literacy learning EARLY LITERACY by the end of Grade 1. SUCCESS 1. Letters According to Marilyn Jager Adams, prereaders’ ability to recognize and name letters (letter knowledge) is “the single best predictor of first- 2. Phonological/ year [Grade 1] reading achievement, with their ability to discriminate Phonemic phonemes auditorily ranking a close second. Furthermore, these two Awareness factors were the winners regardless of the instructional approach used” (1990, 36). However, “it is not simply the accuracy with which children 3. Oral Language can name letters that gives them an advantage in learning to read [and write], it is the ease or fluency [speed] with which they can do so. . . . A child who can recognize most letters with thorough confidence will have an easier time learning about letter sounds and word spellings than a child who still has to work at remembering what is what” (p. 43).

According to research, knowing letter names is important because they contain a sound typically represented by the letter. For example, recognizing a d helps the reader to remember that its sound is /d/. The more time children have to spend on figuring out letters, the less time and energy they will have available to use other strategies to decode print and to write. Thus, letter recognition must become automatic.

LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten 13 The second best predictor of reading success is the child’s ability to discriminate between phonemes (individual letter sounds). Phonemic Phonological awareness awareness is one aspect of phonological awareness. It involves involves the understanding • an understanding that oral language is composed of a series of or awareness of the structure individual sounds, and of oral language: that • the ability to play with these sounds. oral language is made up of words, and words “Enhancing children’s letter knowledge and phonological awareness consist of syllables, rhymes, skills should be a priority goal in the kindergarten classroom” (Snow and individual sounds or 1998, 188). However, no matter how skilled the child is in alphabet letter phonemes. knowledge and phonological awareness, he or she still needs a strong understanding of both the concepts about books and about print, and a Help prevent the strong foundation in oral language. Oral language proficiency (receptive fourth-grade literacy and expressive), which includes vocabulary knowledge, is a third strong slump by enhancing oral predictor of future literacy success that lasts well into high school. language development in preschool and kindergarten.

Figure 1.3 Turn and talk develops both oral language and comprehension. Literacy Experiences and the Emergent/Early Reader and Writer

Much of the landmark research on emergent literacy development comes from the work of Dolores Durkin in the 1960s. Durkin studied the home environments of many children who had learned to read before entering kindergarten. She found that these children received on average 1,000 to 1,500 hours of preschool literacy experiences.

These home experiences included • frequent read-alouds and discussion • the teaching of alphabet letters and their sounds • the teaching of “sight words” or high-frequency words • providing help to the child based on the child’s questions and requests for assistance

14 LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten • making rhymes with words • reading-related activities (for example, playing with magnetic letters on the fridge to create some words or “writing” a letter to someone) • providing many opportunities to write • listening to the child “read” • engaging in literacy activities “on the run” (for example, reading signs and food labels)

Early childhood teachers need to provide intentional literacy experiences similar to what the children in Durkin’s research were exposed to at home. For example, they need to • read to the children and discuss what was read • provide many shared reading experiences • engage the children in many intentional activities to support oral language development • teach alphabet letter names and sounds • point out “sight words” (high-frequency words) • develop phonological awareness (an ability to play with language) • provide many opportunities to model writing and frequently engage children in motivating writing experiences using both invented (temporary) spelling and for-sure words, such as their names (see page 38 for more information on for-sure words) • listen to each child “read” (books, environmental print, and even their own writing) and provide instruction and modeling • support their play

When preschool and kindergarten teachers provide the intentional literacy activities listed above, most children will exhibit the seven signs of emergent literacy cited by Patricia Cunningham and Richard Allington in their well-loved book Classrooms that Work: They Can All Read and Write (New York: HarperCollins, 1994).

