Philosophy for Heroes Dictionary PART I + II: KNOWLEDGE + CONTINUUM

Published by Clemens Lode Verlag e.K., Düsseldorf www.philosophy-for-heroes.com

This book is a collection of definitions from the firsttwo books of Philosophy for Heroes: ii

At its core, Philosophy for Heroes is about vulnerability and the strength that can arise from that. Vulnerability does not mean sui- cide. We all can encounter or even search situations where we can sacrifice our lives for a “greater cause.” Instead, vulnerability means being alive. But it also means to not go into the opposite extreme and think of yourself as all powerful, omniscience, and infinite. We all have finite bodies and various weaknesses. We have to acknowledge that, we have to acknowledge that we are limited. But that limitation also means that we have a unique identity. Discovering this unique identity is what Philosophy for Heroes is all about: to know who you are, how the world works, and ultimately, how you can or should act.

This booklet is a list of all the terms used in the book series foreasy reference and as a companion booklet. In the books, after an introduction to ideas of heroism, the first chapter is about the founda- tions of knowledge: the ontology (“What is?”) and epistemology (“How do we know?”) of philosophy. Next comes an introduction to linguistics from the ground up. What questions can be asked and which questions should not? What are complete languages? Is our language complete? With this foundation, we move on to the second book and use the formal base of the first two chapters to discuss the scientific method and current discoveries in quantum physics about the very fabric of our existence. From the ashes of supernovae, solar systems and planets formed. How did organic life emerged from anorganic matter? Understanding what kind of act this required gives us an idea about our relationship to the universe. With a focus on evolution, this chapter also explains the origins of human creativity and compares it with the creativity of nature.

The terms for book 3 (“Act”) and 4 (“Epos”) will be added oncetheyare finished. Stay tuned for updates in the newsletter!

ii 1 My Philosophy

Cargo cult · A cargo cult refers to the behavior where someone tries to imitate certain aspects of another (successful) person, expecting the same success. For example, celebrities are often on TV but just by managing to get yourself on TV, you will not necessarily become a celebrity.

Entity · An entity is a “thing” with properties (an identity). For example, a plant produces oxygen, a stone has a hard surface, etc.). Identity · An identity is the sum total of all properties of an entity (e.g., weight: 160 pounds, length: 6 feet, has a consciousness, etc.). Property · A property refers to the manner in which an entity (or a process) affects other entities (or other processes) in a certain situation (e.g., mass, position, length, name, velocity, etc.).

Configuration of a property · The configuration of a property relates to the intensity of a certain property of an entity.

Effect · An effect is the change caused to the configuration of the properties of an entity (e.g., the heating of water changes its temperature).

Process · A process describes the mechanism of a cause working to an effect (e.g., if you put an ice cube into a glass of water,the cooling of the water is the process).

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Free will · Free will refers to the faculty to be able to reflect on our cognition, i.e., to be not determined by external influences. The more one knows about and is aware of what influences him, the more free his will. Fallacy of the stolen concept · The fallacy of the stolen concept refers to the fact that in the refutation of a statement, the statement itself cannot (implicitly or explicitly) be a part of the refutation. We cannot argue against our existence because the act of arguing presupposes that very existence.1 Axiom · An axiom is a self-evident truth (e.g., “Something exists”). Self-evident statement · A self-evident statement is a statement whose reasoning is contained within itself (e.g., the estab- lishment of the axiom of existence necessitates the very same existence). Axiom of existence · The axiom of existence states that something exists. Without existence, there would be no entities. Par- ticularly, there would be no interactions between entities, no perception, and, for this reason, no knowledge; a line of reasoning for this axiom would not be possible. Axiom of identity · The axiom of identity states that something exists. Without this axiom, “entities” could possibly exist, but they would have no identity and, for this reason, would likewise possess no properties. In such a reality, it follows that no perception or knowledge would be possible either; particularly, we could not form arguments against the axiom of identity: without identity, statements in general would be impossible because they, too, would have no identity—no statement. In Objectivism, this axiom is also designated as “A is A”: every identity has definite properties and no others. Consciousness · With our consciousness, we can become conscious about something, therefore, it is the process that emerges from the faculty of an entity to reflect on and to perceive oneself and other entities and their properties (cognition).

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Axiom of consciousness · The axiom of consciousness states that we can become aware of our existence, our identity, and the external world. Sense organ · A sense organ is an entity (e.g., an eye, a nose, an ear, etc.) that is connected to another entity with cognition, and that can register effects of different intensities of properties.

Sense data · Sense data is information, converted to a form usable by cognition, about an effect registered by a sensory organ.

Sense perception · Our perceptual faculty is the filtering, and association of sense data. This happens automatically with our sensory organs. Further filtering and association of those sense perceptions happens during the cognitive process (our consciousness). Qualia · The individual instances of conscious experience of sense data are called qualia.

