By Umair Janoo Submitted to Central European University Department Of

CEU eTD Collection

T HE P OSTCOLONIAL in partialin fulfilment for the degree of Master H ERITAGE E Supervisor: Professor Liviu Matei DUCATION Central European University Department of Public Policy :

N EW Budapest, Hungary Umair Janoo Submitted to L AND THE P ITERACY OLICY IN 2013 By

P TUDIES AKISTAN

of Arts in Public Policy

ANGUAGEOF

I NSTRUCTION

CEU eTD Collection Signature: Name (printed letters): Da aThis is true copy of thethesis, including final revisions. been academic degree non or has which material no contains thesis This made. has acknowledgement been due where except person other any by published previously material no contains thesis this th I, Declaration Author’s te: e undersign e

UmairJanoo

- degree program, inEnglish in or any language. other 6 Th

July 2013

hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. To the best of my knowledgemy of best the Tothesis. this of author sole the am I declareherebythat ……………………………………………………… ………………………………………

cetd s at f h rqieet o ay other any of requirements the of part as accepted ………………

CEU eTD Collection in the countryremovethe class divide. to selectthe region onemedium andultimately ofinst educationmaking attempts todecolonize thehistory systemwhile language ofthe in English Pakistani education system needs remove to andch inconsistencies abrupt dissertation This English. concludes educationas inthe country college education and in university isconducted inPakistan regional languagealso users is Thismarginalization facemanifest marginalization. higher in employment which results social inupwards opportunities mobility, Urdu and whereas, conducted inth which has ledto understanding the reason into andinsight for theincoherence inpolicymaking framework opini and scholarly studies which 1947 has been Government exhibited by the ofPakistan This Abstract

. The idea is explored under. The specifically the idea studies, lensof isexplored postcolonial literacy New dissertation an presents analysis ofthe incoherence in

understands literacy understands e national languagee national but,citizens Urdu, proficient enjoy English in themost

a class divide andformsa divide of class multiple literacies.education is state Most

on in this sub discipline sub on inthis has beento gainfurther employed

as a social process and not a condition. Theas process theoretical andnota a social condition. through carrying outthe analysis through carrying aforementioned i

since the independence the country of in ruction throughoutalllevels of language and educationpolicylanguage that anges inthe anges in Pakistan in Pakistan

education that the CEU eTD Collection projectI Knowingsaycan myself before a happen thedeadline. not lot. thatdoes their direct whichgave resilience andindirectsupport methe tofinishthis discipline Iacademia. like tothank all ofm wouldfinally the policy Central in andEastern problems Europe like tothank Professor Bacevic Jana for lectures her inthatcourse which meaware of made groundI able fromwhichwas torefine which myledtothis ideas review PolicyPublic Higher Educationand process. course as His theinspirational served Iwould like tothank mysupervisor MateiLiviu Professorfor hissupportinthe writing and Acknowledg ements

ii y professors, teachers,andfor friends mentors

–

an inPakistanialmost unknown area

dissertation. Idissertation. also would

CEU eTD Collection References: Chapter 4 Chapter 3 Chapter 2 Chapter 1 List ofFigures: Acknowledgements Abstract Contents 1.2 1.1 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.3 2.2 2.1 ------

Policy changes from 1989onwardsPolicy and nationalpreferences: changescurrent from Policy makingpost LegacyThe Colonial TheLiterature Scholarly onPakistan: literaciesMultiple thepostcolonialstate: and LiteracyNew and lens: Studies thePostcolonial Methodology: oftheAims dissertation:

......

- - - -

Policy Recommendations andPolicy Conclusion: Recommendations The Study: Case Literature Review Introduction: ......

......

...... - independence 1947

...... –

......

Early Domination of the English Language:the English Dominationof Early ......

......

...... iii -

1989: ......

......

37 33 27 22 20 20 16 12

ii 8 8 6 4 1

CEU eTD Collection Figure 8 Figure 7 Figure 6 institutions Figure 5 Figure 4 Figure 3 Figure 2 Figure 1 List Figures:of - – – – - - - –

Teacher qualifications in governmentTeacher in private and schools qualifications inPakistan Instructio Medium of Instructio Medium of Instruction preferenceMedium of primary at level the Distribution of UniversityDistribution enrolment inPakistan2010 bysector of UniversitiesDistribution Pakistan 2010 bysector in Instruction intheMedium ofsurveyedprivateeducation and public sector year Pakistan by in Newformation institutions of ……………………………………………………………………………

n preference higher at education the n preference secondary at the iv

………………………………28

level …………………………..30 - 2011 ………………………..30

level ……………………32 …………………30 - 2011 …………...34 ………….32 ………31

CEU eTD Collection a that priority power havefor since come thegovernments into independence its (Gadzar, yearseducation 16 ofPakistanof age. until toallcitizens gave 2012).25 AwasRTE, The therightcompetitive tofree included article and which (rightRTE education)through to in the constitution an 18 was in2010 e out sometimes made torectifyThese partand situation. of stunt attempts a the are sometimes political however, countriesunderperformanceaccept inthese and theoften their state Ita uncommon for not is education inanon canestimated by be fact that every 1 the 2012 (ASERNational ReportCard, 2012:1).Theeducation system ofthe inadequacy state yearseverybetweenchildren 16 agesand 1outof5 tobe the of6 outofschool Netmanifested EnrolmentRatesin itselfof inlow 56% common societal rhet rate by willcontested hardly be ornon officials economic by survey Ministry2010 published the ofFinance (ESOP, lowest literacyyear inthe rates regionat 58%inthe fiscal estimated 2010 the majornation is problem of illiteracy thatthecountrywith. Pak isfaced corruption unstable neighbouring and a states, weak fragmented institutions, democratic uns Pakistan has been state a since independence troubled its in1947. Chapter1 xtremely longtime table terrorism, form ethnic ofgovernment, sectarian conflicts, violence, militarycoups, – -

63 years63 after country theindependence the of

of genuine has politicalhowever, it in Pakistan taken will, thestate an Introduction: - state school National (ASER state ReportCard, 2012:1).

to realize theinadequacyto realize It itsinfrastructure citizens. its ineducating of oric toacceptoric thathas Pakistan n

underdeveloped country theproblemsto have aforementioned,

o ut of4children(6 1 -

offici

an education crisis. This crisishasan educationcrisis.This al stakeholders alike as it ispartalalike it of stakeholders as

2010 Education inPak Education th

amendment (ASERPakistan - 16 years)16 is - – 2011 (ESOP, 2010

that Pakistan include that Pakistan Among problems ofanAmong problems - 2011).

getting his orher his getting - istan has one ofthe 2011 by the istan has been not