Seven Signs of Emergent Literacy

The child 1. can “pretend read” favorite books and poems/songs/chants 2. can “drite” and can read what he or she has written even if no one else can drite = draw 3. can “track print” (that is, show you what to read and point to the and words using left–right/top–bottom conventions) write 4. knows critical jargon (for example, she or he can point to a spe- cific word, the first word in a sentence, one letter in a word, the first letter in a word, the longest word in a sentence, and so on)

LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten 15 5. recognizes some concrete words (for example, his or her name, the names of other children, favorite words from books, poems, and chants, and so on) 6. recognizes if words rhyme and can make up rhymes 7. can name many letters and can tell you words that begin with the common initial sounds (Cunningham and Allington 1994, 143)

“Although it may seem as though some children acquire these understandings magically, or on their own, studies suggest that they are the beneficiaries of considerable, though playful and informal, adult guidance and instruction” (IRA and NAEYC 1998, 32). As much as it is true that young children play and discover many things on their own, it also is true that they need adult assistance and guidance (Schickedanz 1994, 46). Unfortunately, not all children receive the preschool support described by Dr. Durkin.

At Risk in Preschool and Kindergarten

Large numbers of children arrive in preschool or kindergarten behind before they even start.

The research indicates that children who are most likely to have difficulty with literacy learning are those who begin school with less prior “More than one in four knowledge and skill in areas such as oral language and background children in Ontario Canada knowledge, phonological awareness, alphabet letter knowledge, print who enter Grade 1 are awareness, and writing. What is most important for all children is that significantly behind their schools provide strong kindergarten literacy programs and effective peers” (Dr. Charles Pascal intervention in kindergarten. The gift of time (waiting) is generally no gift 2009, 4). Ontario is not alone. at all.

To determine if a child is at risk, teachers need to know what specific literacy skills and understandings they should expect of students by the end of kindergarten.

Literacy Skills and Understandings in Kindergarten

Research consistently points to the importance of ensuring that children enter Grade 1 with the attitude toward and knowledge about literacy that will enable them to succeed (Snow, Burns, and Griffin 1998).

16 LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten Figure 1.4 Giving children many opportunities to sit together to look at and discuss books is very important.

Develop Vocabulary, Children develop literacy from birth and excel as they Concepts, and Reasoning • develop both a rich vocabulary and a deep understanding of many concepts and language structures. Developing reasoning, Understand Concept of creative and critical thinking, and inquiry skills is crucial. Written Language • learn that written language is a system for representing oral language. Understand Concepts About • learn concepts about print (what is a letter, what is a word, Print and About Books directionality) and concepts about books (the purpose of a book, book features). Develop Phonological • learn that speech can be segmented into small units of sound Awareness and learn how to play with language (phonological awareness) by rhyming, segmenting, and blending for example. Learn Letter Names and • learn to recognize alphabet letters and their corresponding Sounds sounds. Print Letters and Words • learn how to print most letters (when provided with letter names, sounds, pictures, or key words) and a few words (using invented See a Purpose for Writing spelling and a few for-sure words, such as their names and other and Want to Write familiar and high-frequency words). Recognize Words • see a purpose for writing and want to write. • recognize their own names in print in addition to a few other See a Purpose for Reading familiar and high-frequency words. and Want to Read • see a purpose for reading and want to read. Enjoy Being Read To • enjoy being read to. Listen With Understanding • are able to listen to and understand stories and informational books. Their retellings must include important information or ideas. Choose to Look at Books • choose to look at books independently. See Oneself as a Reader • begin to see themselves as readers and writers. and a Writer

LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten 17 Continuum of Children’s Development in Early Reading and Writing

Tables 1.1 through 1.3 list the end-of-year literacy skills and understandings for preschool, kindergarten, and Grade 1 children. This list is intended to be illustrative, not exhaustive. Children at any grade level will function at a variety of phases along the reading–writing continuum. Since it is important for kindergarten teachers to be aware of developmentally appropriate expectations before and after preschool and Grade 1, goals for those levels have also been included.

Table 1.1 Continuum of Literacy Skills: Phase 1

PHASE 1: Awareness and exploration (goals for preschool) Children explore their environment and build the foundations for learning to read and write.

Preschoolers . . . So preschool

teachers . . . And family members should be encouraged to . . .

