A Survey On Ice Navigation Research

Review: A Survey On Ice Navigation Research*

Serdar KUM1 and Bekir SAHIN2

1Department of Maritime Transportation and Management Eng., Istanbul Technical University, Turkey 2Surmene Faculty of Marine Sciences, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey

Abstract Changes in maritime commercial routes have been occurring at a small-scale since the 20th century. As a consequence of global warming, more feasible Arctic navigation routes have been opened for commercial vessels. Therefore, shipping and operations on the ice navigation routes are emerging issues in the Arctic trading activities. There is, however, a lack of literature exploring ice navigation. Hence, this paper tries to synthesize the published efforts concerning ice navigation on the Arctic Ocean. In this work, we consider the navigation-oriented studies including characteristics of sea ice along with the focus of the current research concerns as well as shipping and operations in the Arctic Ocean. The emphasis is placed on issues relating to ice extent and concepts for navigating vessels in the Arctic Ocean, in addition to ice navigation in ice covered waters. Also, we address the challenges one may face during these operations and we aim to improve the awareness of the special education for navigators in the Arctic environment. Consequently, we declare the research gaps for the further Arctic navigation studies. Keywords: Arctic Ocean, Shipping and Operations in Ice-covered Waters, Ice Navigation

* An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Asia Navigation Conference (ANC), JIN-KINPR-CIN Joint Symposium October 24-26, 2013 Busan, KOREA.

1. INTRODUCTION Fig.1 Arctic Routes (Map credit: Hugo As technology develops, the world is getting smaller and Ahlenius/UNEP-Grid Arendal) more global. Therefore, world trade increases and a large portion of products are carried by sea borne transport sailing Literature based on observations and simulated results through oceans. New oil facilities are being opened to within the last 20 years suggests that the Arctic sea ice is accommodate new fields especially within or near the Arctic decreasing rapidly1). There are three main reasons of this Circle. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (2009), the phenomenon: (a) global warming, as many scientific Northern Sea Route (NSR) and Northwest Passage (NWP) researches pointed out, (b) the feedback of the atmospheric could shorten the time taken by cargo vessels to travel between circulation and (c) oceanic circulation changes2). Due to the the Pacific and the Atlantic by about one third. For instance, the decline of sea ice concentration and thickness, the NWP could Yokohama-Rotterdam route via the Suez Canal is 11,447 soon open to intercontinental shipping which links the Atlantic nautical miles and would be around 7,474 nautical miles via and Pacific oceans and providing a route between Europe and the Arctic Routes (Fig.1). Asia that is 9,000 km shorter than the Panama Canal route, and 17,000 km shorter than traveling around Cape Horn, South America3). Sea ice has always been obstacle to the practical use of the NWP. Opening of the NWP would allow larger tanker ships to take advantage of this route, considering size restrictions that exist in the Panama Canal4). Economic aspects of Arctic transportation as well as its increase over the past decade were discussed in5), 6). In addition, shipping activities have a tendency to increase as the result of global warming and ice-free seasons in the NSR, which is a shipping lane officially defined by Russian legislation from the Atlantic Ocean to the Correspondence to Serdar KUM, Department of Maritime Transportation and Pacific Ocean, more specifically along the Russian Arctic coast Management Eng., Istanbul Technical University, Maritime Faculty, Sahil Yolu Street, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey E-mail: [email protected] from Murmansk on the Barents Sea, along Siberia, to the Vol.1 No.1, 2016 Transactions of Navigation 23 Kum, S., and Sahin, B.

