DOCSLIB.ORG

Tor Harold Percival Bergeron1 Helmut K

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Tor Harold Percival Bergeron1 Helmut K Tor Harold Percival Bergeron1 Helmut K. Weickmann 2 Dedication on the occasion of presenting the Eleventh Award of the International Meteorological Organization Prize, 1966, to Professor Bergeron: "In recognition of his Outstanding Contributions to Air Mass Analysis, Physics of Precipitation and Theory of Fronts, His Furtherance of Inter- national Co-operation in the Science of the Atmosphere; and his Stimulation of the Develop- ment of the Science of Meteorology by his Lectures and Writings". In the name of The World Meteorological Organization—A. Nyberg, President. The ethics of the medical profession was given a clear log. No doubt it must have been this interest in the ever direction some 2500 years ago by the famous oath of changing clouds which sharpened his natural gift for Hippocrates. No similar definition exists for the ethics observation and developed his inclination to systema- of natural scientists in pursuing their profession. This tize and categorize. It must be considered as one of the may be part of the reason that the pursuit of scientific lucky circumstances in the development of the new sci- research in the natural sciences, and particularly in the ence of meteorology that Bergeron, after finishing Uni- physical sciences, has often met with suspicion and even versity training in 1916, joined the group of young hostility. Indeed, the precarious situation in which we scientists around Vilhelm Bjerknes, who, coming from find basic research today may be a direct consequence theoretical fluid mechanics, had conceived the idea of of its tremendous advances. Scientific research rather air masses, air mass boundaries, and fronts in order to than technological development is blamed for the explain natural weather phenomena. Bergeron's keen atomic bomb, for air pollution, for the deadly accuracy gift of observation, trained and refined since his youth, of missiles over thousands of miles. There are, however, was as important a contribution to the pioneering other shortcomings which we find in the backyard of "School of Bergen" as was Bjerknes' ingenious theoreti- our own science, the science of meteorology. For almost cal analysis in the development of his "Polar Front 30 years, we have promised weather modification: rain Theory". during droughts, or no hail during the hail season, Figures 1 and 2 show what had been accomplished in but all we have done is to invent or apply new methods weather analysis in a few years. It is the case of 10—13 of statistics in order to prove that nature behaved as we October 1923, which is the development of a powerful wanted her to behave, while hail and droughts con- "Skagerrak" storm cyclone. This study was accomplished tinued. Now, we find that statistics fail us, too, and is at the Geophysical Institute of the University of Leipzig no panacea at all. Moreover, the costlier the means that jointly by Tor Bergeron and G. Swoboda. It was pub- we have needed or wanted for our research, the more lished in 1924. The authors call attention to the huge exaggerated our promises have become: the attainment precipitation area of about 1700 km in length and an of forecasts accurate for two weeks could be achieved average width of 250 km. They take notice that this rain with another and bigger computer. area is nearly parallel to the isobars and shows relatively Apparently, there can be but one ethical motivation weak cyclonic convergence. This caused most weather for research in the natural sciences that would corre- services to miss the correct forecast. The authors point spond to the oath of Hippocrates: namely, to conduct out that convergence appeared in change of wind speed research in order to find the truth. As simple as this rather than in change of wind direction. A painstaking may sound, it is difficult to achieve. The man to whose analysis of the hydrometeors did tell something about memory this lecture is devoted has been a shining ex- the air masses and weather processes within them: rain ample of a scientist in search of the truth and his publi- was indicated in three different intensities; fog and haze cations testify on almost every page, his continuous had special symbols and so had various types of shower struggle with nature's complexity in search of the truth. clouds whose symbol appears in three different types: Tor Bergeron was born in England on 15 August one as a regular triangle as we use it today, one