ETHICALLY ALIGNED DESIGN First Edition Glossary

A Vision for Prioritizing Human Well-being with Autonomous and Intelligent Systems

Authors: Sara Mattingly-Jordan (Glossary Chair), Rosalie Day, Bob Donaldson, Phillip Gray, L. Maria Ingram

Explanatory Note: Developed through the collaborative work of the Glossary Committee, a Committee of The IEEE Global Initiative, with input from Committees and Chairs over the duration of EADv1, EADv2 and EAD1e along with feedback from multiple Chairs of the IEEE P7000™ Series, this Glossary is meant to be an illustrative tool for teams attempting to work on difficult cross boundary issues such as those ethical issues that may arise in the development, design, or deployment of artificial intelligence.

The purpose of this glossary is to give interdisciplinary teams a shared resource for reference to terms which may have meanings that are discipline specific. Within this document there are 6 definitions given for most terms. In those cases where 6 full definitions are not given for each term a suitable definition within the discipline examined could not be found. The 6 categories of disciplines from which definition were draws include: ordinary language; computational disciplines (e.g., mathematics and statistics); economics and social sciences; engineering disciplines; philosophy and ethics; and international law and policy.

This edition of the Glossary is in draft form. TERM ORDINARY LANGUAGE COMPUTATIONAL DISCIPLINES ENGINEERING ECONOMICS & SOCIAL SCIENCES ETHICS & PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL LAW & POLICY

ACCEPTANCE Active acknowledgement We welcome See also acceptance criteria: “the list of “1. a favorable attitude toward an Believing a claim has sufficient warrant “satisfactoriness by virtue of con- recommendations! requirements that a software system idea, situation, person, or group; 2. 2. to incorporate into our relevant value forming to approved standards” must satisfy before customers take willing acknowledgment of validity or scheme (Douglas n.d. “Norms for Values in (AGROVOC) Adapted from the delibery” (LaPlante 2001, 4). correctness” (APA); “belongingness” in Scientific Belief Acceptance”) WHO Main Principles for Pharma- relation to a chosen peer group (Elliot, ceutical Products definition for Dweck, Yeager, 2017: 588-589). Acceptance Criteria: “Measurable terms under which a test result will be considered acceptable.” ICH-GMP Q6 definition: “Nu- merical limits, ranges, or other suitable measures for acceptance of the results of analytical procedures. [ICH Q6A]”

ACCEPTABLE Hazards that are actively “In the context of a “A risk that has significantly smaller or Risk distributions that are equitable, The level of Residual Risk that has RISK acknowledged as being medical treatment this fewer detrimental consequences than conform to acceptable mehods, reflect been determined to be a reason- within limits of an describes a situation alternative courses of action” (Porta and salient values and give future generations able level of potential loss/dis- individual or organization’s in which the expected Last 2018). appropriate due (see Schrader- Frechette ruption for a specific IT system. tolerance benefits outweigh the 2000: 773-774). Source(s): NIST SP 800-16 potential hazards of the treatment” (Upton and Cook 2014).

ACCESS Permission for entry and/ May refer to access time “1. The method of gaining entry to a “to retrieve or recall” (APA) We welcome recommendations! “Ability to make use of any or use or “the elapsed time building, a room, a site, or services; information system resource” between the initiation of 2. The right or permission to use (Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 (NIST a request for data and something (access to documents)” SP 800-32) receipt of the first bit or (Gorse, Johnston and Pritchard 2012). byte of that data” (reilly 2004, 3).

ACCESSIBILITY The quality of being open We welcome “Refers to the ease with which a human See also accessible: “1. receptive or We welcome recommendations! “The ease and conditions under to all recommendations! may enter an environment and rances responsive to personal interaction and which statistical information can from high to low. Two aspects of the other external stimuli; 2. retrievable be obtained.” (UN Statistical Data work environment, variability and through memory or other cognitive and Metadata Exchange, 2009) accessiblity, determine the applicability processes” (APA). of autonomous robots, humans, and teleoperators. Accessibility determines whether a human is applicable: if a humnan cannot enter an environment or if the environment is harmful, an autonomous robot or teleoperator is a better choice” (LaPlante 2001, 5).

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ACCOUNTA- Liability to account for and A set of mechanisms, National Society for Professional “Accountability involves the means by Accountability is a component of the state “quality or state of being ac- BILITY answer for one’s conduct; practices and attributes Engineers, Fundamental Canon #6, “6. which public agencies and their workers of being responsible, alongside being countable, liable or responsible” judgment of blameworthi- that sum to a governance Conduct themselves honorably, re- manage the diverse expectations gener- answerable and being attributable. “To (UNOG); (1) the responsibility ness; obligation to provide structure which “consists sponsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as ated within and outside the organization” be answerable . . . is to be susceptible for for the results of the discharge a satisfactory answer to an of accepting responsibility to enhance the honor, reputation, and (Romzek and Dubnik 1987, 228); “Admin- assessment of, and respond to, the rea- of authority and official duties, external oversight agent for the stewardship of usefulness of the profession.” istrative accountability is the concept that sons one takes to justify one’s actions. … including duties delegated to a personal and/or confi- officials are to be held answerable for To be accountable, on the other hand, is to subordinate unit or individual; or dential data with which general notions of democracy and moral- be susceptible to being held to account if to (2) process whereby public ser- it [data organization] is ity as well as for specific legal mandates” one flouts relationship-defining demands” vice organizations and individuals entrusted in a cloud envi- (Shafritz 1992, 10). (623). To “hold someone to account,” in within them are held responsible ronment, for processing, turn, “is precisely to sanction that person, for their decision and actions, in- storing, sharing, deleting whether it be via the expression of a reac- cluding their stewardship of pub- and otherwise using data tive attitude, public shaming, or something lic funds, fairness, and all aspects according to contractual more psychologically or physically damag- of performance, in accordance and legal requirements ing” (623). with agreed rules and standards, from the time it is collect- and fair and accurate reporting ed until when the data are on performance results vis-à-vis destroyed (including on- mandated roles and/or plans; (3) ward transfer to and from the obligation of the Secretariat third parties). Accountabil- and its staff members to be an- ity involves committing to swerable for all decisions made legal and ethical obliga- and actions taken by them, and tions, policies, procedures to be responsible for honouring and mechanism, explain- their commitments, without qual- ing and demonstrating ification or exception. (UNHQ); ethical implementation The principle that an individual is to internal and external entrusted to safeguard and con- stakeholders and reme- trol equipment, keying material, dying any failure to act and information and is answer- properly” (Felici, Loulours, able to proper authority for the Pearson 2013). loss or misuse of that equipment or information. Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 (NSA/CSS Manual Number 3-16 (COMSEC)); The security goal that generates the requirement for actions of an entity to be traced uniquely to that entity. This supports non-re- pudiation, deterrence, fault isolation, intrusion detection and prevention, and after-action recovery and legal action. Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 (NIST SP 800-27 Rev. A) ; Individual accountability: Ability to associate positively the identity of a user with the time, method, and degree of access to an information system. Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015

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ADAPTATION transformation necessary We welcome recommen- “Process that allows humans to adjust “adjustment of a sense organ to the in- We welcome recommendations! “changes in an organism’s to accomplish a goal dations! to changing conditions or relationships tensity or quality of stimulation, resulting structure or habits that help it in their environment” (LaPlante 2001, in a temporary change in sensory or to adjust to its surroundings.” 8). perceptual experience” (APA). (United Nations Statistics Divi- sion); “Adjustment of a population to changes in environment over generations, associated (at least in part with genetic changes resulting from selection imposed by the changed environment” (AGROVOC); “In human systems, the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. In natural systems, the process of adjustment to actual climate and its effects; human intervention may facilitate adjustment to expected climate.” (IPCC 2012)

ADAPTIVE Level of resources availa- We welcome recommen- we welcome recommendations! See also adaptive intelligence: “the ability See also “Adaptive systems” or “Cybernet- The combination of the strengths, CAPACITY ble to assist adaptation dations! to apply knowledge to novel situations, ics: denotes the study of the communi- attributes, and resources availa- such as solving problems and conversing cation and manipulation of information ble to an individual, community, with others, demonstrating an effective for the control and guidance of physical, society, or organization that ability to interact with, and learn from, chemical, biological, or other systems, such can be used to prepare for and the environment.” (APA) as automation-, guidance-, or homeostat- undertake actions to reduce ic-ststems. Feedback loops, and forward adverse impacts, moderate harm, loops, widely understood as versions of a or exploit beneficial opportuni- closed-loop, are circular causal structures... ties. (IPCC 2012) which are crucial to cybernetics and have forerunners in a variety of areas on inquiry, from engineering and formal logic, through economics and biology, to sociology, psychology, and philosophy” (Iannone 2001, 133-134).

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AFFECT “The manner in which one Rosalind Picard ([1995] No common definition found. We wel- “Affect corresponds to a sensorial expe- “The inner motive as distinquished from We welcome recommendations! is inclined or disposed; 2010) defines affective come recommendations! rience in response to internal or external the intention or end of action. Cf. Spinoza, (also) the capacity for will- computing as “comput- stimuli. It is expressed with physiological Ethics, bk. III. -- L.W.” (Runes 2004(1942)). ing or desiring; a mental ing that relates to, arises and motor responses… Affect also com- See also Affective: “The generic character state, mood, or emotion, from, or influences emo- prises and expressive social response; it supposedly shared by pleasure, pain and esp. one regarded as an tions”. plays a determining role in the thoughts the emotions as distinguished from the attribute of a more gener- and actions of a person in relation to ideational and volitional aspects of con- al state; a feeling, desire, self and others, and influences how the sciousness. See Affect. -- L.W.” intention” (OED). individual copes with situational stressors and interpersonal relations” (Renaud and Zacchia 2013, 299); “ any experience of feeling or emotion, ranging from suffering to elation, from the simplest to the most complex sensations of feeling, and from the most normal to the most pathological emotional reactions. Often described in terms of positive affect or negative affect, both mood and emotion are considered affective states. Along with cognition and conation, affect is one of the three traditionally identified components of the mind” (APA).

AGENCY Capacity to decide and act Agency is an essential Agents are “systems” with “the fol- The “law of agency ‘encompasses the le- Ethical agency is “that which enables us to “Organization” (UN Statistics characteristic that is lowing properties: autonomy (make gal consequences of consensual relation- act in the interest of another, to put the Data and Metadata Exchange); useful to define or classify decisions about what to do), reactivity ships in which one person (the ‘principal’) well-being of another before our own” “A fiduciary relationship created agents. Agency requires (situated in an environment and are manifests assent that another person (Hofmeyr 2009, v) by express or implied contract capacity to act on sense able to perceive and respond), pro-ac- (the ‘agent’) shall, subject to the princi- or by law, in which one party data, within an envi- tiveness (take initiative), and social pal’s right of control, have power to affect (the agent) may act on behalf of ronment, over time, to ability (interact with other agents via the principal’s legal relations through the another party (the principal) and pursue goals (see Franklin some kind of agent-communication agent’s acts and on the principal’s behalf bind that other party by words or and Graesser 1996). language)” (Woolridge 1997, 2-3). (American Law Institute 2001, p. 1)” actions.” (UNHQ); “Any executive (Shapiro 2005); “the state of being active, department, military department, usually in the service of a goal, or of hav- government corporation, governing the power and capability to produce ment controlled corporation, or an effect or exert influence.” (APA) other establishment in the executive branch of the government (including the Executive Office of the President), or any independent regulatory agency, but does not include: (i) the Government Accountability Office; (ii) the Fed- eral Election Commission; (iii) the governments of the District of Co- lumbia and of the territories and possessions of the United States, and their various subdivisions; or (iv) government-owned contractor-operated facilities, including laboratories engaged in national defense research and production activities. Source(s): FIPS 200 (44 U.S.C., Sec. 3502) “

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AGENT An intelligent being who “Autonomous deci- “Agent[s] have state and engage in ac- Within agency theory, agents are actors An agent is an entity able to act based “person acting on behalf of acts by will, from intention, sion-making entities” tions which move it [the agent] among who fulfill, with varying degrees of accura- upon its own judgment and under its own manufacturers, suppliers or whether for its own ends (Bonabeau 2002); “An states… agents repeatedly and simulta- cy and completeness, the tasks specified will; “In doing x an agent acts incontinently recipients, who has a mandate or those of other agents agent can be a physical or neously take action, which leads them for them by their principals (see Eisen- if and only if: 1) the agent does x inten- to represent one of them and to virtual entity that can act, from their previous state to a new hardt 1989); “1. a person or entity that tionally; 2) the agent believes there is an conclude a contract in the name perceive its environment one. The actions of an agent are taken acts or has the capacity to act, particularly alternative action y open to him; and 3) the of that person.” (UNHQ); A host- (in a partial way) and from a given repertoire. The problem on behalf of another or of a group; 2. a agent judges that, all things considered, based intrusion detection and communicate with others, in defining the transition functions of means by which something is done or it would be better to do y than to do x” prevention program that mon- is autonomous and has agents is due to the fact that the state caused” (APA). (Davidson 1969, 22); Floridi and Sanders itors and analyzes activity and skills to achieve its goals in which the agent ends up after taking suggest that “artificial agents extend the may also perform prevention ac- and tendencies. It is in a a particular action at a particular state class of entities that can be involved in tions. Source(s): NIST SP 800-94 multi-agent system (MAS) depends also on actions and states of moral situations. For they can be conceived that contains an environ- other agents” (Shoham and Tennen- of as moral patients (as entities that can ment, objects and agents holtz 1995, 242-243); “1. a computa- be acted upon for good or evil) and also as (the agents being the only tional entity that acts on behalf of oth- moral agents (as entities that can perform ones to act), relations er entities in an autonomous fashion, actions, again for good or evil) (2004, 349); between all the entities, 2. in the client-server model, the part “In ethics an agent is always a person who a set of operations that of the system that performs infom- is acting, or has acted, or is contemplating can be performed by the ration preparation and exchange on action. Here it is usually held that to be a entities and the changes behalf of a client or server. Especially in moral agent, i.e. an agent to whom moral of the universe in time the phrase ‘intelligent agent’ it implies qualities may be ascribed and who may be and due to these actions” some kind of automatic process which treated accordingly, one must be free and (Ferber 1999) can communiate with other agents to responsible, with a certain maturity, ration- perform some collective task on behalf ality, and sensitivity -- which normal adult of one or more humans” (LaPlante human beings are taken to have. Ethics is 2001, 12). then concerned to determine when such an agent is morally good or virtuous, when morally bad or vicious, or, alternatively, when he is acting rightly and when wrong- ly, when virtuously and when viciously. See Act. -- W.K.F. See also “Act: In ethics the main concern is usually said to be with acts or actions, particularly voluntary ones, in their moral relations, or with the moral qualities of acts and actions. By an act or action here is meant a bit of behavior or conduct, the origination or attempted origination of a change by some agent, the execution of some agent’s choice or decision (so that not acting may be an act). As such, an act is often distinguished from its motive, its intention, and its maxim on the one hand, and from its consequences on the other, though it is not always held that its moral qualities are independent of these. Rather, it is frequently held that the rightness of an act, or its moral goodness, or both, depend at least in part on the character or value of its motive, intention, maxim, or consequences, or of the life or system of which it is a part. Another question concerning acts in ethics is whether

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AI/AS acronym - Artificial Intel- ligence and Autonomous Systems

ALGORITHM a set of rules for solving a Hopcroft and Ullman “A systematic and precise, step-by-ste “ a well-defined procedure or set of rules “In its original usage, this word referred to “A clearly specified mathematical problem (1979) define an algorithm procedure (such as a recipe, a pro- that is used to solve a problem or accom- the Arabic system of notation for num- process for computation; a set of with respect to proce- gram, or a set of programs) for solving plish a task or that is used for conducting bers and to the elementary operations of rules that, if followed, will give a dures; “a procedures is a certain kinds of problems or accom- a series of computations” (APA) arithmetic as performed in this notation. prescribed result. Source(s): NIST finite sequence of instruc- plishing a task, for instance convert- In mathematics, the word is used for a SP 800-107 (Superceded by Rev. tions that can be mechan- ing a particular kind of input data to method or process of calculation with sym- 1) ically carried out, such as a particular kind of output data, or bols (often, but not necessarily, numerical a computer program... a controlling a machine tool. An algoritm symbols) according to fixed rules which proceudres which always may be expresssed in ordinary lan- yields effectively the, solution of any given terminates is called an guage, in programming language, or problem of some class of problems. -- A.C.” algorithm” (quote in Reilly in machine code. An algorithm trans- (Runes 2004, 1942). 2004, 23). “given both the forms some initial data into another problem and the device, form, which is its result. An algorithm an algorithm is character- can be executied by a machine” (LaP- ised by these properties: lante 2001, 13). 1. application o fthe algorithm to a particular input set or problem description results in a finite sequence of actions, 2. the sequence of actions has a unique initial actions, 3. each action in the sequence has a unique suc- cessor, 4. the sequence terminates with either a solution to the porblem or a statement that the problem is unsolvable for that set of data” (Reilly 2004, 16). See also “analysis of algorithms consists of algorithm complexity and problem complexity. The former (algorithm complexity) analyzes the behavior of a specific algorithm with respect to theh amount of memory space, time or other resources needed for a problem. The latter (problem complexity) analyzes the minimum requirements of space and time or other resources for the class of all algorithms for that problem” (Reilly 2004, 17).

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ANTICIPATORY Analysis of the standards No common definition No common definition found. We No common definition found. We “Anticipatory ethics refers here to: (1) We welcome recommendations! ETHICS for good or bad actions found. We welcome welcome recommendations! welcome recommendations! engagement with the ethical implications taken when designing, recommendations! of a technology while the technology is developing, deploying, still in the earliest stages of development; or decommissioning and (2) engagement that is targeted emerging technologies to influence the development of the technology” (Johnson 2011).

ART Products of creativity “Art refers to the useful No common definition found. We “The term ‘’the arts’’ includes, but is not “Something is a work of art when it has a Prior art: Definition In the context intended to evoke practices of a field, not to welcome recommendations! limited to, music (instrumental and vocal), meaning—is about something—and when of intellectual property and pat- emotion or give meaning; drawings or sculptures. dance, drama, folk art, creative writing, that meaning is embodied in the object in ents, everything which has been Non-scientific, craftsman- Programming, design, architecture and allied fields, painting, which the work of art materially consists… made available to the public be- like, or creative aspects of software and hardware sculpture, photography, graphic and works of art are embodied meanings” fore the relevant date anywhere a profession engineering, building and craft arts, industrial design, costume (Danto 2013, 149; quoted in Haynes 2015); in the world by means of written validating models, and and fashion design, motion pictures, “In Aristotle the science or knowledge of disclosure and which can be of building user interfaces television, radio, film, video, tape and the principles involved in the production assistance in determining wheth- are all “computing arts.” sound recording, the arts related to the of beautiful or useful objects. As a branch er the claimed invention is new If aesthetics is added, the presentation, performance, execution, of knowledge art is distinguished both and involves an inventive step (is computing arts extend and exhibition of such major art forms, from theoretical science and from practical non-obvious) for the purposes of to graphics, layout, all those traditional arts practiced by the wisdom; as a process of production it is international search and interna- drawings, photography, diverse peoples of this country. (sic) and contrasted with nature. -- G.R.M.” (Runes tional preliminary examination. animation, music, games, the study and application of the arts to 2004 (1942)). and entertainment. the human environment” (20 U.S.C. 952 All this computing art (b)) complements and enriches the science” (Denning 2005, 29).

ARTIFICIAL Of a thing: made or con- No common definition Ninsberg adapts Newell and Simon “The term artificial flavor or artificial “The artificial is the result of the overlap We welcome recommendations! structed by human skill, found. We welcome rec- (1976) physical-symbol systems as flavoring means any substance, the between nature and conventional technol- esp. in imitation of, or as a ommendations! definitive for an artificial entity: “A function of which is to impart flavor, ogy” (Negrotti 1999, 185). Those objects substitute for, something physical symbol system consists of a which is not derived from a spice, fruit or agents which are artificial are part of an which is made or occurs set of entities, called symbols which fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, “unavoidable selection process—of an ob- naturally; man-made are physical patterns that can occur edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or servation level, an exemplar or an essential (OED) as components of another type of similar plant material, meat, fish, poultry, performance—will cause transfiguration entity called an expression (or symbol eggs, dairy products, or fermentation of the feature and the behavior of the structure). Thus, a symbols structure products thereof. Artificial flavor includes exemplar once it is rebuilt as the artificial” is composed of a number of instances the substances listed in 172.515(b) and (Negrotti 1999, 185). (or tokens) of symbols related in some 582.60 of this chapter except where these physical way (such as one token being are derived from natural sources” (21 CFR next to another). At any instant of time 501(22)(a)(1)) the system will contain a collection of these symbol structures. Besides these structure, the system also contains a collection of processes that operate on expressions to produce other expressions: processes of creation, modification, reproduction, and destruction. A physical symbol system is a machine that produces through time and evolv- ing collection of symbol structures. Such a system exists in a world of objects wider than just these symbolic expressions themselves”.

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ARTIFICIAL “The capacity of “AI will be such a program Artificial intelligence engineering “AI approaches can be divided into “we shall say that an entity is intelligent “A subfield of computer science INTELLIGENCE computers or other which in an arbitrary has been compared to knowledge “narrow AI” and “general AI.” Narrow if it has an adequate model of the world concerned with the concepts and machines to exhibit world will cope not worse engineering. A “knowledge based AI systems perform individual tasks in (including the intellectual world of math- methods of symbolic inference or simulate intelligent than a human” (Dobrev system design” of AI encompasses specialized, well-defined domains, such ematics, understanding of its own goals by a computer and the symbolic behaviour” (OED) 2004, 2); “Artificial intelli- 3 levels: “the ‘knowledge level’ as speech recognition, image recognition, and other mental processes), if it is clever representation of the knowledge gence is the enterprise of view of a knowledge-based system and translation. In contrast, the long-term enough to answer a wide variety of ques- to be used in making inferences” constructing a symbol sys- describes the knowledge that is used goal of general AI is to create systems tions on the basis of this model, if it can get (INIS); “The branch of computer tem that can reliably pass by and embedded in that system. that exhibit the flexibility and versatility additional information from the external science concerned with the devel- the Turing test” (Ginsberg The ‘algorithm level’ view escribes of human intelligence in a broad range world when required, and can perform opment of machines capable of 2012, 9); See Figure 1.1 the system as a search algorithm, of cognitive domains, including learning, such tasks in the external world as its goals performing activities that are nor- Russell and Norvig (1995 configured out of standard component language, perception, reasoning, creativi- demand and its physical abilities permit” mally thought to require a human page 5). “Artificial intelli- types (e.g., generators, testers, ty, and planning” (NITRD 2016, 19) (McCarthy and Hayes 1969, 4) type of intelligence. And, addi- gence is a field of com- patchers, constraint propagators, belief tionally, the ability of a computer puter science concerne revisers, etc). The ‘program level’ view or other machine to perform dwith the computational expresses the system in terms of the activities normally thought to understanding of what is elements of existing programming require a human type of intelli- commonly called intelli- paradigms (rules, objects, procedures, gence.” (UNHQ: A/S-15/12 Annex gent behavior and with etc) (Tong and Sriram 2012, 8-9) II, pr 12 of E, paragraph (d)) the creation of artifacts that exhibit such behavior. This definition may e examined more closely by considering the field from three points of view: computational psychology (the goal of which is to understand human intelligent behvaior by creating computer programs that behave in the same way that people do), computational philosopy (the goal of which is to form a computational understanding of human-level intelligent behavior, without being resticted to the algorithms and data structures that the human mind actually does use), and machine intelligence (the goal of which is to expand the fronteir of what we know how to program” (Reilly 2004, 40-41).

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ARTIFICIAL study of biological life “Artificial life (AL) is a new “The attempt to understand the emer- “a research area of artificial intelligence “Artificial life studies the emergence of or- We welcome recommendations! LIFE through computers discipline that studies gence of life by re-creating possible in which computer-based systems ex- der and adaptive behavior in general and is ‘natural life’ by attempt- life forms as simulation program so hibit behavioral characteristics of living closely related to AI” (Boden 2000, 58). ing to recreate biological computers and studying their behav- systems. Often constructed using cellular pheomenoa, from scratch, ior” (LaPlante 2001, 23). automata, these systems fall into three within computers and categories depending on the approach: other ‘artifical media… AL software (simulators), hardware (robot- amounts to the practice ics), and wetware (synthetic DNA). This of synthetic biology, which research area often attempts to simulate attempts to recreate the effects of communication and other biological phenomena in society-based skills on survival” (APA) alternative media. It is the study of life-as-it-could-be, rather than the biological life-as-we-know-it” (Reilly 2004, 43).

ASSISTIVE Software and hardware No common definition. No common definition. We welcome ““Assistive technology” consists of devices No common definition. We welcome rec- “A generic term that includes TECHNOLOGY purposively combined to We welcome recommen- recommendations. and other solutions that assist people ommendations. assistive, adaptive and rehabilita- augment or replace hu- dations. with deficits in physical, mental, or emotive devices for people with disa- man sensory or cognitive tional functioning. Assistive technology bilities and includes the process tasks devices are items frequently used by peo- used in selecting, locating and us- ple with functional deficits as alternative ing them.” (UNHQ; A/RES/65/186 ways of performing actions, tasks, and paragraph 15(e)) activities. Assistive technology also includes ways of controlling these devices. Software may control ordinary hardware systems in ways that facilitate their use by persons with functional deficits, like text-to-speech conversion software that runs on ordinary computers” (LaPlante, Hendershot and Moss 1992, “Assistive Technology Devices and Home Acces- sibility Features: Prevalence, Payment, Need and Trends”, Advance Data National Center for Health Statistics, Volume 217, p. 2).

AUGMENTED Augmented reality is virtu- “Augmented Reality (AR) “An AR system supplements the real “augmented reality is the material/virtual We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! REALITY al content layered over the allows the user to see the world with virtual (computer-gener- nexus mediated through technology, real environment real world, with virtual ated) objects that appear to coexist information and code, and enacted in objects superimposed in the same space as the real world… specific and individualised space/time upon or composited with an AR system [will] have the following configurations” (Graham, Zook, and the real world. Therefore, properties: combines real and virtual Boulton 2012, 466). AR supplements reality, objects in a real environment; runs rather than completely re- interactively, and in real time; and reg- placing it... AR is any sys- isters (aligns) real and virtual objects tem that has the following with each other” (Azuma et al 2001, 34) three characteristics: 1. Combines real and virtual, 2. Is interactive in real time, [and] 3. Is registered in three dimensions” (Azu- ma 1997, 356).