This low literacyThis low attempts are

in the yearin the - 2011:8) and d the CEU eTD Collection Pakistani cit upward social andEnglish thenational preference thelanguage as is English for ofprestige, ineducation it an environment whatthe makes estimates of instruction a issue.The sensitive Asiahas South area been inlanguageswith of rich very cultural withthese lang andsentimental ties problem languages ofmultiple provinces being usedethnicities indifferent by different with Mansoor,2004; 2008). Shamim, instruction andmedium if theclassto seems divide it common inseminal academic works onPakistanistheproblem of thelanguages as selected a educatea standardized country national the with awhich however, curriculum, is reason trained personnel and vastgeographicalpolitical will, rural terrain in overpopulation areas, urban areas, in lack of fa various cite types different ofanalyses theinadequate reasonsfor ofeducation provision and Khurram,Joubish Rahman,2008andQureshi, 2010;Shamim, 2010; 2012). misinformed academicMost education being attestsin Pakistan toit on policy making hasty, work sustainable andincompetence the Pakistani statehas beneficial exhibited failure. and betheremight however, onpaper, inte GDPnever 2007:163).The (Siddiqa, above towards goneof commitment education 2.2% a democratic government ora budgetaryallocation education dictatorial the for regime, has electoral political ofvarious forces. After manifestos 2010 et.al) cilities forcilities urban the lack These rural and Pakistani citizen. of reasons arecorruption, ;

however, ithas always part a contested debates been of hotly thepolitical and izens (Rahman,izens 1997;Rahman,2001 more than 24 languagesmore PakistanIn alone than24 2004). (Mansoor, being used in such ,

incoherentand ultimately (Hoodbhoy, ineffective 1998;Memon, 1998;Jalil, mobility

the presence of many ethnicities and presence culturesethnicities the ofmany m

and internationaland competitiveness

situation more isthepresencesituation the dominance complex of of Although the national language isUrdu, ofPakistan rms of taking practical arecoherent,rms ofwhich taking measures uages makes the choice of a common medium of makesuages thechoicecommon ofa 2

). ).

securing whether itwas office, however, create (Rahman, 1997,2001,2004; as understood by aas majority understood by of aking it difficult it to aking However, the

the

CEU eTD Collection thePakistanicontinued additionstateinan to a Pakistani presence attempt tobuild butin bottom people and proficientUrdu thepeopleare in proficient who regional in langua class divide and i of these people their own mediumofinstruction towant as vernacular ashad it logistical their provinces theleft. after acknowledge didnot British The federalgovernment the seemed toestablish a neo entire process a building populationhascreated thecountry rift thenation in has in and and ofEnglish roots withthosewhospeak them.Therefore later theimposition Urdu on the Balauchi, Hindko, national language creation of time its Pakistan didnot culturalsuperiority. andeducational usage Pakistan enjoy in modern ofEnglish whichof day the English theform users of a in the colonial masters. Indiansanglicised act whobetween could asintermediaries native thelocal India The ideawas ofthe changed toEnglish. British Travelyan the mediumofinstruc that inthe19 pressurizationAnglicists from the thecountry.forces in position elitist an give it law, elite Pakistan i deological attached problems t

(Rahman, 2001,Mansoor, 2004) used English as the mediumofinstruction evenused as English the thoughUrdudeclar was

educational institutions andall matterseducational pertaining institutions tothe bureaucracyarmed orthe s a postcolonial thegover stateandin English thepresence of creation;

has seemingly been established with English speakershas seemingly followed establishedbeen at by withEnglish the top,

inherit a substantially developed well network dense educational at or the . and Seriaki In various parts of Pakistan people speak Pushto, Punjabi, Sindhi, In parts speak ofSindhi, PakistanPunjabi, people Pushto, various

however, thecolleges schools few and thatwere present Several charters andSeveral educationdispatches chartersalso reinforced 1835 after the colonial relationship between and thefederal government the

among others o it. H o it.

tion inBritish operatedtion toptier . This was made by heritage,. Thiswas possible colonial its the owever, th

and thesehave regionallanguages cultural deep century namely 3 Rahman (1997)Rahman notesthatwas it due to

66 years66 creation after of the Pakistan, Empire

LordL Macaulayand was a tocreate class of

schools in undivided inundivided schools nment institutions,

population and at of the time its ges at the ed th preferences ord e

a CEU eTD Collection plurality ofliteracy movetosignal the nowan complexity toliteracies is accepted field. ofthe language and literacy p from more literacya beingfocused on‘school’ situated andaccount much plural to of of a educationinstruction inits suitablesector. language of of such be Pakistan reasons will able to underdevelopment andwiththis English Urdu shareworthy thediscovery is inquiry.With of underdevelopment regional the relationship languages, however,the that the dominance of of proficiencymarginalized regional ofthe languages. This inone meanslanguage it be to what even considered planningandilliterate inPakistanwhilehaving gain further why into showed insight incoherence thegovernment hasinthe matte (1999), Hickling applyLiteracyNew approaches the Studies with inHigherEducation:Planning A Case StudyofPakistan The ofPakistan firstSabiha M sociolinguist no ethnographic or states A deconstruction of the problem 1.1 educationand inthe country thewellbein aitself inthe ofthe consciousness Thisis grave Pakistani citizen. for problemthefuture of regional language usersminimally being even or literate toestablish illiterate has seemed ideaas most ofEnglish speakers the country bei withEnglish regional Urdunation using and languages some -

just

Aims of the dissertation the of Aims has the beenlenso from done

Higher Education inthe countrysuggests.Anovel to approachas wouldbe thetitle - Hudon (2006) and amongHudon Brydon (2010) others sociolinguistic work has beenindepth. sociolinguistic situation carried the outtoexplore ractices diverse across ofpractice. andexpansion domains The ng used as the medium in elite in ng used as the medium

of language of instruction and effectsof language its postcolonial ofinstruction in literate speakers with Urdu as : f postcolonial by studies a few

address them andconsequentlyaddress the problemaddress them g of its citizens. g ofitscitizens.

developed inthe works of ansoor publisheda ansoor booktitled 4

as a m as edium of

(2005)

and non Literacyexpandedfield, as has a

functionally andliterate is clearly resultant duetothe is clearlyresultant instruction inschoolsall over

but that too mainlybut that too dealt

to the case in to the case scholars; - elite private schools.elite private The Giroux (1992), Giroux Spivak Language

however, almost Pakistan to rs of CEU eTD Collection private education inPakistan. that has duetothedifference come intoformation ofinstructionin medium used and inpublic proceed will established, thedissertation corresponding onthe case Pakistan. works a After has strongtheoretical been of background debates and inpostcolonialliteratureliteracy ideas by and studiesfollowed new the be followed by methodologybe employed bediscussed. whichdissertation will This inthis will section will the challenges discrepancy the thePakistani education of andin favouritism system, In toaddress order the ques life stake chances holders ofthe involved? different applicationthis for bringing equality ofdifferentand languagesthe improving indevelopment Pakistan and level? primary and level being secondaryEnglish used but at schooling the colleg arereasons Urdu thebeinga thatusedlanguage ledofinstr to as studies andrelationship thelanguage its to used informal ofinstruction education? ofthedimensions concept ofliteracy literature, inpostcolonial new literacy specifically Pakistan’s education withan sector aim o This dissertation aimsatanalysingincoherenceplanning in of theproblem inlanguage important policy for thecountry’s insights sector. education theoreticalthe case Pakistan wouldhave to acade of framework considerable availablebeingLiteracy propagatedNew the novel application most under an of Studies, this appro This hasled toaplethoraofapproaches, example,ecological multimodal for approaches, aches, aesthetic and materialapproachesaches, and aesthetic cultural studies