Self-reference (recursion) · If a statement or a process references itself, it is called recursion. Examples would be “Read the sentence you are now reading again” (recursive statement), two opposing mirrors in which the images mirror until infinity (recursive process), cell division where a new cell is created that divides itself as well (likewise a recursive process), etc.

Cognition · Cognition is the faculty for processing and correcting qualia, generating and applying knowledge, changing prefer- ences, as well as reflecting on the process of cognition itself. The result of the process of cognition is consciousness.

Perception · Perception is the whole process of sense perception combined with cognition.

Category · A category is the mental correlation between entities.

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Concept · A concept is a category that is delineated by a definition, and determined by the nature of the entity. Cause · A cause refers to the entity that has or had an effect on another entity (e.g., the ice cube in the glass is the cause for the drink having gotten cold). Causality · Causality refers to the effect of one or several entities on another entity in a certain situation (e.g., an accident is no random occurrence, there are one or several causes which led to the accident, such as lack of sleep, a technical defect, poor visibility, etc.). Aggregate · An aggregate is a number of entities that have a reciprocal effect on one another, so that they can be considered collectively as their own entity (e.g., a cup full of water—all water molecules interact with each other). Structure · A structure is a description of required properties, dependencies, and arrangement of a number of entities (e.g., cube-shaped). System · A system is an aggregate with a definite structure (e.g., an ice cube is a system of frozen water molecules). Pointer · A pointer can be a word, picture, gesture, etc. that “points” to one or more entities. It can be used in their place, e.g., if you “point” to a specific apple by saying “this apple,” youdo not have to actually take the apple in your hand to make it clear about which apple you are speaking. Term · A term is the name of a concept (e.g., as a word or fixed word combination, such as “goods and services” or “in a jiffy”). Every concept has a term pointing to it, but not every term is a concept (e.g., conjunctions like “and”). Definition · A definition is the possible demarcation of a number of entities by means of perceptions, concepts, and axioms (e.g., grass is a “plant,” a “living organism” which uses “photosynthesis.”) It consists of a list of properties and processes of entities (cf. Rand, Binswanger, and Peikoff, Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, pp. 71–74) in question.

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Integration · Integration is the classification of perceived entities into one or several concepts, as well as classification of existing concepts into more general concepts or a concept hierarchy (e.g., the classification of a perceived sound wave as a definite word, or classification of the concept “human” into the more general concept “life-form”). Contradiction · A contradiction can result from a (possibly erroneous) logical integration. This becomes visible when the corresponding concept has a property while not having it at the same time (such as an invisible pink unicorn, boiling ice, a full empty cup, etc.). Logic · Logic is the method of non-contradictory integration of knowledge or perceptions. Knowledge · Knowledge constitutes sense data, logically integrated perceptions, concepts, or concept hierarchies. It can also be created from logically integrated conclusions from existing knowledge. Grenzerfahrung · Grenzerfahrung is German and literally means “boundary experience,” an experience that tests our abilities and ideas to the limit. Concept hierarchy · A concept hierarchy is a tree-like structure consisting of concepts, defined by the definitions of given connections (e.g., “chair” and “table” are furniture, the concept “furniture” would thus constitute the root of a tree and “chair” and “table” are two successive branches). Inheritance (of a concept) · A concept with an inheritance of another concept builds upon the other concept’s definition. If the concept “table” inherits from the concept “matter,” the former would build upon the property “mass” of the latter. Hierarchy tree (of concepts) · A hierarchy tree of concepts refers to the directional ordering of concepts according to their inheritance.

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Induction · With induction, we conclude from the special case (a number of concrete perceptions) the general case (the concept). With this, we create new or refine existing concepts, on the basis of sense data and the logical integration of a number of perceptions of entities. For example, if we see a number of cars with different colors, we create from this observation the more general concept “car” by using induction. Deduction · With deduction, we conclude from the general case the special case. For this, we use the knowledge that we gained from induction, check if a certain perception fits the definition of a concept, and conclude for the corresponding entity that it has all the properties of the corresponding concept. In short, deduction is the process of subsuming new instances under a known concept (cf. Rand, Binswanger, and Peikoff, Introduction to Objec- tivist Epistemology, p. 28). Deduction thus operates in the opposite direction as induction. For example, if we notice that cars can drive on the street, and we see a parked car, then we can deduct that this car is able to drive on the street as well, because we have assigned the parked car to the known concept “car.” Rationalism · Rationalism is the attempt to create knowledge without induction and to deduce from this knowledge. Empiricism · Empiricism states that the source of all knowledge lies in sense data (empirical evidence). In empiricism, deduction from knowledge which is not based on sense data is not possible. Tabula rasa · Tabula rasa refers to the view that we are born without any innate knowledge and that our minds can create knowledge only with the help of sense data. A priori knowledge · A priori knowledge is knowledge that was acquired without first engaging in an experience. Analytic statement · An analytic statement is a statement whose assertion is given by the definition of the subject. Asa result, measurements are not necessary to determine whether it is true or not (e.g., “Triangles have three vertices”).