• enjoy listening to • share books with • engage their child and discussing children (including in conversation, storybooks Big Books) and provide the names model reading for things, and show • understand that print behaviors interest in what their carries a message child says • talk about letters by • engage in reading name and sounds • read and reread and writing attempts stories with • establish a literacy- • identify labels predictable texts rich environment and signs in their • encourage their environment • reread favorite stories child to recount • participate in • engage children in experiences and rhyming games language games describe ideas and events that are • identify some letters • promote literacy- important and make some related play activities letter–sound matches • visit the library • encourage children regularly • use known letters to experiment with or approximations writing • provide of letters to opportunities to represent written draw and print using language (especially markers, crayons, meaningful words and pencils like their name and phrases such as I love you)

18 LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten PHASE 2: Experimental reading and writing (goals for kindergarten) Children develop basic concepts of print and begin to engage in and experiment with reading and writing.

Kindergarteners . . . So kindergarten

teachers . . . And family members should be encouraged to . . .

• enjoy being read to • encourage children • read and/or reread and can retell simple to talk about narrative stories and narrative stories and reading and writing nonfiction texts to nonfiction text experiences their child daily

• use descriptive • provide many • encourage their language to explain opportunities for child’s attempts at and explore children to explore reading and writing and identify sound– • recognize letters and • allow their child symbol relationships letter–sound matches to participate in meaningful in activities that contexts • show familiarity involve reading and with rhyming and • help children to writing (for example, beginning sounds segment spoken cooking, making grocery lists) • understand left-to- words into individual sounds and blend right and top-to- • play games with the sounds into bottom orientation their child that whole words (for and familiar involve specific example, by slowly concepts of print directions (such as writing a word and Simon Says) • match spoken words saying its sound) with written words • have conversations • frequently read with their child • begin to write letters aloud interesting and during mealtimes of the alphabet and conceptually rich and throughout the some high-frequency stories day words • provide daily • begin to see opportunities for themselves as writers children to write and illustrators • help children to build a sight vocabulary

• create a literacy-rich environment for children to engage independently in reading and writing

(Continued)

LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten 19 Table 1.1 (Continued)

PHASE 3: Early reading and writing (goals for Grade 1) Children begin to read simple stories and can write about a topic that is meaningful to them.

Grade 1 So Grade 1

children . . . teachers . . . And family members should be encouraged to . . .

• read and retell • support the • talk about favorite familiar stories development of storybooks vocabulary by • use strategies • read to their child reading daily to the (rereading, and encourage the children, transcribing predicting, child to read to them their language, and questioning, selecting materials • suggest that their contextualizing) that expand child write to friends when children’s knowledge and relatives comprehension and language breaks down • bring to a parent– development teacher conference • use reading and • model strategies and evidence of what writing for various provide practice for their child can do in purposes on their identifying unknown writing and reading own initiative words • encourage their child • orally read with • give children to share what he reasonable fluency opportunities for or she has learned • use letter–sound independent reading about writing and correspondence, and writing practice reading word parts, and • read, write, and context to identify discuss a range new words of different text • identify an types (poems, increasing number of informational books) words by sight • introduce new words • sound out and and teach strategies represent all for learning to spell substantial sounds in new words spelling a word • demonstrate and • write about topics model strategies that are personally to use when meaningful comprehension • attempt to use some breaks down punctuation and • help children build capitalization lists of commonly • see themselves used words from as writers and their writing illustrators

Source: Adapted from “Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children.” The Reading Teacher 52 (1998): 193–216. Copyright 1998 International Reading Association. This is a joint position statement of the International Reading Association and the National Association for the Education of Young Children.

20 LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten Figure 1.5 Making Your Program Developmentally Appropriate

The International Reading Association and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (1998, 38) defines developmentally appropriate “Excellent teachers know it’s as the goals and expectations for young children’s achievement, which are both what you teach and challenging but achievable, with sufficient adult support.Developmentally how you teach” (Copple appropriate not only refers to what teachers should expect children to be and Bredekamp 2009, 48). able to learn but also how best to support this learning. (For examples of developmentally appropriate literacy expectations for preschool and kindergarten children, see pages 18–20.)

Early childhood teachers set developmentally appropriate goals and expectations based on • their understanding of child development, • their understanding of literacy learning, including current research in the areas of assessment and instruction, and • their knowledge of the children’s strengths, interests, and needs.