as a 1891. While he was still a child, his family returned to triangle sloped to the left, and one as a triangle sloping Sweden, their home. As a schoolboy, he had already dis- to the right. covered his interest in weather and particularly clouds. Years of intensive research followed, which culminated He began at an early age to keep a detailed weather in 1928 in Bergeron's fundamental dissertation "Uber die drei-dimensional verkniipfende wetteranalyse". The 1 This lecture was delivered by the author at the Annual key word in the title is "drei-dimensional" (3- Cloud Physics and Atmospheric Electricity Conference in dimensional), as the thesis expressed the need for aero- Issaquah, Wash, on 2 August 1978. The author was given the logical analysis, in contrast to the analysis of fronts, Distinguished Lecturer Award by the American Meteorologi- cal Society for his presentation of this paper. which belonged to the lower atmospheric layers. Already 2 Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory, Environ- in the introduction, Bergeron foresees and discusses the mental Research Laboratories, NOAA, Boulder, Colo. 80303. schism that should determine meteorologic research for 0003-0007 / 79/ 050406-09$06.25 the next decade: Is weather determined by "steering © 1979 American Meteorological Society processes" near the stratosphere or by frontal develop- 406 Vol. 60, No. 5, May 1979 Bulletin American Meteorological Society 407 FIG. 1. Analysis of development of Skagerrak Cyclone 10 October 18 GMT. between dense and compact water clouds with layers of permanent ice nuclei a main source for all normal, i.e., large-drop-rains, graupel and hail and the common snow flakes . shortly all forms of precipitation with the exception of drizzle and its solid counterpart, the 'diamond dust'. Consequently, it is assumed that the first-named forms originate in our latitudes in a high ice cloud." 3 Tor Bergeron, 15 August 1891-13 June 1977. Bergeron was a personality with many gifts, one of which was the gift of languages. Many of his papers are ments near the surface? The basic idea of this publication written in German, but he also was fluent in Russian, was to confirm the Polar Front theory of the Bergen in English, in French, and Latin, etc. In 1938, he edited School, and to show that the weather analysis for the a meteorological dictionary in six languages for F. dailv weather forecast has to do with the definition of Linke's Tachenbuch. One of the coauthors is Vera cold and warm air masses on the basis of certain char- Romanov-skaja-Bergeron. Vera used to be a student of acteristic properties that would not change or "age" as meteorology in Moscow and was in charge of inviting the air masses continue flowing across oceans and conti- Bergeron to the Moscow University for a series of nents. An air mass can be related to certain weather lectures. This stay became most decisive for Bergeron's types; and therefore, the air mass analysis is important and Vera's life as Vera became not only his wife but his for weather prediction. Moreover, air masses can flow scientific assistant and secretary as well. In Moscow, he side by side or against each other, thus producing air found numerous new friends, one of them Professor mass boundaries, or fronts, along which cyclogenesis S. P. Chromov, who published several books based upon can occur. Bergeron defined as one of the important air Bergeron's lectures, most notably, in 1934, the book mass characteristics the turbidity or opalescence of the Einfiihrung in die synoptische Analyse. Bergeron not air mass and he developed an observational system that only spoke foreign languages fluently, but he knew all includes visibility, contrast, and sky color for recognizing the grammatical rules and regulations and he usually whether an air mass is polar or tropical. It is fascinating knew them better than you, yourself, in your own mother to follow his struggles to reconcile events occurring on tongue. This gift enabled him to travel and to lecture the large scale with his observations which are limited in foreign countries such as Germany, Russia and Yugo- to meso- and microscale, the scale with which he was slavia. His "Sprachgefuehl" (feeling for the correct ver- familiar from his cloud and hydrometeor observations. bal expression) led him, for instance, to suggest that His cloud observations led him to the concept of the "orographic" was the wrong word if one discussed oro- role of ice crystals in water clouds and to their im- graphic precipitation effects because what one really portance for precipitation processes. These ideas were meant was oreigenic precipitation effects. Rain could already contained in his dissertation; therefore, the year only be "oreigenic" (caused by orography). 