Bering Strait and the Far East. For example, 12.8 million tons by monitoring the ice cover and ice extent17), 29). Observed natural gas and oil transportation are forecasted by 20207). satellite data proves that the annual average sea-ice extent in There have also been signs that the Arctic passage may open the Arctic decreased by 3.7%18). The decreasing trend in Arctic up much quicker than expected8). is consistent and decline of ice extent occurs in all geographical In this study, we provide an overview of the impact of areas of Arctic, in all seasons30). The regional changes of Arctic global warming on ship navigation in Arctic. The purpose of sea ice and the impact of global warming are two important this study is not to provide instructions of how to navigate issues in ice navigation. Although new vessels are being within all situations in ice but rather to highlight key designed for the extreme conditions, having the data of ice information that may help us prepare for gaps in ice navigation concentration, ice types, ice thickness and the current weather techniques. We aim not just to gather published efforts related conditions reduce the hazards and risks of collusions9). to ice navigation but also to point out the rising importance of 3. RECENT STATUS OF ARCTIC OCEAN this region. To accomplish this, we first provide a brief RESEARCH knowledge of Arctic sea ice extent and ice concentration. The Arctic is defined in various ways. It can be technically Afterwards, we outline monitored and forecasted climate defined as north of the Arctic Circle, 66 degrees and 33 changes and the recent status of the Arctic and discuss how minutes north. This polar region extents the North Pole and is these changes may directly or indirectly influence ice almost equivalent in size to North America31). The Arctic navigators and research about ice navigation based on safety, temperature has been increasing over the past century. environment, economy and other factors. We conclude this According to Arctic Maritime Shipping Assessment (AMSA), study with some predictions of ice navigation priorities for the assessment of the impacts of climate change on Snow, future researches. Water, Ice and Permafrost in the Arctic32) revealed that the years between 2005 and 2010 have been the warmest period 2. ARCTIC SEA ICE EXTENT AND ever recorded in the Arctic, And it is estimated to be nearly CONCENTRATION ice-free in summer within the next 30 to 40 years. Also, Arctic The process of voyage planning involves safety precautions glaciers, ice caps and the Greenland Ice Sheet contributed over and finance of the transportation, calculation of total shipping 40% of the global sea level rise observed between 2003 and time and bunker consumption. In order to keep the ship's 2008. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) gives some maneuverability and maintain the sea room when passing details about the average surface temperature in the Arctic, through ice, it is important to gather all possible updated data which is increased by almost 0.1 C/decade during the 20th about the weather and ice situation9). Sea ice is classified century, and is half greater than the 0.06 C/decade increase according to their forms (pancake, floe etc.), concentrations, observed over the entire Northern Hemisphere33). and types in the Admiralty NP 100, Mariner's Handbook. Also, Intense variations in the Arctic Ocean have been noticed deformation processes, ice surface features, stages of melting since the last century. Increasing oceanic temperature, ice and sky/air indications are described in Baltic and International melting, as well as ocean renewals affect the Arctic Ocean and Maritime Council (BIMCO) Ice Handbook. Ice Navigation the globe based on the environmental protection. An overview Challenges, hazard and damage identifications are reported at of Arctic sea ice in global atmospheric circulation can be found the 4th Meeting of the Ice Expert Working Group, Helsinki in34), and history of sea ice in the Arctic is given in35). A Commission (2003). comparison of the past rates of climate changes in the Arctic The main indicators of the global climate change in Polar region was given in36), glacial history of Arctic was studied in37). Regions are sea ice extent and ice concentration10). Arctic sea The focus of research regarding climate change in the Arctic ice extent data are provided for global weather and climate has been on Arctic multiyear ice classification, ice watch, ice models, which declare the impacts of global warming will be monitoring, remote sensing, and the role of Arctic sea ice in felt more acutely in Arctic Ocean11). Yamanouchi12) proposed global atmospheric circulation as well as the effects of global some explanations on early 20th century warming in the Arctic warming. Also, the main subjects of the research on whereas Jakobbson et al.13) introduced a program to review the atmospheric processes are result modifications, precipitation Arctic quaternary environmental change. Models for snow patterns and storm tracking scale based on years38). In these depth and sea ice extent were proposed14), and vulnerability to studies, improving the awareness and understanding of the climate change in the Arctic was investigated in15), 16). impact of Arctic sea ice, models and challenges of theoretical, Remote-sensing technology has given a variety of systematic methodical and logistic monitoring are investigated. The record of sea ice since 1979 for both Polar Regions17), 18). Many slowness of the weather forecasting along with the exposure of scholars for the Arctic researches have utilized these rapid changes are two significant subjects regarding the role of measurements19-28). polar sea ice in changing the global climate39). Arctic sea ice Satellite sensors emit microwave radiation from the ice surface covers sensitivity to climate change in addition to the solar