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Synthetic statement · A synthetic statement is a statement whose assertion is given not by the definition of the subject alone; i.e., measurements are required to determine whether it is true or not (e.g., “This form has three corners”).

A priori statement · An a priori statement is a statement that can be substantiated independently of experience (e.g., mathe- matical statements). A posteriori statement · An a posteriori statement is a statement that must be substantiated through experience (for example, “bodies are heavy;” we must first lift a body to determine its weight).

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2 Language

Situation · A situation consists of a certain number of entities, their changes in properties, their mutual interactions, and their relationships to one another, at certain times and in certain places. Image · An image is an entity that is linked to another entity by a mental connection. Language · A language is a system by means of which we can translate knowledge of a situation (and concepts) into a series of images and supporting linguistic constructs, and conversely, translate a series of images and linguistic auxiliary constructs into knowledge of a situation (and concepts). Language is the application of concepts and the hierarchy of these concepts. Letter · A letter is a small symbol or image (“a,” “b,” “c,” etc.). Word · A word consists of a number of ordered letters. Sentence · A sentence consists of a number of ordered words. Noun · A noun is a word that stands as a representative of an entity (proper noun, e.g., “Peter”) or a concept (common noun, e.g., “dog”). Verb · A verb is a word that refers to the changes in properties of a noun (e.g., an action: “Peter runs”). Adjective · An adjective is a word that describes a corresponding noun in more detail. It adds a measurement to a property of the corresponding concept (e.g., “a tall tree”).

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Adverb · An adverb is a word that refers to a verb and compares the mode or degree of change in properties with another change in properties (e.g., “She treaded down the hallway quietly”); alternatively, an adverb can relate to an adjective or another adverb and describe it more accurately (e.g., “He had very big eyes”). Subject · A subject is the noun to which the verb refers as an origin (e.g., “Peter runs”). Object · An object is a noun to which the verb refers as a target (e.g., “Peter throws the ball.”). Phoneme · A phoneme is a sound syllable that represents a single unit of sound that a person can make. In the English language, there are about 44 phonemes. Syntax · In languages with syntax, words can be combined into sentences that each correspond to a meaning. Set · A set is a pointer to a number of entities who share properties defined by the set (e.g., the set of the “Seven Seas” refer tothe seven oceanic bodies of water of Earth, i.e., the four oceans and the three large Mediterranean seas). Put another way, sets are a way of organizing or grouping entities; they make life easier. Axiomatic system · An axiomatic system is the set of axioms that is the foundation of all knowledge within a field of study. Theory of mind · The theory of mind refers to the cognitive skill that makes it possible to understand that another individual may have beliefs and desires that are different from one’s own. Communication · Communication is the attempt of an entity A to translate knowledge (whether real or invented) of a situation through language into images and linguistic auxiliary structures, so that another entity B can translate the series of images and linguistic auxiliary structures into knowledge of a situation perceived by A, without itself having obtained immediate sense data from the entities participating in the situation.

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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (weak version) · The weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that our language influences our thoughts, making it easier or harder to think orex- press certain ideas; different languages influence thoughts in different ways, so different languages contribute to different styles of thinking.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (strong version) · The strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that our language determines our thinking; different languages make certain trains of thought possible or impossible in the first place. There isno general translatability of languages.

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Configuration of a property · The configuration of a property relates to the intensity of a certain property of an entity.

Effect · An effect is the change caused to the configuration of the properties of an entity (e.g., the heating of water changes its temperature).

Process · A process describes the mechanism of a cause working to an effect (e.g., if you put an ice cube into a glass of water,the cooling of the water is the process).

Causality · Causality refers to the effect of one or several entities on another entity in a certain situation (e.g., an accident is no random occurrence, there are one or several causes which led to the accident, such as lack of sleep, a technical defect, poor visibility, etc.).

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Science · Science is the formalized process of gaining new knowledge from observation, deducting new knowledge from existing knowledge, and checking existing knowledge for contradictions. Reversal of the Burden of Proof · Using the argument of the reversal of the burden of proof, you try to evade the necessity to give proof for your own arguments and instead present the opposite of your argument, and ask the other person for proof. The basic (and wrong) premise of the reversal of the burdenof proof argument is that anything that cannot be disproven must be true. This is a fallacy because you often cannot prove anegative without being omniscient. Occam’s Razor principle · According to the Occam’s Razor principle, among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected. It is attributed to the English Franciscan friar, scholastic philosopher, and theologian William of Ockham (1287 - 1347). Complex Argument Fallacy · It is a Complex Argument Fal- lacy if you use a more complex argument (that leads to the same conclusions as the more simple one) to argue against an existing argument. The new argument requires more assumptions tobe true. An extension of this argument is to simply declare a problem or situation as “complex” while dismissing simpler solutions. For example, a child could declare that her situation is “complex,” complaining she is running out of pocket money, while the reasons are very clear (her expenses). This way, the chance to even discuss a subject is negated instead of addressing actual issues. This fallacy is also often used in connection with an argument from authority, implying that only “experts” are allowed to have an opinion on the subject. Of course, sometimes, there are no simple solutions and a problem is complex, requiring experts to discuss. That is why the complex argument fallacy is a reminder to reflect before either calling a situation too complex, or trying to apply basic solutions that are too simple.