How far New can literacy the studiesapproach toliteracy betothe case applied of what importantpolicy recommendations be and extracted implications from can

a literature reviewaimat elucidatinga themajor which literature scholarly will section t ions posed ab An evaluation constantly will be

with f shedding light in thequestions in light f shedding ove, after theove, introductory touchingupon after section

a case study theclassa discussing section d 5

. With a varietyapproachesWith of carried out in the casecarried out study uction

in Pakistan

of a) e and university mic utilityand

what arewhat

at the

b) What ivide the the

CEU eTD Collection of Rahman2004), (2004) (2008) KanuMansoor (1997, have and 2001, (2006), Shamim been us English of Pakistanand the toillustrate ofsuperiority internalized attached concept is that with To draw postcolonial this within theof conceptcontext relationship ofliteracy inthe case beenthe work reviewed including state attain. Therefore the understandsdiscipline, literacyas rather a sociala practise condition than societal values.New the However, literacy studiesbeing embedded tend andwider tomanifestineducational themwhich within themselves settings content nexus of thelanguageLanguages textshaswith beinghave a used. deep ideologies expressions, oflinguistic understanding. oral o The transmission function (1972; 1973; as ofreading understood as skills writing, simplyhowever, the and become with discipline manysub forms a ofinquiry. largeoverarching Traditionally literac ‘literacy’ the language with instructionusedand relationship informal its of education has of new literacy s the theoreticalaspect attempt theanalysis describedand above todrawrelatedTo discuss the policy implications. mainlyThis dissertation will consist of 1.2 conclusion. presented. onpolicy a Finally chapter implicat language design policy andthepoor isimportant that its repercussions can be cause will section tojudge -

Methodology ers and with regional illiteracy thesubsequent language users, associated the works

1985), Freebody and(1992) have (1997) challenged Girouxsimplistic this

the outcome ofthe outcome application thepostcolonial understanding of of tudies will bereviewed.tudies will the concept Todemarcatethe of boundariesof of this project, seminal works in postcolonial studies project, inpostcolonialstudies seminalof this works and thesubgroup :

seminal s of Jewitt (2006), Street (2009).s ofJewitt et.al (1984), Rogers literatur the review of secondary literaturethe review sources and to e which underse which ion and recommendationgiven followed is ion by a 6

most novelstrand this most sub within tands literacymanner inthis has scholarly worksscholarly byFreire f knowledge and the that citizens in a in that citizens why

y CEU eTD Collection Pakistan. consideredas well asesteemed have reliable those used most by academics who workedon crosscheck every official were theproduction discovered ofdissertation.attempt during this Everyhas been to made haveand unofficial conflicting figures, documents in the countryeducation researchfaced hasmany however,of local tothe lackeducationandpolitical due situation theunstable scholarship on caseterrorism inpoliticalscience,studies,security disciplines, studies and thesimilar occupies inthe geopolitical makes ofthe worthy region situation it of Pakistan isanunder researchedareaeducation. Thethatthecountry intermsposition of Thereare limitations that weretheproduction several faced ofproject. during this Firstly, to. Hoodbhoy (1998)and(1998), and Jalil Khawaja alsoreferred Andrabi,Das (2002) been have consulted. General ofthe system Pakistani education works and Tan namely (19 Jimenez Management), of Finance, Education,AEPAM(Academy Ministryand Educational of Planning reviewed.

To provide a factual basis and empiricalTo providedata,factual basis aandthereportsproduced by the ASER (Annu ASER

statistics thathasstatistics beenandwere touse presentedthesources which al Status ofEducational Status Report) among other sources been have

barriers.andOfficial often reportsstatistics also have substantial differences which being analysedabeing as Ministry 85), CEU eTD Collection dichotomy c thatStreet (2003) argue a concept understood a which has context. thatliteracy within cultural isalso The to be literacy has and isaconcept a which universally appli accepted Street thenew (2003)researchfocus literacy discusseschallenges that theview in that studies in stateeducation substantially been have marginalized. of the language English theconsumers and of educa private ideological wars. same power betweenmarginalizedobservable thatis thedominantand struggle the inother pluralistic conceptions literacy of and‘literacies’sub these are (Giroux, 1992) of literacygrounded approach inthis also studiesbeing pavesexistencefor way the of literacy not developed review theirThis iscarried idea under outunder research ofviewing questions. the major developments thefield literacy in and of hadbeen new theliterature that studies literacy tobe lit means and it what have made been tofocus by scholars aspects ondifferent problem of ofthemultifaceted critiques, or critique criticalare proposition ofthese adopted. theoryuse The for approaches of better objectivity in information, ‘knowledge’ and curriculum environments mainstreamofuniversality in design,school withclaims education microscope.a understandingthe better Toattain issues ofEnglishlanguage of dominance, extension; thedeliverance orpropagation of literacya been proble has LiteracyNew Alternativeofeducation, Studies. educate definitions whatand means by it to Th 2.1 Chapter2 e reconceptualization of education ofthe debate the has part initiatedof under banner been -

New Literacy Studies and the Postcolonial lens: Postcolonial the and Studies Literacy New

merely as the ‘acquisition butasas ofmerely a skills’ the ‘social 77). (p. The practice’ premise -

Literature Review

This dominant groupinthe Pakistani case tobetheThis dominant users has observed been reates is between the ideologicalreates isbetween the erate inthepostcolonialworld. reviewed Street (2003) the

general ofpostcolonial the lenses

tion, whereasstudentsenrolledtion, the

cable definition. In cable definition. they reality approaches to literacyapproaches where a

m under the scholarlym under jected tothe CEU eTD Collection Streetan overallthe idea (2003)for employed calling of redefinition ofliteracy isalso by underpinnings that can of literacy. imparting ofthese has The bigbusiness become andthus has skills important which allows onlyconsidered towards English the in functional those milestone and literate case ofPakistan forms ofcommunication important concern that idea of‘interdisciplinarity’and thepostcolonialappr actually meanswhere theangle is debates are intertwined.central Theconcern the iswiththe viewed goodhowever, as awhat public relating disagreements thenature a‘good’ to of relate isde argument toliteracy. The postcolonial critique seekstoachieve andontologicalepistemological that questions about the Brydonthe argument develops (2010) itself. in the ‘emerging experiences’that (Street,idea 2003:83) studentshave ofliteracy withthe of any ability generalizability. tohave The only doesnotlie interest context, inthe local but literacy that that toanextent illustrates new literacy notbeseena should (2002)concept, hadHull andSchultz already however, theidea applied ofnew of thetenets (2002) aboutClinton the the overemphasiscontext enoughtoromanticize onthe local account thecritiques discussing by new extendedtowards Brandt literacy comingan from for theimplicationson educationsystem. a However, Street(2003) balanced also gives 77). This unders of literacy more offersview a (p. culturally and which context sensitive is accommodating necessarilycome about of end The organically. other western tolit centric approach