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insolation variations on the Arctic sea ice cover are discussed in waters51). the study of Stranne40). All vessels that navigate at all sectors of Arctic waters must

Similarly, the atmospheric CO2 concentrations and comply with the regulations (International Maritime greenhouse-gas-induced global warming play a major role in Organization-IMO Polar Code, Arctic Shipping Pollution the Arctic25). Current literature contains a handful of studies Prevention Regulations (ASPPR) etc.) including reporting addressing related issues such as loss of summer ice in the requirements. IMO, the Maritime Safety Committee and the Arctic and the contribution of open water area for the Marine Environment Protection Committee recognized the modification of the atmospheric circulation41), the global needs applicable to ships operating in Arctic ice-covered waters warming and radioactive contamination of Arctic42), as well as (2002). Guidelines mention stability, construction, main and the Earth’s climate system, increasing Arctic warming and auxiliary machinery, directional control systems, anchoring and decreasing sea ice concentrations based on the atmospheric towing, escape measures, electrical installations, fire safety and flow and meridian temperature gradient43). emergency equipment, crewing, environmental protection and Finally, the literature has centered on other important issues damage control. such as sea ice retreats, loss of fresh water, the mechanisms of In the Arctic, sea ice and icebergs are hazardous for shipping these changes, the relationship between the Arctic and Atlantic, and other maritime activities. CEOS Disaster Management and the effects of climate changes in Arctic on the global Support Group (2000) has prepared a report about detection, circulation2). The ACIA as an international project of the Arctic mapping and management hazards of sea ice and icebergs. Council and the International Arctic Science Committee Captain Duke47) has explained the polar ship operations based (IASC) have prepared a summary report based on the affects to on his own experiences. The most critical risks about the polar the inhabitants and ecosystems and expected changes in the region are hard and old ice blocks. Thus, the seafarers working future. The researchers have observed and predicted the in this area should be educated and equipped with the extra climate change responses of Arctic ecosystem44), 45). information and materials. On the other hand, speed and maneuverability are strictly limited in ice. When operating in 4. SHIPPING AND OPERATIONS IN ICE ice, collision with icebergs, berths and other ships are COVERED WATERS hazardous, and structures of the vessels such as main machine, The Arctic is described as a significant area for international propeller and hull are also important. Special knowledge and shipping that requires specific attention. Global warming skills are necessary for handling ships in ice9). IMO has put makes the NWP more navigable and the oil companies explore METAREs and NAVAREs for newly determined areas due to new areas such as the Arctic sea to supply the petroleum metrological and navigational warnings. The reports express demand46). Ice navigation involves many factors such as ice that there is no station for ship operation services and the Arctic particulars, weather situation, ship classifications, icebreaker Ocean rescue capacity is quite low. assistance, crew experience and their way of interpreting the The biggest shortcoming of Ice Regime Shipping System ice conditions. (IRSS) and ASPPR is not having a limit value for vessels' Local maritime administrations decide the vessel's suitability speed. According to ASPPR investigations, 20-30% of for winter navigation based on fulfillment of ice-class damages between 1969 and 1992 occurred as a result of high requirements and performance reports of pilots and icebreaker speed. Such damages are a result of inadequate caution and staff. poor judgment occur frequently even when experienced master According to indications of trends and forecasts, shipping in is on the bridge. According to the researches performed on type the Arctic will grow in volume and diversify in nature for the B vessels, which are the most active deep-sea vessel type in foreseeable future47). Navigational challenges and the risks for Canadian Arctic, it should be taken into account type of ice, the vessels operating in the Arctic need to be met. Authors other types of vessels, meteorological conditions and vessels pointed out these issues, as; route selection problem48), root operation speed. Moreover, floe is another substantial danger cause analysis of Arctic marine accidents49) and navigational for navigation. It is possible to define the impact of floe by two risk assessment of Arctic Navigation50). ways. Firstly all damage reports should be searched and Some of these challenges are remoteness of ice environment, investigated the floe size of the ice regime in the time of ice choke points, charts and charting, communication systems, damage. Secondly, interaction between ice and ship should be local infrastructure and emergency support. Moreover, simulated of different ice concentration52). importance of operational and procedural training of navigators Due to climate change, the routes changed in Polar Regions. is rising day by day as well as the training of operational needs, The literature about NSR is concerned about the convenience requirements and effective methods for seafarers navigating in of regular container transportation technically and ice. It is also noted that there is no training model and economically. Price analysis connected to axes in the qualification scheme for seafarers who navigate in ice-covered Asia-Europe transportation network, which includes NSR, can