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Argument from Authority · Just because there is an authority, be it a priest, politician, or scientist, who makes a statement, this does say anything about how truthful that statement is. While the position or title of a person certainly means that the person has been tested and has something to lose, all new statements have to be proven. Usually, a title means nothing but the proof that someone was serious about getting it, and is serious about keeping it. The quality of a title then ultimately depends not on its length, but on the community behind the title that checks its quality. Experts can lie or make honest mistakes; relying on someone’s title does not protect you from that (cf. Cial- dini, Influence—The Psychology of Persuasion, p. 208–36).

Qubit · A qubit can be compared to a wave (as opposed to a discrete unit as with digital bits). Combining several qubits with a quantum gate results in an instant calculation of an interference pattern between the waves, which can be used to significantly speed up processing.

Quantum Weirdness · The concept of quantum weirdness refers to the unintuitive results we see when looking at effects in the quantum world. Intuitively, we expect everything to act the way it does in our immediate, slow-moving and high-energy “macro-world.” But for particles, this intuitive approach does not work, hence we call the quantum world “weird” in that regard.

Fractal · A fractal is a self-similar pattern created through repeatedly applying the same rule on itself.

Chance · The cause of an effect when no other cause could be determined.

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Chaos theory · The chaos theory states that small differences in initial conditions can yield widely diverging outcomes. For example, given enough repetitions, the effect of a butterfly flapping its wings on one side of the world might cause a hurricane on the other side of the world. Beyond this butterfly effect, the chaos theory also deals with patterns that emerge from an apparently chaotic system.

Anthropic principle · The anthropic principle is the consideration of how the environment and natural laws just happen to support human life: only the inhabitants of those worlds that can sustain intelligent life can wonder why their own world happens to support intelligent life. If the conditions for intelligence were not met, there would be nobody wondering about it.

14 4 Evolution

Theory of Evolution · The theory of evolution states that the process of evolution tends to create systems in each new generation that are better adapted to the environment (same or higher rate of procreation compared to the parent generation).

Aggregate · An aggregate is a number of entities that have a reciprocal effect on one another, so that they can be considered collectively as their own entity (e.g., a cup full of water—all water molecules interact with each other). Structure · A structure is a description of required properties, dependencies, and arrangement of a number of entities (e.g., cube-shaped).

System · A system is an aggregate with a definite structure (e.g., an ice cube is a system of frozen water molecules).

Process · A process describes the mechanism of a cause working to an effect (e.g., if you put an ice cube into a glass of water,the cooling of the water is the process).

Time · Time is a measurement tool to put the speed of processes in relation to each other. Procreation · Procreation is a process by which a system creates (on its own or with the help of the environment) a new entity with the similar or (preferably) same structure as itself.

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Generation · A generation is a set of systems during one cycle of procreation. Genotype · The genotype is a system that is the blueprint for the phenotype. Phenotype · The phenotype is the actual body of a life form. Changes in the phenotype generally do not have effects on the genotype. Generally only the phenotype interacts directly with the environment. Mutation · A mutation is a change of the genotype of a life form. This change can, but does not necessarily, have consequences for the phenotype. Fitness landscape · The fitness landscape is the sum of all environmental influences on an entity. For example, if you are sifting sand, a riddle screen lets small particles of sand fall through while larger stones are retained. In this case, the riddle screen and the shaking of the riddle screen would be the “fitness landscape.” In nature, the fitness landscape would simply be the environment over time, including all other life forms, the climate, the Earth, the sun, etc. Selection (Evolution) · Selection is a process where some (or all) of a set of systems of similar structure are retained while the rest are discarded or destroyed. Which ones are retained and which ones are discarded depends on the relationship between the structure of the individual systems and the fitness landscape. In the example of the riddle screen, the screen lets small sand fall through while it “selects” larger stones. Evolution · Evolution is the combination of the process of selection together with a system of cloning or procreation. Exaptation · Exaptation is the use of a certain trait for a problem or environment other than what it was originally “intended” for. An example would be feathers that started out as heat insulation, and only later were used to improve jumping, and finally for flight.

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The Red Queen Hypothesis · “Red Queen” is a reference the novel Through the Looking-Glass where the protagonist needs to run just to keep in the same place. The Red Queen Hypothesis refers to a stable balance between two competing species that are interlocked in their evolution and where both are evolving, yet no side gets the upper hand. They are bound to each other in a way that the failure of one species is the success of the other. A gazelle failing to outrun a cheetah ultimately helps the cheetah to procreate. Likewise, a cheetah failing to catch a gazelle helps the gazelle to procreate. Another example would be plants and caterpillars, with the plants producing more and more toxic leaves, while the caterpillars become more and more resistant to the toxin. Over time, both species become increasingly specialized in catching or evading each other.