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AUTOMATION mechanized, goal orient- “automation is the conver- “A generic term for machines designed “Production by machinery without the See “Automoton theory: Automaton “Term used to cover a broad ed, process sion of a work process, a to operate without human input except need for immediate human intervention” Theory: Theory that a living organism may range of systems, including auto- prcedure, or equipment to reprogram or for maintenance; (Black, Hashimzade and Myles 2017); “In be considered a mere machine”. See also mated manufacturing equipment, to automatic rather than often, but not always, computer con- theory, a workerless system of manu- “automatism: In metaphysics: Theory that control systems, automated lab- human operation or controlled; autonomous robots are a form facture; in practice, a series of individual animal and human organisms are autom- oratory systems manufacturing trol. Automation does not of automatiion, but not all automation computer-controlled or robotic machine ata, that is to say, are machines governed execution systems and comput- simply transfer human involves robotics. Automation para- tools, with electromechanical link op- by the laws of physics and mechanics. In ers running laboratory or manu- functions ot machines, digms include: a) a continuous flow erations replacing transfer by hand. psychology: Psychological automatism is facturing database systems. The but incolves a deept production process which integrates Research on the modern labour process the performance of apparently purposeful automated system consists of the reorganization of the work various mechanisms to produce an suggests that automation displaces, actions, like automatic writing without the hardware, software and network process” (reilly 2004, 54). item with relatively few or no worker rather than replaces, human labour and superintendence of the conscious mind. L. components, together with the operations, usually through electron- skill—to maintenance, planning, distribu- C. Rosenfield, From Beast Machine to Man controlled functions and associ- ic- control, b) self-regulating machines tion, and ancillary work” (Scott 2014). Machine, N. Y., 1941. -- L.W.” (Runes 2004 ated documentation. Automated (feedback) that can perform highly (1942). systems are sometimes referred precise operations in sequence; c) elec- to as computerised systems, in tronic computing machines” (LaPlante this Guide the two terms are 2001, 31). synonymous. [PIC/S PI 011-3]”; Autonomous system: “One or more routers under a single administration operating the same routing policy. Source(s): NIST SP 800-54 “

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AUTONOMOUS fully independent See also autonomous robot: “comput- “1. having an independent existence; see autonomy Autonomous technology: “Any er-controlled system programmed to 2. acting or operating under one’s own kind of technology that can carry out some task without human direction; 3. having self-government. function without being told what intervention; for example, a welding Compare heteronomous” (APA). to do by a person, for example robot; distinguishable from other robots.” (CCW/MSP/2015/3 para- computer controlled systems byt its graph 76); Autonomous vehicle: flexibility, that is by a capability to “This term has been used for carry out more than one task, with a long time in the robotics and reprogramming; for example a welding artificial intelligence research robot could also be a painting robot” communities to signify systems (LaPlante 2001, 31). that have the ability and authority to make decisions independently and self-sufficiently. Over time, this usage was casually broad- ened to not only encompass decision making, but to represent the entire system functionality, thereby becoming synonymous with automated. This usage obscures the question of whether a so-called “autonomous vehicle” depends on communication and/or cooperation with outside entities for important functionality (such as data acquisition and collection). Some driving automation systems may indeed be autonomous if they perform all of their functions independently and self-sufficiently, but if they depend on communication and/ or cooperation with outside entities, they should be considered cooperative rather than autonomous. Some vernacular usages associate autonomous specifically with full driving automation (level 5), while other usages apply it to all levels of driving automation, and some state legislation has defined it to correspond approximately to any ADS at or above level 3 (or to any vehicle equipped with such an ADS).; Additionally, in jurisprudence, autonomy refers to the capacity for self-governance. In this sense, also, “autonomous” is a misno- mer as applied to automated driving technology, because even the most advanced ADSs are not “self-governing.” Rather, ADSs

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AUTONOMY The ability of a person or Agents that are auton- “Where an agent acts autonomously, “we define local [government] auton- “Put most simply, to be autonomous is to Refers to an election manage- artifact to govern itself omous have control it is not possible to hold any one else omy conceptually as a system of local be one’s own person, to be directed by ment body: “Often confused including formation of both over their internal responsible for its actions. In so far as government in which local government considerations, desires, conditions, and with independence of action, an intentions, goals, motiva- state and over their own the agent’s actions were its own and units have an important role to play in characteristics that are not simply imposed autonomous electoral manage- tions, plans of action, and behavior” and “autonomy stemmed from its own ends, others the economy and the intergovernmental externally upon one, but are part of what ment body (EMB) refers to its execution of those plans, means that the problem cannot be held responsible for them” system, have discretion in determining can somehow be considered one’s authen- institutional status, i.e. its struc- with or without the assis- solvers have their own (Sparrow 2007, 63); “The freedom to what they will do without undue con- tic self” (Christman 2015).“Two conditions tural independence. The EMB is tance of other persons or persistent thread of con- be different or behave differently than straint from higher levels of government, are ordinarily required before a decision a separate entity from other gov- systems. trol (i.e., they are active) other nodes within the system” (LaP- and have the means or capacity to do so” can be regarded as autonomous. The indi- ernment agencies (independence and that they decide for lante 2001, 31). (Wolman et al 2008, 4-5); “1. a state of vidual has to have the relevant internal ca- with regard to the composition themselves which actions independence and self-determination in pacities for self-government and has to be and functioning of the electoral they should perform at an individual, a group, or a society; 2. in free from external constraints. In a medical administration). This aspect of what time” (Jennings 2000, self-determination theory more specifical- context a decision is ordinarily regarded as independence is therefore more 280 and 283); Multiple ly, the experience of acting from choice, autonomous where the individual has the accurately referred to as ‘autono- forms of autonomy have rather than feeling pressured to act. This capacity to make the relevant decision, has my.’” (UNDP) been proposed by Maes form of autonomy is considered a funda- sufficient information to make the decision and User-Autonomy: “an mental psychological need that predicts and does so voluntarily” (British Medical agent is autonomous well-being” (APA). Association 2016); Freedom consisting in with respect to the user self-determination and independence of for choosing what action all external constraint. See Freedom. Kant to perform if it can make defines autonomy of the will as subjection the choice without the of the will to its own law, the categorical user’s intervention.”; imperative, in contrast to heteronomy, Social Autonomy: “an its subjection to a law or end outside the agent X is autonomous rational will. (Fundamental Principles of the with respect to another Metaphysics of Morals, § 2.) -- L.W. (Runes agent Y for the adoption (2004 (1942)) of a goal G if X can refuse the adoption of the goal G from Y.” Norm-Autonomy: “an agent is autonomous with respect to a norm if it can violate that norm” Environmental-Autonomy: “the environment can only influence the behaviour of an agent, it cannot impose it” (Self) Agent-Autonomy: “the property that allows an agent to have and choose between several possible behaviours” (See Carabelea, Boissier and Florea 2004, 104-107).

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AVATAR representative symbol “A representation of auser present “alter ego” (APA) We welcome recommendations! “An Internet user’s representa- within a virtual environment; a virtual tion of himself or herself, in the actor representng a user” (LaPlante form of a three-dimensional 2001, 32). model used in computer games, a two-dimensional icon (picture) used on Internet forums and other communities or a text construct. Can also refer to the personality connected with the screen name, or handle, of an Internet user. Not to be confused with the previous use of the word to refer to a perfect example of a particular quality or a particular type of person. (UNHQ)

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BASELINE initial measurement or “a major version of a system selected “data or information obtained prior to or We welcome recommendations! “Reference for measurable quan- control for release to customers and/or for the at the onset of a study (e.g., before intro- tities from which an alternative purpose of measuring some attribute, duction of an intervention) that serves as outcome can be measured, e.g. e.g., reliability. A formally approved a basis for comparison with data collect- a non-intervention scenario used version of a configuration item, re- ed at a later point in time so as to assess as a reference in the analysis of garless of media, formally designated the effects of particular manipulations or intervention scenarios.” (IPCC and fixed at a specific time during the treatments” (APA) 4th); “The baseline (or refer- configuration item’s life cycle” (LaPlante ence) is the state against which 2001, 36). change is measured. It might be a ‘current baseline,’ in which case it represents observable, present-day conditions. It might also be a ‘future baseline,’ which is a projected future set of conditions excluding the driving factor of interest. Alternative interpretations of the reference conditions can give rise to multiple baselines.” (IPCC 2012); “A minimum or reference point used for comparisons; data or analyses used for comparative purposes. A baseline might be a “current baseline,” in which case it represents observable, present-day conditions. It might also be a “future baseline,” which is a projected future set of conditions excluding the driving factor of interest. Alternative interpretations of the reference conditions can give rise to multiple baselines.” (UNHQ: Eco- system and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment, Appendix 4, Glossary; Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, tenth edition, 1999); “Hardware, software, databases, and relevant documentation for an information system at a given point in time”. Source(s): NIST SP 800-161 (CNSSI 4009)

BENEFICENCE Doing good, the mani- No common definition “Providing the greatest possible bal- “The term “beneficence” is often under- “The simplest principle of beneficence re- We welcome recommendations! festation of benevolence ance of benefits to risks” (Singer and stood to cover acts of kindness or charity quires each person to perform the action, or kindly feeling, active Vinson 2002, 4) that go beyond strict obligation. In this of those available to her, that will make the kindness. (OED) document, beneficence is understood in outcome best” (Murphy 1993, 268). a stronger sense, as an obligation. Two general rules have been formulated as complementary expressions of benef- icent actions in this sense: (1) do not harm and (2) maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms” (Belmont Report, 1978).

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CAPACITY Space or scope for re- May refer to channel “In perfromance evaluation, the capac- “1. the maximum ability of an individu- “Any ability, potentiality, power or talent “The combination of all the sources capacity or “the rate at ity of a system is the maximum rate al to receive or retain information and possessed by anything, either to act or strengths, attributes, and which a channel can at which it can perform useful workk knowledge or to function in mental or to suffer. It may be innate or acquired, resources available to an in- transmit data to or from under the given set of constraints. physical tasks; 2. the potential of an dormant or active. The topic of capacity dividual, community, society, an I/O device, or to or These contraints could be, for example, individual for intellectual or creative de- figures, in the main, in two branches of phi- or organization, which can be from main storage” (Reilly the blocking probability or the end- velopment or accomplishment; 3. inborn losophy: (a) in metaphysics, as in Aristotle’s used to achieve established 2004, 94). to-end delay of packets in a system, potential, as contrasted with developed discussion of potentiality and actuality, (b) goals.” (IPCC 2012); “The ability 2. in communications, the capacity of potential (see ability)” (APA) in ethics, where an agent’s capacities are of individuals, institutions and a channel is the maximum bit rate at usually regarded as having some bearing societies to perform functions, which information can be transmitted on the question as to what his duties are. solve problems, and set and reliably, 3. in graph theory, the maxi- -- W.K.F.” (Runes 2004 (1942)). achieve objectives in a sustaina- mum amount of flow that is allowed ble manner (UNDP, 2002). There to be sent through an edge or vertex” are three levels at which capacity (LaPlante 2001, 65). should be developed: Individual (experience, knowledge, technical level), Organizational (organizational systems and procedures), and Systemic or related to the enabling environment (policies, legislation, social norms, etc.).(UN Public Administration Glossary)

CLASSIFICA- rigorous method of organ- “The process of finding classification We welcome recommendations! See classification: “1. Process of grouping “Arrangement or division of TION SYSTEM izing rules (any one of a class of rules used objects into classes on the basis of the objects into groups based on in data mining. A classification rule discovery of common properties; or the characteristics which the objects partifitions the given data into disjoint results of such grouping. have in common.” (UN Statistical sets), 2. an area of data mining that 2. Process of grouping species into genera, Data and Metadata Exchange) attempts to preduct the cateogry of a genera into still larger genera, and so on to categorical data by building a model the summum genus (q.v.). -- A.C.B.” (Runes based on some predictor variables” 2004). (LaPlante 2001, 77).

CLIENT a customer or other May refer to client-server “Synonymous with customer or a “a person receiving treatment or services” We welcome recommendations! “A machine or software applica- person who is receiving computing or “a distrib- computer system or process that (APA) tion that accesses a cloud over benefits uted computing model in requests a service of another comput- a network connection, per- which client applications er system or process (eg. A server). In haps on behalf of a consumer” requres services from the client-server model, the client is Source(s): NIST SP 800-146 “ server processes. Clients a process that remotely accesses the and servers typically resources of a server. In the object run on different, though oirented model, a class is considered a interconnected, comput- client of another class when it uses the ers. A client application other class features” (LaPlante 2001, is a process or program 78). that sends messages to a server via a network” (reilly 2004, 100).

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CLIMATE long term, prevailing See also climate engineering or geoen- “long-term weather conditions in a par- We welcome recommendations! “Climate in a narrow sense is weather, culture, or habits gineering: “Climate engineering, also ticular region, such as average tempera- usually defined as the average of a region or organization known as geoengineering, describes a ture, humidity, and sunshine” (APA) weather, or more rigorously, as diverse and largely hypothetical array the statistical description in terms of technologies and techniques for of the mean and variability of intentionally manipulating the glob- relevant quantities over a period al climate, in order to moderate or of time ranging from months to forestall some of the effects of climate thousands or millions of years. change” (https://ce-conference.org/ The classical period for averaging what-climate-engineering) these variables is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteoro- logical Organization. The relevant quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. In various chapters in this report different averaging periods, such as a period of 20 years, are also used.” (IPCC 2012)

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COGNITION The action or faculty of SEE ALSO ONTOLOGY: “The process of acquiring information A functional ontology for cognitive func- “Cognition is defined as the symbolic (or Cognitive process: [the mental knowing; knowledge, con- “Cognitive ontology could and selecting and controlling respons- tion includes 3 primary functions: “pho- conceptual) processing of information that processes of perception, discov- sciousness; acquaintance be a nomenclature: that es to it; decision making or thinking nology (phonetic encoding and articula- is required for central representation and ery, recognition, imagination, with a subject (OED) is a standardized set of the application of intelligence to shape tion), semantics (perceptual knowledge organized expression of a response” (Lang judging, memorizing, learning terms which researchers behavior; the process of cogitating” and functional knowledge), and orthogra- 1984, 192); Knowledge in its widest sense and thinking through which an intend to use in a system- (LaPlant 2001, 85). phy (visual synthesis of feature extraction including: non-propositional apprehen- individual obtains knowledge atic way in order to pro- and colour processing)” (Price and Friston sion perception, memory, introspection, and conceptual understanding] mote mutual understand- 2005, 270); “1. all forms of knowing and etc.) as well as propositions or judgments (UNOG) ing…. A Cognitive ontology awareness, such as perceiving, conceiv- expressive of such apprehension. Cogni- could refer to a domain, ing, remembering, reasoning, judging, tion, along with conation and affection, not a set of term but a imagining, and problem solving. Along are the three basic aspects or functions set of entities to which a with affect and conation, it is one of the of consciousness”. Five types of cognition cognitive theory refers…. three traditionally identified components are generally recognized: “Abstractive: A cognitive ontology could of mind; 2. an individual percept, idea, That meaning of cognition which lacks one be a set of basic meta- memory, or the like” (APA) of the two requisites for intuitive knowl- physical categories: when edge: for in abstrictive cogniti n either we we carve up or structure know things through other things, and not cognitive systems, what through their proper images -- or we know kind of entities make up th’ngs that are not present; Comprehen- that structure? A cogni- sive: “Strictly speaking, that which is ade- tive ontology in this third quate to or fully commensurate with the sense should indicate object, -- a knowledge in which the whole whether the relationship object is known completely and in every between levels is one of way in which it can be known -- even to all composition, constitu- the effects and consequences with which it tion, or something else” has an intrinsic connection. This knowledge (Janssen, Klein and Slors must be clear, certain, evident, and quiddi- 2017, 24). tative, because it is the most perfect type of knowledge corresponding to the object”; Intuitive: “Requires two things: (1) that it result from the proper species, or the proper image of the object itself, impressed upon the mind by the object or by God, and (2) that it bear upon an object that is really present with the greatest clearness and certitude”; Quidditative: “In the strict sense, is that which arises from the proper image of an object, like intuitive knowledge, and besides, penetrates distinctly, with a clear, proper, and positive concept, the essential predicates of a thing even to the last difference. But quidditative knowledge in the wide sense is any knowledge of the quiddity or essence of an object, or any definition explaining what a thing is” (H.G.); Sensory-- “a material process, but it is not the matter of the particular thing which enters into the sensory faculties; rather they supply the material foundation for the sensible form to become existent within the mind. Cognition is, therefore, “assimilation” of the mind to its object.

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COGNITIVE Programming designed to “Cognitive computing is an See also cognitive engineering-- “desei- No common definition. We welcome rec- No common definition. We welcome rec- We welcome recommendations! COMPUTING mimic human cognition emerging paradigm of in- gning systems to match human cogni- ommendations. ommendations. telligent computing meth- tive processes”. (LaPlante 2001, 84). odologies and systems based on cognitive infor- matics that implements computational intelligence by autonomous inferences and perceptions mimicking the mechanisms of the brain” (Wang et al 2010, p. 1). See also “cognitive scienc is the interdisciplinary study of cognition. Cognition includes mental states adn processes such as thinking, reasoning, remembering, language understanding and generation, visual and auditory perception, learning, consciousness, and emotion. Cognitive science can also be defined as, roughly, the intersection of the disciplines of computer science (especially artificial intelligence) linguistics, philosophy, psychology, cognitive anthropology, and the cognitive neu- rosciences” (Reilly 2004, 110).

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COMMUNITY a group with common “a socially organized set of species mem- “In ethics and political philosophy,, the Human populations (INIS); “The interests or characteristics, bers living in a physically defined locality. term ‘community’ refers to a form of set of all populations that inhabit also the space in which Human communities are often charac- connection among individuals that is a certain area” (UNHQ: A/64/66/ such a group is found terized by (a) commonality of interests, qualitatively stronger and deeper than a Add.2. para. 258); “A group of attitudes, and values; (b) a general sense mere association. The concept of a com- people living in the same locality of belonging to a unified, socially integrat- munity includes at least two elements: (1) and under the same government” ed group; (c) members’ self-identification individuals belonging to a community have (AGROVOC); “in SNMP protocol as community members; and (d) some ends that in a robust sense common, not the community is a character system of communication, governance, merely congruent private ends, and that string that is a clear text pass- education, and commerce. In general are conceieved of and valued as common word between the manager and parlance, “the community” often means ends by the members of the group; (2) for the agent” (UNOG); Community society or the general public” (APA). the individuals involved, their awareness risk: “Probability that a particular of themselves as belonging to the group is vulnerability will be exploited a significant constituent of their identity, within an interacting popula- their sense of who they are” (Buchanan tion and adversely impact some 2000, 155) members of that population. Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 “; Community of Interest: “A collaborative group of users who exchange information in pursuit of their shared goals, interests, missions, or business processes, and who therefore must have a shared vocabulary for the information they exchange. The group exchanges information within and between systems to include security domains” Source(s): CNS- SI 4009-2015 “

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COMPLIANCE conformity to standards We welcome recommen- “1. The reciprocal of stiffness, being “1. submission to the demands, wishes, “low road or rule based ethics” (Rohr 1988). “Compliance is whether and to dations! the displacement resulting from the or suggestions of others” (APA). what extent countries do adhere application of unit load. In the case of to the provisions of an accord. beams, flexibility is an alternative term Compliance depends on imple- used for compliance; 2. For a spring, menting policies ordered, and the inverse of spring rate” (Atkins and on whether measures follow Escudier 2013). up the policies. Compliance is the degree to which the actors whose behaviour is targeted by the agreement, local government units, corporations, organisations, or individuals, conform to the implementing obligations.” (IPCC 4th, 79); “in the present environmental context, regulatory compliance -- corporations, public agencies or governments complying with relevant laws, regulations and guidelines. More generally the word “compliance” means conforming to a rule, such as a specification, policy, standard or law.” (UNHQ: A/61/673, p4); “Conformity in fulfilling official requirements. ; Source(s): NIST SP 800-146 “

COMPUTATION Computation is the Computation is construed No common definition found. We wel- We welcome recommendations! “Computation = Programming Language Adapted from Computer System: integration of numerical 6 ways: “1. Formal symbol come recommendations! Syntax + Programming Language Seman- “Computer hardware compo- simulation, mathematical manipulation, 2. Effective tics” (Zenil 2014, 401) nents assembled to perform in modeling, algorithm devel- computability, 3. Execu- conjunction with a set of software opment and other forms tion of an algorithm, 4. programs, which are collectively of quantitative analysis Digital state machines, 5. designed to perform a specific to solve problems that Information processing, 6. function or group of functions. theorization, experimen- Physical symbol systems [PIC/S PI 011-3]” tation, and/or observation (Smith 2002, 3). cannot.

COMPUTER “notations for virtual we welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! Artificial languages used to instruct com- Programming languages (INIS) LANGUAGES machines that execute puter software. algorithms and with notations for algorithms and data; the sets of strings of symbols that are geneart- ed by such notatiosn are called languages” (reilly 2004, 1996).

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CONFIDENCE assurance in the trustwor- see also Confidence intervals “a value expressing the frequency with We welcome recommendations! Level of confidence in the cor- thiness of a person, thing, which a given confidence interval con- rectness of a result measured as or estimate tains the true value of the parameter “very high confidence: at least 9 being estimated” (APA) out of 10 chance of being correct; high confidence: about 8 out of 10 chance; medium confidence: about 5 out of 10 chance; low confidence: about 2 out of 10 chance; very low confidence: less than 1 out of 10 chance” (IPCC 4th); “term used to represent trust in a measurement or estimate”(UNHQ: E/F/R/C/A)

CONFIDENTI- holding private, secret, or “Rules and procedures holding private or proprietary informa- “a principle of professional ethics requir- “The ethical duty of confidentiality refers to “Preserving authorized restric- ALITY proprietary information that prevent unauthorized tion in secret ing providers of mental health care or the obligation of an individual or organizations on information access and persons from gaining medical care to limit the disclosure of tion to safeguard entrusted information. disclosure, including means access to information. a patient’s identity, his or her condition The ethical duty of confidentiality includes for protecting personal privacy Together with availability or treatment, and any data entrusted to obligations to protect information from and proprietary information”. and integrity, confidential- professionals during assessment, diagno- unauthorized access, use, disclosure, mod- Source(s): FIPS 200 (44 U.S.C., Sec. ity is generally considered sis, and treatment. Similar protection is ification, loss or theft. Fulfilling the ethical 3542) one of the three basic given to research participants and survey duty of confidentiality is essential to the principles of security” respondents against unauthorized access trust relationship between researcher and (Butterfield and Ngondi to information they reveal in confidence” participant, and to the integrity of the re- 2016). (APA) search project” (Panel on Research Ethics, Government of Canada; http://www.pre. ethics.gc.ca/eng/policy-politique/initiatives/ tcps2-eptc2/chapter5-chapitre5/)

CONFLICT when a public official ben- We welcome recommen- we welcome recommendations! “a state of incompatibility among an indi- We welcome recommendations! “A conflict of interest is a sit- OF INTEREST efits privately from their dations! vidual’s or group’s various interests and uation where an individual or public role motivations, particularly when profes- corporate entity is invited to act sional interests and responsibilities are on behalf of one party, but has inconsistent with personal motives and an actual or potential relationship goals” (APA). with or interest in the other party or parties” (AGROVOC); “Person- al, direct or indirect interest of a member or staff of an Elec- tion Management Body (EMB), whether financial or otherwise, that is related to any matter that comes up for decision before that EMB. In such a case, the member or staff of the EMB concerned should disclose the conflict of interest and be prevented from participating in any discussion or decision on that matter.” (UNDP)

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CONSCIOUSNESS The state or ability to be No common definition “Consciousness-- attributes ascribed “1. the state of being conscious; 2. an Two concepts of consciousness appear We welcome recommendations! aware of self and environ- found. We welcome rec- to consciousness usually include organism’s awareness of something in the literature: Creature consciousness ment ommendations! self-awareness, a sense of past and either internal or external to itself; 3. the which may include: sentience, wakefulness, future, free will, and most outward waking state; 4. in medicine and brain self-consciousness, ability to know “what it signs of intelligent behavior” (LaPlante science, the distinctive electrical activity is like”, being subject to conscious states, 2001, 100). of the waking brain, as recorded via scalp and aware of transitive consciousness. electroencephalogram, that is commonly State consciousness include six major used to identify conscious states and states: of awareness, of qualitative sens- their pathologies” (APA). es, of phenomena, of “what it is like”, or access to others, and as narrative making (See Van Gulick 2017); Kant described “consciousness in general as: Conscious- ness conceived as purely logical, objective, universal, necessarily valid, in contrast to the eccentricity, particularity, subjectivity, irrationality, and privacy of the psychological consciousness. See Kant. -- W.L.” (

CONSENT Agreement No common definition No common definition found. We wel- “the attachment of an agent’s will to a Within applied ethics, informed consent is “One of the fundamental prin- found. We welcome rec- come recommendations! proposal, action, or outcome, such that argued to be the act necessary to demon- ciples of international law. Any ommendations! the agent accepts (some share of the) strate respect for persons. “Respect for change in the existing state of responsibility for the consequences and/ persons requires that subjects, to the affairs requires the agreement or legitimizes an action or state of affairs degree that they are capable, be given the of the parties legally concerned.” which, in the absence of consent, would opportunity to choose what shall or shall (ESCWA) lack legitimacy or legality” (Reeve 2016); not happen to them. The consent process “voluntary assent or approval given by an can be analyzed as containing three ele- individual” (APA) ments: information, comprehension and voluntariness” (Belmont Report); “Agree- ment or sympathy in feeling or thought-- V.F. (Runes 2004 (1942)).

CONSENSUS General agreement among “Two processes are nec- No common definition found. We wel- “general agreement among the members Philosopher John Rawls describes the “Method of decision making in a group essary to solve group de- come recommendations! of a group, especially when making an source of political stability as achievement which all stakeholders participate cision making problems: appraisal or decision” (APA). of an overlapping consensus concerning and attempt to align their posi- A consensus process and government legitimacy. “In an overlapping tions. Consensus is not unanimity a selection process. The consensus, citizens all endorse a core set on a decision but rather repre- consensus reaching proof laws for different reasons. In Rawlsian sents a successful effort to find cess is necessary to obtain terms, each citizen supports a political con- common ground for all stake- a final solution with a ception of justice for reasons internal to holders so that none oppose the certain level of agreement her own comprehensive doctrine” (Wenar decision taken.” (UNDP) between the experts; and 2017) the selection process is necessary to obtain such a final solution” (Herre- ra-Viedma et al 2007, 863).