Vol.1 No.1, 2016 Transactions of Navigation 25 Kum, S., and Sahin, B.

easily be made with the help of a model between Hamburg and substantiate fundamental ice navigation principles. Route Shangai. However, Suez Canal is still the least expensive and optimization is important and useful especially when ships are the best choice for shipping. NSR and Trans-Siberian Railway crossing large sea areas with many possibilities to select a is the second alternative route53). The Arctic route can be used route56). As noted by Ari57), this type of optimization is safely on a large scale for vessel transit passage. In order to conducted as the shortest path from one point to another in the guarantee the safety and security of vessel transit passage, more presence of obstacles based on safety distance and turn-radius investment for infrastructure and minimum environmental constraints. These optimization algorithms should be applied in impact are required for the maritime services54). Because of a real-time dynamic environment with effects such as waves, global warming, Arctic sea ice melting and icebergs would be winds and sea currents. The models should be proved by the floating around Arctic zone. Although more ships are being data obtained from the vessels, which navigate in Arctic Ocean. designed and built to operate in these challenging The other parameters of ship navigation such as safety and circumstances, when a mariner encounters a situation such as economics of the transportation, time and consumption should when the sea turns to a solid sheet of ice and steering becomes also be considered. difficult, the inexperienced mariner can lead to damage to the Ship simulation trainers should concentrate on fulfillment of hull, rudder and propeller; and at worst, the ship may be the general circumstances, i.e., physical reality and control with destroyed9). the educator. Simulation environments should be integrated Experiences on ships operating in Canadian Arctic Waters with other simulators with full integration mission. show that human factor has a significant impact on marine Despite of the negative effects of global warming on the causalities. Seafarers are usually inadequately trained to deal environment and ecology, it brings some opportunities to the with Arctic conditions. Existing regulations, training transportation industry. As Arctic sea ice is melting fast, soon procedures and standards are the minimum requirements as the North Pole will be open water. Since 2009, Ice navigation specified in ASPPR55). The Maritime Safety Training Centre in has been conducted intensively in summers. Vessels started to the UK defines the ice navigation as: masters and officers in move through the Arctic Ocean because ice navigation charge of a navigational watch involved in navigating in ice shortens shipping routes by approximately 7,000 nautical miles. conditions should be able to use the knowledge and experience Therefore, ice navigation is an emerging issue in the Arctic gained to overcome the problems brought about by navigating Ocean. In this paper, we discussed the previous studies in Polar Regions. Education of ice navigation is a broad issue concerning Arctic Ocean, Arctic sea ice extent and and it includes ice regimes, regulations, vessel characteristics, concentration, shipping and operations in the Arctic Ocean. navigational planning and equipment, maneuvering, icebreaker Furthermore, research priorities are expressed for the future operations, hazards and health issues of low temperatures. improvements. 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