17 Glossary

Aggregate • An aggregate is a num- that describes a corresponding noun in more ber of entities that have a reciprocal effect detail. It adds a measurement to a property on one another, so that they can be consid- of the corresponding concept (e.g., “a tall ered collectively as their own entity (e.g., a tree”). cup full of water—all water molecules inter- Adverb • An adverb is a word that act with each other). refers to a verb and compares the mode or Anthropic principle • The anthropic degree of change in properties with another principle is the consideration of how the en- change in properties (e.g., “She treaded down vironment and natural laws just happen to the hallway quietly”); alternatively, an ad- support human life: only the inhabitants of verb can relate to an adjective or another those worlds that can sustain intelligent life adverb and describe it more accurately (e.g., can wonder why their own world happens to “He had very big eyes”). support intelligent life. If the conditions for Aggregate • An aggregate is a num- intelligence were not met, there would be no- ber of entities that have a reciprocal effect body wondering about it. on one another, so that they can be consid- Argument from Authority • Just ered collectively as their own entity (e.g., a because there is an authority, be it a priest, cup full of water—all water molecules inter- politician, or scientist, who makes a state- act with each other). ment, this does say anything about how Analytic statement • An analytic truthful that statement is. While the position statement is a statement whose assertion is or title of a person certainly means that the given by the definition of the subject. Asa person has been tested and has something to result, measurements are not necessary to de- lose, all new statements have to be proven. termine whether it is true or not (e.g., “Trian- Usually, a title means nothing but the proof gles have three vertices”). that someone was serious about getting it, Axiom • An axiom is a self-evident and is serious about keeping it. The quality truth (e.g., “Something exists”). of a title then ultimately depends not on its Axiom of consciousness • The ax- length, but on the community behind the ti- iom of consciousness states that we can be- tle that checks its quality. Experts can lie or come aware of our existence, our identity, make honest mistakes; relying on someone’s and the external world. title does not protect you from that (cf. Cial- Axiom of existence • The axiom of dini, Influence—The Psychology of Persuasion, existence states that something exists. With- p. 208–36). out existence, there would be no entities. Par- A posteriori statement • An a pos- ticularly, there would be no interactions be- teriori statement is a statement that must be tween entities, no perception, and, for this substantiated through experience (for exam- reason, no knowledge; a line of reasoning for ple, “bodies are heavy;” we must first lift a this axiom would not be possible. body to determine its weight). Axiom of identity • The axiom of A priori knowledge • A priori knowl- identity states that something exists. With- edge is knowledge that was acquired without out this axiom, “entities” could possibly exist, first engaging in an experience. but they would have no identity and, for this A priori statement • An a priori state- reason, would likewise possess no properties. ment is a statement that can be substantiated In such a reality, it follows that no percep- independently of experience (e.g., mathemat- tion or knowledge would be possible either; ical statements). particularly, we could not form arguments Adjective • An adjective is a word against the axiom of identity: without iden- 19

tity, statements in general would be impossi- Axiomatic system • An axiomatic ble because they, too, would have no identity system is the set of axioms that is the foun- —no statement. In Objectivism, this axiom is dation of all knowledge within a field of also designated as “A is A”: every identity study. has definite properties and no others.

Cargo cult • A cargo cult refers to often used in connection with an argument the behavior where someone tries to imitate from authority, implying that only “experts” certain aspects of another (successful) per- are allowed to have an opinion on the sub- son, expecting the same success. For exam- ject. Of course, sometimes, there are no simple, celebrities are often on TV but just by ple solutions and a problem is complex, re- managing to get yourself on TV, you will not quiring experts to discuss. That is why the necessarily become a celebrity. complex argument fallacy is a reminder to re- Causality • Causality refers to the ef- flect before either calling a situation too com- fect of one or several entities on another en- plex, or trying to apply basic solutions that tity in a certain situation (e.g., an accident is are too simple. no random occurrence, there are one or sev- Configuration of a property • The eral causes which led to the accident, such as configuration of a property relates to the in- lack of sleep, a technical defect, poor visibil- tensity of a certain property of an entity. ity, etc.). Cargo cult • A cargo cult refers to Chance • The cause of an effect when the behavior where someone tries to imitate no other cause could be determined. certain aspects of another (successful) per- Chaos theory • The chaos theory son, expecting the same success. For exam- states that small differences in initial condi- ple, celebrities are often on TV but just by tions can yield widely diverging outcomes. managing to get yourself on TV, you will not For example, given enough repetitions, the necessarily become a celebrity. effect of a butterfly flapping its wingson Category • A category is the mental one side of the world might cause a hurri- correlation between entities. cane on the other side of the world. Beyond Causality • Causality refers to the ef- this butterfly effect, the chaos theory also fect of one or several entities on another en- deals with patterns that emerge from an ap- tity in a certain situation (e.g., an accident is parently chaotic system. no random occurrence, there are one or sev- Complex Argument Fallacy • It is a eral causes which led to the accident, such as Complex Argument Fallacy if you use a more lack of sleep, a technical defect, poor visibil- complex argument (that leads to the same ity, etc.). conclusions as the more simple one) to argue Cause • A cause refers to the entity against an existing argument. The new argu- that has or had an effect on another entity ment requires more assumptions to be true. (e.g., the ice cube in the glass is the cause for An extension of this argument is to simply the drink having gotten cold). declare a problem or situation as “complex” Cognition • Cognition is the faculty while dismissing simpler solutions. For ex- for processing and correcting qualia, generat- ample, a child could declare that her situation ing and applying knowledge, changing pref- is “complex,” complaining she is running out erences, as well as reflecting on the process of pocket money, while the reasons are very of cognition itself. The result of the process clear (her expenses). This way, the chance to of cognition is consciousness. even discuss a subject is negated instead of Communication • Communication addressing actual issues. This fallacy is also is the attempt of an entity A to translate

