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Guide to Climatological Practices Guide to Climatological Practices 2018 edition WEATHER CLIMATE WATER CLIMATE WEATHER WMO-No. 100 Guide to Climatological Practices 2018 edition WMO-No. 100 EDITORIAL NOTE METEOTERM, the WMO terminology database, may be consulted at http://public.wmo.int/en/ resources/meteoterm. Readers who copy hyperlinks by selecting them in the text should be aware that additional spaces may appear immediately following http://, https://, ftp://, mailto:, and after slashes (/), dashes (-), periods (.) and unbroken sequences of characters (letters and numbers). These spaces should be removed from the pasted URL. The correct URL is displayed when hovering over the link or when clicking on the link and then copying it from the browser. WMO-No. 100 © World Meteorological Organization, 2018 The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Short extracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, provided that the complete source is clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, reproduce or translate this publication in part or in whole should be addressed to: Chair, Publications Board World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 7 bis, avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03 P.O. Box 2300 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 81 17 CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland Email: [email protected] ISBN 978-92-63-10100-6 NOTE The designations employed in WMO publications and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WMO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WMO in preference to others of a similar nature which are not mentioned or advertised. PUBLICATION REVISION TRACK RECORD Part/chapter/ Date Purpose of amendment Proposed by Approved by section CONTENTS Page PUBLICATION REVISION TRACK RECORD . iii FOREWORD . ix CHAPTER 1 . INTRODUCTION . 1 1.1 Purpose and content of the Guide .............................................. 1 1.2 Climatology ................................................................ 1 1.2.1 History. 2 1.2.2 The climate system ..................................................... 3 1.2.3 Uses of climatological information and research. 6 1.3 International climate programmes ............................................. 7 1.4 Global and regional climate activities. 7 1.5 National climate activities. 9 1.6 Quality management ........................................................ 10 References ...................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 2 . CLIMATE OBSERVATIONS, STATIONS AND NETWORKS . 15 2.1 Introduction ................................................................ 15 2.2 Climatic elements ........................................................... 16 2.2.1 Surface and subsurface elements ......................................... 16 2.2.2 Upper-air elements .................................................... 19 2.2.3 Elements measured by remote sensing. 20 2.3 Instrumentation ............................................................. 20 2.3.1 Basic surface equipment. 21 2.3.2 Upper-air instruments .................................................. 22 2.3.3 Surface-based remote sensing ........................................... 23 2.3.4 Aircraft-based and space-based remote sensing ............................ 24 2.3.5 Calibration of instruments .............................................. 26 2.4 Siting of climatological stations ................................................ 27 2.5 The design of climatological networks .......................................... 28 2.6 Station and network operations ............................................... 30 2.6.1 Times of observations .................................................. 30 2.6.2 Logging and reporting of observations ................................... 31 2.6.3 On-site quality control ................................................. 31 2.6.4 Overall responsibility of observers ........................................ 32 2.6.5 Observer training ...................................................... 32 2.6.6 Station inspections ..................................................... 33 2.6.7 Preserving data homogeneity ........................................... 34 2.6.8 Report monitoring at collection centres ................................... 34 2.6.9 Station documentation and metadata .................................... 34 References ...................................................................... 36 CHAPTER 3 . CLIMATE DATA MANAGEMENT . 39 3.1 Introduction ................................................................ 39 3.2 The importance and purpose of managing data .................................. 40 3.2.1 CDMS design ......................................................... 41 3.2.2 CDMS data acquisition ................................................. 43 3.2.3 CDMS data documentation ............................................. 44 3.2.4 CDMS data storage .................................................... 45 3.2.5 CDMS data access and retrieval .......................................... 45 3.2.6 CDMS archives ........................................................ 46 3.2.7 CDMS security ........................................................ 46 3.2.8 CDMS management ................................................... 47 vi GUIDE TO CLIMATOLOGICAL PRACTICES Page 3.2.9 International CDMS standards and guidelines ............................. 47 3.3 Quality control .............................................................. 48 3.3.1 Quality control procedures .............................................. 49 3.3.2 Quality control documentation .......................................... 50 3.3.3 Types of error ......................................................... 50 3.3.4 Format tests .......................................................... 51 3.3.5 Completeness tests .................................................... 51 3.3.6 Consistency tests ...................................................... 51 3.3.7 Tolerance tests ........................................................ 52 3.4 Exchange of climatic data ..................................................... 53 3.5 Data rescue ................................................................. 55 References ...................................................................... 57 CHAPTER 4 . CHARACTERIZING CLIMATE FROM DATASETS . 58 4.1 Introduction ................................................................ 58 4.2 Dataset evaluation ........................................................... 58 4.3 Qualitative visual displays of data .............................................. 59 4.4 Quantitative summary descriptors of data ....................................... 60 4.4.1 Data modelling of frequency distributions ................................. 61 4.4.2 Measures of central tendency. 67 4.4.3 Measures of variability .................................................. 69 4.4.4 Measure of symmetry .................................................. 70 4.4.5 Measure of peakedness ................................................. 71 4.4.6 Indices ............................................................... 71 4.5 Correlation ................................................................. 71 4.5.1 Contingency tables .................................................... 71 4.5.2 Measures of correlation ................................................. 72 4.6 Time series ................................................................. 72 4.7 Interpretation of summary characteristics of climate .............................. 74 4.8 Normals ................................................................... 75 4.8.1 Period of calculation ................................................... 76 4.8.2 Stations for which normals and averages are calculated ..................... 76 4.8.3 Homogeneity of data. 76 4.8.4 Missing data .......................................................... 77 4.8.5 Average daily temperature .............................................. 78 4.8.6 Precipitation quintiles .................................................. 78 References ...................................................................... 79 CHAPTER 5 . STATISTICAL METHODS FOR ANALYSING DATASETS . 80 5.1 Introduction ................................................................ 80 5.2 Homogenization ............................................................ 80 5.2.1 Evaluation of homogenized data. 84 5.3 Model fitting to assess data distributions ........................................ 85 5.4 Data transformation ......................................................... 85 5.5 Time series analysis .......................................................... 86 5.6 Multivariate analysis ......................................................... 87 5.7 Comparative analysis ........................................................ 88 5.8 Smoothing ................................................................. 89 5.9 Estimating data ............................................................. 90 5.9.1 Mathematical estimation methods ....................................... 91 5.9.2 Estimation based on physical relationships ................................ 91 5.9.3 Spatial estimation
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