. This dominance see. Thisdominance tanding raises severaltanding raises and epistemological concerns andontological questions

Brydon (2010) raises is the dominanceBrydon language(2010) the raises is ofthe in all English trace ofwestern outthe interests education.Overall theargument of –

scientific orotherwise eracy ona isimposed particularculture has it not where veloped the under concept that e ms to create an ideological permeable create semi membranems to

further bythe‘regrounding’further elucidating (p. 17) thatthe 9

which iscentral dissertation this andthe to oach towards it (p. 17). oach it(p.17). towards the dichotomyautonomous is the ducation should be should ducation s a narratives a devoid Another

model d CEU eTD Collection in the dominance languageEnglish ofthe earlier as andcurriculum design,way discussed the all formsinto edu ofmodern successfullywhichultimately westerncentric they propagated the did, that has seeped view world have wouldnot formed been way the currently the it isif colonial had not masters presence ofcolonialfurther influence they education select systemsthat from educational comparativists study. this to Extrapolating Crossley alsoTickly(2004) focusheritage and onthe postcolonial most present in thatis of th which doctrine are consideredstudy inthe ofknowledge and of included independent worthy paradigmatic oflocalized butthe ineducation sproutingout shift contexts ofknowledge transnational l concerned onfrom anAmericanEuropean withcentrism or however, standpoint, thisidea of establishment of a ‘transnational literacy’.Although the debate is by proposed Spivak the term has classic inits curriculum thecountry. in BaluchinamelyPunjabi, andothersHindko, Seraiki,whichpart have notbeen of any formal (Brydon, 2003:21). removededucation equation from withthe thejustificationofbeing it ‘notworth knowing’ information andknowledge whichabout iscontext the recipients rich knowledge is ofthat resulting has condition been‘sanctioned termed ignorance’ ‘informational’ approa The resulting inthetype deficiencies ‘knowledge’ thatisolated an of wouldfollow and Contenta (1993). Brydon thetaxonom inaddition to (2003) eplay. powerrelations at iteracy necessarily an as overarching isnot thesame hyper

This idea has applicability i

ch toeducationch also isofSpivak’sargument (1999) thefocus

sense as being withtheproposed solution (1999) by Spivak the

This form of ignorance is not necessarilyThis formisnot ofignorance as thesame themeaning cation with strong path dependence.cation path withstrong Thisdependenceisevident

ylevels ofthe ofliteracy argue thatthepresenteducationsystem ofthe 10 n thecase regional languagesinPakistan of

(p.337) through which the (p.337) through

explained - globalized globalized

by (200 Wells . The 8) CEU eTD Collection Andwhatmore of what questions intriguing read? write? to to the colloquialIn usage term. ofthe Therefore literate ofbeing theidea complicated in ismuch more than implies it themeaning subject orobject an oppressive ofits in whichthey theopportunity have toshape history i subordinate groups are offered subject “A (1992) argues thatliteracy a reachedis not condition that is buti reviewatthat this exploring. theconcept Discussing isaimed of‘racial democracy’ Giroux The as theperspectiveGiroux great work (1992) mentioned has ofabove underpinnings for including Paki CIEwhich boardsformer conduct examination most in colonies examinations British countries isalsoevident transnational but in or educational systemsas GCSE theBritish such This superiority ispresent way localizedarticulation forknowledge contextsTickly, theof (Crossley and and 2004:151). colonized subjects are manifest within dealing andlatent ways topave can subjugated be employs.It critical throughthis t is mindset (p.multiculturalism’ theideas 151) (1999) which thatSpivak iscrosscutting with also state that theidealpostcolonial theformation literature type of of a is ‘critical line onthis ofculture inquiry and education.Building the areaof aitself whereis almost illustrates theutility postcolonial thecusp analysis between can constructs social be such usedas class, roles, toview gender however,and slavery, race Tickly arguments bolster their (2004) They with. state further fra that the postcolonial peopleshaped inmodernis think academies bywhat westerncentric Crossleyand is the view arrangement o of scientificexperimentation, inquiry and scholarlyand andpractices theproduction n enabling condition for formsn enabling inwhich members of condition and for citizenship of dominant f the academyf the ofthe inthe‘epistemological’(p. world. 149)way The basis stan.

in rhetoric relating and culture to race withcolonized dealing addition to skills of reading and writing it implies the ofreading skills implies writingaddition to it and d colonizing practicesd colonizing - positions that address what it means to live inato live society that address meanspositions it what hat the apparentracial inferioritythat the 11

n emancipatory terms rather the n emancipatory thanbe terms , Crossley and Tickly (2004) furtherand Tickly , Crossley . ” (Giroux, 1992:1)

And most And most importantly which n essence it is becomes is n essence it

mework

CEU eTD Collection ofthe mainstream line reasoning thathavein this opinions produced according been to construction ofand a plural 8).The radical democracy” Freire (p. work of relations and soteachers thatindoing may envis interrogate, and disorganize dominant strategies destabilize, and ofpower knowledge power/ canemancipatory beformation which ensureof“critical can the measure can practice that ideological isbeingpropagated solidarity the Frei that inschools, of narrativesapparentof privileged for Tocounter transfer theofforms knowledge. such way ofknowledge inwhichthe inscription takes intricacies and place,linguistic thecreation competency’(p. 7). reasons that Mclaren The pedagogical of ‘produce transferoreven knowledge will has forma form of specific practical (1993) car literacycritical andofof curricula, newer theforms formation was Freire An 2.2 Pakistan which be will discussed inthe followingsec help thederivation in of truths’(p.7). ‘moral play notmanifest withthe‘inclusionwhich latentlyand atallpoints if exclusion’ isatwork hotbeds of objective impartment knowledge continuously. that aremade A that education institutionsare of spite in theclaims institutions notneutral ofneutrality and T (p. 2) discourses, andfrom whospeak textsofothers and differentexperiences” locations, histories, that tobecalled languages, thenmeans ‘literate’ a “undertake to dialogue withthe multiple language writing?to enable be should readingand usedthis he logical basis laid down byhe aforementioned, logical(1992)for paves basis laidway down Giroux theargument

academic whose aforementioned as work an inspirationfor served the practitionersof new -

Multiple literacies and the postcolonial state: the postcolonial and literacies Multiple not just adominant one not just ries an out in - depth analysis on his work andthatthe analysiswork makes onhis depth theargument .