22 Ethically Aligned Design - First Edition Glossary TERM ORDINARY LANGUAGE COMPUTATIONAL DISCIPLINES ENGINEERING ECONOMICS & SOCIAL SCIENCES ETHICS & PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL LAW & POLICY

CONSERVA- preservation of a natural We welcome recommen- “Conservation law is a rule stating that “the awareness that physical quantities We welcome recommendations! “A collaborative effort to improve TION resource against human dations! the weighted sum of mean waiting do not change in amount when they are open access to data, information, or human-caused preda- times of requressts of different classes altered in appearance, such as when wa- and knowledge related to the tion in a work conserving system that is not ter is poured from a wide, short beaker conservation and sustainable use overloaded is independent of the order into a thin, tall one” (APA) of biodiversity with the belief that of service” (LaPlante 2001, 100). this will contribute to improving conservation outcomes.” (UNHQ: UNEP/IPBES.MI/2/2. Para 100)

CONTROL The action or fact of hold- “An adaptive controller “Control is 1. the study and practice of “Engineering controls implement physical Control is restriction of choice or action “Regulating a process, property ing in check or restraining; is a controller that can controlling or making a system behave change to the workplace, which elimi- possibilities by a superior actor or component in a qualitative restraint modify its behavior in re- in a specific manner, 2. intervention, nates/ reduces the hazard on the job/ or quantitative sense. Not to sponse to changes in the by means of appropriate manipulated task. [These include] change processes to be confused with MONITORING dynamics of the process inputs, into the controlled process in minimize contact with hazardous chem- which refers only to detection or and the disturbances. It the course of its operation; some form icals, isolate or enclose the process, use measurement.” (INIS); “As defined can be considered as a of observation of the actual controlled of wet methods to reduce generation in the glossary prepared as part special type of nonlinear process behavior is ususally being used of dusts or other particulates, general of the implementation at the feedback control in which by the controller” (LaPlante 2001, 104). dilution ventilation, use of fume hoods” United Nations of International the stages of the process (Occupational Safety and Health Adminis- Public Sector Accounting Stand- can be separated in to tration, no date). ards (IPSAS): The power to govern two categories, which can the financial and operating change at different rates” policies of another entity so as (Bhatt and Shah 2002). to benefit from its activities.” (UN May also refer to a control IPSAS glossary); “ownership, ei- structure or “a program- ther directly or indirectly through ming language construct subsidiaries, of more than one that specifies a departure half of the voting power of an en- from normal sequen- terprise, or a substantial interest tial execution. A control in voting power and the power to structure controls the direct, by statute or agreement, sequence of statement the financial and operating pol- execution within a given icies of the management of the program unit, and encom- enterprise” (TD/B/Com.2/ISAR/16/ passes special facilities for Add.3); “The part of the ICS used selection, repetition, and to perform the monitoring and execution handling” (Reily control of the physical process. 2004, 209). This includes all control servers, field devices, actuators, sensors, and their supporting communication systems.” Source(s): NIST SP 800-82 Rev. 2; See also control system: “ A system in which delib- erate guidance or manipulation is used to achieve a prescribed value for a variable. Control systems include SCADA, DCS, PLCs and other types of industrial measurement and control systems”. Source(s): NIST SP 800-82 Rev. 2 “

23 Ethically Aligned Design - First Edition Glossary TERM ORDINARY LANGUAGE COMPUTATIONAL DISCIPLINES ENGINEERING ECONOMICS & SOCIAL SCIENCES ETHICS & PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL LAW & POLICY

COST BENEFIT method for estimating We welcome recommen- “The analysis of benefits and costs “1. an analytic procedure that attempts We welcome recommendations! “assessment of the direct eco- ANALYSIS the pros and cons of a dations! related to the implementation of a to determine and compare the economic nomic and social costs and decision product” (LaPlante 2001, 109). See also efficiency of different programs. Costs benefits of a proposed project cost estimation: “describes a suite of and benefits are reduced to their mone- for the purpose of project or techniques that takes early atifacts tary value and expressed in a cost–ben- programme selection. The of the software development process efit (or benefit–cost) ratio (APA). See also cost-benefit ratio is determined and, from these, calculates the first es- Cost-Effectiveness Analysis: “a measure of by dividing the projected benefits timate of overall cost” (LaPlante 2001, program efficacy or economic efficiency of the programme by the project- 109). expressed in terms of the cost of achieved costs. A programme having ing a unit of program outcome” (APA). a high benefit-cost ratio will take priority over others with lower ratios.” (United Nations Statistics Division: Environment Glossary)

CULTURE/ “culture is that complex Programming and prod- “’Tech’s strong culture’ is the context of “Culture is a well organized unity divided “The intrinsic value of society. Syn. with “cultural objects] are objects of CULTURAL whole which includes uct development styles work life, a set of rules that guides the into two fundamental aspects—a body civilization. Employed by Spengler to define historical and/or artistic value; knowledge, belief, art, including personal and or- relationship between the company and of artifacts and a system of customs” a civilization in its creative growth-peri- [cultural resources] are archaeo- morals, law, custom, and ganizational commitments “it’s people”. At one level, the culture (Malinowski 1931, 623).; “Culture is an od. The means, i.e. the tools, customs logical and historical sites” (INIS) any other capabilities and to quality, efficiency, offers a description of the social char- historically transmitted pattern of mean- and institutions, of social groups; or the habits acquired by man and expertise in writing, acteristics of the company that also ings embodied in symbols” (Geertz 1973, employment of such means. In psycholo- as a member of society” reviewing, testing, and/or embodies a specification of required 89); “1. the distinctive customs, values, gy, the enlightenment or education of the (Tylor 1871) marketing software and work behavior… the culture also beliefs, knowledge, art, and language of a individual. Some distinguish culture from hardware. includes articulated rules for thoughts society or a community. These values and civilization (q.v.) the former being the effect and feelings, “mindsets” and “gut reac- concepts are passed on from generation on personal development and expression tions”… thus “the culture” is a gloss for to generation, and they are the basis for (art, science, religion) of the institutions, an extensive definition of membership everyday behaviors and practices; 2. the materials and social organization identified in the corporate community that in- characteristic attitudes and behaviors of with the latter. -- J.K.F.” (Runes 2004) cludes rules for behavior, thought and a particular group within society, such as feeling, all adding up to what appears a profession, social class, or age group” to be a well-defined and widely shared (APA) ‘member role’” (Kunda 2009, 7).

DATA MINING computer aided search “Data mining is the pro- “A class of analytical applications that “the automated (computerized) exami- We welcome recommendations! “A class of database applications through numerical, cess of finding previously search for hidden patterns in a data- nation of a large set of observations or that look for hidden patterns in a symbolic, image, text, or unsuspected patterns in base. Data mining is the process of measurements, particularly as collect- group of data that can be used to other electronic material information contained sifting through large amounts of data ed in a complex database, in order to predict future behavior.” (UNHQ); to identify patterns with in large databases”. Data to produce data content relationships. discover patterns, correlations, and other “An analytical process that significance mining might also be Data mining tools use a variety of regularities that can be used for predic- attempts to find correlations or described as “knowledge techqniues including case-based rea- tive purposes” (APA) patterns in large data sets for the discovery in databases or soning, data visualization, fuzzy query purpose of data or knowledge the processof idenitfying and analysis, and neural networks; discovery”. Source(s): CNSSI 4009- valid, novel, potentially 2. An information extraction activi- 2015 (NIST SP 800-53 Rev. 4) “ useful, and ultimately ty whose goal is to discover hidden understandable structure facts contained in databases. Using in data” (Reilly 2004, 233- a combination of machine learning, 234). staistical analysis, modeling techniques and database technology, data mining finds patterns and subtle relationships in data an infers rules that allow the prediction of future results” (LaPlante 2001, 120-121).

24 Ethically Aligned Design - First Edition Glossary TERM ORDINARY LANGUAGE COMPUTATIONAL DISCIPLINES ENGINEERING ECONOMICS & SOCIAL SCIENCES ETHICS & PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL LAW & POLICY

DATA safeguarding of electronic “Data security is typically See also Common Data Security Archi- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! SECURITY information from theft or defined in terms of five tecture: “An architecture for providing loss properties: 1. confiden- high security for transactions over the tiality-- assurance that Internet. It makes extensive use of se- data, programs, and other curity technologies such as encryption system resources are pro- and decryption” (Ince 2013). tected against disclosure to unauthorized persons, programs, or systems, 2. integrity-- assurance that data, programs, and other system resources are protected against malicious or inadvertent modification or destruction by unauthorized persons, programs, or systems, 3. Availability-- assurance that the use of data, programs, or other system resources will not be denied to authorized persons, programs, or systems, 4. Authentiation-- the property that persons, programs, or systems are accurately identified by a computing system, and 5. nonrepudiation-- the property that communications received from persons, programs or systems can be assured to have indeed been sent by their purported senders” (Reilly 2004, 236).

25 Ethically Aligned Design - First Edition Glossary TERM ORDINARY LANGUAGE COMPUTATIONAL DISCIPLINES ENGINEERING ECONOMICS & SOCIAL SCIENCES ETHICS & PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL LAW & POLICY

DATA Symbols representing “Data means “things “Any information, represented in bina- “A value or set of values representing “Big data is a term describing the storage “1. Systematic information about information that can be given” in Latin—although ry, which a computer receives, process- a specific concept or concepts. Data and analysis of large and or complex data the attributes of the entities manipulated we tend to use it as a es, or outputs” (LaPlante 2001, 117); become “information” when analyzed sets using a series of techniques including, contained in some well-defined mass noun in English, as if DeMauro, Marco and Grimaldi (2015) and possibly combined with other data in but not limited to: NoSQL, MapReduce and aggregate, such as the person it denotes a substance— review definitions that capture some order to extract meaning and to provide machine learning” (Ward and Barker 2013); records produced from a census and ultimately, almost engineering definitions. context. The meaning of data can vary “Big data should be defined at any point in or survey, or the birth or death all useful data is given depending on its context”; “A dataset is time as ‘data whose size forces us to look records produced from a civil reg- to us either by nature, an organized collection of data. The most beyond the tried-and true methods that istration system. Data of this type as a reward for careful basic representation of a dataset is data are prevalent at that time’” (Jacobs 2009, may be referred to as “micro” or observation of physical elements presented in tabular form. Each 44); See also Datum: “Datum: That which “unit record” or “individual level” processes, or by other column represents a particular variable. is given or presented. In logic: facts from data. Data in this sense is synon- people, usually inadvert- Each row corresponds to a given value which inferences may be drawn. In episte- ymous with data set. Though the ently (consider logs of of that column’s variable. A dataset may mology: an actual presented to the mind; information contained on records Web hits or retail trans- also present information in a variety of the given of knowledge. In psychology: that may be quantitative, the defini- actions, both common non-tabular formats, such as an extended which is given in sensation; the content of tion of the aggregate is neces- sources of big data). As a mark-up language (XML) file, a geospatial sensation. -- J.K.F.” sarily textual, so that data always result, in the real world, data file, or an image file” (Data.gov, no involves a qualitative element data is not just a big set of date). as well. 2. Numeric information random numbers; it tends derived from such data, such as to exhibit predictable a table of numbers of persons in characteristics. For one various age-sex groups derived thing, as a rule, the largest from population census data. cardinalities of most Data of this kind may be referred datasets—specifically, the to as “macro” or “aggregate” or number of distinct entities “tabular” data. In the terminology about which observations of the field of statistics, a statis- are made—are small tic. 3. Quantitative information compared with the total in general, including estimates, number of observations” indicators and statistics of all (Jacobs 2009, 39). kinds’ (United Nations Statistics Divisions: Demographic Glossa- ry); Characteristics or information, usually numerical, that are collected through observation. (The International Statistical Institute, “The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms”, edited by Yadolah Dodge, Oxford University Press, 2003)

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DESIGN create plans for satisfying “Design is primarily a “The phase of software development “the format of a research study, describ- Verbeek describes the study of the ethics Adapted from the ICH definition a purpose creative activity in which following analysis, conceerned with ing how it will be conducted and the data of desig as “address[ing] the moral aspects of design space: “The multidi- a person takes an es- how the problem is to be solved. Dur- collected” (APA) of technology development adequately, mensional combination and theic or functional idea ing the design, the system archtecture the ethics of technology should expand its interaction of input variables and expresses it in some is defined identifying the structures, approach to technology to include techno- (e.g., material attributes) and pro- medium in a way that the interactes of system components logical mediation and its moral relevance, cess parameters that have been can be understood by and their detailed relationships” (LaP- enabling designers to take responsibility demonstrated to provide assur- someone else. The most lante 2001, 130). for the quality of the functioning of their ance of quality. Working within common example is designs, and for the built-in morality” (Ver- the design space is not consid- engineering design, where beek 2008, 92). ered as a change. Movement out the ideas of the designer of the design space is considered include both geometric to be a change and would nor- descriptions and notes, mally initiate a regulatory post sometimes on paper as approval change process. Design engineering drawing, but space is proposed by the appli- increasingly as electronic cant and is subject to regulatory files. The essence of CAD assessment and approval. [ICH (computer aided design Q8]” is the marriage between the strenths and capabilities of computers and the skill and ingenuity of the designer” (Reilly 2004, 127-128).

DESIGN factors to be accounted we welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “The physical and performance INPUT for at the outset when requirements of a [medical] de- developing designs vice that are used as a basis for device design. [21 CFR Part 820, FDA]”

DESIGN product of designs, in- we welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “The results of a design effort OUTPUT cluding judgment of the at each design phase and at the success of the design to end of the total design effort. The satisfy its purpose finished design output is the basis for the device master record. The total finished design output consists of the [medical] device, its packaging and labeling, and the device master record. [21 CFR Part 820, FDA]”

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DEVELOP- A process of maturation “The sum of all activiites “Development Engineering is an emerg- Political development “the development No common definition. We welcome rec- We welcome recommendations! MENT of a plan or product from that are necesssary to ing field of research that focuses on of the institutions, attitudes, and values ommendations! idea to fruition build a software product” technology interventions designed to that form the political power system of (LaPlante 2001, 133). improve human and economic devel- a society. Political development enhanc- opment within complex, low resource es the state’s capacity to mobilize and settings” (University of California at allocate resources, to process policy Berkeley, “Development Engineering”). inputs into implementable outputs. This assists with problem‐solving and adaptation to environmental changes and goal realization. The contemporary notion of good governance also dwells on efficient, effective, and non‐corrupt public administration” (Burnell 2016); “the progressive series of changes in structure, function, and behavior patterns that occur over the lifespan of a human being or other organism” (APA).

DIGITAL Interactive software which We welcome recommen- Hardware and software integrated into We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “A handheld computer that PERSONAL performs scheduling, dations! a handheld information appliance with serves as a tool for reading and ASSISTANT coordination, and basic communication capabilities to allow conveying documents, electronic information seeking tasks people to create, share, manage and mail, and other electronic media at a user’s request communicate information anywhere, over a communications link, as anytime (Business Communications well as for organizing personal Review, 1995). information, such as a name-and- address database, a to-do list, and an appointment calendar” Source(s): NIST SP 800-101 Rev. 1 “

DISASTER sudden event with cata- “ a collectively experienced sudden cat- We welcome recommendations! “Severe alterations in the normal strophic consequences astrophic event caused by nature (e.g., functioning of a community or a hurricane, earthquake, tsunami, tornado), society due to hazardous physical technology (e.g., airplane crash, nuclear events interacting with vulnerable plant explosion, mining accident), or hu- social conditions, leading to wide- man aggression (e.g., acts of terrorism). spread adverse human, material, The effect is often measured in terms of economic, or environmental loss of lives, injuries, and property dam- effects that require immediate age and typically overwhelms the com- emergency response to satisfy munity’s resources and ability to respond critical human needs and that without outside assistance” (APA). may require external support for recovery” (IPCC 2012); “The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction defines a disaster as a ‘serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources” (Rubin and Dahlberg 2017).

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DISCRIMINA- Differentiation for the Discrimination algorithms See also “discriminant-- a synonym for The US Equal Employment Opportunity “Any viable account of what discrimination Definition of “racial discrimina- TION purpose of separating per- are those that allow com- variant selector in a record” (LaPlante Commission describes types of discrimi- is will regard it as consisting of actions, tion” in Part 1, Article 1 of the UN sons to determine entitle- puter vision technologies, 2001, 140). nation. By: age, disability, genetic infor- practices, or policies that are—in some ap- “International Convention on the ments, rights, or eligibility such as LiDAR, to differ- mation, national origin, pregnancy, race/ propriate sense—based on the (perceived) Elimination of All Forms of Racial entiate types of objects or color, religion, or sex.; “Race discrimina- social group to which those discriminated Discrimination”: “any distinction, states of matter (see Hu et tion involves treating someone (an appli- against belong. Moreover, the relevant exclusion, restriction or prefer- al 2009 for example); Al- cant or employee) unfavorably because groups must be “socially salient,” …, i.e., ence based on race, colour, de- gorithms which reproduce he/she is of a certain race or because of they must be groups that are “important to scent, or national or ethnic origin social preferences that personal characteristics associated with the structure of social interactions across a which has the purpose or effect are discriminatory may be race (such as hair texture, skin color, or wide range of social contexts” (2006: 169). of nullifying or impairing the rec- considered to be discrimi- certain facial features). Color discrimina- Discrimination against persons, then, is ognition, enjoyment or exercise, natory algorithms. tion involves treating someone unfavora- necessarily oriented toward them based on on an equal footing, of human bly because of skin color complexion” their membership in a certain type of social rights and fundamental freedoms (EEOC no date); “1. the ability to distin- group. But it is also necessary that the in the political, economic, social, guish between stimuli or objects that discriminatory conduct impose some kind cultural or any other field of differ quantitatively or qualitatively from of disadvantage or harm on the persons public life” one another; 2. the ability to respond in at whom it is directed” (Altman 2016); “(a) different ways in the presence of differ- subjectively: the rational power to distin- ent stimuli” (APA). guish between objects, real or logical, and betwen moral right and wrong. In Aristote- lianism there is also a function of internal sense (Gr. kritikon, sensory discrimination; Lat. vis aestimativa or cogitativa) by which men and the higher animals distinguish the good from the bad in their sense experience, (b) objectively: see Distinction. -- V.J.B.” (Runes 2004 (1942)).

DUTY An obligation based upon We welcome recommen- The NSPE defines the duties of a pro- The duties of government officials are “Moral requirements are often identified “In its use in Jurisprudence, [duty] one’s role dations! fessional engineer as fulfillment of the broadly understood to mean the duty with duties, and that which is good but not is the correlative of a right. Thus, fundamental cannons of practice: “1. to serve the public interest and to serve required is said to be above and beyond wherever there exists a right in Hold paramount the safety, health, and justice. This may include more specific duty’s call. Duties, then, are regarded as any person, there also rests a welfare of the public. 2. Perform servic- duties such as a duty to zealously rep- a minimal standard of moral decency, corresponding duty upon some es only in areas of their competence. resent their clients within the bounds of beyond which the nicer or better among other person or upon all persons 3. Issue public statements only in an law, to protect confidentiality of client us may do something more…. One’s duties generally. But it is also used, in objective and truthful manner. 4. Act and litigants information, and to carefully are further understood as given by a set a wider sense, to designate that for each employer or client as faithful police their personal conflicts of interest of rules. One’s actual duty is to do one’s class of moral obligations which agents or trustees. 5. Avoid deceptive and conflicts of commitment (Berenson prima facie duty (follow rules) I so far as is lie outside the jural sphere; such, acts. 6. Conduct themselves honorably, 2003) possible, and to act in accordance with the namely, as rest upon an imper- responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so further decision procedure when conflicts ative moral basis, but have not as to enhance the honor, reputation, among prima facie duties arise” (Wolf 1986, been recognized by the law as and usefulness of the profession.” 131); “ Whatever is necessary or required; within its proper province for or whatever one is morally obliged to do, purposes of enforcement or re- as opposed to what one may be pleased or dress.” (Black’s Law Dictionary) inclined to do. Also, the moral obligation itself and the law or principle in which it is expressed. In ethics, duty is commonly associated with conscience, reason, rightness, moral law, and virtue” (Runes 2004 (1942))

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ECONOMICS pertaining to production, We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “A social science that studies individu- “That branch of social science which is “pertinent to production and costs, distribution, wealth, dations! al and group decisions on how to use concerned with the exchange of goods. distribution and consumption and systems for manag- scarce resources to satisfy their wants Employed by Xenophon, Aristotle and of goods and services and their ing these separately or in and needs” (Black, Hashimzade and Myles Cicero to describe treatises on the proper management” (AGROVOC) concert 2017). conduct of the household. In more recent times, combined with politics as political economy, the study of the laws and system of society. Now, more specially, the study of the production, distribution and consumption of material wealth and skills. -- J.K.F.” (Runes 2004(1942)).

EQUALITY Sameness in relevant Equivalence of both sides We welcome recommendations! “In the abstract, it means that people who Two definitions of equality are often re- non-discrimination in the en- respects (e.g., quantity, of an equation are similarly situated in morally relevant ferred to: Equality of resources: a distribu- joyment of benefits and laws, value) respects should be treated similarly. tion of resources is just if it passes the envy whether by people or by states Possible interpretations include equal- test—no one would prefer someone else’s (https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/ ity before the law, equality of political set of resources to their own (Dworkin thematic-areas/human-rights/ power, equality of opportunity for social 1981, 285); Equality of welfare: “ a distri- equality-and-non-discrimination/) and economic advancement, equality of butional scheme treats people as equals resources, equality of welfare, equality of when it distributes or transfers resources freedom, and equality of respect” (Nagel among them until no further transfer 2005). would leave them more equal in welfare (Dworkin 1981, 186).

ETHICAL pertaining to standards We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! See also “Ethical judgment: 1. a moral “Ethical judgments fall, roughly, into tw o INIS gives “hazards, political of good or acceptable dations! decision made by an individual, especial- classes, (a) judgments of value, i.e. judg- aspects, public opinion, radiation behavior ly a difficult one made in the context of ments as to the goodness or badness, protection, safety, safety culture, a real or hypothetical ethical dilemma. desirability or undesirability of certain and sociology” as terms related Such judgments often reveal the beliefs objects, ends, experiences, dispositions, or to ethical aspects that an individual applies in discriminat- states of affairs, e.g. “Knowledge is good,” ing between right and wrong and the (b) judgments of obligation, i.e. judg- attitudes that comprise his or her basic ments as to the obligatoriness, rightness moral orientation; 2. the faculty of mak- or wrongness, wisdom or foolishness of ing moral distinctions” (APA); “Behaviour various courses of action and kinds of con- judged to be good, just, right, and hon- duct, judgments enjoining, recommending ourable, based on principles or guides or condemning certain lines of conduct. from a specific ethical theory. However, Thus there are two pnrts of ethics, 1.the ethical theories may vary from person to theory of value or axiology. which is con- person, country to country, or company cerned with judgments of value, extrinsic to company. Ethical realism accepts that or intrinsic, moral or non-moral, 2. the although morality does not apply inter- theory of obligation or deontology, which nationally, the ethical values of a trading is concerned with judgments of obligation. partner should be respected” (Law 2016). In either of these parts of ethics one mav take either of the above approaches -- in the theory of value one may be interested either in anilvzing and explaining (psychologically or sociologically) our various judgments of value or in establishing or recommending certain things as good or as ends, and in the theory of obligation one may be interested either in analyzing and explaining our various judgments of obligation or in setting forth certain courses of action as right, wise, etc.” (Runes 2004).

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ETHICAL Logical, descriptive, or We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! Within government, ethics is defined with Sigwick distinguishes ethics from ethical We welcome recommendations! THEORY intellectual historical anal- dations! respect to either internal or external conscience. This distinction helps identify the ysis of the standards of trols. Internal controls are the ethics of role of theory in ethics: “ethics is the ‘study action which are describa- individuals internalized through mecha- of what is right or what ought to be, so far ble as good or evil nisms of professional education, personal as this depends upon the voluntary action moral development, and socialization. of individuals; assuming that whatever we External controls are rules, compliance judge to be ‘good’, we implicitly judge to frameworks, and reporting and auditing be something which we ‘ought’ to bring mechanisms that dictate required forms into existence, -- it does not yet exist, and of behavior (Zajac 1996). unless something better is attainable”. “The term ethical science might, without violation of usage, denote either the department of Psychology that deals with voluntary action and its spirits, and with moral sentiments and judgments, as actual phenomena of individual human minds; or the department of sociology dealing with similar phenomena, as manifested by normal members of the organized groups of human beings we call societies” (Sidgwick 1893, 1-2; see Mullins); See also theory of value: “In the theory of value the first question concerns the meaning of value-terms and the status of goodness. As to meaning the main point is whether goodness is definable or not, and if so, how. As to status the main point is whether goodness is subjective or objective, relative or absolute. Various positions are possible. 1. Recent emotive meaning theories e.g. that of A. J. Ayer, hold that “good” and other value-terms have only an emotive meaning, 2. Intuitionists and non-natural- ists often hold that goodness is an indefin- able intrinsic (and therefore objective or absolute) property, e.g., Plato, G. E. Moore, W. D. Ross, J. Laird, Meinong, N. Hartman. 3. Metaphysical and naturalistic moralists usually hold that goodness can be defined in metaphysical or in psychological terms, generally interpreting “x is good” to mean that a certain attitude is taken toward x by some mind or group of minds.” (Runes 2004).

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ETHICS Of or relating to moral “Computer ethics is the “Engineering ethics is professional US executive e order 13490 “Ethics Com- Ethics is often described as moral philoso- “The standards which guide the principles, esp. as forming analysis of the nature and ethics, as opposed to personal moral- mitments by Executive Branch Personnel” phy or the philosophical study of general behaviour and actions of per- a system, or the branch of social impact of computer ity. It sets the standards for profes- stipulates that: “Every appointee in every moral issues. The question “how should sonnel in public institutions and knowledge or study deal- technology and the corre- sional practice, and is only learned in a executive agency appointed on or after we live our lives?” (Copp 2005); “Ethics (also which may be referred to as mor- ing with these. (OED) sponding formulation and professional school or in professional January 20, 2009, shall sign, and upon referred to as moral philosophy) is that al laws (UN Charter for the Public justification of policies for practice. Engineering ethics is as much signing shall be contractually committed study or discipline which concerns itself Service in Africa); The “ethics the ethical use of such a part of what engineers in particu- to, the following pledge upon becoming with judgments of approval and disap- infrastructure” includes meas- technology. I use the lar know as factors of safety, testing an appointee: ‘‘As a condition, and in proval, judgments as to the rightness or ures to enhance and preserve phrase “computer tech- procedures, or ways to design for consideration, of my employment in the wrongness, goodness or badness, virtue organizational integrity, access nology” because I take reliability, durability, or economy. Engi- United States Government in a position or vice, desirability or wisdom of actions, to information that promotes the subject matter of the neering ethics is part of thinking like an invested with the public trust, I commit dispositions, ends, objects, or states of af- transparency and accountability, field broadly to include engineer” (Harris et al 1996, 93). myself to the following obligations, which fairs. There are two main directions which and oversight by independent computers and associated I understand are binding on me and are this study may take. It may concern itself institutions and the public at technology. For instance, enforceable under law: ‘‘1. Lobbyist Gift with a psychological or sociological analysis large.” (UN Public Administration I include concerns about Ban; 2. Revolving Door Ban—All Appoin- and explanation of our ethical judgments, Glossary) software as well as tees Entering Government; 3. Revolving showing what our approvals and disap- hardware and concerns Door Ban—Lobbyists Entering Govern- provals consist in and why we approve or about networks connect- ment; 4. Revolving Door ban—Appointees disapprove what we do. Or it may concern ing computers as well as Leaving Government; 5. Revolving Door itself with establishing or recommending computers themselves. Ban—Appointees Laving Government certain courses of action, ends, or ways A typical problem in to Lobby; 6. Employment Qualification of life as to be taken or pursued, either as computer ethics arises Commitment; 7. Assent to Enforce- right or as good or as virtuous or as wise, because there is a pol- ment” ; “1. the branch of philosophy that as over against others which are wrong, icy vacuum about how investigates both the content of moral bad, vicious, or foolish. Here the interest computer technology judgments (i.e., what is right and what is more in action than in approval, and should be used. Comput- is wrong) and their nature (i.e., whether more in the guidance of action than in its ers provide us with new such judgments should be considered explanation, the purpose being to find or capabilities and these in objective or subjective). The study of set up some ideal or standard of conduct turn give us new choices the first type of question is sometimes or character, some good or end or sum- for action. Often, either termed normative ethics and that of the mum bonum, some ethical criterion or first no policies for conduct second metaethics. Also called moral phi- principle” (Runes 2004 (1942)). in these situations exist losophy; 2. the principles of morally right or existing policies seem conduct accepted by a person or a group inadequate. A central or considered appropriate to a specific task of computer ethics field” (APA). is to determine what we should do in such cases, i.e., to formulate policies to guide our actions. Of course, some ethical situations confront us as individuals and some as a society. Computer ethics includes consideration of both personal and social policies for the ethical use of computer technology” (Moor 1985, 266).