1928 is given by him as the year in which he conceived It is interesting to note that his precipitation theory his famous precipitation theory, and not the year 1933 was an outgrowth of his gift of observation. It dates in which he proposed his theory to the IUGG assembly in Lisbon, Portugal. Indeed we read on page 31 of his 3 Translated from the original German text by the present dissertation: "The author recognizes in the interaction author. .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • History of Frontal Concepts Tn Meteorology
    HISTORY OF FRONTAL CONCEPTS TN METEOROLOGY: THE ACCEPTANCE OF THE NORWEGIAN THEORY by Gardner Perry III Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science at the MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY June, 1961 Signature of'Author . ~ . ........ Department of Humangties, May 17, 1959 Certified by . v/ .-- '-- -T * ~ . ..... Thesis Supervisor Accepted by Chairman0 0 e 0 o mmite0 0 Chairman, Departmental Committee on Theses II ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research for and the development of this thesis could not have been nearly as complete as it is without the assistance of innumerable persons; to any that I may have momentarily forgotten, my sincerest apologies. Conversations with Professors Giorgio de Santilw lana and Huston Smith provided many helpful and stimulat- ing thoughts. Professor Frederick Sanders injected thought pro- voking and clarifying comments at precisely the correct moments. This contribution has proven invaluable. The personnel of the following libraries were most cooperative with my many requests for assistance: Human- ities Library (M.I.T.), Science Library (M.I.T.), Engineer- ing Library (M.I.T.), Gordon MacKay Library (Harvard), and the Weather Bureau Library (Suitland, Md.). Also, the American Meteorological Society and Mr. David Ludlum were helpful in suggesting sources of material. In getting through the myriad of minor technical details Professor Roy Lamson and Mrs. Blender were indis-. pensable. And finally, whatever typing that I could not find time to do my wife, Mary, has willingly done. ABSTRACT The frontal concept, as developed by the Norwegian Meteorologists, is the foundation of modern synoptic mete- orology. The Norwegian theory, when presented, was rapidly accepted by the world's meteorologists, even though its several precursors had been rejected or Ignored.
    [Show full text]
  • 275 Tor Bergeron's Uber Die
    JULY,1931 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW 275 The aooperative stations are nearer the c.rops, being gage: These are read at about 4 p. m. or 8 a. m. and the mostly in small towns, or even on farms, in some in- maximum and niininiuin temperature, set maximum stances, but they measure only rainfall and temperature temperature, and total rainfall entered on forms. Where once a day and have no self-recording instruments that are the details? How much sunshine, what was soil keep a continuous record. Thus, for these which are temperature, when did rain occur, how long were tempera- more directly applicable, many weather phases are not tures above or below a significant value, what was the available. relative humidity, rate of evaporation, etc.? The crop statistics are even more hazy and generalized, Even if the above questions were satisfactorily answered in addition to being relatively inaccessible. We can find how can we be sure that, we have everything we need? easily the estimated yield per acre or total acreage, for the Maybe we need leaf temperature, intensity of solar radia- most available data give these figures on a State unit tion, plant transpiration, moisture of tlie soil at different basis, but yields often vary widely in different parts of a depths, and many other details too numerous to mention. State. Loc,al, even in most places county, temperature and rainfall data are available, but what about correspond- CONCLUSION ing yield figures? They are to be had in some individual Are we doing everything possible to facilitate the study State publications, but a complete file for one State is OI crop production in its relation to the weather on a difficult to find outside the issuing office and then the large scale, or even in local areas? There have been some series is rarely carried back far enough to be of material beginnings.