This power case play This isevidentthe in of 12 (1993) (1993)

age aenlistingpedagogyage means inthe of tion. tion. gives for thisoccurrence ismainly t

Giroux (1992) therefore argues

reian of teaching method

(1972) (1985)

cultural power . Mclaren

differsfrom he CEU eTD Collection bycritically teacher informed the can ‘transnational literacy’ the tru 2011:6). Thorough theconsideration carrying ofwhile such concepts pedagogical out duties illustrated by Brydon’s concept (2010) ‘postcolonialpedagogy’‘cross and of high ethical code.and code theavoidance pitfal Thisethical aforementioned ofthe context understanding distorted culturalism whichby and needavoided tobe toa adhering textual an transnational literacysuccessfullycan promotearanging betweenengagements from nexus Leethe extent ofthere. new stop surelynot ideas adds does by theidea statingthat (2011) to (1999) Spivak point had focused carried noveltyand outif formsToelucidate oftobeharnessed. is expression this inopinions ofwesternmold whichpostcolonial academia in stateshyper ispresent needs forms be to programmed (p.3). themaps tovanishwhen were made” also but ofthewritingSouth ofcountless languages indigenous thatwere intheworld literaturea and tofosterbetter in through which thecan focus movebeyonddominanceofEurocentric the discussed at theidea length is ofthe r thedecolonizationeducation with process beginning of theclassroom. point Amajor (1999)LeeSpivak (2010) and onthe Brydon (2011)process ofdecolonizatio focuses criticalLee researchalso methodologyiswhat (2011)Building discusses. on thework of The jo understood. experiences, whoofferbody as but a groups taughtand legitimate ofknowledge tobe society postcolonial it societiesbe orotherwise, be simply plurality included to inthe of Mclaren inthatFreire (1993) urney towards the establishment ofurney a the transnationalliteracy towards developmentofa and the d literary levels, there however, tosocial isapitfall ofmisinformation, of out

(19

- 85) on writers from the Indian from subcontinenton writers the depth understanding ofthe “nationaldepth understanding literatures ofthe global

starts theanalysis by groupsstarts not oppressed in viewing ejuvenation of theejuvenation comparative of 13

The challenging andchallenging breakingtheThe of ly stand a chance stand ly ofbeing

literature ineducation

curricula and including Pakistan including - talk’ (Lee, l is l is n ofthe , CEU eTD Collection ancitizens, example Pakistan which Kanu being discussescase study. (2005) as a Pakistan However, some are countries not evenprovide able still to view ofliteracy, dominant cultures thereproduction also and increased. ideologieshas in terms of tostudents education provision its around constricted and theworld, the butin (2005) discussed that when is there theobservation hasa quantitat been sizable functional by literacycoined Freire when de describesand ofintellectual tobeobserved exchange thestandards asproperty that the need transnationaltransfer knowledgewhat is countries O’Donoghue(1994) todeveloping Critically a process which andoutside the classroom it from was within the missing case ofPakistan. that society. carried theeducation system outin Caribbean dis been have sector Hickling isthe work of Another example uponthe predicamen draws that government andeducationpolicy has traditionallyactive muchmore been strict aboutthe programobservedwhere thebinary ofreforms,inHongKong is where situation the governmentlacksinstitutions the political due toweak asconstituted postcolonial states,the kindofeducation reformsIn innature. differ Macau, the and legacies howthe inthese effectofcolonial areas reforms. Both isapparent being (2012)Chou traces theeducation out reformshave taken that place inHong underpinnings for inclassrooms. implementation practical dialecticalestablished althoughcomplexstrong theoretical withastronghave The base. ideas ciding on policy matters evenciding onpolicy view Keeping ingovernance. theconcept ofthe nalyzing the conceptnalyzing transnational(2005) the literacy, Kanunotes that Both scholarly works show the role of thestate role worksinfacilitating scholarly of Both showthe thedecolonization cussed. The author discusses how cussed. The discusses author - Hudson (2006)case and whereAustralia the studiesof

seems to reflect to seems racialandprevalent relations power in (1972) , the idea isagainanalysis idea called the , the into by Kanu 14

ts inapostcolonialstate intheeducationts power tocarryinterventionist outan

the process of decolonization whenthe process ofdecolonization a literacy functional totheir

Kong and Macau ive expansion .

CEU eTD Collection at the same deservesystem which intellect identify ideas preparesthemto the which while their nurtures today toa view notbesubjected should totalized ofculture, buttheycitizenship literacy and opportunities tobe creating It thecapacities,citizens. knowledge, with and passive about students is providing (1992) asdifference, “Educatingfor ethical about not democracy,and responsibility is and dominant cultures.importance achieving The t of yet the ideauntil oftransnational literaciesare establishedimposedrealities local instead of of what countsasand ‘literacy’ will ‘numeracy’ bematter (Street,2003:87) of contestation successful andsystems rejuvenatedThe education implementations established. TheStudies. practicalwith practitionersengagement ideas ofbe needs these solidifiedwith to Theby contributions madeLiteracy reviewed theworks heremajor been have toNew the ideal lite type ofthe transnational meanings from ofthe every part country, couldone it lead stepcloser theeducation sector to curriculum keeping consideration thedifferences was in tobe and designed inhistories broadens understanding’’context (Horn, 1999:29). of theour knowledge beingbody interpretations living ‘‘a tomultiple ofknowledge thatgreatly open havethings notcompletelyto critical settle,therefore ifdue research idea ofthe the local in (2005) development still notesits is Pakistani education thatsince the system In theepitomeschools. of Thisis postcolonial heritage inthe Pakistani context. Kanu relation LoCambridge or themost marginalization prestigious form imparted ofeducation thatis isthe inPakistan adopted from isimparted by the westbut systematic matriculate thelocal this system.Due to of the local more even been context has education its has in sector sufferedextremecrisis anand thebody ofknowledge which ispart

time having the ability having relationship atime it. tohave the reflexive with ndon B noisy, irreverent,noisy, a o ardenrolled examinations prepare whileat for private that students racy. nd vibrant…” nd vibrant…”

marginalized thanthe bodymarginalized thathas ofliterature been

(p.8) T his has been summarized byhis hasbeen summarized Giroux herefore the deserving studentsof herefore thedeserving

Therefore localized seta of if

contestation phase and CEU eTD Collection societies was that This existed theexact before faced theadvent ofthe British. problem inthe specifi that a level minimal rationalization had oflinguistic taken colonies, place inthe British dissertation. lens, namelyLiteracyNew S Thesegeneralattest theapplicabilityand to worksthe of the provide background academic surveys comparativestates inpostcolonial specifically and other research Pakistan. Tariq Banda and Topping(2012), ( haveforeignlocal been institutions universitiesofa suchas with Academics highquality. Ali, educat As mentioned inthe introductory thereisadearth academic section, of to literature inrelation critique ontheprogressionthatPakistani public educationstudent hastocope with. (2010) andwer (2010) Gazdar employed Andrabi,andanalysis. Khawaja Das (2002),andKhurram Joubish inthe Memon, policyeducation andis relevantwas for dissertation withafocuson this makingwhich collection of several which articles di yearsAftercompletion of fifty thestate, of Hoodbhoy (1998) thePakistan presents a provide a and generalsystem chronologicalanalysis background ontheeducation Pakistan. in conducted and Tan byand (1985 Jimenez and 1987) from apolicy andtogauge economic analysis toeducationhave viewpoint the returns been independence inwhich However, ithasevolved. academic andstudies purely the manner Pakistan onthe togainunderstanding way theeducati Kanu (2006) oflens thecase theclassicto is adirectstudies application postcolonial of 2.3 -