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ETHICS group of experts and We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “a group including lay people, health- We welcome recommendations! “An independent body in a COMMITTEE lay persons tasked with dations! care practitioners, and other experts set Member State, consisting of determining whether up to review health care. clinical e. c. an healthcare professionals and a proposal or protocol ethics committee that deals with ethical nonmedical members, whose meets expectations and/ issues in clinical practice other than those responsibility it is to protect the or conforms to standards relating to research. research e. c. an rights, safety and wellbeing of of good or acceptable ethics committee that reviews research human subjects involved in a trial behavior involving the use of human subjects, in- and to provide public assurance cluding clinical trials of drugs” (Martin and of that protection, by, among oth- McFerran 2017). er things, expressing an opinion on the trial protocol, the suitabil- ity of the investigators and the adequacy of facilities, and on the methods and documents to be used to inform trial subjects and obtain their informed consent. [Directive 2001/20/EC]”

EXPERT Also described as mul- Quinn (1990) defined “Computer programs using AI tech- “An expert system consists of three main We welcome recommendations! “decision support systems”; SYSTEM ti-criteria decision-making an expert system as “an niques to assist people in solving pairs: 1. Knowledge base. The actual “Computer programs comprising models (MCDM) interactive computer difficult problems involving knowl- information in the expert system. 2. a knowledge-based component, program that asks the edge, heuristics, and decision-making Inference engine. The name given to the constructed from an expert skill, same questions a human are called expert systems, intelligent software that makes the expert system operating in such a way that expert would ask, and systems, or smart systems. An expert work. The software works with input data the system can offer intelligent from the information system is an ‘intelligent’ interactive supplied by the user to search the knowl- advice or make an intelligent given to it by the user, computer program that can play the edge base in order to reach a conclusion. decision about a processing func- provides the same answer role of a human expert by using heuris- 3. User interface. Screens and or menus tion” (INIS) the expert would provide” tic knowledge or rules of thumb. Com- through which the expert system com- (1). “An expert system is ponents of an expert system include: 1. municates with users (Duval and Main a computer program that Knowledge base, 2. Inference mecha- 1994, 44); “a program, often mimicking resons, using knowledge, nism, 3. Working memory, 4. Explana- expert problem-solving performance, to solve complex prob- tion facility, 5. Knowledge acquisition, that uses the explicit representation of lems.With expert systems, 6. Debugging facility, 7. Help facility, human knowledge, usually in the form of human knowledge is 8. Intelligent interfaces, 9. Knowledge “if → then” rules. The expert system often captured and embedded base editors” (Adeli 2003, 5, 8) employs a certainty-factor algebra to sup- explicitly within the pro- port reasoning in uncertain situations in gram” (Reilly 2004, 314). which there are missing or vague data or unclear alternatives. Expert systems are used in such fields as medical diagnosis and financial prediction” (APA).

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EVIL ‘In the widest sense: that We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! In ethics, evil is considered either as a Closest synonym in law is which is the reverse of dations! concept or as a problem. Concept of evil: “malice,” which “does not simply good; Whatever is cen- “The concept of evil applies to persons, mean ill will against a person, but surable, mischievous, or to intentions, to motives, to conduct, and signifies a wrongful act done in- undesirable; (OED) to organizations, institutions, practices, tentionally, without just cause or arrangements, programmes, agencies, excuse” (Black’s Law Dictionary) endeavours, and situations. The term ‘evil’ is the worst possible term of opprobrium imaginable. The concept… applies primarily to persons and organizations, secondarily to conduct and practices. Evil deeds must flow from evil motives, the volition to do something evil… one cannot do something evil by accident or through thoughtless- ness.” (Singer 2004, 189-190). The problem of evil is a matter of theological and epistemic discussions of the question: “whether the world contains undesirable states of affairs that provide the basis for an argument that makes it unreasonable to believe in the existence of God” (Tooley 2015).; “Negation of the extrinsic elections of things. In practice, the positive effects of such negation. The morally bad. Hostility to the welfare of anything. Absence of the good. Opposite of goodness” (Runes 2004).

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GOVERNANCE “The process of collective “Governance: a para- “Governance starts at the corporate “Governance consists of the traditions Ethics and ethical standards are often Governance is “the exercise of decision‐making and digmatic change in the level and provides a framework to and institutions by which authority in a referred to as part of good corporate gov- economic, political and admin- policy implementation, constellation of power guide managers in their daily work country is exercised. This includes the ernance. istrative authority to manage a used distinctly from gov- relations between indi- of decision making and action taking. process by which governments are select- country’s affairs at all levels. It ernment to reflect broader viduals, governments and At the level of projects governance is ed, monitored and replaced; the capacity comprises the mechanisms, pro- concern with norms and social institutions” (Loader often implemented through defined of the government to effectively formu- cesses and institutions through processes relating to the 1997, 1). policies, processes, roles and respon- late and implement sound policies; and which citizens and groups articu- delivery of public goods” sibilities, which set the framework for the respect of citizens and the state for late their interests, exercise their (McLean and McMillan peoples’ behavior, which, in turn, influ- the institutions that govern economic and legal rights, meet their obliga- 2016) ences the project. Governance sets the social interactions among them” (World tions and mediate their differ- boundaries for project management Bbank 2017). ences” (UNDP, 1997; UN Public action by: defining the objectives of a Administration Glossary); “public project, providing the means to achieve administration” (AGROVOC); See those objectives, [and] controlling pro- also Data governance: “A set of gress” (Muller 2011, 87) processes that ensures that data assets are formally managed throughout the enterprise. A data governance model establishes authority and management and decision making parameters related to the data produced or managed by the enterprise.” Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 (NSA/ CSS Policy 11-1); Information security governance: “The process of establishing and maintaining a framework and supporting management structure and processes to provide assurance that information security strategies are aligned with and support business objectives, are consistent with applicable laws and regulations through adherence to policies and internal controls, and provide assignment of responsibility, all in an effort to manage risk”. Source(s): NIST SP 800-100

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GOVERNMENT system of balancing and We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “The institutions, rules, and administra- “This term is used in two senses. Some- 1. The term government broad- choosing between political dations! tion of state authority” (Brown, McLean times it is used to indicate the particular ly means the organization of alternatives and McMillan 2018). administrative institutions or agencies of a public authorities responsible society whose function it is to control indi- for governing a society. The way vidual action, safeguard individual and na- state’s fundamental functions are tional rights, and, in general, promote the allocated among institutions and public welfare; all in accordance with the the relations between them, ac- methodological principles and for the sake cording to their respective consti- of the ends decreed to be legitimate by the tutional framework, determines sovereign. A government is, consequently, the type of government of each purely instrumental, and cannot rightly state (i.g. in democracy, functions create sanctions for its own activities. It are usually divided, more or less may, however, persist through change of rigorously, in three branches or personnel. In another less common use powers: executive, legislative and the word indicates the person or persons judiciary); 2. Commonly, govern- who hold office in these institutions, rather ment also indicates all institu- than the institutions themselves. This sec- tions, at national, regional or ond use is more common in Europe than in local/municipal level, responsible America, and corresponds to the Ameri- for executive functions, dealing can term ‘”the administration.” -- M.B.M.” with day-by-day administration (Runes 2004). and implemented through bureaucratic structures. At national level, government is generally the cabinet of members (ministers or secretaries, etc.) responsible for policies referred to different matters, under the guide of a leader (president, prime minister, head of state, etc.). (UN Public Ad- ministration Glossary); “Govern- ment includes national and local government agencies, including development, emergency, civil protection, etc.” (ReliefWeb)

HARM ‘Evil (physical or otherwise) We welcome recommen- The injurious consequence of a fault or “physical, mental, or moral damage” (Mar- In theoretical ethics and law, harm is “Any adverse effects that would as done to or suffered dations! failure (see Del Frate 2013). tin and McFerran 2017). defined as either tangible or intangible. be experienced by an individ- by some person or thing; Tangible harms are damages a person suf- ual (i.e., that may be socially, hurt, injury, damage, fers to their physical, emotional, or social physically, or financially dam- mischief; To do harm (to); self. Tangible harms cause cost or pain, aging) or an organization if to injure (physically or oth- or an appreciable risk of pain, disability, the confidentiality of PII were erwise); to hurt, damage.’ or death (Saver 2005). Intangible harms, breached. Source(s): NIST SP (OED) at least as described by Lord Devlin, are 800-122 ; “Damage to health, those damages to the harmonious fabric of including the damage that can society. Other intangible harms can include occur from loss of product quality frustrations to access, affronts to personal or availability. [ICH Q9, Guidance dignity, and having one’s efforts wasted. for Industry: Quality Systems Ap- proach to Pharmaceutical cGMP Regulations, FDA]”

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HAZARD unavoidable and/or uncer- “1. A situation or event “A Hazard is a momentary output effort “a potential source of danger, injury, We welcome recommendations! “The potential occurrence of tain danger or risk whose realization has the that occurs in a logic circuit because of illness, or equipment damage or malfunc- a natural or human-induced potential for damage to input signal prpagation along different tion” (APA). physical event that may cause human life, society, the delay paths in the circuit” (LaPlante loss of life, injury, or other health economy, or the environ- 2001, 221). impacts, as well as damage and men; 2. A potential or ac- loss to property, infrastructure, tual malfunction of a logic livelihoods, service provision, and circuit during change(s) of environmental resources.” (IPCC state of input variables. 2012); “Any circumstance in the Hazards result from the production, control and distribu- nonideal behaviour of tion of a pharmaceutical which actual switching elements, can cause an adverse health ef- e.g. noninstantaneous fect. [Hazard and Risk Analysis in operation, turn-on time Pharmaceutical Products, WHO]” different from turn-off time” (Butterfield and Ngondi 2016).

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HEALTH An equilibrium state of Health data used in We welcome recommendations! The construct “social determinant of “The state of optimum capacity for the “a state of complete physical, physical, emotional, and computational disciplines health” is discussed in some social effective performance of valued tasks” mental and social well-being mental fitness like bioinformatics may scientific literature: “a social determi- (Parsons 1958, 168). and not merely the absence of use any of a number of nant of health is a socially controllable disease or infirmity””, as defined types of data related to factor outside the traditional health care by the World Health Organization medical and health states system that is an independent partial (WHO). Methodology to assess of patients. This may cause of an individual’s health status. health according to the above include: “The Electronic Candidate examples include income, definition is not yet available, Medical Record (EMR) is education, occupational rank, and social and at present health is generally a longitudinal electronic class” (Sreenivasan 2014); “the condition assessed in terms of mortality record of patient health of one’s mind, body, and spirit, the idea and morbidity.” (United Nations information generated being freedom from illness, injury, pain, Statistics Division: Environment by one or more encoun- and distress” (APA). Glossary); INIS gives “health ters in a care delivery hazards, human populations, setting. Included in this medical establishments, pre- information are patient ventive medicine, quality of life, demographics, progress quarantine, radiation protection, notes, problems, medi- and water reclamation” as terms cations, vital signs, past related to public health. Health medical history, immuni- testing: “Testing within an imple- zations, laboratory data mentation immediately prior to and radiology reports. or during normal operation to The EMR is designed to determine that the implemen- automate and streamline tation continues to perform as ”s workflow”; implemented and as validated׳the clinician “whereas the EMR stores Source(s): NIST SP 800-90A Rev. institutional data, the EHR 1 “ shares health information across providers [25]. Thus, the EMR contains partial patient medical history whereas the EHR is more complete in terms of the data provided to physicians. EHR systems are the building blocks of HIEs—Health Informa- tion Exchange networks” (Heart, ben-Assuli and Shabtai 2017, 21-23).

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HUMAN Essential claims all hu- We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “Human rights are rights inherent to all “Human rights are norms that help to The AGROVOC enumerates the RIGHTS mans have by virtue of dations! human beings, regardless of race, sex, protect all people everywhere from severe following under the hierarchical their species membership nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, political, legal, and social abuses. Examples classification of human rights: alone or any other status. Human rights include of human rights are the right to freedom “food sovereignty (the right of the right to life and liberty, freedom from of religion, the right to a fair trial when peoples to define their own slavery and torture, freedom of opinion charged with a crime, the right not to be policies and strategies for the and expression, the right to work and tortured, and the right to engage in polit- sustainable production, distribu- education, and many more. Everyone is ical activity. These rights exist in morality tion and consumption of food, entitled to these rights, without discrimi- and in law at the national and international with respect for their own culures nation.” (UN, no date) levels. 1. Human rights are rights. Lest we and their own systems of manag- miss the obvious, human rights are rights ing natural resources and rural (see the entry on rights and Cruft 2012). areas, and is considered to be a Most if not all human rights are claim precondition for food security), rights that impose duties or responsibilities freedom of association (, housing on their addressees or duty bearers. Rights rights, reproductive rights, right focus on a freedom, protection, status, to food, and right to information”. or benefit for the rightholders.2. Human Human rights are classified under rights are plural. 3. Human rights are the hierarchy of legal rights. universal. All living humans have human rights. People have human rights independently of whether they are found in the practices, morality, or law of their country or culture. 4. Human right shave high-priority (Nickel 2017).

HUMAN safety and wellbeing of We welcome recommen- we welcome recommendations! “the Commission on Human Security de- We welcome recommendations! “Human security means protect- SECURITY human communities from dations! fined the concept as “protecting the core ing vital freedoms. It means pro- disasters, whether natural of all human lives in ways that enhance tecting people from critical and or mandmade human freedoms and human fulfillment” pervasive threats and situations, and as “protecting fundamental free- building on their strengths and doms—freedoms that are the essence aspirations. It also means creat- of life.” It goes on to say that, “it means ing systems that give people the protecting people from critical (severe) building blocks of survival, dignity and pervasive (widespread) threats and and livelihood. Human security situations. It means using processes that involves different types of free- build on people’s strengths and aspira- doms: freedom from want; free- tions. It means creating political, social, dom from fear; and freedom to environmental, economic, military, and take action on one’s own behalf”; cultural systems that together give people “Human security can be said to the building blocks of survival, livelihood have two main aspects. It means, and dignity” (Forsythe 2009). first, safety from such chronic threats as hunger, disease, and repression. And second, it means protection from sudden and hurt- ful disruptions in the patterns of daily life – whether in homes, in jobs, or in communities. Such threats can exist at all levels of national income and development.” (IPCC 2012)

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HUMAN- humans using machines to “a collaborative process “Reciprocal interaction of humans with We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! MACHINE accomplish tasks between persons and machines, whether the human is con- INTERACTION machines” (Norman and trolling the machine, providing logis- Draper 1985) tical support for the machine, serving as the object of machine actions, or simpliy in the presence of the machine” (LaPlante 2001, 231).

HUMANITY The collection of human We welcome recommen- Technology which benefits humanity is “compassion in one’s personal relations See also “Humanism: a). Any view in which We welcome recommendations! persons dations! that which aids achievement of broad with specific others, shown by kindness, interest in human welfare is central. b) development goals, such as the United nurturance, charity, and love” (APA). Renaissance revival of classical learning as Nations Millennium Development opposed to merely ecclesiastical studies. Goals. (Hernandez-Ramos 2006). c) An ethical and religious movement culminating in Auguste Comte’s “Worship of Humanity,” better known as Human- itarianism. d) Philosophical movement represented by F. C. S. Schiller in England, better known as Pragmatism. See Prag- matism. e) Literary Humanism, movement led in America by Irving Babbit, Paul Elmer More, Norman Foerster protesting against extreme emphasis on vocational education and recommending return to a classical type of liberal education or study of “the Humanities.” f)Sociological term for tendency to extend ideals, such as love, loyalty, kindness, service, honesty, which normally prevail in primary or intimate groups to guide conduct in non-primary or impersonal groups. g). Religious Human- ism is any view which does not consider belief in a deity vital to religion, though not necessarily denying its existence and not necessarily denying practical value to such belief. Represented by a group of left-wing Unitarian ministers and university profes- sors who, in May, 1933, published “The Humanist Manifesto,” wherein religion is broadly viewed as a “shared quest for the good life” and social justice and social reform are stressed as important in religious endeavor. -- A.J.B.” (Runes 2004)

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HUMANITARIAN Motivated by a spirit of We welcome recommen- “Humanitarian engineering as the According to the ReliefWeb Glossary of “Devoted to the promotion of human We welcome recommendations! service to humanity dations! artful drawing on science to direct the Humanitarian terms, “As per UN General welfare” (Park and Allaby 2017); See also resources of nature with active com- Assembly Resolution 46/182 (19 De- humanitarianism: “ a) Any view in which passion to meet the basic needs of all cember 1991), humanitarian assistance interest in human values is central. b) Any -- especially the powerless, poor, or must be provided in accordance with the moral or social program seeking to lessen otherwise marginalized” (Mitcham and principles of humanity, neutrality and im- suffering and increase welfare of human Munoz 2010, 27). partiality. Adherence to these principles beings, often involving intense emotional reflects a measure of accountability of devotion to social reform, sometimes ex- the humanitarian community. - Human- tending to prevention of cruelty to animals. ity: Human suffering must be addressed Philanthropy. Altruism. c) Worship of Hu- wherever it is found, with particular at- manity. Comtean doctrine, based on posit tention to the most vulnerable in the pop- ivistic science, that Humanity, rather than ulation, such as children, women and the God or Nature is the Great Being worthy of elderly. The dignity and rights of all vic- worship. d) Theological doctrine denying tims must be respected and protected. - the divinity of Christ.-- A.J.B.” (Runes 2004). Neutrality: Humanitarian assistance must be provided without engaging in hostili- ties or taking sides in controversies of a political, religious or ideological nature. - Impartiality: Humanitarian assistance must be provided without discriminating as to ethnic origin, gender, nationality, political opinions, race or religion. Relief of the suffering must be guided solely by needs and priority must be given to the most urgent cases of distress. (OCHA)” (ReliefWeb Project 2008).

IDENTIFIER pattern of symbols “In a programming lan- “The name bound to an abstraction” See also identity: “In psychology: personal We welcome recommendations! “A sequence of characters, capa- uniquely attached to a guage, an identifier is a (LaPlante 2001, 235). identity, or the continuous existence of ble of uniquely identifying that person or thing string of charaters used as the personality despite physiological and with which it is associated, within a name for some element psychological changes.” (Runes 2004). a specified context” (ISO/IEC FDIS of a program. This ele- 11179-1 “Information technolo- ment may be a statement gy - Metadata registries - Part 1: label, a procedure or Framework”, March 2004); “ A bit function, a data elemet, or string that is associated with a th e program itself” (Reilly person, device or organization. It 2004, 379). may be an identifying name, or may be something more abstract (for example, a string consisting of an IP address and timestamp), depending on the application”. Source(s): NIST SP 800-57 Part 1 Rev. 3 NIST SP 800-57 Part 3 Rev. 1

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IMPACT “Impact Assessment is a We welcome recommen- Also, impact analysis-- “the activity “Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) “Social impact assessment can be defined Privacy impact assessment: “An ASSESSMENT means of measuring the dations! aimed at determining the impact of a is a process of evaluating the likely envi- as the process of assessing or estimating, analysis of how information is effectiveness of organ- change before its actual implementa- ronmental impacts of a proposed project in advance, the social consequences that handled: (i) to ensure handling isational activities and tion, in order to anticipate the extent of or development, taking into account are likely to follow from specific policy conforms to applicable legal, reg- judging the significance its efffects, and htus the associated risk inter-related socio-economic, cultural and actions or project development, particular- ulatory, and policy requirements of changes brought about and cost” (LaPlante 2001, 239). human-health impacts, both beneficial ly in the context of appropriate national, regarding privacy; (ii) to deter- by those activities. It is and adverse” (Convention on Biological state, or provincial environmental policy mine the risks and effects of col- neither Art or Science, but Diversity, no date); Also “Impact Analysis: legislation. Social impacts include all social lecting, maintaining, and dissemi- both” (IFRC no date). a quantitative analytic procedure used and cultural consequences to human nating information in identifiable to assess the net success or failure of a populations of any public or private actions form in an electronic information program, usually through controlled ex- that alter the ways in which people live, system; and (iii) to examine and perimentation. It is appropriate only if the work, play, relate to one another, organize evaluate protections and alter- program’s objectives are specifiable and to meet their needs, and generally cope native processes for handling measurable, the program is well imple- as members of society. Cultural impacts information to mitigate potential mented for its intended participants, and involve changes to the norms, values, privacy risks” Source(s): NIST SP the outcome measures are reliable and and beliefs of individuals that guide and 800-60 Vol 1 Rev. 1 (OMB Memo- valid” (APA). rationalize their cognition of themselves randum 03-22) “ and their society” (Burdge and Vanclay 1996, 59).

IMPLEMEN- Putting a plan or policy See also implementa- “The transformation of a design into a “The process of bringing any piece of We welcome recommendations! “Implementation describes the TATION into action tion model-- “a modle more detailed form, or its realization legislation into force” (Law 2015). actions taken to meet commit- that consists of the code as a working product. The implemen- ments under a treaty and encom- files and the used work tation may be hardware or software passes legal and effective phases. structure. It includes end product, which actually performs Legal implementation refers to the application software the required functions, or it may be legislation, regulations, judicial description as wall as the an intermediate product at a lower decrees, including other actions support software descrip- level of stepwise refinement. The goal such as efforts to administer pro- tion. While the design of abstraction is to provide mecha- gress which governments take to model is a more abstract nisms by which functionality may be translate international accords view, the implementation made visible without the user of that into domestic law and policy. model contains the full functionality needing to be aware of Effective implementation needs information necessary to the details of how that functionarlity is policies and programmes that build the system” (LaPlan- achieved, that is, its implementation” induce changes in the behaviour te 239). (LaPlante 2001, 238). and decisions of target groups. Target groups then take effective measures of mitigation and adaptation” (IPCC 4th, 82); Imple- mentation specification: “ Specific requirements or instructions for implementing a standard” Source(s): NIST SP 800-66 Rev. 1 (45 C.F.R., Sec. 160.103) “

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INDIVIDUALLY Information which can be “Individually Identifiable We welcome recommendations! “Per the Executive Office of the President, We welcome recommendations! See personal data IDENTIFIABLE linked to a single person Data is data that identifies Office of Management and Budget (OMB) DATA (IID) the person that the data is and the U.S. Department of Commerce, about, or that can be used Office of the Chief Information Officer, to identify that individual. “The term “personally identifiable infor- This generally refers to mation” refers to information which can data that contains either be used to distinguish or trace an individ- an identification number, ual’s identity, such as their name, Social or factors relating to phys- Security Number, biometric records, etc. ical, mental, economic, alone, or when combined with other per- cultural, or social identity sonal or identifying information which is that could be used to link linked or linkable to a specific individual, the data to an individual. such as date and place of birth, mother’s Regulatory requirements maiden name, etc.” (iDASH no date) for privacy generally apply (only) to individually identifiable data” (Clifton 2009, 1471-1472)

INFORMED agreement to participate “A formal process in which We welcome recommendations! “a person’s voluntary agreement to “the principle that requires clinicians to “A process by which a subject CONSENT in a process only after the purposes and conse- participate in a procedure on the basis of provide sufficient information to patients voluntarily confirms his or her being given all pertinent quences of research are his or her understanding of its nature, its or potential research participants in order willingness to participate in information to make a explained to subjects, who potential benefits and possible risks, and to render their consent lawful. How much a particular trial, after having cognizant choice must sign a consent form available alternatives” (APA). information and of what kind is regarded been informed of all aspects of before any research is as sufficient depends on the seriousness the trial that are relevant to the carried out” (Chandler and of what is proposed and on the under- subject’s decision to participate. Munday 2016). standing of those from whom consent is Informed consent is documented required” (Martin 2015) by means of a written, signed and dated informed consent form.” (International Council on Harmonization—Good Clinical Practice); “Decision, which must be written, dated and signed, to take part in a clinical trial, taken freely after being duly informed of its nature, significance, implications and risks and appropri- ately documented, by any person capable of giving consent or, where the person is not capable of giving consent, by his or her legal representative. If the person concerned is unable to write, oral consent in the presence of at least one witness may be given in exceptional cases, as provided for in national legislation. [Directive 2001/20/EC]”

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INFORMATION Statements that carry “the technical concept of “A mathematical model of the amount “1. knowledge about facts or ideas gained Philosophy of information is understood “Knowledge concerning any meaning information is defined of surprise contained in a message” through investigation, experience, or as the effort to define formally the concept objects such as facts, events, as the probability of a (LaPlante 2001, 244). practice; 2. in information theory, a of information. At least 6 general formal things, processes or ideas signal being transmitted message that reduces uncertainty; that theories of information persist in philoso- including concepts that within a from device A to device B, is, information tells us something we do phy of information: 1. Fisher information, certain context have a particu- which can be mathemati- not already know. The bit is the common 2. Shannon information, 3. Kolmogorov lar meaning” (ISO/IEC 2382-1; cally quantified” (Shannon unit of information in information theory” complexity, 4. Quantum information, 5. 1992 - Economic Commission and Weaver 1949) (APA). information as a state of an agent, and 6. for Europe of the United Na- Semantic information (Adriaans 2013). tions (UNECE), “Terminology on Statistical Metadata”, Conference of European Statisticians Statis- tical Standards and Studies, No. 53, Geneva, 2000); Facts and ideas, which can be represented (encoded) as various forms of data” Source(s): CNSSI 4009- 2015 ; Knowledge -- e.g., data, instructions -- in any medium or form that can be communi- cated between system entities.” Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 (IETF RFC 4949 Ver 2); Any communication or representation of knowledge such as facts, data, or opinions in any medium or form, including textual, numerical, graphic, cartographic, narrative, or audiovisual.” Source(s): NIST SP 800-171 (Updates to version published June 2015) (CNSSI 4009); INIS distinguishes information into classified information, data, diagrams, proprietary information, public information, and quantum information

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INSURANCE indemnification against We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “A legal contract in which an insurer We welcome recommendations! “The activity of insurance is loss dations! promises to pay a specified amount to intended to provide individual another party, the insured, if a particular institutional units exposed to cer- event (known as the peril), happens and tain risks with financial protection the insured suffers a financial loss as a against the consequences of the result. The insured’s part of the contract occurrence of specified events; it is to promise to pay an amount of money, is also a form of financial inter- known as the premium, either once or at mediation in which funds are regular intervals. In order for an insur- collected from policyholders and ance contract to be valid, the insured invested in financial or other must have an insurable interest. It is assets which are held as technical usual to use the word ‘insurance’ to cover reserves to meet future claims events (such as a fire) that may or may arising from the occurrence of not happen, whereas assurance refers the events specified in the insur- to an event (such as death) that must ance policies” (United Nations occur at some time (see also life assur- Statistics Division: System of Na- ance). The main branches of insurance tional Accounts 1993 Glossary); are: accident insurance, fire insurance, “A family of financial instruments holiday and travel insurance, household for sharing and transferring risk insurance, liability insurance, livestock among a pool of at-risk house- and bloodstock insurance, loss-of-profit holds, businesses, and/or govern- insurance (see business-interruption pol- ments” (IPCC 2012) icy), marine insurance, motor insurance, pluvial insurance, private health insurance, and property insurance” (Law 2016).