    [Show full text]
  • Computer Models, Climate Data, and the Politics of Global Warming (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2010)
    Complete bibliography of all items cited in A Vast Machine: Computer Models, Climate Data, and the Politics of Global Warming (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2010) Paul N. Edwards Caveat: this bibliography contains occasional typographical errors and incomplete citations. Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet. Inside Technology. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. Abbe, Cleveland. “The Weather Map on the Polar Projection.” Monthly Weather Review 42, no. 1 (1914): 36-38. Abelson, P. H. “Scientific Communication.” Science 209, no. 4452 (1980): 60-62. Aber, John D. “Terrestrial Ecosystems.” In Climate System Modeling, edited by Kevin E. Trenberth, 173- 200. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Ad Hoc Study Group on Carbon Dioxide and Climate. “Carbon Dioxide and Climate: A Scientific Assessment.” (1979): Air Force Data Control Unit. Machine Methods of Weather Statistics. New Orleans: Air Weather Service, 1948. Air Force Data Control Unit. Machine Methods of Weather Statistics. New Orleans: Air Weather Service, 1949. Alaka, MA, and RC Elvander. “Optimum Interpolation From Observations of Mixed Quality.” Monthly Weather Review 100, no. 8 (1972): 612-24. Edwards, A Vast Machine Bibliography 1 Alder, Ken. The Measure of All Things: The Seven-Year Odyssey and Hidden Error That Transformed the World. New York: Free Press, 2002. Allen, MR, and DJ Frame. “Call Off the Quest.” Science 318, no. 5850 (2007): 582. Alvarez, LW, W Alvarez, F Asaro, and HV Michel. “Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction.” Science 208, no. 4448 (1980): 1095-108. American Meteorological Society. 2000. Glossary of Meteorology. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/ Anderson, E. C., and W. F. Libby. “World-Wide Distribution of Natural Radiocarbon.” Physical Review 81, no.
    [Show full text]
  • The Meteorological Magazine
    M.O. 514 AIR MINISTRY METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE THE METEOROLOGICAL MAGAZINE VOL. 78. NO. 922. APRIL 1949 ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH IN THE METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE By A. H. R. GOLDIE, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Early years.—The Meteorological Office has always had an interest in research; the selection or establishment of seven observatories in 1867 by the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society was one of the early steps towards providing data for exact investigation of weather phenomena. But it was only from about 1906 that the governing body took definite action to offer a career in research to its own staff. In the Report of the Meteorological Committee for the year ending March 31, 1906, we read that two new appointments apart from the Directorship (then held by Mr. W. N., afterwards Sir Napier, Shaw) were created in the Meteorological Office, to be filled by men of " high scientific attainments ", namely the posts of Superintendent of Statistics and Superintendent of Instruments. Mr. R. G. K. Lempfert and Mr. E. Gold were appointed to these posts. In the same report we read also that the Commission had been fortunate in securing the services of Mr. W. H. Dines, F.R.S., for the organization and control of experiments for the investigation of the upper air1*. And later we read that Mr. G. G. Simpson (afterwards Sir George Simpson, Director of the Office 1920-1938) who was acting as volunteer assistant to the Director had made arrangements for kite ascents in Derbyshire. In these appointments we see the beginnings of meteorology as a recognised profession offering a career for men " of high scientific attainments ".