The The ion in Pakistan butthe worksion in which produced been have of collaborations through cally South Asia as it was it cally difficult Asia as South duetologistical reasons andthe multilingual sheer Scholarly Literature on Pakistan: on Literature Scholarly Powell (2002) bases theobser on arguments his tudies on the case of Pakistantudies which onthe case has of attempted been inthis e recent works which focuseeducationwhich orpresent recent onprivate works a 2007) and Powell (2002) haveand Powell 2007) been scuss resources, teacher primary and secondary higher 16

moreand recently Khan Khalid (2006) on system post reformulated was vation also (1990 by shared Dua

able tocarable

postcolonial ry out -

) CEU eTD Collection preferred any more English other than language. 1980s; The was of popularization theregime Urdu inthe 1970sand carried outduring ofZia ulHaq literacyemploymentare and majority bothalientoa populationofthe vast country. ofthe stat of Pakistanisonly language 2008(p thenative population in 235). This ofthe of8% bui their and marginalization thereconceptualization of literacy inPakistan. dissertationstudies lensthis analyses thereasons theimportance ofregional languages, for been presented by thes outcome inthesubcontinent. ofthe struggle power underEnglish colonial and times Urdu post languagehow the policy discuss (2008). Mansoorand (2004) Shamim testing andaccreditation have researched been 2001,2004), primarily(1997, by Rahman The areaand oflanguage thediscre policy colonial andpostcolonial also times observed by Powell(2002). Ras returncolonial of masters the India,Pakistan and be a policy would remnantofthis themarginalexploitative toincrease administrativeHethe superiority language purposes. discusses further the that in English of officersIndiansrather thanas pe who would call act promoted the Englishlanguage aswas simplyit toformclass easier tocutcosts a of native by Banda every (2007),states passinghowever regime. directly powers thatcolonial postcolonial era which as isevidentthearbitrary well in language p lds upon thefactlds upon the post istical evidence analyses and the show s ool

however,regimes the

et.al

(2007) who ultimately(2007) who claims thatstark similarity e authors provides the platform on which the through theNew providesonwhich theauthors platform through literacye -

independencewhich Urdu,wasnational as language declared the

beforeand twodecades afterthese manifestly have orlatently from Banda thework the(2007) subcontinent. of reviews dominance and unfair of languagedominanceand imposition which was These analyzing andoriginal seminal works in the

pancies in the selection ofinstruction, of pancies a medium that the twodominantinterms languages of that - independence has been a long trendindependence has a been long 17

These evidence thathas argumentsandthe ople from other parts of theople from empire other of for parts in the language policy of

olicy adopted inPakistan olicy adopted Shamim (2008)Shamim

in,

and ,

CEU eTD Collection changestudent facesw thatthePakistani language What complicates users. the according istheabrupt situation toQureshi (2012) the dividebetween and the dividebetween and Urduand Urdu regional usersthen English however, Pakistanwhere isasociety Lankascholarly Sri worksother as with deal countriesas and suchBangladesh societies be havethe problems a oflanguages beenprimary postcolonial to in problem understood important policy recommendations whichproject this upon. builds provide theanalysis thereasonsinto forthe consequent thedominance ofEnglishtherefore and divide; class these Pakistan. The researchdissertation thatthis aims question at addressing include aspects ofthe language English ofthedominance Lingard andQureshiand and Ali(2009), Karim Shaikh (2012) (2012) ondifferent focus 2006 2006; Siddiqui, competitive, the languageofthe ofinstruction being reasons one f meetinguniversities isnot theneeds whowishes tobecome ofthe student internationall education system attestsbeing tothe realitythatis the taught in thatthecurriculum offered inmajor s universities ultimatelyboard most suggests, however, courses which are inEnglish optfor as universitiestheautonomy have most and offer the respective todesigncourses as their instruction. The gap inthe language po Although ofainstitutions. theprevalent is of substandard quality, medium English of education withanon Pakistan. The that universitie authors most state Ali, Tariq and add Topping(2012) tothe analyses by onuniversity focusing education in by such scholars as and Rahim many Ratwattee (2004 tate universities in the country. Official inthecountry.tate on universities thePakistani and unofficial work with factual data from first hand and factual secondary as from surveys, wellwith data as firsthand ).

- reflexive between relationship thestudentsinthese andteachers the problem licy is further elucidatedlicy ofthese isfurther by thework a hile progressing inthehile education progressing system (p. 355). 18 s in

manifest education private inthe public and sector in Pakistan followan outdated s

itself oneveryrung of society i.e. ) and (2011 Hamid or thisinadequacy (Malik,

Qureshi (2012)Qureshi notes that s well;

colonial style

an inquiry ). These

uthors y CEU eTD Collection policy illustrated. be will inPakistan where thenew literacy between thenexus studiespremise ofinstruction and thelanguage the literature i seminal scholarly Pakistan has work been section; a however, on inthis reviewed majorityof yetof the country andsensitive regionally is displaysuniformity situation, showing lesser insome respects abilities thannon however, students studentshasacaliber of school thestarkwithpublic the difference, qualifications staff inpublic ofthe and teaching privat reports (2004) presented by Rehman and (2012)thatthe thesurveyby ASER state subsequent of disenfranchisement themasseseducational interms Many opportunity. to children whoattend whichshows theinad school going children have inPakistan exceptional inarithmetic tasks showedabilities comparison in Powell (2002) discusses thethat non cited reportwhich inHoodbhoy shows (1998) the dominantmediumofins receive educational inUrduwouldwantuniversity instruction andprogress to who where to This change 2004) who of isfacedthe by potentially65.3% studentpopulation (Mansoor, a coherent languagepolicy whi n the Pakistani education section come focus systemwill n thePakistani into thefollowing in truction is English. tructionEnglish. is

ch addresses from allparts theneedsch students ofthe 19

- school attendingchildren. equacy andthe curriculum ofthe e institutions is not very not is e institutions different, needs to be adopted. Some be to needs