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INTEGRITY wholeness, particularly See also Integrity Con- “Integrity is 1. a belief in the truth of “the quality of moral consistency, hon- “Most simply a synonym for honesty. But “Values and related practices that of adherence to ethical straints: “A constraint the information represented by a set of esty, and truthfulness with oneself and integrity is frequently connected with the maintain confidence in the eyes principles imposed on the database data, 2. the degree to which a compo- others” (APA). more complicated notion of a wholeness of users in the agency producing by the database manage- nent or a system reacts and provides or harmony of the self, associated with statistics and ultimately in the ment sytem that helps measures against the unauthorized a proper conception of oneself as some- statistical product.” (IMF “Data maintain the integrity of access for performing changes and ma- one whose life would lose its unity, or be Quality Assessment Framework— the data” (LaPlante 2001, nipulations to data and code, 3. a con- violated by doing various things. ... the aim DQAF—Glossary”); “In public 250). dition stating that the information in a of living life as a good utilitarian provides administration, integrity refers set of data does satisfy a set of logical its own standards of integrity” (Blackburn to “honesty” or “trustworthiness” constraints” (LaPlante 2001, 250). 2016). in the discharge of official duties, serving as an antithesis to “cor- ruption” or “the abuse of office.” Integrity is a key element that completes the notion of accountability and transparency. It can also be defined as incorruptibil- ity, an unimpaired condition or soundness and is synonymous to honesty” (UN Public Admin- istration Glossary); “Software attributes reflecting the degree to which source code satisfies specified software requirements and conforms to contemporary software development practices and standards. [PIC/S PI 011-3]”; See also Data integrity: “A property whereby data has not been altered in an unauthorized manner since it was created, transmitted or stored”. Source(s): NIST SP 800-21 Second edition (NIST SP 800-57)

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INTELLIGENCE The faculty of under- “Intelligent systems are “Intelligence is the ability to use op- “Knowledge of the enemy” (Troy 1991, Psychologists define intelligence as: “Intelli- “The term ‘intelligence’ means (1) standing; intellect. Also as expected to work, and timally limited resources – including 433); “the ability to derive information, gence A: the biological substrate of mental the product resulting from the a count noun: a mental work well, in many differ- time – to achieve goals.” R. Kurzweil; learn from experience, adapt to the ability, the brains’ neuroanatomy and phys- collection, processing, integra- manifestation of this fac- ent environments. Their “Intelligence is 1. the ability to deal with environment, understand, and correctly iology; Intelligence B: the manifestation of tion, analysis, evaluation, and in- ulty, a capacity to under- property of intelligence abstract concepts and form complext utilize thought and reason” (APA). intelligence A, and everything that influ- terpretation of available informa- stand (OED) “Intelligence allows them to maximize pictures of the outside world such ences its expression in real life behavior; tion concerning foreign countries measures an agent’s the probability of success as creativity, ability with spoken and Intelligence C: the level of performance on or areas; or (2) information and ability to achieve goals even if full knowledge written language, etc.2 in the military psychometric tests of cognitive ability.” H. J. knowledge about an adversary in a wide range of envi- of the situation is not sense, the aggregated and processed Eysenck; “Intelligence is the ability to learn, obtained through observation, ronments.” S. Legg and available. Functioning of information about the environment, in- exercise judgment, and be imaginative.” J. investigation, analysis, or un- M. Hutter (for a review of intelligent systems cannot cluding potential adversaries, available Huarte; “The capacity of the mind to meet derstanding. The term ‘intelli- 70+definitions, See Legg be considered separately commanders and their staff” (LaPlante effectively -- through the employment gence’ includes foreign intelli- and Hutter 2007). from the environment 2001, 250). of memory, imagination and conceptual gence and counterintelligence” and the concrete situation thinking -- the practical and theoretical Source(s): NIST SP 800-59 (Joint including the goal.” R. R. problems with which it is confronted. Pub 1-02, 50 U.S.C., Ch 15) “ Gudwin “Intelligence is the Intelligence is more inclusive than intellect ability to process informa- which is primarily conceptual. In Dewey tion properly in a complex (q.v.), intelligence is the basic instrument, environment. The criteria to be contrasted with fixed habit, tradition- of properness are not al customs, and the sheer force of political predefined and hence or bureaucratic power as means of settling not available beforehand. social issues. -- L.W.” (Runes 2004) They are acquired as a result of the information processing.” H. Nakashi- ma

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INTELLIGENT An autonomous entity “Intelligent agents con- “By an agent, we mean a system that We welcome recommendations! For ethicists, intelligent agents and eth- We welcome recommendations! AGENT capable of successfully tinuously perform three enjoys the following properties auton- ical agents are often one and the same. adapting to its environ- functions: perception of omy: agents encapsulate some state “According to Moor, a machine that is an ment by effecting is own dynamic conditions in the (that is not accessible to other agents), implicit ethical agent is one that has been will environment; action to af- and make decisions about what to do programmed to behave ethically, or at fect conditions in the en- based on this state, without the direct least avoid unethical behavior, without an vironment; and reasoning intervention of humans or others; explicit representation of ethical principles. to interpret perceptions, reactivity: agents are situated in an It is constrained in its behavior by its de- solve problems, draw environment, (which may be the phys- signer who is following ethical principles. A inferences, and determine ical world, a user via a graphical user machine that is an explicit ethical agent, on actions” (Hayes-Roth ); interface, a collection of other agents, the other hand, is able to calculate the best “Intelligent agents are the INTERNET, or perhaps many of action in ethical dilemmas using ethical software entities that car- these combined), are able to perceive principles. It can “represent ethics explicitly ry out some set of opera- this environment (through the use of and then operate effectively on the basis tions on behalf of a user potentially imperfect sensors), and are of this knowledge.” Using Moor’s terminol- or another program with able to respond in a timely fashion to ogy, most of those working on machine some degree of independ- changes that occur in it; pro-activeness: ethics would say that the ultimate goal is to ence or autonomy, and agents do not simply act in response create a machine that is an explicit ethical in so doing, employ some to their environment, they are able agent” (Anderson and Anderson 2007, 15). knowledge or representa- to exhibit goal-directed behaviour tion of the user’s goals by taking the initiative; social ability: or desires” (IBM quoted agents interact with other agents (and in Franklin and Graesser possibly humans) via some kind of 1996, 23). agent-communication language, and typically have the ability to engage in social activities (such as cooperative problem solving or negotiation) in order to achieve their goals” (Woodridge 1997, 2); “A computer controlled virtual actor, capable of interacting with other agents in the virutal environment and with the virtual environment” (LaPlante 2001, 31).

INTERNATIONAL governmental or non-gov- We welcome recommen- See also “internationalization-- the “Institutions that transcend national We welcome recommendations! “International organisations are ORGANIZATION ernmental groups operat- dations! problem of creating systems thatt are boundaries; also, the study of such in- entities established by formal ing transnationally not ethnocentric to a particular culture. stitutions. Two types are usually distin- political agreements between Typical problems in internationaliza- guished: intergovernmental organizations their members that have the tion include representations of dates created by multilateral treaty or agree- status of international treaties; and times, collating sequence, and the ment among states, such as the United their existence is recognised by mapping between the numeric rep- Nations and the International Monetary law in their member countries; resentation of character values and the Fund; and international nongovernmental they are not treated as resident printed graphs (for example, currency organizations (NGOs) created by private institutional units of the countries sybols)” (LaPlante 2001, 253). citizens in different countries, such as the in which they are located” (United Red Cross and Amnesty International” Nations Statistics Division: Sys- (Calhoun 2002). tem of National Accounts 1993 Glossary); “International Organ- ization includes international governmental organizations and UN agencies, funds and programmes.” (ReliefWeb)

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LAW “In general, a scientific law An axiomatic statement, We welcome recommendations! “International law is a collection of rules “Every formula which expresses the neces- “government-wide and organi- is the description of an “some aspect of computer governing relations between states” sity of an action is called a law” (Kant). -- P. zation-specific laws, regulations, observed phenomenon. technology or perfor- A.S.” (Runes 2004); “The Rule of Law is one policies, guidelines, standards, It doesn’t explain why the mance (that) seems to of the ideals of our political morality and and procedures mandating phenomenon exists or conform to a pattern that it refers to the ascendancy of law as such requirements for the manage- what causes it. The expla- 1. can be quantified, and and of the institutions of the legal system ment and protection of infor- nation of a phenomenon 2. is likely to hold into the in a system of governance. The Rule of Law mation technology resources” is called a scientific theory” indefinite future” exam- comprises a number of principles of a for- Source(s): NIST SP 800-16 “ (Bradford 2017). ples include Moore’s Law, mal and procedural character, addressing Metcalfe’s La, Grosch’s the way in which a community is governed. Law and Amdahl’s Law The formal principles concern the general- (Reilly 2004, 439-440). ity, clarity, publicity, stability, and prospec- tivity of the norms that govern a society. The procedural principles concern the processes by which these norms are adminis- tered, and the institutions—like courts and an independent judiciary that their administration requires” (Waldron 2016).

LEGAL An individual who has We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “While there is disagreement about how If legal persons are those who have mean- Closest synonym in law is “per- PERSONHOOD legal status with a state, dations! precisely to formulate a definition of legal ingful agency, then corporations might also sona standi in judicio”, which such as citizenship. “The personhood, the key element of legal have meaningful agency. “For a corpora- means “a person who can purse function of legal person- personhood seems to be the ability to tion to be treated as a Davidsonian agent or defend a legal action in court” hood is to attribute value bear rights and duties. Black’s Law Dic- it must be the case that some things that (James R. Fox, “Dictionary of Inter- and rights to the individu- tionary defines a legal person as an entity happen, some events, are describable in national and Comparative Law”) al” (Dyschkant 2015, 2107). “given certain legal rights and duties of a a way that makes certain sentences true, human being; a being, real or imaginary, sentences that say that some of the things who for the purpose of legal reasoning is a corporation does were intended by the treated more or less as a human being” corporation itself. That is not accomplished (Dyschkant 2015, 2076) if attributing intentions to a corporation is only a shorthand way of attributing intentions to the biological persons who comprise e.g., its board of directors. If that were to turn out to be the case then on metaphysical if not logical grounds there would be no way to distinguish between corporations and mobs” (French 1979, 211)

LIABILITY disadvantageous debts or We welcome recommen- “The consequences of failing to deliver “1. in a civil lawsuit, the defendant’s legal We welcome recommendations! “A liability is an obligation which obligations dations! legal obligations under contract or responsibility to pay monetary damages requires one unit (the debtor) to statutory instrument. Persons or for injury or other harm that a court has make a payment or a series of organizations have legal responsibili- deemed he or she has caused the plaintiff payments to the other unit (the ties when operating under a contract through, for example, professional mal- creditor) in certain circumstances or within the legislation that applies practice” (APA) specified in a contract between to operations undertaken; they will be them.” (United Nations Statis- liable for actions that breach any term tics Division: System of National or regulation” (Gorse, Johnston, and Accounts 1993 Glossary) Pritchard 2013).

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LIFECYCLE stages in a project, also se- We welcome recommen- “All the steps or phases an item passes “1. the sequence of developmental stages We welcome recommendations! “An approach to computer quences of developmental dations! through during its useful life. The life through which an organism passes be- system development that begins phases in an organism may include: problem identification, tween a specified stage of one generation with (PMA CSVC) identification of requirements engineering, analysis, de- (e.g., fertilization, birth) and the same the user’s requirements, contin- sign, implementation, testing, assess- stage in the next generation; 2. the series ues through design, integration, ment, risk analysi, maintenance, etc” of stages that characterizes the lifespan qualification, user validation, con- (LaPlante 2001, 277). of a group, institution, culture, or prod- trol and maintenance, and ends uct” (APA). only when commercial use of the system is discontinued. [PIC/S PI 011-3]”

LIKELIHOOD chance of occurrence “The probability that an We welcome recommendations! “ in statistics, the probability of obtaining “The likelihood, a shortened form of the Probabilistic estimation of occur- observation belongs to a particular set of results given a set of phrase likelihood function, is the proba- rence, measured as a percent. a probability distribu- assumptions about the distribution of the bility of a given dataset within a model. The IPCC 4th defines likelihood as tion with parameters θ‎, phenomena in the population and the The model will typically contain several “virtually certain: >99% probabili- considered as a function parameters of that distribution” (APA) parameters which can be varied to give the ty of occurrence; very likely: >90% of the parameters rather best fit to the data, and the likelihood then probability; likely: >66% proba- than of the observation” is a function of those parameters. High bility; more likely than not: >50% (Butterfield and Ngondi values of the likelihood, indicating that the probability; about as likely as not: 2016). observed data were quite probable if that 33%- 66% probability; unlikely model is the true one, are interpreted as <33% probability; very unlikely:< indicating that the data favour those pa- 10% probability; exceptionally rameter values” (Liddle and Loveday 2008). unlikely: <1% probability”

MACHINE “machine learning is the “In knowledge discovery, machine We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! LEARNING study of methods for learning is most commonly used to constructing and improv- mean the application of induction ing software systems by algorithms, which is one step in the analyzing examples f their knowledge discovery process. Machien desired behavior. Machine learning is the field of scientific study learning methods are that concentrates on induction algo- appropriate in application rithms and other algoritms that can be settings where people are said to learn” (LaPlante 2001, 291). unable to provide precise specifications for desired program behavior, but where examples of this behavior are available.” (Reilly 2004, 476).

MALEFICENCE Acts intentionally taken to We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! Within applied ethics, the principle of Closest synonym would be “mala promote evil or confound dations! non-maleficence is invoked. Non malef- fides,” defined as “bad faith, good icence: is the avoidance of doing harm absence of honest intentions in (Gillon 1985, 130); See also Malevolence “Ill international relations” (James R. or evil will or disposition -- the will or dispo- Fox, “Dictionary of International sition to do wrong or to harm others. The and Comparative Law”) vice opposed to the virtue of benevolence or good will. -- W.K.F.” (Runes 2004).

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MALFEASANCE Acts intentionally taken by We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! Malfeasance is failure of officials to We welcome recommendations! “Intentional conduct that is persons or organizations dations! faithfully execute their duties, whether wrongful or unlawful, especially in a position of power to as enforcement of rightful law or policy, by officials or public employees. promote evil or confound chiefly for their own gain in funds or Malfeasance is at a higher level good leisure (Becker and Stigler 1974) of wrongdoing than nonfeasance (failure to act where there was a duty to act) or misfeasance (conduct that is lawful but inappropriate)” (https://www.law.cornell. edu/wex/malfeasance)

METHODOLOGY “Methodology is defined “A detailed approach to “We consider a methodology to OECD glossary of statistical terms defines “methodology is a generic term exempli- “A structured approach to solve as the research strategy solving an engineering encompass (i) a set of concepts used; methodology as “a structured approach fied in the specific method of each science. a problem” (Economic Commis- that outlines the way one problem. A synonym for (ii) notations for modelling aspects of to solve a problem”; “1. the science of Hence its full significance can be under- sion for Europe of the United goes about undertaking a methodology, i.e. a set the software (requirements, designs, method or orderly arrangement; spe- stood only by analyzing the structure of Nations (UNECE), “Terminology research project, whereas of rules and guidelins implementation); and (iii) a process cifically, the branch of logic concerned the special sciences. In determining that on Statistical Metadata”, Confer- methods identify means undepinning software that is followed in order to produce with the application of the principles of structure, one must consider: a) the proper ence of European Statisticians or modes of data collec- development. A method- the software” (Padgham and Winikoff reasoning to scientific and philosophical object of the special science, b) the manner Statistical Standards and Studies, tion” (Howell 2012, viii) ology is a way of doing 2002, 1) inquiry. 2. the system of methods, princi- in which it develops, c) the type of state- No. 53, Geneva, 2000); See also things and is thus similar ples, and rules of procedure used within ments or generalizations it involves, d) Formal Method: “Software engi- to the idea of a process. a particular discipline” (APA). its philosophical foundations or assump- neering method used to specify, 2. The implementation tions, and e) its relation with the other develop, and verify the software of an operation, i.e., the sciences, and eventually its applications. through application of a rigorous code describing how an (Runes 2004 (1942)). Methods in philos- mathematically based notation operation is effected. The ophy include: Socratic method, synthetic and language” Source(s): CNSSI method describes the method, ascetic method, psychological 4009-2015 (Guide to the Software algorithm or procedure method, critical or transcendental meth- Engineering Body of Knowledge) used in full detail, ready ods, dialectical methods, intuitive meth- for execution” (LaPlante ods, reflexive methods, eclectic methods, 2001, 308). adn positivistic methods. Other sciences employ: axiomatic or hypothetical-deduc- tive methods, nomological or inductive methods, descriptive methods, historical methods, and psychological methods. (Runes 2004).

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MIND ‘A person’s cognitive, “According to a Classical Fodor (1983) stipulates nine features of “1. broadly, all intellectual and psycho- John R. Searle suggest that “just manipu- We welcome recommendations! rational, or intellectual Computational Theory of a modular cognitive system: 1. Domain logical phenomena of an organism, lating the symbols is not itself enough to powers; the intellect; esp. Mind), the mind is a com- specificity, 2. Mandatory operation, encompassing motivational, affective, guarantee cognition, perception, under- as distinguished from putational system similar 3. Limited central accessibility, 4. Fast behavioral, perceptual, and cognitive standing, thinking, and so forth. And, since the emotions; a person in important respects to a processing, 5. Informational encapsula- systems; that is, the organized totality of computers qua computers, are symbol of intellectual prowess; Turing machine, and core tion, 6. Shallow outputs, 7. Fixed neural an organism’s mental and psychic pro- manipulating devices, merely running the an intellectual’ (OED); A mental processes (e.g., architecture, 8. Characteristic and spe- cesses and the structural and functional computer program is not enough to guar- combination of the neural reasoning, decision-mak- cific breakdown patterns, 9. Character- cognitive components on which they antee cognition” (1990, 26); A representa- architecture and effects ing, and problem solving) istic ontogenetic pace and sequencing depend. The term, however, is also used tional theory of mind according to Fodor of the transmissions of are computations similar (Robbins 2017) more narrowly to denote only cognitive is “a system of mental representations, this architecture on the in important respects to activities and functions, such as perceiv- including both primitive representations formation of emotions, computations executed ing, attending, thinking, problem solving, and complex representations formed from mental representations, by a Turing machine” (Res- language, learning, and memory. 2. the primitive representations” (Rescorla 2015). correspondences between corla 2015 ) substantive content of such mental and sensation and mental rep- psychic processes. 3. consciousness or resentations of that which awareness, particularly as specific to an is sensed, computation of individual. 4. a set of emergent properties internal and external data, automatically derived from a brain that and decisions, plans and has achieved sufficient biological sophis- intentions made on the tication. In this sense, the mind is consid- basis of the unity of all of ered more the province of humans and these of human consciousness than of organisms in general. 5. human consciousness regarded as an immaterial entity distinct from the brain. 6. the brain itself and its activities. In this view, the mind essential- ly is both the anatomical organ and what it does. 7. intention or volition. 8. opinion or point of view. 9. the characteristic mode of thinking of a group, such as the criminal mind or the military mind” (APA)

MITIGATION Plan to lessen the impact We welcome recommen- “Risk mitigation planning is the process Mitigation is “abatement or diminution of We welcome recommendations! “Abatement or diminution of of a harm dations! of developing options and actions to a penalty or punishment imposed by law” something painful, injurious, enhance opportunities and reduce (Black’s Law Dictionary) severe, or calamitous.” INIS; threats to project objectives. Risk mit- “The lessening of the potential igation implementation is the process adverse impacts of physical of executing risk mitigation actions. hazards (including those that are Risk mitigation progress monitoring human-induced) through actions includes tracking identified risks, iden- that reduce hazard, exposure, tifying new risks, and evaluating risk and vulnerability” (IPCC 2012); process effectiveness throughout the Risk mitigation: “Prioritizing, eval- project” (Project Management Institute uating, and implementing the ap- 2008). propriate risk-reducing controls/ countermeasures recommended from the risk management process” Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015

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MIXED A type of virtual reality “The most straightforward We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! REALITY system way to view a Mixed Reali- ty environment, therefore, is one in which real world and virtual world objects are presented together within a single display, that is, anywhere between the extrema of the virtu- ality continuum” (Milgram and Kishino 1994)

MODEL OR abstract representation of “A simplified representa- “A model is a representation of reality “A mathematical, physical, pictorial, or “In logic, a model for a set of sentences is “Techniques that use mathe- MODELLING a process or reality tion of something (the of an artifact or activity intended to computer representation, of one phe- an interpretation under which they are all matical models to understand referent). The representa- explain the behavior of some aspects nomenon by another. Models are often true” (Blackburn 2016). and predict the outcomes of tion may be physical of it. In creating a model, an abstrac- used to simplify complex phenomena for interventions.” (Adapted from or abstract, and may tion technique is used. Thus, the model analytical purposes” (Kent 2006). EMA: “modelling and simulation); be restricted to certain is typically less complex or complete A very detailed description or properties of the referent. than the reality modeled and can be scaled representation of one In computing, models are regarded as an abstract description, 2. component of a larger system usually abstract and are a mathematical or schematic descrip- that can be created, operated, typically represented in tion of a computer or network system” and analyzed to predict actu- a diagramming notation, (LaPlante 2001, 313). al operational characteristics such as dataflow diagrams of the final produced compo- (in functional design), nent”. Source(s): FIPS 201-2 ERA diagrams (for a data model), or state-transition diagrams (for a model of behaviour); in the case of the relational model the referent is the target system while in the waterfall model, V-model, and spi- ral model the referent is the development process. In computer graphics, models are used to create realistic images of objects and their attributes” (But- terfield and Ngondi 2016).

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MONITOR person or process charged “display monitors produce “A program that allows the control of “a person who listens to and reports on We welcome recommendations! “continuous or frequent stand- with asssessing conformity real-time dynamic graphic the execution of other programs in an foreign radio broadcasts and signals” ardized measurement and to rules or methods images from computer embedded syste” (LaPlante 2001, 315). (OUP) observation of the environment output” (Reilly 2004, 528). (air, water, land/soil, biota), often used for warning and control” (United Nations Statistics Divi- sion: Environment Glossary); “Monitoring and Evaluation cov- ers collecting and assessing information on quality and progress of projects and programmes, designing methodologies and evaluation tools; recommending best practices and lessons learned to improve effectiveness and impact of activities through reports, training/workshop, etc” (ReliefWeb); “A person appointed by, and responsible to, the sponsor for monitoring and reporting the progress of the trial and for the verification of data. [Specific Pharmaceutical Prod- ucts, WHO] The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of control parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control. [Hazard and Risk Analysis in Pharmaceutical Products, WHO]”

MORAL Thought and discourse “A moral Turing test (MTT) We welcome recommendations! “1. relating to the distinction between Moral is used as an adjective to describe Usually “moral” is contrasted to about moral questions; might similarly be pro- right and wrong behavior; 2. describing patterns of reasoning and belief. “Moral the “legal,” but “moral” could be moral philosophy, ethics posed to bypass disa- a behavior that is considered ethical or reasoning is a species of practical rea- entailed in the older legal ex- (OED); Pertaining to the greements about ethical proper, or a person or group who ad- soning—that is, as a type of reasoning pression “lex non scripta,” which meaning of good and standards by restricting heres to a moral code” (APA) directed towards deciding what to do and, refers to all laws not written evil and establishment of the standard Turing test when successful, issuing in an intention” down - this could include the ethical standards to foster to conversations about (Richardson 2014). Moral relativism is a “unwritten” form of common law those Meanings morality. If human `inter- topic of concern for the implementation (such as in the Untied Kingdom), rogators’ cannot identify of ethical AI. “Descriptive Moral Relativism but could also include custom- the machine at above (DMR). As a matter of empirical fact, there ary international law as well as chance accuracy, then are deep and widespread moral disagree- “natural law,” the “law of nations,” the machine is, on this ments across different societies, and these or similar phrases for normative criterion, a moral agent” disagreements are much more significant standards that are not explicated (Allen et al 2000, quoted than whatever agreements there may be. in a written manner. in Arnold and Schuetz Metaethical Moral Relativism (MMR). The 2016, 104). truth or falsity of moral judgments, or their justification, is not absolute or universal, but is relative to the traditions, convic- tions, or practices of a group of persons” (Gowans 2016)

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MORAL An agent able to define “A suitably generic charac- We welcome recommendations! Cua defines moral agents with respect to “For any user of moral language, the class International law is ambiguous AGENT and implement their terization might be that a the principle of impartiality, “As mor- of moral agents—the group of agents to in its definitions: for the most meaning of good and evil moral agent is an individual agents, the principle of autonomy whom a moral judgment is universalized— part, the only actors-of-standing al who takes into consid- appears to be the basis for applying the is independent of, not a function of, not in international law are states. eration the interests of principle of impartiality, for in the notion defined by that or any particular moral Human rights law permits for in- others rather than acting of balance implicit in the moral point of judgments. It may be the case, as a contin- dividuals as legal actors, but this solely to advance his, her, view it is suggested that the interests of gent matter of fact, that a particular moral is a limited area within interna- or its self interest” (Allen all individuals in dispute have an equal judgment which I make can only be acted tional law. et al 2000, 252). claim to respect in adjudication. Unless upon by some (but not all) of the members morality is to be viewed primarily as a of my class of moral agents. This does product of external factors, every moral not however furnish groups for claiming agent is entitled to administer its function that... the class of moral agents is purely a so long as the principle of impartiality is function of each moral judgment” (Steiner applied and maintained” (Cua 1967, 164- 1973, 264) 165).

MORAL Cognitive capacity to An artificial system’s We welcome recommendations! “the state an older child has achieved Moral autonomy “refers to the capacity We welcome recommendations! AUTONOMY self-define the meaning achievement to pass the when he or she can recognize that an to impose the (putatively objective) moral of good and evil, with or moral Turing test act’s morality may be substantially de- law on oneself, and, following Kant, it is without the ability to fully termined by its motive and other sub- claimed as a fundamental organizing prin- act upon it jective considerations, rather than by its ciple of all morality” (Christman 2015). consequences. Moral independence is a mark of the autonomous stage of moral development” (APA)

MORAL “Perceptions about the We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! the APA defines morals as “ the ethical “Moral norms are the rules of morality jus cogens is argued to be the NORMS moral correctness or dations! values or principles that people use to that people ought to follow….There are basis of international morality wrongness of actions that guide their behavior” (APA) different norms for different kinds of social and law. It is a set of peremptory have been codified by a interaction: norms of justice, norms of co- laws, such as laws against geno- community into standards operation, and norms prescribing various cide, slavery, and torture. against which behaviors kinds of altruistic behavior” (Harms and are judged, praised or Skyrms 2008); See also morals “The term is punished;” “Standards sometimes used as equivalent to “ethics.” which pertain to the More frequently it is used to designate the meaning of good and evil codes, conduct, and customs of individuals and are held as such by a or of groups, as when one speaks of the community” morals of a person or of a people. Here it is equivalent to the Greek word ethos and the Latin mores. -- W.K.F.” (runes 2004)

NATURAL “Natural language pro- “Natural language is 1. a language with We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! LANGUAGE cessing (NLP) refers to rules which depends on the usage PROCESSING computer systems that rather than on strictly formalized rules, analyze, attempt to under- 2. the branch of AI research that stud- stand, or produce, one or ies techniques that allow computer more human langauges” systems to accept inputs and produce (Reilly 2004, 548). outputs in a conventinoal language like English” (LaPlante 2001, 328).

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NOMEN- system of terms We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “A systematic naming of things CLATURE dations! or a system of names or terms for things. In classification, nomenclature involves a systemic naming of categories or items” (United Nations Glossary of Clas- sification Terms; prepared by the Expert Group on International Economic and Social Classifica- tions, unpublished on paper)

NON- organized society without We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “An independent voluntary association of We welcome recommendations! “Non-governmental Organiza- GOVERNMENTAL authoritative power to dations! people working together for a common tion includes organizations that ORGANIZATION allocate values or reduce purpose that does not include achiev- operate independently from any liberties of others ing government office, earning profit, government, including civil socie- or engaging in illegal activities” (Black, ty.” (ReliefWeb) Hashimzade and Myles 2017).