    [Show full text]
  • Occluded Fronts
    O Occluded Fronts ride up over, a slower-moving warm front (in this case, impeded from coming inland by the coastal An occluded front is generally believed to result from mountains of the Scandinavian peninsula). With the merger of a cold front and a warm front during the meeting of the two fronts, the warm air the life of a midlatitude cyclone. The occluded front between them was forced aloft, leaving a boundary can often be identified by a tongue of warm air between two polar air masses that he called the connecting the low-pressure center to the pool of occluded front. Bergeron later determined that the much warmer tropical air in the warm sector of the occluded front formed when the cold front caught cyclone. At the surface, a wind shift and pressure up to the warm front, because the cold front was minimum usually coincide with the front. More rotating around the cyclone center faster than generally, the formation of an occluded front occurs the warm front did. Bergeron’s occlusion process during the occlusion process, a stage in the life cycle was incorporated into the landmark paper by of an extratropical cyclone when the warm sector Jacob Bjerknes and Halvor Solberg in 1922, “Life air is separated from the low center near the surface Cycle of Cyclones and the Polar Front Theory of and the low center becomes wrapped in cold air. Atmospheric Circulation.” The polar front theory [See Cyclones, subentry on Midlatitude Cyclones.] was the first to describe midlatitude cyclones Although controversy has surrounded the occlusion undergoing an evolutionary life cycle rather than process ever since its discovery, a new paradigm for maintaining a static structure.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Defender and Expositor of the Bergen Methods of Synoptic Analysis: Significance, History, and Translation of Bergeron's
    1 Defender and Expositor of the Bergen Methods of Synoptic Analysis: 2 Significance, History, and Translation of Bergeron’s (1928) 3 “Über die dreidimensional verknüpfende Wetteranalyse” 4 [“Three-Dimensionally Combining Weather Analysis”] 5 6 DAVID M. SCHULTZ 7 Centre for Atmospheric Science, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, and 8 Centre for Crisis Studies and Mitigation, University of Manchester, Manchester, United 9 Kingdom 10 11 HANS VOLKERT 12 Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre, 13 Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany 14 15 BOGDAN ANTONESCU 16 National Institute for Research and Development in Optoelectronics, Măgurele, 17 Romania, and European Severe Storms Laboratory, Wessling, Germany 18 19 HUW C. DAVIES 20 Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland 21 22 23 For submission as an Article to Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 24 25 26 March 2020 26 27 Corresponding author: Prof. David M. Schultz, [email protected] 1 28 ABSTRACT 29 Tor Bergeron was a key member of the famous Bergen School of Meteorology that 30 developed one of the most influential contributions to synoptic analysis in the 20th 31 century. However, the eventual success of the so-called Bergen methods of synoptic 32 analysis was not guaranteed. Concerns and criticisms of the methods—in part from the 33 lack of referencing to prior studies, overly simplified conceptual models, and lack of real 34 data in papers by Bjerknes and Solberg—were inhibiting worldwide adoption of the 35 methods. Bergeron’s research output in the 1920s was aimed at addressing these 36 concerns.
    [Show full text]
  • WMO Bulletin, Volume 46, No. 3
    THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations The purposes of WMO are: EXECUTIVE COUNCIL President J. W. ZtLLMAN (Australia) To faci li tate worldwide cooperation in the estab­ First Vice-President C. E. BERRfDGE (British lishment of networks of stations for the making of Caribbean Territories) meteorological observations as well as hydro­ Second Vice-President N. SEN RoY (India) logical and other geophysical observations related Third Vice-President (post vacant) to meteorology, and to promote the establi shment and maintenance of centres charged with the prov­ Ex officio members of the Executive Council ision of meteorological and related services; (presidents of regional associations) Africa (Region I) To promote the establi shment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of meteorological K. KONARE (Mali ) Asia (Region II) and related information; Z. BATJARGAL (Mongolia) To promote standardization of meteorological and South America (Region Ill) related observations and to ensure the uniform W. CASTRO WREDE (Paraguay) publication of observations and statistics; North and Central America (Region IV) A.J. DANIA (Netherlands Antilles and Aruba) To further the application of meteorology to avia­ South-West Pacific (Region V) tion, shipping, water problems, agriculture and S. KARJOTO (Indonesia) other human activities; Europe (Region VI) To promote activities in operational hydrology P. STEINHAUSER (Austria) and to further close cooperation between Meteoro­ Elected members of the Executive Council logical and Hydrological Services; A. A. AL-GA IN (Saudi Arabia) To encourage research and training in meteor­ Z. ALPERSON (Israel) ology and, as appropriate, in related fields, and to L. A.