An activity is developmentally appropriate if • the child is able to do the task, and • the task is worthwhile (effective) in moving the child toward a particular goal (supports a goal).

According to Sue Bredekamp (1997), former director of professional development for NAEYC, “Too many preschool and kindergarten teachers, perceiving themselves as advocates of developmentally appropriate practice, fear pushing children too much academically and fail to teach them the knowledge and skills they need” (p. 38).

It is clear that children need focused teaching, but they also need spontaneous and planned play experiences during language arts and across the day.

LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten 21 Literacy Learning and Play

Young children are meant to play and literacy learning naturally supports play. “Children benefit both from engaging in self-initiated spontaneous play and from teacher-planned and structured activities, projects and experiences” (Copple and Bredekamp 2009b, 49). “Rather than detracting from academic Check It Out! learning, play appears to support the abilities that underlie such learning and thus to promote school success” (Copple and Bredekamp 2009b, 15). There are “Chopsticks and Counting many reasons why children should play at home and at school. Play develops: Chips: Do Play and Foundational Skills Need to • Social skills and self-regulation Compete for the Teacher’s • Abilities to problem solve Attention in an Early • Oral language Childhood Classroom?” by • Creativity Elena Bodrova and Deborah J. Leong in Beyond the • Knowledge and skills Journal: Young Children on Teacher scaffolding of mature (imaginative, creative) play supports the Web (Washington, DC: National Association for the specific literacy skill development such as oral language and phonological Education of Young Children, awareness. It also supports student self-regulation and successful school 2004), 1–7. Also see Spotlight adjustment (Bodrova and Leong, 2004). See Chapter 8, page 205, “Play on Young Children and Play, Plans Before and After Centers.” edited by Derry Koralek (Washington, DC: National Judith Schickedanz says it best: “We will not have done our best for young Association for the Education children if we deny them the path to learning they seek through play. But, we of Young Children, 2004). “The Importance of Being also will not have done our best if we fail to provide instruction. As much as Playful,” by Elena Bodrova it is true that young children play and discover many things on their own, it and Deborah J. Leong in is also true that children need adult assistance or guidance. It is possible to Educational Leadership 60, preserve childhood and to give children access to academic skills” (1994, 46). no. 7 (2003): 50–53.

Play-based learning and focused teaching are NOT mutually exclusive. Young children need both!

Check It Out!

Playing is Learning is a great pamphlet for parents of preschool and kindergarten children (http://www.etfo.ca/ELKP/ Figure 1.6 PlayingisLearning/Documents/ Warming our hands over the campfire PlayingisLearning.pdf). at the camping center.

22 LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten Many examples of effective play-based literacy activities are embedded throughout this book. Also see Chapter 8, “Play Plans Before and After Centers.” Look for this icon that indicates opportunities to scaffold learning through play-based literacy activities.

Literacy Learning Across the Day

Literacy learning occurs across the day. Writing occurs during writing workshop (see Chapter 5) and during play at centers. It also occurs across Because children learn best the day, across the curriculum. Integration is a natural approach for when they see a specific early childhood teachers. Through cross-curricular integration in areas purpose for what they are such as social studies and science, young children are able to develop learning, they must be literacy skills while acquiring important “big ideas” involving hands-on provided with interesting activities. Children learn best when the concepts, vocabulary, and skills activities that make sense to them and that allow them they encounter are related to things they know and care about and when to apply the strategies they the new learnings are interconnected (Copple and Bredekamp 2009b). have been taught.

Check It Out!

This book by Susan Neuman and Kathleen Roskos clearly demonstrates cross curricular integration in early childhood classrooms: Neuman, Susan B. and Kathleen Roskos with Tanya S. Wright and Figure 1.7 Lisa Lenhart. Nurturing Watching the butterflies hatching leads to drawing and Knowledge Building a writing the lifecycle of the butterfly, part of the science Foundation for School unit, living things. Success by Linking Early Literacy to Math, Science, Art and Social Studies. New York: Scholastic, 2007.

LEARNING TO WRITE AND LOVING IT! Literacy Learning in Preschool and Kindergarten 23