NONLINEAR without order representa- We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! IPCC defines nonlinearity as “A ble by a line dations! process is called nonlinear when there is no simple proportional relation between cause and effect” (IPCC 4th assessment)

NORMS ‘That which is a model In mathematics, norms “With ‘norm’ we mean ‘a principle of “A collective evaluation of behavior in “Norms are generally accepted, sanctioned See morals or a pattern; a type, a are functions assigning a right action binding upon the members terms of what it ought to be; a collective prescriptions for, or prohibitions against, standard; A value used as strictly positive length or of a group and serving to guide, con- expectation as to what behavior will be; others behavior, belief or feeling, i.e., a reference standard for size to each vector in a trol, or regulate proper and acceptable and/or particular reactions to behavior, what others ought to do , believe, feel—or purposes of comparison’ vector space (other than behavior” (Boella, van der Torre and including attempts to apply sanctions else” (Morris 1956, 610). “All societies have (OED) zero vectors). Verhagen 2006). or otherwise induce a particular kind of rules or norms specifying appropriate and conduct.” (Gibbs 1965, 589); “1. a stand- inappropriate behavior, and individuals ard or range of values that represents the are rewarded or punished as they conform typical performance of a group or of an to or deviate from the rules. The norms individual (of a certain age, for example) are blueprints for behavior, setting limits against which comparisons can be made” within which individuals may seek alter- (APA) nate ways to achieve their goals. Norms are based on cultural values, which are justified by moral standards, reasoning, or aesthetic judgment” (Broom and Selznick 1963, 68); “a) General: Standard for measure. Pattern. Type. b) In ethics: Standard for proper conduct. Rule for right action. c) In axiology: Standard for judging value or evaluation. d) In aesthetics: Standard for judging beauty or art. Basis for criticism, e) In logic: Rule for valid inference. f) In psychology: Class average test score” (Runes 2004)

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NORMATIVE a system based on what “Normative systems “A normative system defines a set of the APA defines normative as: “relating “A normative multiagent system is a See morals SYSTEM is established as the norm include systems of law, constraints on the behaviour of agents, to a norm: pertaining to a particular multiagent system together with normative (OED); Organized parame- abstract models of com- corresponding to obligations, which standard of comparison for a person or systems in which agents on the one hand ters of action designed to puter systems, and hybrid may or may not be observed by agents group of people, often as determined can decide whether to follow the explicitly promote good systems consisting of hu- (Agotnes et al 2007, 1175) by cultural ideals regarding behavior, represented norms, and on the other the man and computer agents achievements or abilities, and other con- normative systems specify how and in in interaction” (Jones and cerns. For example, a normative life event which extent the agents can modify the Sergot 1993, 275). such as marriage or the birth of a child is norms” (Boella, van der Torre and Verha- expected to occur during a similar period gen 2006, 74) within the lifespans of many individuals, and normative data reflect group averag- es with regard to particular variables or factors” (APA)

NUDGING Gentle persuasion We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “Nudges—liberty-preserving approaches We welcome recommendations! dations! that steer people in particular directions, but that also allow them to go their own way” (Sunstein 2014, 583).

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ONTOLOGY “The study of what there “The same ontological We welcome recommendations! “the branch of philosophy that deals with “The larger discipline of ontology can thus “A formal specification of a con- is” theory may commit to the question of existence itself” (APA). be seen as having four parts: 1. the study ceptualisation, i.e. the objects, different conceptualiza- of ontological commitment, i.e. what we concepts and other entities that tions, as well as the same or others are committed to, 2. the study are assumed to exist in some conceptualization may of what there is, 3. the study of the most area of interest and the relation- underlie different onto- general features of what there is, and how ships that hold among them.” logical theories. The term the things there are relate to each other (United Nations Statistical Com- “ontology” will be used in the metaphysically most general ways, mission and Economic Commis- ambiguously, either as 4. the study of meta-ontology, i.e. saying sion For Europe Conference Of synonym of “ontological what task it is that the discipline of ontol- European Statisticians, Statistical theory” or as synonym of ogy should aim to accomplish, if any, how Standards And Studies - No. 53, conceptualization”. Con- the questions it aims to answer should be “Terminology on Statistical Meta- ceptualization: an inten- understood, and with what methodology data”, United Nations, Geneva, sional semantic structure they can be answered” (Hofweber 2017); 2000) which encodes the implicit See also Ontological object: “The real or rules constraining the existing object of an act of knowledge as structure of a piece of distinguished from the epistemological reality. Formal Ontology: object.” (Runes 2004). the systematic, formal, axiomatic development of the logic of all forms and modes of being. Ontologi- cal commitment: a partial semantic account of the intended conceptualization of a logical theory. Ontological engineering: the branch of knowledge engineering which exploits the principles of (formal) Ontology to build ontologies. Onto- logical theory: a set of formulas intended to be always true according to a certain conceptualization. Ontology: that branch of philosophy which deals with the nature and the organisation of reality. Ontology: (sense 1) a logical theory which gives an explicit, partial account of a conceptualization; synonym of conceptualization” (Guarino and Giaretta 1995).

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OPEN DATA information that can be We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “Data that are freely available to everyone We welcome recommendations! “Data is open if it can be freely accessed by anyone with dations! without mechanisms of control, such as accessed, used, modified and appropriate tools copyright or patents” (Mayhew 2015). shared by anyone for any purpose - subject only, at most, to requirements to provide attribution and/or share-alike. Specifically, open data is defined by the Open Definition and requires that the data be A. Legally open: that is, available under an open (data) li- cense that permits anyone freely to access, reuse and redistribute B. Technically open: that is, that the data be available for no more than the cost of reproduction and in machine-readable and bulk form.” (AGROVOC); Adapted from definition of open system “An environment in which system access is not controlled by persons who are responsible for the content of electronic records that are on the system. [21 CFR Part 11, FDA]”

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OPEN SOURCE software with source code “The process of releas- We welcome recommendations! “Denoting computer software that is As described in the Philosophy of the GNU We welcome recommendations! that can be available and ing the program code freely available with its source code, to project, “Free software means that the modified by all with appro- of a software product be used or altered by anybody as they software’s users have freesom. Specifical- priate tools in order to encourage wish. Commonly the only restriction is ly, free software means users have four companies and others that it cannot be charged for, that its essential freedoms: (0) to run the program, to build on the original free distribution should not be hindered, (1) to study and change the program in product” (Ince 2013); and that the work of others should be source code form, (2) to redistribute exact “Denoting software that properly respected. This cooperative ap- copies, and (3) to distribute modified ver- is freely available with its proach reflects a belief that the best way sions” (https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/ source code, to be used to create high quality software is through philosophy.html) or altered by anybody as widespread inspection, modification, they wish. Commonly the and correction of the source code by any only restriction is that it interested party. It is contrasted especial- cannot be charged for, ly with the traditional proprietary model, that its free distribution where source code is a closely guarded should not be hindered, commercial secret” (Law 2016). and that the work of others should be properly respected. Behind such software lies a belief that the cooperative approach it seeks to foster is the best way to create high quality software, through widespread inspection, modification, and correction of the source code by any interested party. It is contrasted especially with the traditional proprietary model, where source code is a closely guarded commercial secret. A strong recent trend has been the emergence of websites that use software version control tools to provide online source code hosting (e.g. GitHub, SourceForge)” (BUtterfield and Ngondi 2016).

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PATIENTS Agents who are acted We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! Individuals who are treated by healthcare “The patient, not the promiser, the liar, the We welcome recommendations! upon by other agents dations! practitioners and whose data—Protect- thief, the murderer, but the promisee, the ed Health Information—is covered as person lied to, the sufferer of the theft, Individually identifiable health infor- the victim of murder. It is impossible even mation which “means any information, to state such typical moral situations as including demographic information these without referring to patients as well collected from an individual, that--”(A) as agents: no promises without someone is created or received by a health care having the promise made to him, no lies provider, health plan, employer, or health without someone lied to, no thefts, acts care clearinghouse; and “(B) relates to of violence or murders without victims, the past, present, or future physical or no acts of kindness without recipients. In mental health or condition of an individ- cases like these there cannot be human ual, the provision of health care to an agents without human patients; for these individual, or the past, present, or future are things that people do to other people” payment for the provision of health care (McPherson 1984, 172). to an individual, and--”(i) identifies the individual; or”(ii) with respect to which there is a reasonable basis to believe that the information can be used to identify the individual” (42USC 1301.1171(6)); “1. a person receiving health care from a li- censed health professional. See inpatient; outpatient. 2. in linguistics, the entity that is affected by or undergoes the main action described in a clause or sentence, such as door in James opened the door or James knocked on the door. The patient is usually the grammatical object and is easiest to identify when this is the case; however, door is both subject and patient in such constructions as The door was opened by James (see passive voice), The door swung open, and (in some analyses) The door is open. In case grammar, the term experiencer is sometimes used for a patient who is a sentient being, such as Angus in Angus felt threatened or Angus saw it all” (APA).

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PERSONAL Facts about an individual We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “‘Personal data’ means any information We welcome recommendations! “any information relating to an DATA which may be used to dations! relating to an identified or identifiable identified or identifiable individ- identify them natural person (‘data subject’); an identi- ual (data subject); an identifiable fiable natural person is one who can be natural person is one who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in particu- identified, directly or indirectly, lar by reference to an identifier such as a in particular by reference to an name, an identification number, location identifier such as name, an inden- data, an online identifier or to one or tification number, location data, more factors specific to the physical, an online identifier or to one or physiological, genetic, mental, economic, more factors specific to the physi- cultural or social identity of that natural cal, physiological, genetic, mental, person” (General Data Protection Regula- economic, cultural or social iden- tion, Article 4.1).““Sensitive Personal Data” tity of that natural person” (Art.4, are personal data, revealing racial or eth- Sec. 1, Regulation (EU) 2016/679, nic origin, political opinions, religious or a.k.a. General Data Protection philosophical beliefs, trade-union mem- Regulation) bership; data concerning health or sex life and sexual orientation; genetic data or biometric data” (General Data Protection Regulation, Article 8.1)

PERSUASION The action or an act of See Persuasive technology We welcome recommendations! The process by which agent action Aristotle suggests that persuasion rests We welcome recommendations! persuading or attempting becomes social structure, ideas become on three technical means of persuasion: to persuade; the address- norms, and the subjective becomes the ethos, pathos, and logos. Persuasion will ing of arguments or ap- intersubjective’” (Finnemore and Sikkink, not occur without speaker credibility. peals to a person in order 1998: 914); “an active attempt by one per- Persuasive efforts are lost unless emotion- to induce cooperation, son to change another person’s attitudes, al salience of the argument is conveyed. submission, or agreement; beliefs, or emotions associated with some Persuasion will fail unless logically sound the presenting of persua- issue, person, concept, or object” (APA). demonstrations of the persuasive points sive reasoning or compel- are made (See Aristotle’s Rhetoric). ling arguments (OED)

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PERSUASIVE (Also known as “Captol- “Captology focuses on he We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! TECHNOLOGY ogy”). Software systems, planned persuasive ef- which may or may not be fects of computer technol- integrated with specialized ogy. Computers function hardware, designed to as a tool or instrument change the behaviors or to increase capabilities in attitudes of end users in order to reduce barriers, order to achieve a desira- increase self-efficacy, ble end. provide information for better decision-making, change mental models; Computers function as a medium to provide experiences in order to provide first-hand learning, insight, visualization and resolve, and to promote understanding of cause- and-effect relationships. Computers function as social actors to create relationships in order to establish social norms, invoke social rules and dynamics, and provide social support or sanction” (Fogg, Cuelar and Daniel- son 2009, 110; 116)

POLICY Authoritative plans of We welcome recommen- “A specific scheme for managing re- “A guide to action to change what would We welcome recommendations! The representation of rules action dations! sources, independent of the means for otherwise occur; a decision about or relationships that makes implementing the scheme” (LaPlante amounts and allocations of resources; it possible to determine if a 2001, 373). a statement of commitment to certain requested access should be areas of concern; the distribution of the allowed, given the values of the amount shows the priorities of decision attributes of the subject, ob- makers. Public policy is policy at any level ject, and possibly environment of government” (Porta 2016) conditions”. Source(s): NIST SP 800-162 ; Statements, rules or assertions that specify the correct or expected behavior of an entity. For example, an authorization policy might specify the correct access control rules for a software component.” Source(s): NIST SP 800-95 (Open Grid Services Architecture Glossary of Terms)

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PRINCIPLE/ A fundamental source Principles such as the We welcome recommendations! “1. a fundamental rule, standard, or “the term “principles” to designate the “A rule or standard, especially of PRINCIPLES from which something Church-Turing Principle, precept, especially in matters of morality most general normative standards of good behavior”. Source(s): NIST proceeds; A primary ele- are statements that may or personal conduct; 2. a proposition conduct” (Beauchamp 1995, 182); “A SP 800-27 Rev. A ment, force, or law which be testable hypotheses or deemed to be so fundamental and obvi- fundamental cause or universal truth, that produces or determines axioms used in computa- ous as to need no defense or support; 3. which is inherent in anything. That which particular results (OED) tion (Deutsch 1985). Use in the empirical sciences, a statement of ultimately accounts for being. According to of the phrase “in principle” an established regularity, similar to a law” Aristotle, the primary source of all being, may be interpreted as “ac- (APA). actuality and knowledge. (a) In ontolo- cording to statements” gy: first principles are the categories or postulates of ontology. (b) In epistemology: as the essence of being, the ground of all knowledge. Syn. with essence, universal, cause. -- J.K.F.” (Runes 2004)

PRIVACY “The protection of select Freedom from surveil- Privacy engineering is defined by NIST “One aspect of privacy is the withholding Privacy is a multidimensional concept “Assurance that the confiden- information through the lance (see Lyon and Zureik as “privacy engineering means a spe- or concealment of information” (Posner wherein features of behavior regulation tiality of, and access to, certain use of mechanical or 1996). See also “Pretty cialty discipline of systems engineering 1977, 393). Bostwick gives a typology of relating to choice, control, and access, information about an entity is statistical masking mech- good privacy (PGP)” or a focused on achieving freedom from privacy as: “the privacy of repose, the such as “having choice, protecting personal protected”. Source(s): NIST SP anisms for the purpose proprietary encryption conditions that can create problems for privacy of sanctuary, and the privacy of information, having control over one’s in- 800-130 of protecting individual or software for protecting individuals with unacceptable conse- intimate decision. Repose means peace, formation. Other features referenced what group dignity, desire for email (Reilly 2004, 628). quences that arise from the system as quiet, and calm for the individual protect- is commonly described as the content of seclusion or concealment, it processes PII” (NISTIR 8062 2017, iv) ed. Sanctuary means prohibiting other privacy, for example, attending to bodily property, secrets, or free- persons from seeing, hearing, and know- functions, personal information, medical dom of choice” ing (1456). The zone of intimate decision information. The functions of privacy were is an area within which the personal expressed through features such as safety, calculus used by an individual to make security, independence, allows one to fundamental decisions must be allowed self-reflect, helps avoid scrutiny, or judg- to operate without the injection of dis- ment. Features indicative of the psycho- ruptive factors by the state. This privacy is logical processes motivating behaviors of less “freedom from” and more “freedom control, or following loss of control were to” (1466)” (Bostwick 1976). The OECD mentioned, for example, a human need, Privacy Framework Privacy Principles concealing emotions, concealing embar- include: collection limitation, data quality, rassing details, fear of adverse outcomes. purpose specification, use limitation, Threats to privacy also emerged, for exam- security safeguards, openness, individual ple, subject to violation, threatened on the participation, and accountability Internet. Moreover, utterances included the states or conditions that allow privacy to be achieved, for example, being alone/ without company, with people you feel close to, anonymity, not being disturbed, intimacy, personal space” are prized (Vasa- lau, Joinson and Houghton 2015).

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PROPRIETARY Owned as property “A protocol confined to a We welcome recommendations! “Proprietary capacity means the capacity “Pertaining to the ownership of and Proprietary information: “Mate- particular proprietary set or interest of a producer or handler that, benefits derived from property, including rial and information relating to of software or hardware. either directly or through one or more intellectual property and a commercial or or associated with a company’s This is in contrast to Inter- intermediaries, is a property owner to- industrial enterprise” (Last 2007). “Defined products, business, or activities, net protocols which are gether with all the appurtenant rights of and enforced in employment contracts including but not limited to finan- completely open” (Ince an owner including the right to vote the rather than by substantive law, proprietary cial information; data or state- 2013). interest in that capacity as an individual, information encompasses both trade se- ments; trade secrets; product a shareholder, member of a cooperative, crets as well as knowledge not eligible for research and development; ex- partner, trustee or in any other capacity trade secret protection” (Montville 2007, isting and future product designs with respect to any other business unit” 1162). and performance specifications; (&CFR983.27) marketing plans or techniques; schematics; client lists; computer programs; processes; and know- how that has been clearly identified and properly marked by the company as proprietary information, trade secrets, or company confidential information. The information must have been developed by the company and not be available to the Gov- ernment or to the public without restriction from another source” Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 “

REDUNDANCY “redundancy, the incor- “1. the use of parallel of series compo- “1. the property of having more structure We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! poration into a system nents in a system to reduce the possi- than is minimally necessary, 2. in linguis- design of more elements bility of failure. Similarly, referring to an tics and information theory, the condition than are absolutely neces- increase in the number of components of those parts of a communication that sary, is the principal way which can interchangeably perform the could be deleted without loss of essential to implement fault-tol- same function in a system, 2. the dupli- content” (APA). erance. The redundant cation of data in a database” (LaPlante elements need not all be 2001, 413). hardware components, they might also be additional software (software redundancy), additional time (time redundancy), and additional information (information redundancy). (Reilly 2004, 664); “In robotics, the number n degrees of mobility of the mechanical structure, the number m of operational sapce variables, and the number r of the operational space variables necessary to specify a given stask. If r

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REGULATION rules delivered by author- “1. (institutional regula- See also “regulator-- a controller that “A rule individuals or firms are obliged to We welcome recommendations! “1. Government activity designed itative bodies to prescribe tion) Control and super- is designed to maintain the state of follow; or the procedure for deciding and to monitor and guide private or proscribe conduct vision of organizations the controlled variable at a constant enforcing such rules. Modern econo- economic competition specific exercised by external value, despite fluctuations of the load” mies are subject to numerous forms of actions (characterized as eco- authorities through the (LaPlante 2001, 417). regulation. Regulations may be set and nomic regulation) have included application of rules; 2. enforced by government bodies, or by placing limits on producers’ (media regulation, media quasi-autonomous non-governmental prices and practices, and promot- controls) Laws and guide- organizations (quangos). In the last resort ing commerce through grants or lines concerning media regulation relies on legal sanctions, but subsidies. Other actions emerg- content and the conduct the largest proportion of effective regu- ing more recently (termed social of media industries, lation is done by the regulators setting regulation) have included regulat- which vary by country and standards which organizations then try to ing conditions under which goods platform (though broad- comply with as a matter of self-discipline” and services are produced and casting tends to be most (Black, Hashimzade adn Myles 2017). attempting to minimize product heavily regulated). Media hazards and risks to consumers, regulation can be divided 2. There are many meanings of into economic regulation, the term regulation in legal, eco- technical regulation, and nomic and social sciences. Some content regulation” (Chan- of them are so wide, that include dler and Munday 2016). any kind of public interference in economics, by planning, granting, negotiating with economic operators, such as setting bodies of laws, administrative rulings, and precedents referred to environment protection, labour and san- itary conditions, etc” (UN Public Administration Glossary); “a law, rule, or other order prescribed by authority, especially to regulate conduct” (AGROVOC)

RESEARCH Systematic inquiry into “Basic research is experi- We welcome recommendations! “Research means a systematic investi- Emancipatory research is defined as The Declaration of Helsinki real phenomena mental or theoretical work gation, including research development, “Politically engaged research aimed at the describes “ Medical research undertaken primarily to testing and evaluation, designed to devel- empowerment of oppressed people by involving human subjects must acquire new knowledge op or contribute to generalizable knowl- revealing the social relations of knowledge conform to generally accepted of the underlying founda- edge. Activities which meet this definition production in which oppression is main- scientific principles, be based tions of phenomena and constitute research for purposes of this tained. Contrary to the positivist tradition, on a thorough knowledge of observable facts, without policy, whether or not they are conducted claims to objectivity in knowledge produc- the scientific literature, other any particular application or supported under a program which is tion are interrogated and accountability to relevant sources of information, or use in view” (OECD considered research for other purposes” the subjects is emphasized. The method and adequate laboratory and, as Glossary of Statistical (45CFR46.102(d)). devolves control of the research agenda appropriate, animal experimenta- Terms 2013). to the subjects at all stages: the planning, tion. The welfare of animals used design, fieldwork, and analysis challenge for research must be respected. hierarchical relations between researchers The design and performance of and researched. The research process is each research study involving seen as a transformative experience for human subjects must be clear- both researchers and subjects” (Elliot et al ly described and justified in a 2016). research protocol” (https://www. wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects/)

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RESEARCH activities intended to pro- We welcome recommen- “Research and development is a We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “Research and development by AND duce novel information or dations! department in software organizations a market producer is an activity DEVELOPMENT products hwere new methods, systems, and undertaken for the purpose of software are exxplored. There is a discovering or developing new correlation between long-term suc- products, including improved cess of a company and efforts put in versions or qualities of exist- research and development” (LaPlante ing products, or discovering or 2001, 421). developing new or more efficient processes of production” (System of National Accounts Glossary 1993, Para 6.142)

RESILIENCE elastic ability to recover We welcome recommen- “How easily a material returns to its “The ability of the system to withstand “The abilty of groups or communities to “capacity of a natural system from disaster dations! original shape after an elastic defor- either market or environmental shocks cope with external stresses and distur- to recover from disturbance” mation” (Gorse, Johnston and pritchard without losing the capacity to allocate bances as a result of social, political, and (United Nations Statistics Divi- 2012). resources efficiently” (Perrings 2006, 418); environmental change” (Adger 2000, 347). sion, Environment Glossary); “The “the process and outcome of successfully ability of a system and its compo- adapting to difficult or challenging life nent parts to anticipate, absorb, experiences, especially through mental, accommodate, or recover from emotional, and behavioral flexibility and the effects of a hazardous event adjustment to external and internal de- in a timely and efficient manner, mands” (APA) including through ensuring the preservation, restoration, or im- provement of its essential basic structures and functions” (IPCC 2012); “Resilience is the ability of people, communities and systems that are confronted by disasters or crises to withstand damage and to recover rapidly. FAO’s work tries to improve the resilience of households, communities and institutions to more effectively prevent and cope with threats and disasters that impact agriculture, food security and nutrition.”; “The ability to quick- ly adapt and recover from any known or unknown changes to the environment through holistic implementation of risk management, contingency, and conti- nuity planning” Source(s): NIST SP 800-34 Rev. 1 ; The ability to continue to: (i) operate under adverse conditions or stress, even if in a degraded or debil- itated state, while maintaining essential operational capabilities; and (ii) recover to an effective operational posture in a time frame consistent with mission needs” Source(s): NIST SP 800-137 (Adapted from NIST SP 800-39)

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RESPONSIBLE Capability of fulfilling an We welcome recommen- National Society of Professional “A government that is responsive to “To be morally responsible for something, Responsible individual: “ A obligation or duty; The dations! Engineers, Fundamental Canon #6 public opinion, that pursues policies that say an action, is to be worthy of a par- trustworthy person designated quality of being reliable or “6. Conduct themselves honorably, re- are prudent and mutually consistent, and ticular kind of reaction—praise, blame, by a sponsoring organization to trustworthy; The state or sponsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as that is accountable to the representatives or something akin to these—for having authenticate individual applicants fact of being accountable to enhance the honor, reputation, and of the electors” (Grant 2016). performed it” (Eshleman 2016). seeking certificates on the basis for actions Liability for usefulness of the profession.” Specific of their affiliation with the spon- some action responsibilities include: “responsibility sor” Source(s): NIST SP 800-32 “ for coordination of an entire project and sign and seal the engineering documents for the entire project, provided that each technical segment is signed and sealed only by the qualified engineers who prepared the segment” (II, 2, c); “. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional activities, provided, however, that engineers may seek indemnification for services arising out of their practice for other than gross negligence, where the engineer’s interests cannot otherwise be protected.” (III, 8).

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RIGHTS That which is considered We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “Legal or moral recognition of choices “Rights are entitlements (not) to perform The Universal Declaration on proper, correct, or conso- dations! or interests to which particular weight is certain actions, or (not) to be in certain Human Rights enumerates the nant with justice, and re- attached. Very often, statements about states; or entitlements that others (not) rights enshrined in international lated uses; the standard of rights draw on more than one of the four perform certain actions or (not) be in law. permitted and forbidden relations identified: 1. A right is a liberty: certain states… Rights-assertions can be action within a particular a person has a liberty to X means that he categorized, for example, according to: sphere has no obligation not to X. 2. A right is a Who is alleged to have the right: Children’s right ‘strictly speaking’ or a claim right: rights, animal rights, workers’ rights, states’ a person has a right to X means others rights, the rights of peoples. What actions have a duty to him in respect of X. 3. A or states or objects the asserted right per- right is a power, that is, the capacity to tains to: Rights of free expression, to pass change legal relations (and others are judgment; rights of privacy, to remain si- liable to have their position altered). 4. A lent; property rights, bodily rights. Why the right is an immunity, that is the absence rightholder (allegedly) has the right: Moral of the liability to have the legal position rights are grounded in moral reasons, legal altered (Reeve 2016). rights derive from the laws of the society, customary rights exist by local convention. How the asserted right can be affected by the rightholder’s actions: The inalienable right to life, the forfeitable right to liberty, and the waivable right that a promise be kept” (Wenar 2015). ” See also, Right: “ In an ethical sense an action conforming to the moral law. Also the correlative of duty. In a legal sense, any claim against others, recognized by law. Political rights, the capacity of exercizing certain functions in the formation and administration of government -- the right to vote, to be elected to public office, etc. Natural rights, as against positive rights, those claims or liberties which are not derived from positive law but from a “higher law”, the law of nature. The right to live, the right to work, the “pursuit of happiness”, the right to self-development are sometimes considered natural rights. -- W.E.