    [Show full text]
  • UC San Diego SIO Reference
    UC San Diego SIO Reference Title Namias Symposium Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6qn0c3st Author Roads, John O Publication Date 1986-08-01 eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California NAMIAS SYMPOSIUM Edited by John 0.Roads Scripps Institution of Oceanography University of California, San Diego La Jolla, California Scripps Institution of Oceanography Reference Series 86-17 August 1986 This is the limited first edition of the Namias Symposium published by the Experi- mental Climate Forecast Center of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 86-50752 The cover shows three favorite meteorological drawings of Namias. From top to bottom they represent, work on isentropic analysis, synoptic analysis and atmosphere-ocean interactions. CONTENTS AUTOBIOGRAPHY Jerome Namias ....................... 1 ECFC, CRG and CARS .................60 The Long Range Eye of Jerry Namias Joseph Smagorinsky .....................63 A Method Pioneered by Jerome Namias: Isentropic Analysis and its Aftergrowth Arnt Eliassen ........................70 Residence times and Other Time-Scales Associated with Norwegian Air Mass Ideas Dave Fultz .........................82 Global Circulation to Frontal Scale Implications of the "Confluence Theory of the High Tropospheric Jet Stream Chester W. Newton .................... 103 Surface-Atmosphere Interactions over the Continents: The Namias Influence John E. Walsh ...................... 121 The Influence of Soil Moisture on Circulations over North America on Short Time Scales Richard A. Anthes and Ying-Hwa Kuo ............ 132 Some SST Anomalies I Have Known, Thanks to J. Namias Robert L. Haney ..................... 148 The Characteristic of Sea Level Pressure and Sea Surface Temperature During the Development of a Warm Event in the Southern Oscillations Harry van Loon .....................
    [Show full text]
  • Tor Bergeron (Biography)
    Tor Harold Percival Bergeron David M. Schultz Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies, University of Oklahoma, and NOAA/National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, Oklahoma, USA Robert Marc Friedman Department of History, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway An entry in the New Dictionary of Scientific Biography Editor-In-Chief: Noretta Koertge To be published in 2007 by Charles Scribner’s Sons 19 December 2005 1 Bergeron, Tor Harold Percival (b. Godstone, Surrey, England, 15 August 1891; d. Uppsala, Sweden, 13 June 1977), synoptic meteorology, cloud and precipitation physics, weather forecasting. Bergeron was one of the principal scientists in the Bergen School of Meteorology, which transformed this science by introducing a new conceptual foundation for understanding and predicting weather. While developing innovative methods of forecasting, the Bergen scientists established the notion of weather fronts and elaborated a new model of extratropical cyclones that accounted for their birth, growth, and decay. Bergeron is credited with discovering the occlusion process, which marks the final stage in the life cycle of an extratropical cyclone. Bergeron also contributed to cloud physics, most notably the description of the Bergeron–Findeisen process by which precipitation forms inside a cloud containing both ice crystals and water droplets. The Early Years Bergeron was born in England to Swedish parents and raised in Sweden. His mother knew Nils Ekholm, director of the Swedish Meteorological Institute (SMI), which proved valuable for the young Bergeron. After receiving his B.Sc. from the University of Stockholm in 1916, Bergeron spent the summers taking observations of visibility at different locations around Sweden and returning to SMI in Stockholm during the autumn to complete his research.