19 20 Glossary

knowledge (whether real or invented) of a other concept, these additional concepts will situation through language into images and be called conceptual common denominators. linguistic auxiliary structures, so that an- For example, we can classify a “human” en- other entity B can translate the series of tity into the concept “mammal” just as well images and linguistic auxiliary structures as the concept “biped.” into knowledge of a situation perceived by Configuration of a property • The A, without itself having obtained immediate configuration of a property relates to the in- sense data from the entities participating in tensity of a certain property of an entity. the situation. Consciousness • With our conscious- Concept • A concept is a category that ness, we can become conscious about some- is delineated by a definition, and determined thing, therefore, it is the process that emerges by the nature of the entity. from the faculty of an entity to reflect on Concept hierarchy • A concept hi- and to perceive oneself and other entities and erarchy is a tree-like structure consisting of their properties (cognition). concepts, defined by the definitions of given Contradiction • A contradiction can connections (e.g., “chair” and “table” are fur- result from a (possibly erroneous) logical in- niture, the concept “furniture” would thus tegration. This becomes visible when the cor- constitute the root of a tree and “chair” and responding concept has a property while not “table” are two successive branches). having it at the same time (such as an invis- Conceptual common denominator ible pink unicorn, boiling ice, a full empty • If a concept inherits from more than one cup, etc.).

Deduction • With deduction, we con- and we see a parked car, then we can deduct clude from the general case the special case. that this car is able to drive on the street as For this, we use the knowledge that we well, because we have assigned the parked gained from induction, check if a certain per- car to the known concept “car.” ception fits the definition of a concept, and Definition • A definition is the pos- conclude for the corresponding entity that sible demarcation of a number of entities by it has all the properties of the correspond- means of perceptions, concepts, and axioms ing concept. In short, deduction is the pro- (e.g., grass is a “plant,” a “living organism” cess of subsuming new instances under a which uses “photosynthesis.”) It consists of known concept (cf. Rand, Binswanger, and a list of properties and processes of entities Peikoff, Introduction to Objectivist Epistemol- (cf. Rand, Binswanger, and Peikoff, Introduc- ogy, p. 28). Deduction thus operates in the tion to Objectivist Epistemology, pp. 71–74) in opposite direction as induction. For example, question. if we notice that cars can drive on the street,

Effect • An effect is the change caused produces oxygen, a stone has a hard surface, to the configuration of the properties ofan etc.). entity (e.g., the heating of water changes its Evolution • Evolution is the combina- temperature). tion of the process of selection together with Entity • An entity is a “thing” with a system of cloning or procreation. properties (an identity). For example, a plant Exaptation • Exaptation is the use

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of a certain trait for a problem or environ- Empiricism • Empiricism states that ment other than what it was originally “in- the source of all knowledge lies in sense data tended” for. An example would be feathers (empirical evidence). In empiricism, deduc- that started out as heat insulation, and only tion from knowledge which is not based on later were used to improve jumping, and fi- sense data is not possible. nally for flight. Entity • An entity is a “thing” with Effect • An effect is the change caused properties (an identity). For example, a plant to the configuration of the properties ofan produces oxygen, a stone has a hard surface, entity (e.g., the heating of water changes its etc.). temperature).

Fitness landscape • The fitness land- Fallacy of the stolen concept • The scape is the sum of all environmental influ- fallacy of the stolen concept refers to the fact ences on an entity. For example, if you are that in the refutation of a statement, the state- sifting sand, a riddle screen lets small parti- ment itself cannot (implicitly or explicitly) be cles of sand fall through while larger stones a part of the refutation. We cannot argue are retained. In this case, the riddle screen against our existence because the act of ar- and the shaking of the riddle screen would be guing presupposes that very existence.1 the “fitness landscape.” In nature, the fitness Free will • Free will refers to the fac- landscape would simply be the environment ulty to be able to reflect on our cognition, over time, including all other life forms, the i.e., to be not determined by external influ- climate, the Earth, the sun, etc. ences. The more one knows about and is Fractal • A fractal is a self-similar pat- aware of what influences him, the more free tern created through repeatedly applying the his will. same rule on itself.