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RISK Possible loss or harm “Risk exposure is [equal “A measure of the cost of operating a Risk = Probability X Consequence; “the “1. risk = an unwanted event which may or “T he combination of the proba- to] the probability of an system, derived by combining hazard probability of experiencing loss or harm may not occur. 2. risk = the cause of an un- bility of occurrence of harm and unsatisfactory outcome probability, danger, and severity of that is associated with an action or behav- wanted event which may or may not occur. the severity of that harm. [ICH and the loss to the parties mishap. Risk is defined as the possi- ior” (APA). 3. risk = the probability of an unwanted Q9, ISO/IEC Guide 51, Guidance affected if the outcome is bility of loss or injury. Risk exposure event which may or may not occur. 4. risk for Industry: Quality Systems unsatisfactory” (Boehm is defined by the relationship RE= = the statistical expectation value of an un- Approach to Pharmaceutical 1991, 33). P(UO)*L(UO) where RE is the risk expo- wanted event which may or may not occur. cGMP Regulations, FDA]”; “A sure, P(UO) is the probability of an un- 5. risk = the fact that a decision is made measure of the extent to which satisfactory outcome, and P(LO) is the under conditions of known probabilities an entity is threatened by a loss to the affected parties if the out- (“decision under risk” as opposed to “deci- potential circumstance or event, come is unsatisfactory (LaPlante 2001, sion under uncertainty”)” (Hansson 2014). and typically a function of: (i) 426); “The probability that a substance the adverse impacts that would or situation will produce harm under arise if the circumstance or event specified conditions. Risk is a combi- occurs; and (ii) the likelihood of nation of two factors: The probability occurrence. Information sys- that an adverse event will occur (such tem-related security risks are as a specific disease or type of injury) those risks that arise from the and the consequences of the adverse loss of confidentiality, integrity, event. Risk encompasses impacts on or availability of information or public health and on the environment, information systems and reflect and arises from exposure and hazard. the potential adverse impacts to Risk does not exist if exposure to a organizational operations (includ- harmful substance or situation does ing mission, functions, image, or not or will not occur. Hazard is deter- reputation), organizational assets, mined by whether a particular sub- individuals, other organizations, stance or situation has the potential and the Nation”. Source(s): NIST to cause harmful effects” (Presidential SP 800-171 (Updates to version Commission on Risk Assessment and published June 2015) (Adapted Risk Management 1997). from FIPS 200)

RISK evaluation of the severity “A systematic and dis- “Risk analysis is the assessment of the “The measurement and analysis of risk We welcome recommendations! “method of evaluating the prob- ANALYSIS and likelihood of harms ciplined approach to loss probability and loss magnitude for associated with a business, project, or de- ability of the adverse effects of analysing risk—and thus each identified risk item. Risk identi- cision. It involves the identification of risk, a substance, industrial process, obtaining a measure of fication is the production of a list or the classification of risks in regard to their technology or natural process” both the probability of a project specific risk items that are likely impact and likelihood, and a considera- (United Nations Statistics Divi- hazard occurring and the to compromise a project’s success” tion of how they might best be managed” sion: Environment Glossary); undesirable effects of that (LaPlante 2001, 426). (Law 216). “Method to assess and character- hazard” (Butterfield and ise the critical parameters in the Ngondi 2016). functionality of an equipment or process. [EU GMP Guide, Annex 15] The estimation of the risk associated with the identified hazards. [ICH Q9]”; The process of identifying the risks to system security and determining the likelihood of occurrence, the resulting impact, and the additional safeguards that mitigate this impact. Part of risk management and synonymous with risk assessment” Source(s): NIST SP 800-27 Rev. A

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RISK process for mitigating “The collection of pro- Risk management is the problem of “Elimination or mitigation of negative con- We welcome recommendations! Adapted from the European med- MANAGEMENT harms identified through a cesses and procedures identifying and controlling risks. Risk sequences of risk. This involves identifica- icines Association: “A set of activ- SYSTEM risk analysis involved in analysing, management is divided into the follow- tion, analysis, and assessment of risk, as ities and interventions designed identifying, evaluating, ing tasks: risk assessent, risk identifi- well as the development and application to identify, characterise, prevent controlling, and mon- cation, risk analysis and prioritization, of the appropriate measures. Risk man- or minimise risks relating to med- itoring on an ongoing risk control, risk management plan- agement strategies can be broadly classi- icines, including the assessment basis the risks in a given ning, risk resolution, and monitoring” fied into risk avoidance, risk pooling, risk of the effectiveness of those system” (Butterfield and (LaPlante 2001, 426). reduction, risk retention, and risk sharing” activities and interventions.” (EMA Ngondi 2016). (Black, Hashimzade and Myles 2017). Glossary); “A set of pharmacovig- ilance activities and interventions designed to identify, characterise, prevent or minimise risks relating to a medicinal product, including the assessment of the effectiveness of those activities and interventions. [Directive 2001/83/ EC]”; “A structured approach used to oversee and manage risk for an enterprise” Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015

RISK activities designed to We welcome recommen- See also “risk resolutio and monitorin-- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! A public health intervention MINIMIZATION mitigate harms identified dations! production of a situation in which the intended to prevent or reduce ACTIVITY through risk analysis risk items are eliminated or resolved. the probability of the occurrence Risk monitoring involves tracking the of an adverse reaction associated project’s progress twoards resolving its with exposure to a medicine or risk items and taking corrective action to reduce its severity if it occurs. where appropriate” (LaPlante 2001, (Adapted from the EMA Glos- 426). sary); “Prioritizing, evaluating, and implementing the appropriate risk-reducing controls/ countermeasures recommended from the risk management process. A subset of Risk Re- sponse”. Source(s): NIST SP 800- 30 (CNSSI 4009)

ROBOTICS Study and development “Robotics is the study of See also Robot Programming Lan- “the probability of experiencing loss or See discussion of Animats and animacy; The European Parliament defines of mechanical human reprogrammable, multi- guage: “robot programming language harm that is associated with an action or “Animats are synthetic animals, either com- “the following characteristics of a replacements functional manipulators is a computer programming language behavior” (APA). puter simulated or robotic” (Mandik 2002, smart robot: 1. the acquisition of designed to move materi- which has special features that apply to 10); “Animacy” is energetically expensive autonomy through sensors and/ als, parts, tools or spe- the problem of programming manipu- moving and seeking behavior (Korienek or by exchanging data with its cialized devices through lators.Robot programming languages and Uzgalis 2002, 82-83). environment (inter-connectivity) programmed motions can be spliced into three categories: and the trading and analysing of for the performance of 1. specialized manipulator languages those data; 2. self-learning from a variety of tasks. Ro- which are built by developing a com- experience and by interaction bots can be ssaid to be pletely new language, 2. robot library (optional criterion); 3. at least a programmable machines for an existing computer language. it is minor physical support; 4. the that either in performance a popular computer language aug- adaptation of its behaviour and or appearance imitate mented by a library of robot-specific actions to the environment; and human activities” (Reilly subroutines. 3. robot library for a new 5. absence of life in the biological 2004, 671). general-purpose language” (LaPlante sense” (P8_TA(2017)0051) 2001, 427).

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SAFETY Prevention of accidents AI safety is described as The state of Michigan has defined a We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “the condition of being safe or mitigating accident risks safety engineer as “Safety Engineers without danger” (AGROVOC) from machine learning. make sure workplaces are safe. They “The problem of accidents monitor the general work environ- in machine learning sys- ment, inspect buildings and machines tems. We define accidents for hazards and safety violations, and as unintended and harm- recommend safety features in new ful behavior that may processes and products. Safety Engi- emerge from machine neers evaluate plans for new equip- learning systems when ment to assure that it is safe to operate we specify the wrong and investigate accidents to determine objective function, are not the cause and how to keep them from careful about the learning happening again. Safety Engineers process, or commit other also design special safety clothing and machine learning-related safety devices to protect workers from implementation errors” injury when operating machines. They (Amodei et al 2016, 1-2) ; may educate workers through safety “Safety is the probabilty campaigns or classes. Some Safety that a system will eiehter Engineers specialize in fire prevention perform its functions They analyze the design of buildings corectly or will discontinue and the items in them to determine its functions in a well-de- the best place to put fire extinguishers, fined safe manner. For sprinklers and emergency exits. Others system safety, all causes specialize in product safety. They con- of failures which lead duct research to make sure products to an unsafe state shall are safe and recommend how a com- be included: hardware pany can change its product design to failures, software failures, make it safe” (Michigan.gov). failures due to electrical interference, and human interaction, and failures in the controlled object. The system sasfety also depends on many factors which cannot be quantified by can only be considered qualitatively” (LaPlante 2001, 433).

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SINGULARITY convergence of states or “Somewhere in space– “In continuum modelling of material “The critical threshold or division between “an explosion to ever-greater levels of “A trait marking one phenome- events into one integrated time where general rela- behaviour, where a quantity tends to two states of being, e.g. between boil- intelligence, as each generation of ma- non or aspect as distinct from whole tivity theory predicts that an infinite value, such as the elastic ing and not boiling. At such a point it is chines creates more intelligent machines in others; something singular, certain quantities, such as stress at the tip of a sharp crack having impossible to decide whether the object turn” (Chalmers 2010, 7); “In cosmology, a distinct, peculiar, uncommon or the curvature of space– zero crack tip radius. In practice, the ra- is in one state of being or another—thus, point at which ordinary calculations break unusual” (IPCC 4th) time, become infinite. For dius cannot be smaller than two atoms one would have to say it is neither boiling down because certain physical quantities example, singularities across, so the stress is bounded. Fur- nor not-boiling and in this precise sense become infinite: for example, the ‘event’ are predicted to occur at thermore in ductile solids, the stress it is properly referred to as undecidable” at the beginning of the big bang, at which the big bang and at the is limited by yielding. An example in (Buchanan 2018). in some theories the density of matter centre of a black hole. The potential-flow theory is the infinite and the curvature of spacetime is infinite” existence of singularities velocity that is predicted to occur when (Blackburn 2016). is usually regarded as a flow emerges from a source or enters a limitation of general rela- sink” (Atkins and Escudier 2013). tivity theory. It has been suggested that singularities will not occur in a full theory of quantum gravity due to space–time being an emergent quantity in such a theory” (Law and Rennie 2015).

SOCIAL Formal and informal rules We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “any of the socially determined consen- “Rules indicating what is considered to be See morals NORMS defined by a social group dations! sual standards that indicate (a) what acceptable or appropriate behavior for the behaviors are considered typical in a members of some group. Social norms can given context (descriptive norms) and (b) be either formal and explicit (e.g., traffic what behaviors are considered proper in regulations) or informal and implicit (e.g., the context (injunctive norms). Whether unspoken rules governing how close we implicitly or explicitly, these norms not stand to others while engaging in con- only prescribe the socially appropriate versation” (Baron and Byrne 1981, 268; way to respond in the situation (the “nor- quoted in Shaffer 1983). mal” course of action) but also proscribe actions that should be avoided if at all possible. Unlike statistical norms, social norms include an evaluative quality such that those who do not comply and cannot provide an acceptable explanation for their violation are evaluated negatively. Social norms apply across groups and social settings, whereas group norms are specific to a particular group. See also social convention” (APA).

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SOCIAL positive return to a com- We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “Any action entails private costs and We welcome recommendations! “Social benefits are current BENEFIT munity or communities dations! private benefits to the individual who transfers received by households from a process or organi- initiates the action. It may also entail intended to provide for the needs zation costs and benefits that are not borne by that arise from certain events the individual—termed external costs and or circumstances, for exam- external benefits. The sum of private and ple, sickness, unemployment, external costs is termed the social cost. retirement, housing, education or Social benefits similarly reflect the sum family circumstances.” (System of of private and external benefits. Thus, National Accounts Glossary, 1993, social costs reflect the cost to everyone in paragraph 8.7) society, while private costs include costs only to parties in the transaction. Exam- ples where social costs differ from private costs include pollution or deaths caused by drunken driving. An example where the social benefit exceeds the private benefit is the positive spillover effects of research and development” (Calhoun 2002).

SOCIAL COSTS negative externality placed We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! See social benefit We welcome recommendations! External costs; Environmental on a community or com- dations! externalities munities due to actions by an organization or its processes

SOCIO- “a social system operating Integration of community We welcome recommendations! “an approach to the design and evalu- We welcome recommendations! “...humans and technologies work TECHNICAL on a technical base” (?) and personal systems ation of work systems... based on the together to produce outcomes SYSTEM with informational and theory that tasks and roles, technology, to effectively respond to societal mechanical systems and the social system constitute a single challenges” “Science, technology (the-encyclopedia-of-hu- interrelated system, such that changes in and innovation for the post-2015 man-computer-interac- one part require adjustments in the other development agenda: Report tion-2nd-ed) parts” (APA). of the Secretary-General” (E/ CN.16/2014/2, p.4: UN Economic and Social Council, Commission on Science and Technology for Development, Seventeenth Ses- sion, 2014).

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SPECIFICATION description of require- “ formal description of a “A statement of the design of develop- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “An assessment object that in- ments for a product or system, or a component ment requirements to be satisfied by cludes document-based artifacts process or module of a system, a system or product. 2. A document (e.g., policies, procedures, plans, intended as a basis for stating requirements. A specification system security requirements, further development. The should refer to or include drawings, functional specifications, and expression of the speci- patterns, or other relevant documents architectural designs) associat- fication may be in text in and indicate the means and the criteria ed with an information system” a natural language (e.g. whereby conformity can be checked” Source(s): NIST SP 800-137 (NIS- English), in a specification (LaPlante 2001, 461). TIR 7298); “A list of tests, refer- language, which may be ences to analytical procedures, a formal mathematical and appropriate acceptance language, and by the use criteria that are numerical limits, of specification stages ranges, or other criteria for the of a methodology that test described. It establishes the includes a diagrammatic set of criteria to which a material technique. Characteristics should conform to be considered of a good specification are acceptable for its intended use. that it should be unambig- “Conformance to specification” uous, complete, verifiable, means that the material, when consistent, modifiable, tested according to the listed traceable, and usable af- analytical procedures, will meet ter development” (Butter- the listed acceptance criteria. [EU field and Ngondi 2016). GMP Guide, Part II, ICH Q7, ICH Q6A, Q6B, Guidance for Industry cGMP for Phase 1 Investigational Drugs, FDA]”

STANDARDS principle or baseline prod- We welcome recommen- “A set of documents that define a the APA defines “standards of practice See also Norms “Something established by uct or process used as the dations! standardized set of methods, pro- as: a set of guidelines that delineate the authority, custom, or general comparator in judgments cedures, etc” (Gorse, Johnston and expected techniques and procedures, consent as a model or exam- of fitness or conformity Pritchard 2012). and the order in which to use them, for ple.” Source(s): NIST SP 800-130 ; interventions with individuals experienc- “A rule, condition, or require- ing a range of psychological, medical, or ment: (1) Describing the follow- educational conditions” (APA) ing information for products, systems, services or practices: (i) Classification of components. (ii) Specification of materials, performance, or operations; or (iii) Delineation of procedures; or (2) With respect to the privacy of individually identifiable health information” Source(s): NIST SP 800-66 Rev. 1 (45 C.F.R., Sec. 160.103) ; “Set of rules or codes mandating or defining product performance (e.g., grades, dimensions, characteristics, test methods, and rules for use). Product, technology or performance standards establish minimum requirements for affected products or technologies” (IPCC 4th, 87)

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SUBSIDIARITY process of decision-mak- We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “A doctrine holding that higher levels of “The ``principle of subsidiarity’’ regulates “Subsidiarity is the idea that a ing where the decisions dations! an organizational hierarchy should refrain authority within a political order, central authority should have a are made by those whose from assuming responsibility for tasks directing that powers or tasks should rest subsidiary function, performing lives are most closely af- that can be successfully accomplished with the lower-level sub-units of that only those tasks which cannot be fected by that decision by subordinate units. The doctrine of order unless allocating them to a high- performed effectively at a more subsidiarity is commonly associated er-level central unit would ensure higher immediate or local level” (UN with the European Union (EU); tasks that comparative ef®ciency or effectiveness in Public Administration Glossary); cannot be discharged by member states achieving them.” (Follesdal 1998, 190). “The principle that decisions are handed up to the EU’s central admin- of government (other things istrative bodies. Conversely, the principle being equal) are best made and limits the EU to those functions that implemented, if possible, at the cannot be carried out by member states” lowest most decentralized level (Calhoun 2002). closest to the citizen. Subsidi- arity is designed to strengthen accountability and reduce the dangers of making decisions in places remote from their point of application. The principle does not necessarily limit or constrain the action of higher orders of government, it merely counsels against the unnecessary assump- tion of responsibilities at a higher level.” (IPCC 2012)

SUPER- The capacity to apprehend Bostrom defines superin- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! Marcus, Hibbard, and Yudkowsky debated We welcome recommendations! INTELLIGENCE what is beyond the normal telligence as “an intellect the possibility of a “Friendly superintelli- range of human intelli- that is much smarter than gence” as imbued with a “motivation of gence or understanding; the best human brains benevolence towards humanity” but whose spiritual or paranormal in practically every field, superintelligent maximization might go insight or awareness, including scientific crea- awry leading based upon faults in concep- spiritualism. (OED) tivity, general wisdom and tualizations of AI motivation, leading to the social skills” (2006,11) “Smiley Tiling Berserker” scenario, faltering on the “Do what I mean” vs “Do what I said” problem, or becoming a “maverick nanny with a dopamine drip” (see Loosemore 2014).

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SUSTAINABILITY The Brundtland Report We welcome recommen- “The Natural Step” perspective on A sustainable system is one which sur- “Sustainability is the continued use of “Ability to continue a condition or defines sustainable dations! sustainability suggests four “system vives or persists (Costanza and Patten program components and activities for the situation over a considerable pe- development as “Sus- conditions” amenable to engineering 1995, p. 193); “A concept that is used to continued achievement of desirable pro- riod of time without degradation tainable development is design and control: Condition 1: Finite describe community and economic de- gram and population outcomes” (Scheirer of the environment” (INIS); “The development that meets materials (including fossil fuels) should velopment in terms of meeting the needs and Dearing 2011, 2060). ability of a process or human ac- the needs of the present not be extracted at a faster rate than of the present without compromising the tivity to meet present needs but without compromising the they can be redeposited in the Earth’s ability of future generations to meet their maintain natural resources and ability of future genera- crust. Condition 2: Artificial materi- needs” (Park & Allaby 2017). leave the environment in good tions to meet their own als (including plastics) should not be order for future generations” needs” produced at a faster rate than they can (AGROVOC) be broken down by natural processes. Condition 3: The biodiversity of ecosystems should be maintained, whilst renewable resources should only be consumed at a slower rate than they can be naturally replenished. Condition 4: Basic human needs must be met in an equitable and efficient manner” (Hammond 2004, 616)

SYSTEM Integration of individual “A state of a system may “A system is a complete set of compo- “Socio-technical systems [are] arrange- Systems philosophy is one component of “Any organized assembly of units into a purposive be defined as an undis- nents which interact or are interde- ments of multiple purposive actors and van Bertalanffy’s systems’ theory. Systems resources and procedures united whole; “(in anatomy) turbed motion that is pendent from one stage to another” material artifacts interacting in ways that philosophy includes: systems ontology, sys- and regulated by interaction or a group of organs and restricted by as many (Blanchard and Fabrycky, 2011 chapter require analyzing the total system and tems paradigms, systems axiology, applied interdependence to accomplish tissues associated with conditions or data as are 1); “A system is a collection of compo- not just the constituent subsystems. (Ro- systems philosophy. Laszlo describes “phil- a set of specific functions. See in- a particular physiologi- theoretically possible nents, items, or equipment organized phol 1999, quoted in Bauer and Herder osophical value theory can be reconstruct- formation system (IS)” Source(s): cal function, such as the without mutual interfer- or designed to accomplish a specific 2004); “1. any collective entity consisting ed in the framework of systems philosophy CNSSI 4009-2015 ; “A combi- nervous system” (Martin ence or contradiction” function or set of functions. It can of a set of interrelated or interacting ele- by conceiving of values as expressions of nation of interacting elements and McFerran 2017); “An (Dirac 1981, 11); See also be based on one or more processes, ments that have been organized together various states of adaptation of the indi- organized to achieve one or more assembly of components systems programming, hardware, software, facilities, and peo- to perform a function; 2. an orderly meth- vidual to his biological and sociocultural stated purposes.” Source(s): NIST or elements connected “systems programming ple. System is a heirarchic concept: a od of classification or procedure (e.g., the environment” (1973, 250). SP 800-161 (ISO/IEC 15288) together in an organized is concerned with the system at one level may be a subsstem Library of Congress Classification system); way to produce outputs; operating systems, utility viewed from a higher level” (LaPlante 3. a structured set of facts, concepts, and the components of the as- programs, and library 2001, 483). hypotheses that provide a framework of sembly are affected by be- software needed to thought or belief, as in a philosophical ing in the system and the keep computer systems system; 4. a living organism or one of its behaviour of the system is running smoothly” (Reilly major bodily structures (e.g., the respira- changed if any component 2004, 743). tory system)” (APA) leaves it” (Law 2016).

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TECHNICAL Parameters of action We welcome recommen- See also technical reference: “A techni- We welcome recommendations! “A technical norm is a factual statement We welcome recommendations! NORMS which a professional com- dations! cal reference is a document describing about the relationship between means and munity has determined the technical aspects of a system. The ends…. More generally, a technical norm confer some benefit based system present both hardware and is a statement of the form: If you want A, upon their uses software aspects” (LaPlante 489). and you believe that you are in a situation B, then you ought to do X” (Niiniluoto 1993, 11-12); see also Techne: “The set of principles, or rational method, involved in the production of an object or the accomplishment of an end; the knowledge of such principles or method; art. Techne resembles episteme in implying knowledge of principles, but differs in that its aim is making or doing, not disinterested understanding. -- G.R.M.”

TECHNOLOGY The branch of knowledge “Technology is the “technology is constituted by the NIST defines information technology In philosophy of technology, techne is “The practical application of dealing with the me- application of science, systematic study and practice of the as, “Any equipment or interconnected referred to as related to the concept of knowledge to achieve particular chanical arts and applied engineering and industrial making and using of artifacts and to system or subsystem of equipment that technology. Feenberg describes it as “the tasks that employs both technical sciences; the study of this; organization to create a some extent by the physical artifacts is used in the automatic acquisition, word techne in ancient Greed signifies the artefacts (hardware, equipment) The application of such human-build world” (Rho- themselves” (Mitcham 2004, 328) storage, manipulation, management, knowledge or the discipline associated with and (social) information (‘soft- knowledge for practical des 1999, p. 19); “Tech- movement, control, display, switching, a form of poiesis (the practical activity of ware’, know-how for production purposes, esp. in industry, nology is a collective term interchange, transmission, or reception human production). Each techne includes and use of artefacts).” (IPCC 4th, manufacturing, etc.; the for a group of practices, of data or information by the executive a purpose and meaning for its artifacts 88); INIS defines [appropriate sphere of activity con- tools, techniques, and/or agency. For purposes of the preceding (2006, 2). Techne, is variously defined as technology] A technology any- cerned with this; the me- methods” (LaPlante 2001, sentence, equipment is used by an exec- a type of productive knowledge, whether where between the simplest and chanical arts and applied 489). utive agency if the equipment is used by technical knowledge, theoretical knowl- the most sophisticated that is sciences collectively (OED); the executive agency directly or is used edge, or moral knowledge (Roochnik 1986). appropriate for accomplishing a Application of scientific, by a contractor under a contract with the particular task mathematical, design, or executive agency which—1) requires the engineering practices to use of such equipment; or 2) requires the creation of artifacts (SM-J) use, to a significant extent, of such equipment in the performance of a service or the furnishing of a product. The term information technology includes computers, ancillary equipment, software, firmware and similar procedures, services (including support services), and related resources” (NIST 2013).

TERMINO- purposeful organization of We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! “A concept system with designa- LOGICAL terms or other symbols to dations! tions for each concept” ( ISO/IEC SYSTEM ease understanding across FDIS 11179-1 “Information tech- persons or platforms nology - Metadata registries - Part 1: Framework”, March 2004)

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TEST Testing is defined as Models of software test- “A test is a technical operation that “1. any procedure or method used to We welcome recommendations! We welcome recommendations! assessment of the fitness ing emphasize different consists of verifying functionalities for examine or determine the presence of of a product to achieve its testing goals. “Demon- a given product, process, or service some factor or phenomenon; 2. a stand- stated goals stration phase models according to the specified procedure” ardized set of questions or other items test to make sure that (LPlante 2001, 491). I designed to assess knowledge, skills, the software satisfies interests, or other characteristics of an its specification, while examinee; 3. a set of operations, usually destruction phase models statistical in nature, designed to deter- test to detect implemen- mine the validity of a hypothesis” (APA). tation faults. Life Cycle Evaluation models test to detect requirements, design and implementation faults while Life Cycle Prevention models test to prevent requirements, design and implementation faults” (Gelperin and Hetzel 1988, 688). Test data is a data set used at the end of the model building process to determine how well the model might fit the full data; n software engineering, “Segment testing requires each statement in the program to be executed by at least one test case. Branch testing asks that each transfer of control (branch) in the program is exercised by at least one test case and is usually considered to be a minimal testing requirement. Path testing requires that all execution parts in a program are tested but is impractical since even small programs can have a huge (possibly infinite) number of paths (Ntafos 1988, 868).

TESTING procedures for assessing See also “debugging” or “Testing is operating a system (possibly “The process of assessing and measuring We welcome recommendations! Subjection to specific planned competence or quality of correction of syntactic under unrealistic conditions of use) in a learner’s attainment in a task, a lesson, procedures calculated to reveal something or someone errors, logical errors, or order to detect faults” (LaPlante 2001, a subject, or a programme of study” (Wal- any deficiencies.(INIS) algorithmic errors in a 491). lace 2015). computer program (Reilly 2004, 248).

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TRAINING Goal oriented teaching, Training data is a por- We welcome recommendations! “A training program is the method “Ethical training in a company is directed “Development or upgrading of a particularly to develop a tion of data used to fit a through which the State agency carries to the company employees and aims to particular skill, usually by inten- skill model; “Trainability is the out a plan of educational and training enable each organisation member to apply sive or specialized methods; for property of an algorithm activities to improve the operation of its moral reasoning tools to discuss and tackle broad, more leisurely instruction, or process by which it can programs. (a)Initial in-service training ethical questions connected with corporate use EDUCATION (INIS)” be trained on sample data means a period of intensive, task-orient- activities…Ethical training in a company is and thus rendered adapa- ed training to prepare new employees to directed to the company employees and ble to different situations” assume job responsibilities. (b)Continuing aims to enable each organisation member (LaPlante 2001, 499) training means an on-going program of to apply moral reasoning tools to discuss training planned to enable employees and tackle ethical questions connected to: (1) Reinforce their basic knowledge with corporate activities ethical training and develop the required skills for the can help the organisation to: Build under- performance of specific functions, and standing around the reason why certain (2) acquire additional knowledge and organisational principles and rules can be skill to meet changes such as enactment shared as the result of a fair agreement; of new legislation, development of new Provide an opportunity for a real dialog policies, or shifts in program emphasis. between the company and its employees, (c)Full-time training means training that in order to reach an agreement support- requires employees to be relieved of all ing compliance with principles, values and responsibility for performance of current rules of conduct. The purpose of ethical work to participate in a training program. training is to enable employee to identify (d)Part-time training means training that and deal with ethical problems, developing allows employees to continue full time in their moral intuitions, which are implicit in their jobs or requires only partial reduc- choices and actions. Ethical training help tion of work activities to participate in a each member of the organisation to judge training program outside of the State or the moral legitimacy of her/his decisions, local agency. (e)Long-term training means enabling them to apply moral principles training for eight consecutive work weeks and values in business decision-making (De or longer. (f)Short-term training means Colle, Sacconi and Baldin 2003). training for less than eight consecutive work weeks” (45CFR 235.61); ; “The process of improving workforce skills. This may be done by formal instructional courses, provided by employers or by educational institutions, either before or during employment. Such courses may be full- or part-time. Training can also be provided on the job by working under the supervision of more experienced workers. Most firms which provide any training make some use of both methods. General training, for example, increas- es numeracy and improves the skills of the worker in any form of employment. Specific training, such as in the operation of specialized equipment, enhances the worker’s skills only for the firm providing the training” (Black, Hashimzade and Myles 2017); “An exercise programme designed to assist the learning of skills, to improve physical fitness, and thereby to prepare an athlete for a particular com-

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TRANSPARENCY Easily seen through, rec- “When chances are made We welcome recommendations! Transparency is a characteristic which “Information transparency is not an ethical “Transparency refers to unfet- ognized, understood, or to a computer’s hardware describes a process whereby information principle per se, seeing that it can be tered access by the public to detected (OED); Sufficient or software configuration, is requested and then disclosed com- ethically neutral, but it can easily become timely and reliable information illumination to confer which do not require any pletely within the limits of public law, an ethically ‘enabling’’ or ‘‘impairing’’ factor, on decisions and performance comprehension action on a user’s part, without distortion, and with respect to that is a proethical condition, when the in the public sector, as well as on the chances are said to be the computational and cognitive capaci- disclosed information has an impact on governmental political and eco- transparent to the user. ties of the information recipient in order ethical principles. Such an impact depends nomic activities, procedures and This does not mean that to enable those recipients to interpret the on at least two types of relationship that decisions” (UN/DPADM, “Public the user will see no efect information so that they are able to make occur between disclosed information and Sector Transparency and Ac- of the change, just that rational, informed, decisions; “Openness ethical principles. One is dependence: countability in ed Arab Countries: no action is required by and clarity in how research was conduct- some amount of information is required Policies and Practices”, p.11) the user to experience it” ed and for what purpose. Transparency in order to endorse ethical principles. (Reilly 2004, 760). in the aims, objectives, methods, and out- The other is regulation: ethical principles comes of research is important to enable regulate information flow by constraining readers to understand and replicate a its access, usage, dissemination and stor- study, and to establish trust and account- age. Information transparency is ethically ability in the research findings and their enabling when it provides the information interpretation” (Castree, Kitchin, Rogers necessary for the endorsement of ethical 2013). principles (dependence) or (and this might be an inclusive or) when it provides details on how information is constrained (regulation). Conversely, ethical principles can be impaired if false details (misinformation) or inadequate or excessive amounts of information are disclosed. Accountability, safety, welfare and informed consent are examples of ethical principles that depend on the disclosure of some information in order to be endorsed” (Turilli and Floridi 2009, 107)