    [Show full text]
  • Limitations of the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen Mechanism in the Evolution of Mixed-Phase Clouds
    3372 JOURNAL OF THE ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES VOLUME 64 Limitations of the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen Mechanism in the Evolution of Mixed-Phase Clouds ALEXEI KOROLEV Environment Canada, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Manuscript received 23 August 2006, in final form 19 December 2006) ABSTRACT Phase transformation and precipitation formation in mixed-phase clouds are usually associated with the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen (WBF) process in which ice crystals grow at the expense of liquid droplets. The evolution of mixed-phase clouds, however, is closely related to local thermodynamical conditions, and the WBF process is just one of three possible scenarios. The other two scenarios involve simultaneous growth or evaporation of liquid droplets and ice particles. Particle evolution in the other two scenarios differs significantly from that associated with the WBF process. Thus, during simultaneous growth, liquid droplets compete for the water vapor with the ice particle, which slows down the depositional growth of ice particles instead of promoting their growth at the expense of the liquid as in the WBF process. It is shown that the WBF process is expected to occur under a limited range of conditions and that ice particles and liquid droplets in mixed-phase clouds are not always processed in accordance with the WBF mechanism. Mixed-phase clouds play an important role in the cloud, melt at lower (warmer) levels, and finally turn formation of precipitation, radiative transfer for cloudy into raindrops. atmospheres, Earth’s radiation budget, and climate. In the 1930s, Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron Mixed-phase clouds are thermodynamically unstable and German meteorologist Walter Findeisen contrib- and the process of phase transformation in them is of- uted further to the ice crystal theory, which became ten referred to as the “ice crystal theory,” which origi- known as the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen1 (WBF) nated in the works of Wegener (1911), Bergeron theory.
    [Show full text]
  • Weather and Climate As Shape-Shifting Nouns: Gordian Knots of Understanding and Prevision
    History of Meteorology 7 (2015) 1 Weather and Climate as Shape-Shifting Nouns: Gordian Knots of Understanding and Prevision James Rodger Fleming [email protected] Colby College “[Technology] is cutting the Gordian Knot instead of untying it” — Carl-Gustaf Rossby1 “Why should nearly perfect forecasts be unattainable?” — Chaos” — Edward N. Lorenz2 “Climate” deserves to be a keyword in the vocabulary of culture and society. It is arguably one of the most linguistically complicated words — a historically shape-shifting noun — whose meaning has changed and is changing, perhaps faster than the climate itself. Its nature, history, and vicissitudes are key concepts organizing our ideas of the aerial environment and our relationship to it.3 Although climate can be depicted and modeled, it cannot be directly visualized or forecast. The relationships of climate to meteorology and meteorology to climate studies are also dynamic. This article reviews the changing nature of ideas about climate over an extended time period, with special focus on developments in dynamic meteorology and dynamic climatology in the period 1900-1960, and with an update for the twenty-first century based on the implications of chaos theory. It adds a temporal dimension to the science and philosophy of weather prediction and climate change and the ways we think about the interrelationships of weather and climate. It may be a truism for historians that anything that can be named had different meanings in different eras, but some philosophers, with notable exceptions, have overlooked this.4 When doing epistemology, it is important to think about the history of 1 C.-G.
    [Show full text]
  • Sverre Petterssen, the Bergen School, and the Forecasts
    Proceedings of the International Commission on History of Meteorology 1.1 (2004) 8. Sverre Petterssen, the Bergen School, and the Forecasts for D-Day James R. Fleming Science, Technology, and Society Program Colby College Waterville, Maine, USA Introduction The beginning of the end of World War Two in Europe depended on what were arguably the three most critical forecasts in history -- two successful ones by the Allies and one failure by the Germans. On the Allied side, six meteorologists working in three different teams were responsible for the D-Day forecasts. The American team used an analogue method that compared the current weather with past conditions. Their forecast was overly optimistic and would have resulted in disaster on June 5, 1944. The British Admiralty and the British Meteorological Office urged delay. They were aided by the brilliant Norwegian theoretician Sverre Petterssen (1898-1974), a giant in the field of weather analysis and forecasting and an international leader in meteorology during the mid-twentieth century. In the wee hours of June 5, beneath the storm-drenched skies of England, the Allied forecasters advised General Eisenhower that a very short break in the weather would allow the invasion to proceed. On Tuesday, June 6, 1944, under barely tolerable conditions, the largest amphibious landing force ever assembled landed on the beaches of Normandy. Ironically the German meteorologists, aware of new storms moving in from the North Atlantic, had decided that the weather would be much too bad to permit an invasion attempt. The Germans were caught completely off guard. Their high command had relaxed and many officers were on leave; their airplanes were grounded; their naval vessels absent.
    [Show full text]