Generation • A generation is a set of Grenzerfahrung • Grenzerfahrung is systems during one cycle of procreation. German and literally means “boundary expe- Genotype • The genotype is a system rience,” an experience that tests our abilities that is the blueprint for the phenotype. and ideas to the limit.

Hierarchy tree (of concepts) • A tional ordering of concepts according to their hierarchy tree of concepts refers to the direc- inheritance.

1cf. Rand, Binswanger, and Peikoff, Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, pp. 59-60.

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Identity • An identity is the sum total cept with an inheritance of another concept of all properties of an entity (e.g., weight: 160 builds upon the other concept’s definition. pounds, length: 6 feet, has a consciousness, If the concept “table” inherits from the con- etc.). cept “matter,” the former would build upon Image • An image is an entity that is the property “mass” of the latter. linked to another entity by a mental connec- Integration • Integration is the classi- tion. fication of perceived entities into one or sev- Induction • With induction, we con- eral concepts, as well as classification of exist- clude from the special case (a number of con- ing concepts into more general concepts or a crete perceptions) the general case (the con- concept hierarchy (e.g., the classification of cept). With this, we create new or refine ex- a perceived sound wave as a definite word, isting concepts, on the basis of sense data and or classification of the concept “human” into the logical integration of a number of percep- the more general concept “life-form”). tions of entities. For example, if we see a Identity • An identity is the sum total number of cars with different colors, we cre- of all properties of an entity (e.g., weight: 160 ate from this observation the more general pounds, length: 6 feet, has a consciousness, concept “car” by using induction. etc.). Inheritance (of a concept) • A con-

Knowledge • Knowledge constitutes be created from logically integrated conclu- sense data, logically integrated perceptions, sions from existing knowledge. concepts, or concept hierarchies. It can also

Language • A language is a system Language is the application of concepts and by means of which we can translate knowl- the hierarchy of these concepts. edge of a situation (and concepts) into a se- Letter • A letter is a small symbol or ries of images and supporting linguistic con- image (“a,” “b,” “c,” etc.). structs, and conversely, translate a series Logic • Logic is the method of non- of images and linguistic auxiliary constructs contradictory integration of knowledge or into knowledge of a situation (and concepts). perceptions.

Mutation • A mutation is a change of but does not necessarily, have consequences the genotype of a life form. This change can, for the phenotype.

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Noun • A noun is a word that stands e.g., “Peter”) or a concept (common noun, as a representative of an entity (proper noun, e.g., “dog”).

Occam’s Razor principle • Ac- friar, scholastic philosopher, and theologian cording to the Occam’s Razor principle, William of Ockham (1287 - 1347). among competing hypotheses, the one with Object • An object is a noun to which the fewest assumptions should be selected. the verb refers as a target (e.g., “Peter throws It is attributed to the English Franciscan the ball.”).

Phenotype • The phenotype is the ac- cognition. tual body of a life form. Changes in the phe- Phoneme • A phoneme is a sound syl- notype generally do not have effects on the lable that represents a single unit of sound genotype. Generally only the phenotype in- that a person can make. In the English lan- teracts directly with the environment. guage, there are about 44 phonemes. Process • A process describes the Pointer • A pointer can be a word, mechanism of a cause working to an effect picture, gesture, etc. that “points” to one or (e.g., if you put an ice cube into a glass of more entities. It can be used in their place, water, the cooling of the water is the pro- e.g., if you “point” to a specific apple by say- cess). ing “this apple,” you do not have to actually Procreation • Procreation is a process take the apple in your hand to make it clear by which a system creates (on its own or with about which apple you are speaking. the help of the environment) a new entity Process • A process describes the with the similar or (preferably) same struc- mechanism of a cause working to an effect ture as itself. (e.g., if you put an ice cube into a glass of Property • A property refers to the water, the cooling of the water is the pro- manner in which an entity (or a process) af- cess). fects other entities (or other processes) in a Property • A property refers to the certain situation (e.g., mass, position, length, manner in which an entity (or a process) af- name, velocity, etc.). fects other entities (or other processes) in a Perception • Perception is the whole certain situation (e.g., mass, position, length, process of sense perception combined with name, velocity, etc.).

Quantum Weirdness • The concept world.” But for particles, this intuitive ap- of quantum weirdness refers to the unintu- proach does not work, hence we call the itive results we see when looking at effects quantum world “weird” in that regard. in the quantum world. Intuitively, we expect Qubit • A qubit can be compared to everything to act the way it does in our imme- a wave (as opposed to a discrete unit as with diate, slow-moving and high-energy “macro- digital bits). Combining several qubits with

23 24 Glossary

a quantum gate results in an instant calcula- Qualia • The individual instances of tion of an interference pattern between the conscious experience of sense data are called waves, which can be used to significantly qualia. speed up processing.