In such - school

a CEU eTD Collection educationremainindependence, grounded still policy language in and inmental planning andreproduced is Banda independenceargues “ afterthe (2007) colonies. ofthe due topreferentialism language,presence in thehegemonic isoft African However,asaftereven well. social discovery inequalities languagesunderlying the of according toRas being accessible totheselected few.Theserelations issue ofl surrounding power the their vernacular exploitative inter oftheintentions colonial powersa rift tohave thelanguage visible in policyto suit Banda (2007)the work reflects on of Ras even native by its speakers. vernacular ed beconsideredarea of for would the unfit tocreatetimes superiority language, awiththe English attached specific whilethe tobe societyrun elite of educationdivision institutions.This during colonialwhichcreated was the selectedfewhad oftheon families received subcontinent who education in elites were who wereaffluentbureaucracy people either tothe armedforces, orbelonged or ‘talent the independence educationcountryaas for oftheonly certain inpolicies suchtype of officers forand the administrators reflectednarrative crownwas within the nationalist after local The conditions. policy policy countrymodifiedfrom tofit were measures borrowedthebuthadbeen home which TheIndia education policy according incolonial 3.1 Chapter3 -

The Colonial The ed’ underprivileged (Allender, 2009:741) orthe elites.for These people, exclusively -

The CaseStudy:

only prepared only s ests. The education minimal tonativesinEnglish ool

et.al L egacy egacy

(2007) between notjust isvisible but English in French and

of the British to create a thetocreate class toserve British ofEnglishmen local of as

them –

Early Domination of the English Language English the of Domination Early

for low skilled jobs with the more prestigious positions lowwiththe more jobs skilled for prestigious s ool

20 et.al

to Allender implemented (2009) c

(2007) who elucidates further the ucational purposes en observed tobenaturalen observed

with the majority being in (Mansoor, 2003) (Mansoor, e ofthe British …years after ertain anguage :

CEU eTD Collection reconceptualising language. the English anddecolonizing in the country,was thenon created beingEnglish the la which ledtothe mystification uneducated for native. the of waspromotion English done withthe aim ofcreating an impressionand of superiority the letting elites inwithout (p process‘Anglicisation’ of colonial theintroduction times of vernaculareducation was of the toreinforceposition the movement was boundaries maligned by ethniclinguistic and which tookthe form ofsub notes thatafterAlavi this creation (1989) the inrelation nationalist country, spirit to of the the policies a the colonial the deeper understandingand languages developmentmarginalizedactively by was oflocal an ideological entry. autonomous approachliteracy form, wouldbe Pakistan to and categorized as theideological As discussed inthe reviewsection, thedichotomy thatStreetbetween (2003) creates the data and national made befollowed simultaneously. will bya This section presenting empirical quantitative of t making Urdu language thenational of colonial eraand thepresen metropoles” (p238). subordination tocolonialcultures, and theomnipo he literatureand ofNewLiteracy ideas S fter a long and gruesomeIndia.after and longandnationalist movementwhich ledtoPakistan s

quite rapidly. masters;

preferences Pakistan. intheeducationsystem in

The however, what does not follow logicallywhat of suchhowever, doesnotfollow isthecontinuation After theAfter offrom dominance discussion thehistorical the ofEnglish

processcultural ofsensitivitywhich couldpromoted been have by Powell (2002) in relation to Pakistan similarlyPowell (2002)toPakistan inrelation that during notes t level of the dominanceofEng - commitment towardscommitment the development languages oflocal even or Pakistan will be discussed. and Reflections applicationPakistan will The problem whichthe problem Pakistani stateactivelyThe tudies and postcolonial be scholarlytudies will ideas nguage of elites and the key to better ofelitesnguage life and to chances thekey 21

tence Western ofthe ofthe dictates

270) to overstretch, however,270) to overstretch, the

lish, the historicallish, reasons for

nationalist CEU eTD Collection related were inPakistan toeducation Policy Education New Education The 1959,The Policy conventionally. marginalized inadecline theother languages resulting inPakistan ofliteracyas understood language Pakistan which thedominance and policyfurthered historyof ofEnglish failurerobust pol tomake education asin Pakistan a continuous policyexercise making ‘target (p 241) revision’ of expenseyears’(pLingard theAlisimilarly 308). and over last50 the process describe of has policy beencontinuing game a makers bemoaning new thefailure targets toachieve optimism same,unqualified and with the setting Bengali (1999) turns due ethnicand tonationalist, economic Rahman interests. Policy has makinginPakistan and been has politicized radical highly taken ideological many 3.2 (Spivak, 1 of a(Freire, of ‘functional literacy’withanenvironment ‘sanctioned ignorance’ 1972) languages of superiority resulting in empowerment citizens. oflocal eflittle the awarenesscondition without illustrate, it.However,thefollowingwill discussion as of creationa socio of literacy. colonial However, the conceptionof being varying ‘illiterate’ the condition out,with isruled and types degrees of literacya social as practisereached.In and rather a continuouscondition process than this TheLiteracy centralNew premise that S -

Policy making post making Policy fort tochange hasbeenmade dynamic inthe emancipation power and this toresult

999) ofto maintain theelites. the position at the bottom making them at the bottom

who Ra - hman (2004) notes that among the most important(2004)the most policy notes thatamong hman documents political environment

describes theprocess ofpolicydescribes astargets,making inPakistan ‘‘setting

icies is most elucidatedicies most is at the first of review theincoherent English atEnglish the top,followedregionaland by Urduthemarginalized - independence

experienceIndian subcontinent inthe clearlyillustrates the The hierarchy languages of

synonymous withilliteracy, impeded theformation has tudies scholars ba tudies scholars to keep a majority theinanoppressed nativesto keep of

have played played have 22

1947

- ad nauseam

1989 se their arguments on is to view isto arguments on se their

in Pakistan :

(2004)the work reflects on of and at greatand at public

with var with ying degrees . This

CEU eTD Collection medium ofinstruction are taken. the However, ideological study to willingness inaparticular language beforeregarding the decisions which alsostaff,constructed such needs beas teacher to programmes teaching training and dominance era.colonial report ofthediscusses UNICEF (2000) education medium argument recently thecultural for English isdifferent using from education for opportunities inPakistan studentsattendingpublic education. The classic removed occurred. as decolonization However, t same leveleducational literacy of education tokeep attaining themasses the thatwascreated from colonists deliberately by the that assumption (2008)Wells and Brydon (2010) as li discussed inthe power inasociety. relations the potency toreconceptuali and potential 242). can language be Althoughit in educationconflict, often a source ofinstructionhas employment social groups mobilityface and will which upwards while disenfranchisement(p of instruction more important (2008)Shamim reflectsthe workTsui(2004)thatmedium on ofwhostate and Tollefson is inculcated intogenerations ofcitizensthrough exposurean toalanguageearlyage. at propagation Theand onepractises cultural socio language. Thethe bestensure medium ofinstruction isto state apparatus thedominance and instruction has equally beenor ignored almost documents. controversial inthese policy policies have butthe inPakistan issue oflanguage mediumof followed been policyand 1998 till yearsbetween 1980and thewhiteand oneducation paper the 1972