TRIPLE “People, Planet, Profit” We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “3BL (triple bottom line) advocates “The Triple Bottom Line is based on the We welcome recommendations! BOTTOM LINE dations! believe that social (and environmental) idea that a firm should measure its perfor- performance can be measured in fairly mance in relation to stakeholders including objective ways, and that firms should use local communities and governments, not these results in order to improve their just those stakeholders with whom it has social (and environmental) performance. direct, transactional relationships (such Moreover, they should report these as employees, suppliers and customers). results as a matter of principle, and in … The TBL adds social and environmental using and reporting on these additional measures of performance to the economic “bottom lines’ firms can expect to do measures typically used in most organiza- better by their financial bottom line in tions. Environmental performance general- the long run” (Norman and MacDonald ly refers to the amount of resources a firm 246); “encompasses the financial, social, uses in its operations (e.g. energy, land, and environmental outcomes of business water) and the by-products its activities activity, conceived as equally legitimate create (e.g. waste, air emissions, chemical dimensions of business performance. The residues etc.). Social performance gen- term expresses the belief that compa- erally refers to the impact a firm (and its nies should not be narrowly focused on suppliers) has on the communities in which economic performance (see shareholder it works” (Hubbard 2006, 180). value) but should be managed to serve the interests of multiple stakeholders” (Heery and Noon 2017)

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TRUST Firm belief in the relia- “Trust is the willingness We welcome recommendations! Legal definitions of trust include: 1. An eq- “Trust is generally a three-part relation: A “A characteristic of an entity that bility, truth, or ability of to beleive messages, uitable or beneficial right or title to land trusts B to do X. First, I trust someone if indicates its ability to perform someone or something; To especially access control or other property, held for the beneficiary I have reason to believe it will be in that certain functions or services cor- believe or accept a state- messages, without further but another person, in whom resides person’s interest to be trustworthy in rectly, fairly and impartially, along ment, story, etc., without authentication” (LaPlante the legal tile or ownership, recognized the relevant way at the relevant time. My with assurance that the entity seeking verification or 505); Trust models are and enforced by courts of chancery; 2. trust turned, however, not directly on the and its identifier are genuine” evidence for it (OED) developed for multi-agent An obligation arising out of a confidence Trusted’s interests per se, but on whether Source(s): NIST SP 800-152; “The communication: “A repu- reposed in the trustee or representative, my own interest are encapsulated in the willingness to take actions expect- tation-based trust model who has the legal title to property con- interests of the trusted, that is, on whether ing beneficial outcomes, based collects, distributes, and veyed to him, that he will faithfully apply the Trusted counts my interests as partly on assertions by other parties” aggregates feedback the property according to the confidence his or her own interests just because they Source(s): NIST SP 800-95 (Open about participants’ past reposed or, in other words, according to are my interests” (Hardin 2006, 19). Grid Services Architecture Glos- behavior. These mod- the wishes of the grantor of trust; 3. An sary of Terms); The confidence els help agents decide equitable obligation, either express or Im- one element has in another, that whom to trust, encourage plied, resting upon a person by reason of the second element will behave trustworthy behavior, and a confidence reposed in him, to apply or as expected” Source(s): NIST SP discourage participation deal with the property for the benefit of 800-161 (Software Assurance in by agents who are dis- some other person, or for the benefit of Acquisition: Mitigating Risks to honest. Reputation-based himself and another or others, according the Enterprise.) trust models are basically to such confidence (Black’s Law Diction- divided into two catego- ary Online); “1. A situation in a game with ries based on the way asymmetric information where an agent information is aggregated is expected by other agent(s) to behave in from an evaluator’s per- a particular way or to perform a particu- spective. They are “Direct/ lar action, 2. a fund established by an Local experience model” individual to create sustained benefits and “Indirect/Global rep- for another individual or entity” (Black, utation model” where di- Hashimzade and Myles 2013) rect experience is derived from direct encounters or observations (firsthand experience) and indirect reputation is derived from inferences based on information gathered indirectly (secondhand evidence such as by word of mouth)” (Das and Islam 2012).

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TRUST- Worthy of trust or confi- “In both socially oriented Microsoft proposes that, “Trustworthy “If the individuals trust one another, then Trust is an attitude that we have towards “The attribute of a person or en- WORTHINESS dence; reliable, dependa- and service-oriented trust Computing has four pillars: reliability, they each believe the other is trustworthy people whom we hope will be trustworthy, terprise that provides confidence ble (OED) computing, we can define security, privacy and business integrity. enough to perform a certain type of task where trustworthiness is a property [of a to others of the qualifications, trust in terms of trust “Reliability” means that a computer sys- in a competent way. Trustworthiness is trusted person], not an attitude [towards capabilities, and reliability of that belief and trust behavior. tem is dependable, is available when a characteristic or property of an individ- trust as such]. Trust and trustworthiness entity to perform specific tasks 1 Trust belief between two needed, and performs as expected and ual; trust is an attitude or belief we have are therefore distinct although ideally and fulfill assigned responsibili- parties is the extent to at appropriate levels. “Security” means about those who are trustworthy (Chesire those whom we trust will be trustworthy ties” Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 which one party believes that a system is resilient to attack, and 2011, 51-52) and those who are trustworthy will be that the other is trustwor- that the confidentiality, integrity and trusted. (McLeod 2015) thy in a given situation. availability of both the system and its Trustworthy means one data are protected. “Privacy” means party is willing and able to that individuals have the ability to act in the other’s interest. control data about themselves and that Trust between two parties those using such data faithfully adhere is the extent to which a to fair information principles. “Business party depends on the Integrity” is about companies in our other in a given situation industry being responsible to custom- with a feeling of relative ers and helping them find appropriate assurance, even though solutions for their business issues, negative consequences addressing problems with products or are possible. If a trust be- services, and being open in interactions lief means “A believes that with customers” (Gates 2002). B is trustworthy,” it will lead to a trust behavior, such as “A trusts B” (Wang and Lin 2008).

UNCERTAINTY a measure of doubt “1. The uncertainty about “lack of certain, deterministic, values “1. the state or condition in which some- See Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle, “An expression of the degree to a piece of knowledge in for the variable inputs used in an eco- thing (e.g., the probability of a particular “which states that we cannot simultane- which a value or relationship is a knowledge base can be nomic analysis of a building or building outcome) is not accurately or precisely ously know the precise position and mo- unknown. Uncertainty can result represented in a variety of system”; “an indication of the variability known; 2. lack of confidence or clarity mentum of a subatomic particle” (Rohman from lack of information or from ways. The most popular is associated with a in one’s ideas, decisions, or intentions” 1999, 412). disagreement about what is to attach a number to the measured value that takes into account (APA); “A consciousness of limited known or even knowable. Uncer- fact or rule, e.g. 1 for com- two major components oferror: (1) knowledge about present facts or future tainty may originate from many plete truth, 0 for complete bias, and (2) the random error attribut- possibilities. There is a formal distinction sources, such as quantifiable falsity, ¾ for likely. Some- ed to the imprecision of the measure- between risk and uncertainty: risk applies errors in the data, ambiguously times these numbers ment process” (ASTM 10th edition). when probabilities can be assigned to defined concepts or terminolo- are intended to be the the likely occurrence of future outcomes; gy, or uncertain projections of probability of the knowl- uncertainty applies when probabilities human behavior. Uncertainty edge being true. Reason- cannot be assigned. Used in this sense, can therefore be represented by ing systems must assign decisions with risk permit the application quantitative measures, for exam- an inferred uncertainty of expected utility. In contrast, expected ple, a range of values calculated value to an inferred piece utility does not apply in the case of un- by various models, or by quali- of knowledge” (Butterfield certainty, and so a more general theory tative statements, for example, adn Ngondi 2016). of choice has to be constructed. More reflecting the judgment of a team commonly, risk and uncertainty are used of experts.” (IPCC 2012) interchangeably” (Black, Hashimzade, Myles 2013).

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USER person or organization “An individual who uses See also end-user: “one that has been “A generic term for someone who uses We welcome recommendations! “Recipient of statistical infor- that employs another the software product to provided property, and exercises the any form of interactive software, in- mation, who transforms it into person or organization or perform a specific func- right to use it” (ASTM). cluding webpages and videogames. In knowledge needed for decision their produts or processes tion. Users may include traditional communication models, the making or research” (Statistical operators, recipients of user occupies the role of the receiver” Data and Metadata Exchange); the results of the soft- (Chandler and Munday 2016). The company or group responsi- ware, or developers or ble for the operation of a system. maintainers of software” The GxP customer, or user organ- (LaPlante 2001, 514); See isation, contracting a supplier to also user interface or “that provide a product. In the context portion of an interactive of this document it is, therefore, computer system that not intended to apply only to communicates with the individuals who use the system, user. Design of the user and is synonymous with Custom- interface includes any as- er. [PIC/S PI 011-3]”; “Individual, pect of the system that is or (system) process acting on be- visible to the user” (Reilly half of an individual, authorized 2004, 778). to access an information system” Source(s): CNSSI 4009-2015 (NIST SP 800-53 Rev. 4)

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VALUES Worth or quality as Value engineering: “the procedure for “Value consists in the relation of harmony ““Value theory” is roughly synonymous with “Value at the level of a single, measured by a stand- developing and evaluating or fitness. It finds its point of contact with “axiology”. Axiology can be thought of as homogeneous good or service ard of equivalence; The alternatives to a proposed economical common sense in the popular expres- primarily concerned with classifying what is equal to the price per unit relative worth, usefulness, design that best fulfills the sion “good for”… or “good of its kind” and things are good, and how good they are. of quantity multiplied by the or importance of a thing needs and requirements of the user/ the relationship is that of the particular “value theory” designates the area of moral number of quantity units of that or (occas.) a person; the owner of the building” (ASTM) to its universal… “value consists in the philosophy that is concerned with theoret- good or service; in contrast to estimation in which a thing fulfillment of interest as such” (Perry ical questions about value and goodness price, value is independent of the is held according to its real 1914); “are the preferences people have of all varieties — the theory of value.” choice of quantity unit.” (United or supposed desirability or for how things ought to be. They repre- (Schroeder 2016). “There is a difference Nations Statistics Division); “Value utility (OED) sent a person’s judgement about what is between values and norms… values are meaning: The meaning or seman- right and wrong. Organizational values individual, or commonly shared concep- tic content of a value.” (Staistical are designed to guide the behaviour tions of the desirable, ie. what I and/or Data and Metadata Exchange) and thinking of employees in everything others feel we justifiably want—what it is they do. Values are typically embodied in felt proper to want. On the other hand, slogans and symbols within the organiza- norms are generally accepted, sanctioned tion” (Heery and Noon 2017). prescriptions for, or prohibitions against, others behavior, belief or feeling, i.e., what others ought to do, believe, feel—or else. Values can be held by a single individual, norms cannot. Norms must be shared prescriptions and apply to others, by definition” (Morris 1956, 610); See also Intrinsic values: “Sometimes defined as (a) the value an entity would have even if it were to have no consequences. In this sense, an entity’s intrinsic value is equivalent to its total value less its instrumental value; it would include its contributive value. Sometimes defined as (b) the value an entitv would have were it to exist quite alone. In this sense, an entity’s intrinsic value would be equivalent to its total value less the sum of its instrumental and contributive value. -- C.A.B”, and Instrumental values: “The value an entity possesses in virtue of the value of the consequences it produces, an entity’s value as means. Sometimes the term is applied with reference only to the actual consequences, sometimes with reference to the potential consequences. -- C.A.B.” (Runes 2004)

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VOLUNTARY action or labor taken with- We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! the APA defines voluntary behavior as: See also Voluntarism: “In ontology, the “Informal programmes, self-com- ACTION out direct compensation dations! “behavior that is intentional in nature theory that the will is the ultimate constit- mitments and declarations, (e.g., walking, typing), as opposed to uent of reality. Doctrine that the human where the parties (individual reflexive behavior” (APA) will, or some force analogous to it, is the companies or groups of compa- primary stuff of the universe; that blind, nies) entering into the action set purposive impulse is the real in nature. their own targets and often do (a) In psychology, theory that the will is their own monitoring and report- the most elemental psychic factor, that ing.” (IPCC 4th, 88) striving, impulse, desire, and even action, with their concomitant emotions, are alone dependable. (b) In ethics, the doctrine that the human will is central to all moral questions, and superior to all other moral criteria, such as the conscience, or reasoning power. The subjective theory that the choice made by the will determines the good. Stands for indeterminism and freedom. (c) In theology, the will as the source of all religion, that blessedness is a state of activity.” (Runes 2004).

VALIDATION A check for accuracy of Validation is “the process Validation is “1. conformation by exam- “Validation means establishing by objec- “Construct validity is the approximate truth “Act of testing for compliance relationships between of building an acceptable ination and provision of objective evi- tive evidence that the particular require- of the conclusion that your operational- with a standard” (INIS); “A docu- claims and data sup- level of confidence that an dence that the particular requirements ments for a specific intended use can be ization accurately reflects its construct” mented program that provides porting or refuting those inference about a simu- for a specific intended use are fulfilled. consistently fulfilled. Process validation (Trochim 2006). Types of construct validity a high degree of assurance that claims. lated process is a correct In design and development, valdiation means establishing by objective evidence include: face validity, content validity, pre- a specific process, method, or or valid inference for concerns the process of examining a that a process consistently produces a dictive validity, concurrent validity, conver- system will consistently produce the actual process” (Van product to determine conformity with result or product meeting its predeter- gent validity, and discriminant validity. See a result meeting pre-determined Horn quoted in Jagdev et user needs... 2. the performance or ca- mined specifications. Design validation also Campbell and Stanley 2015. acceptance criteria. [EU GMP al 1995, 333); “Validation pacity planning study step in which the means establishing by objective evidence Guide, Part II, ICH Q7]”; “Confir- is the assessment of the model solution is compared with actual that device specifications conform with mation (through the provision accuracy of a compu- system measurements. If the model user needs and intended uses” (CFR 21 of strong, sound, objective tational simulation by output parameters are determined to Part 820.3(z)(1,2)). evidence) that requirements comparison with experi- be close enough to the correspond- for a specific intended use or mental data. In validation, ing system measurements, then the application have been fulfilled the relationship between model is said to be validated, 3. the (e.g., a trustworthy credential computation and the real comparison of results obtained from has been presented, or data or world, i.e., experimental different models for the same system, information has been formatted data, is the issue ” (Roache e.g., simulation and analytic models, 4. in accordance with a defined set 1998, 2) in electronic active and passive device of rules, or a specific process modeling, the pass/fail process in has demonstrated that an entity which a completed, ready to use model under consideration meets, in all is used in a simulation, then compared respects, its defined attributes or to an intended application, and is requirements)”.Source(s): CNSSI determined to suitably predict reality” 4009-2015 (LaPlante 2001, 517).

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VERIFICATION A check for accuracy of a Verification is “the process “Verification is the assessment of the “Verification means confirmation by -ex Within philosophy of language and philoso- “Principal methods to review, proposed solution. of confirming that the accuracy of the solution to a com- amination and provision of objective ev- phy of science, verificationism is allied with audit, or verify the accuracy of conceptual model has putational model. In verification, the idence that specified requirements have the logical positivist school of thought. A.J. the disseminated data.” (Unit- been correctly translated relationship of the simulation to the been fulfilled” (CFR 21 Part 820.3(aa)). Ayer and Rudolph Carnap both describe ed Nations Statistical Data and into an operational com- real world is not an issue” (Roache verification as relating to the method of Metadata Exchange); “Process or puter programme and 1998, 2); “In design and development, determining the meaning of sentences. result of confirming the accuracy that the calculations made verification concerns the process of ex- For Ayer, “Strong verification required that of reported information, data, with this programme uti- amining the result of a given activity to the truth of a proposition be conclusively etc.” (INIS); “ The application of lize the correct input data” determine conformity with the stated ascertainable; weak verification required methods, procedures, tests and (Schlesinger et al 1974). requiremetn for that activity. It an- only that an observation statement be de- other evaluations, in addition Approaches to verification swers the question ‘are we building the ducible from the proposition together with to monitoring, to determine include: numerical test system right?’. The cerification includes other, auxiliary, propositions, provided that compliance with the GMP prin- cases, animation obser- activities such as inspection, proof of the observation statement was not deduc- ciples/ quality risk management vation, and programme correctness, static analysis, etc. It may ible from these auxiliaries alone… if weak, activities. [Main Principles for tracing (Jagdev et al 1995, include the act of reviewing, inspecting, verifiability merely demarcated sense from Pharmaceutical Products, WHO, 332, 333). “Program verifi- testing checking, auditin, comparing, or nonsense, whilst the strong version meant TRS 981 Annex 2, WHO]”; “Confir- cation: to verify a program otherwise establishing and document- that the method of verification provided mation, through the provision of means to demonstrate, ing whether items, processes, services the meaning of the sentence” (Macdonald objective evidence, that specified via a mathematical proof, or documents conform to specified 2017). requirements have been fulfilled that the program is requirements” (LaPlante 2001, 519). (e.g., an entity’s requirements consistent with its spec- have been correctly defined, or ifications” (Reilly 2004, an entity’s attributes have been 645); Verification includes correctly presented; or a pro- “steps take to ensure that cedure or function performs as the output products of intended and leads to the expect- any development phase ed outcome.” Source(s): CNSSI correctly implement the 4009-2015 input products” (LaPlante 2001, 519)

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VIRTUAL “A “virtual reality” is de- “Virtual Reality is an We welcome recommendations! “A lifelike artificial environment with vari- “A virtual reality is defined as a three di- We welcome recommendations! REALITY fined as a real or simulat- alternate world filled ous online applications such as computer mensional interactive computer-generated ed environment in which with computer-generat- games, simulations for training purposes environment that incorporates a first-per- a perceiver experiences ed images that respond (for airline pilots, for example), virtual son perspective. This means, first of all, telepresence” (Steuer to human movements. tours, animations, architectural design, that the attribute of full immersion is not 1992, 6) These simulated envi- and advanced advertising” (Doyle 2016) taken to be an essential property for sys- ronments are usually tems to qualify as virtual reality systems. visited with the aid of an Likewise, interaction through data gloves expensive data suit which is not held to be essential, as interaction features stereophonic vid- may also take place through a mouse or eo goggles and fiber-optic joystick. Stereo vision is likewise not held data gloves” (Greenbaum, to be essential. Essential features of virtual 1992; quoted in Steuer reality, as defined here, are interactivity, 1992, 5); “The creation of the use of three dimensional graphics, and the effect of immersion a first-person perspective” (Brey 1999, 6). in a computer-generated three-dimensional environment in which objects have spatial presence” (Bryson quoted in Reilly 2004, 787); “a siulation of a virtual environment which according to some must have an ‘immersive’ quality encouraging the feeling of being present in the environment” (LaP- lante 2001, 522)

VULNERABILITY susceptibility to harm or “Any mechanism that “Vulnerability analysis focuses on iden- “susceptibility to developing a condition, “vulnerability as a claim to special protec- “measure of the extent to which attack could lead to a breach of tifying (and reducing) the vulnerability disorder, or disease when exposed to tion should be understood as an iden- a community, structure, service the security of a system in of engineered systems to both natural specific agents or conditions” (APA). tifiably increased likelihood of incurring or geographical area is likely to the presence of a threat. (e.g., weather-related) and man-made additional or greater wrongs” (Hurst 2008, be damaged or disrupted, on ac- Vulnerabilities may arise (e.g., sabotage, terrorism) disruptions” 195). count of its nature or location, by unintentionally due to (Goldsim.com) the impact of a particular disaster inadequacy of design or hazard” (United Nations Statis- incomplete debugging. tics Division); “The propensity or Alternatively the vulner- predisposition to be adversely ability may arise through affected.” (IPCC 2012); “Weakness malicious intent, e.g. in an information system, system the insertion of a Trojan security procedures, internal horse” (Butterfield and controls, or implementation that Ngondi 2016). could be exploited or triggered by a threat source” Source(s): FIPS 200 (Adapted from CNSSI 4009)

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VULNERABLE communities whose We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! “the HHS Office for Human Research Pro- The International Council on Harmonisa- ReliefWeb defines Vulnerable GROUPS susceptibility to harm dations! tections lists the following as examples tion Tripartite guidelines for ethical govern- groups as “Aged persons, chil- or attack is known to be of potentially vulnerable populations: ance of clinical research list the following dren, IDPs (internally displaced greater than that of others (1) children and minors; (2) cognitive- as vulnerable groups: “1. members of a persons), Persons with Disabil- ly impaired persons; (3) prisoners; (4) group with a hierarchical structure such as ities, Refugees, Women”; ICH traumatized patients; (5) terminally ill medical, pharmacy, dental and nursing stu- defines “vulnerable subjects” as patients; (6) elderly and aged persons; (7) dents, subordinate hospital and laboratory “Individuals whose willingness economically disadvantaged persons; (8) personnel, employees in the pharmaceuti- to volunteer in a clinical trial underrepresented or at-risk persons; (9) cal industry, members of the armed forces, may be unduly influenced by the students or employees whose instructors and persons kept in detention; 2. patients expectation, whether justified or or employers are engaged in research; with incurable diseases, 3. persons in not, of benefits associated with (10) international, non-English speaking nursing homes, 4. unemployed or impov- participation, or of a retaliatory persons; and (11) fetuses, human in vitro erished persons, 5. patients in emergency response from senior mem- fertilization and pregnant women”. situations, 6. ethnic minority groups, 7. bers of a hierarchy in case of homeless persons, 8. nomads, 9. refugees, refusal to participate. Examples 10. minors, and 11. those incapable of are members of a group with a giving consent” (Hurst 2008, 193). hierarchical structure, such as medical, pharmacy, dental, and nursing students, subordinate hospital and laboratory personnel, employees of the pharmaceutical industry, members of the armed forces, and persons kept in detention. Other vulnerable subjects include patients with incurable diseases, persons in nursing homes, unemployed or impoverished persons, patients in emergency situations, ethnic minority groups, homeless persons, nomads, refugees, minors, and those incapable of giving consent.”

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WEAPON “A weapon system consists We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! An autonomous weapon system is: “a We welcome recommendations! The precise definition of what SYSTEM of a weapon and the dations! weapon system that, once activated, can constitutes such a weapons sys- items associated with its select and engage targets without further tem remains a matter of debate employment” (Schmitt intervention by a human operator. This within CCW. A recent ICRC meet- 2013, 3) includes human-supervised autono- ing on the subject defined ‘auton- mous weapon systems that are designed omous weapon system’ as any to allow human operators to override weapon that can independently operation of the weapon system, but can select and attack targets, and select and engage targets without further therefore have autonomy in the human input after activation” (Depart- ‘critical functions’ of acquiring, ment of Defense 2012, Directive 3000.09, tracking, selecting and attacking quoted in Schmitt 2013, 5). targets. (See report.) On a web- site devoted to a discussion of the ethics of such systems, the Department of Defense of the United States is cited as defining an automated weapons system as “a weapon system(s) that, once activated, can select and engage targets without further intervention by a human operator”. (UNOG: A/RES/69/79); “A combination of one or more weapons with all related equipment, materials, services, personnel, and means of delivery and deployment (if applicable) required for self-sufficiency”. Source(s): NIST SP 800-60 Vol 1 Rev. 1

WELLBEING With reference to a person We welcome recommen- We welcome recommendations! The OECD recommends two areas of indi- “Wellbeing [is] the balance point between “A context- and situation-de- or community: the state dations! vidual wellbeing dimensions that can be an individual’s resource pool and the chal- pendent state, comprising basic of being healthy, happy, broken into eleven dimensions: “Material lenges faced… In essence, stable wellbeing material for such not always or prosperous; Physical, Living Conditions include income and is when individuals have the psychological, easy to define thing as a good psychological, or moral wealth, jobs and earnings, and housing. social and physical resources they need to life, freedom and choice, health, welfare; (OED) Quality of Life: health status, work and meet a particular psychological, social and/ good social relations and secu- life balance, education and skills, social or physical challenge. When individuals rity. Determinants of well-being connections, civic engagement and gov- have more challenges than resources, the are defined as the inputs into the ernance, environmental quality, personal see-saw dips, along with their wellbeing, production of well-being, such as security, and subjective well-being”. The and vice-versa” (Dodge, Daly, Huyton, and food, clothing, potable water, reli- OECD suggests that these wellbeing do- Sanders 2012, 229-230). gious faith and access to knowl- mains are sustained over time by natural edge and information.” Sources: capital, economic capital, human capital, E: Ecosystems and Human and social capital (OECD 2011, 6); “a state Well-being: A Framework for As- of happiness and contentment, with low sessment, Appendix 4, Glossary; levels of distress, overall good physical “The physical and mental integrity and mental health and outlook, or good of the subjects participating in a quality of life” (APA) clinical trial.” (ICH)

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Hurst, S. A. (2008). Vulnerability in research and health care; describing Park, C & M. Allaby. (2017). A Dictionary of Environment and User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer the elephant in the room?. Bioethics, 22(4), 191-202. Conservation. 3rd edition. OUP Interaction, edited by D. A. Norman and S. W. Draper, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1985 Føllesdal, A. (1998). Survey article: subsidiarity. Journal of Political Doyle, C (2016). A Dictionary of Marketing. 4th Edition. OUP Philosophy, 6(2), 190-218. Fosythe, D. P. (2009). Encyclopedia of Human Rights. OUP Chandler, D. & R. Munday (2016). A Dictionary of Media and Chalmers, D. (2010). The singularity: A philosophical analysis. Journal of Commmunication 2nd edition. OUP Verbeek, P. P. (2008). Morality in design: Design ethics and the morality Consciousness Studies, 17(9-10), 7-65. of technological artifacts. In Philosophy and design (pp. 91-103). Springer, Gorse, C., D. Johnston & M. Pritchard. (2012). A Dictionary of Dordrecht. Heery, E. & M. Noon (2017). A Dictionary of Human Resource Construction, Surveying and Civil Engineerin. OUP management. 3rd edition. Oxford Unviersity Press. Porta, M. & J.M. Last. (2018). A Dictionary of Public Health. 2nd edition. blackburn, S. (2016). A Dictionary of Philosophy 3rd edition. OUP OUP. Castree, N., R. Kitchin, & A. Rogers. (2013). A Dictionary of Human Geography. OUP. Buchanan, I. (2018). A Dictionary of Critical Theory 2nd edition. OUP. Liddle, A. & J. Loveday. (2008). The Oxford Companion to Cosmology. OUP Kent, M. (2006). The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. 3rd Atkins, T. & M. Escudier. (2013). A Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering. edition. Oxford University Press. OUP Martin, E. (2015). Concisde Medical Dictionary 9th edition. Oup

Law, J. (2016). A Dictionary of Business and Management. 6th Edition. Law, J. & R. Rennie. (2015). A Dictionary of Physics. 7th edition. OUP. (2005). ASTM Dictionary of Engineering Science and Technology (10th Oxford University Press. Ince, D. (2013). A Dictionary of the Internet. 3rd edition. OUP. Edition). ASTM International.

Martin, E.A. & T.A. McFerran. (2017). A Dictionary of Nursing. Oxford Mayhew, S. (2015). A Dictionary of Human Geography 5th edition. OUP. University Press. Rubin, O. and R. Dahlberg. (2017). A Dictionary of Disaster Management. Wallace, Susan. (2015). A Dictionary of Education. 2nd edition. Oxford OUP. University Press.

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