The Red Queen Hypothesis • “Red resistant to the toxin. Over time, both species Queen” is a reference the novel Through the become increasingly specialized in catching Looking-Glass where the protagonist needs or evading each other. to run just to keep in the same place. The Red Reversal of the Burden of Proof • Queen Hypothesis refers to a stable balance Using the argument of the reversal of the bur- between two competing species that are in- den of proof, you try to evade the necessity terlocked in their evolution and where both to give proof for your own arguments and in- are evolving, yet no side gets the upper hand. stead present the opposite of your argument, They are bound to each other in a waythat and ask the other person for proof. The ba- the failure of one species is the success of sic (and wrong) premise of the reversal of the the other. A gazelle failing to outrun a chee- burden of proof argument is that anything tah ultimately helps the cheetah to procreate. that cannot be disproven must be true. This Likewise, a cheetah failing to catch a gazelle is a fallacy because you often cannot prove a helps the gazelle to procreate. Another exam- negative without being omniscient. ple would be plants and caterpillars, with the Rationalism • Rationalism is the at- plants producing more and more toxic leaves, tempt to create knowledge without induction while the caterpillars become more and more and to deduce from this knowledge.

Science • Science is the formalized with a definite structure (e.g., an ice cube isa process of gaining new knowledge from ob- system of frozen water molecules). servation, deducting new knowledge from Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (strong existing knowledge, and checking existing version) • The strong version of the Sapir- knowledge for contradictions. Whorf hypothesis states that our language Selection (Evolution) • Selection is determines our thinking; different languages a process where some (or all) of a set of sys- make certain trains of thought possible or tems of similar structure are retained while impossible in the first place. There isno the rest are discarded or destroyed. Which general translatability of languages. ones are retained and which ones are dis- Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (weak ver- carded depends on the relationship between sion) • The weak version of the Sapir- the structure of the individual systems and Whorf hypothesis states that our language in- the fitness landscape. In the example of the fluences our thoughts, making it easier or riddle screen, the screen lets small sand fall harder to think or express certain ideas; dif- through while it “selects” larger stones. ferent languages influence thoughts in differ- Structure • A structure is a descrip- ent ways, so different languages contribute tion of required properties, dependencies, to different styles of thinking. and arrangement of a number of entities (e.g., Self-evident statement • A self-evi- cube-shaped). dent statement is a statement whose reason- System • A system is an aggregate ing is contained within itself (e.g., the estab-

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lishment of the axiom of existence necessi- Mediterranean seas). Put another way, sets tates the very same existence). are a way of organizing or grouping entities; Self-reference (recursion) • If a they make life easier. statement or a process references itself, it is Situation • A situation consists of called recursion. Examples would be “Read a certain number of entities, their changes the sentence you are now reading again” (re- in properties, their mutual interactions, and cursive statement), two opposing mirrors in their relationships to one another, at certain which the images mirror until infinity (recur- times and in certain places. sive process), cell division where a new cell Structure • A structure is a descrip- is created that divides itself as well (likewise tion of required properties, dependencies, a recursive process), etc. and arrangement of a number of entities (e.g., Sense data • Sense data is informa- cube-shaped). tion, converted to a form usable by cognition, Subject • A subject is the noun to about an effect registered by a sensory or- which the verb refers as an origin (e.g., “Pe- gan. ter runs”). Sense organ • A sense organ is an en- Syntax • In languages with syntax, tity (e.g., an eye, a nose, an ear, etc.) that is words can be combined into sentences that connected to another entity with cognition, each correspond to a meaning. and that can register effects of different in- Synthetic statement • A synthetic tensities of properties. statement is a statement whose assertion is Sentence • A sentence consists of a given not by the definition of the subject number of ordered words. alone; i.e., measurements are required to de- Set • A set is a pointer to a number termine whether it is true or not (e.g., “This of entities who share properties defined by form has three corners”). the set (e.g., the set of the “Seven Seas” re- System • A system is an aggregate fer to the seven oceanic bodies of water of with a definite structure (e.g., an ice cube isa Earth, i.e., the four oceans and the three large system of frozen water molecules).

Tabula rasa • Tabula rasa refers to tion tends to create systems in each new gen- the view that we are born without any in- eration that are better adapted to the envi- nate knowledge and that our minds can cre- ronment (same or higher rate of procreation ate knowledge only with the help of sense compared to the parent generation). data. Theory of mind • The theory of mind Term • A term is the name of a con- refers to the cognitive skill that makes it pos- cept (e.g., as a word or fixed word combina- sible to understand that another individual tion, such as “goods and services” or “in a may have beliefs and desires that are differ- jiffy”). Every concept has a term pointing to ent from one’s own. it, but not every term is a concept (e.g., con- Time • Time is a measurement tool to junctions like “and”). put the speed of processes in relation to each Theory of Evolution • The theory other. of evolution states that the process of evolu-

25 26 Glossary

Verb • A verb is a word that refers to action: “Peter runs”). the changes in properties of a noun (e.g., an

Word • A word consists of a number of ordered letters.