20 10. Khalid andnote that Khan atotalof eight (2006)starkly however, different

education was a selective

decides which linguistic grou whichdecides linguistic was the first colonial elementhave firstbeenwas whichshould colonial the

se historical accounts and create a façade and accounts sea create historical over public good inpostcolonial states.The dispa public 23

haphazard policyhaphazard Pakistan at in the making

here isextreme di here terature workreview onthe sections - linguistic legaclinguistic ps will haveps will access better to

the supporting infrastructurethe supporting sparity in school and sparity in

policy betweenfollowed yof

the language rity in

CEU eTD Collection whereasestimates atshowsthatnumerically it 8%,which (2008) isa minority Shamim it the native language ofonly populationaccording 7.57%ce ofthe tothe 1998 speak mainlyBalauchi Sindhi, andPushtu Punjabi, between areascame native groupand this Pakistan populationofthe which the under who led tothedominantsocio intook upmajor positions thecivil service background. oftheireducational because rich This mainly settledinthesout Pakistan called the the peoplewasIndia who thenativefrom migrated state tongueof formed of tothenewly ownpoliticalnational its a languagealso had a inpostcolonialstates.However, priority thefor of selection Urdu governemnts as the a(p 2). to subaltern Thispoints inclusiveness native which culturalbe ofthe should practises discourses, andfrom whospeak textsofothers different loc histories, of more proficiency thanfunctionalityout to languages,in language,extending in‘multiple national language owncontroversies its attached had toit. foreign languagei.e. toanelite classforeign ofwhoare studentsin language.Thispoints profic more language, proficiency withthe student’s inthat languagebeing one the nation medium ofinstruction. Shamim andAllenfur (2000) privatenotes thatelite most as schoolshave inPakistan their continued English toretain reservedEnglish elifor the isaremnantin Pakistan ofpolicy theBritish twoeducationsystems, ofmaintaining onein of independencetime its shows otherwise. Giroux (1992)reviewed as earlier describes thecapacity andcomprising process ofliteracy al languagethe country of at independence upon its as istaughtonly a secondary Mohajirs

English than their ownlanguageEnglish hern cities of and Karachi - economic insocietywhich position has ledtomanyconflicts ethnic tes and the other vernacular syst

or migrants. Theyclass theeducatedin1947 of were people As discusses earlierAs discusses current system the education nd socio 24

Hyderabad –

ther Urdu add that - . not Urdu.

economicreasonsattached toit. However, the selection of Urdu selection However, the as the

em Rahman for (1996 themasses.

upon arrival in Pakistan and in upon arrival Mansoor (2004) Mansoorstates (2004) Urdu is

equivalent to that to equivalent ations and experiences’

which nsus (p334)

was declared ient ina

of a Urdu that )

CEU eTD Collection fruition andwasIslam seemed centred tobel largely on ignored and Muslims Urdu elites towards pushedthrough mediums.Theideologywas by the ofPakistan which bybe of malignedand education and English active marginalized between the separation knowledge,Islam as aand culture practisesmajor force which ideological see included of NewL better po the masses havingaccess little while English theelites to continued toacquire powerand Islam, th to someearly grievances for being elite schools used withUrdu for non Khan Khan’s ofinstruction inthegovernment 1950s.Ayub preferred as English themedium establishment of democratic government Immediatelyafter independence, in withpoliticalturmoil the faced Pakistan was thatlanguageimportant is wasissue separatistmovement. for a major that 1947. Thispower struggle spoke Bangla and thespeakers were in innumberPakistan than more groups any other Pakistan which Bangladesh, largely isnot as ethnicitywho hometoone thatpart was uniform toUrdustrongcommitment is despite thepr toUrduPakistanijust societycommitment is present political and rhetoric. in the maintains thatcontinues English tobe thelanguage ofthe echelons powerful of upper the propagation inPakistan (Shamim of Urdu identityand solidification of a Muslim identity andmain reasons thePakistani the for were associationIslam inpre ofand Urdu Muslims with lower than present reasonswhywas day. it The declared tobeth language today, even whereaspercentage share ofspeakers the at independence thewas time ose were limited. However,were the limited. ose d tential for success throughadvancedtential for success proficiency inEnglish. iteracy theorists Spivak (1999) Spivak and anditeracy Tickly localized Crossley (2004) theorists the against U led to the secession of Bangladeshled tothesecession of in r du, but due to the religious association of Urdu religious association with du, butduetothe of s, which led tothemilitarys, which of government Ayub ual education policy continuedual with education ofthe British oblems that its spread thatits causedtheformeroblems East in , 2008). However, Mansoor (2004) still , 2008).still However,(2004) Mansoor 25 - native speakers allnative overcountry. the Thisled

- partition India.partition Therefore, theformation 1971; e national the was language Reflecting ontheideasReflecting

however, whatis

argely by the The med to CEU eTD Collection and Khurram,Memom, Joubish 2010) periodthis and a subject fromhad substantial teacher however, Gradelost 1onwards, Pakistan resource during announcedgovernment ofBenazir Bhutto yearsthroughout the whenaand Pakistandemocratic the entered even era in1989 Pakistan incomparison withthe public sector madrasahs. and Figure 1clearly exponential formation institutio showsthe ofprivate growththe in changes instabilityeducation. inthe public andsector that thegovernment the displayed for th school level. was The thesefailed decision Both reversed governments to by 1989. making Urdu instruction thecompulsoryand examination, language of but government ofZia ul superiority Afterestablished. been ofthegovernment, had thefall Bhutto the military to develop local large nationalizationof scale theedu people. Anmade by attempt wasa inthe toreverse1970swith regime theBhutto thedecision the beginning studentand of which massstudent theelite twoclasses divide resulted of in higher the useat ofUrdu education level, the primary but Commission in 1959propagated at English as the the thelanguage useinstruction of of education system ofthe country policy interms ofThe apparent. language Sharif became As early policy as 1959,the thepublic/private incoherence between sch was higherbarrierscreated studentin education. inUrduandfor thestate school level which English was in unmatchedschool the whereas student, by thepublic which iselucidatedL New by the same elites rather whoEnglish preferred thanUrdu. e large private sector educatione largeprivateduewas ideological tothe sector rampant which growing languages; s well as a s well as

Haq

in 1979

grip onEnglish however, avail no toalmost as itwas theprecedent ofEnglish iteracy lens. One literacy One iteracy lens. was as superior it

also attempted to Islamizealso attempted to theeducational curriculum by cation systemand ofcation theprovincialauthority devolution .

Crossley and Ticklyand fromNe Crossley (2004) the the re

language teaching expertise (Shamim, 2008; languageexpertise teaching 2008; (Shamim, 26 -

introduction of English to be of to English taughtas introduction This createda dual literacy inthe country and secondary level. This marked This and secondary level.

This growth continued This growth ool system andool higher againat only the

had the w Literacyw other literacy

ns in ns in account

skill skill a CEU eTD Collection and implementation withprevious ofeducation policycomparison go in country.Although the a Musharraf for government proEnglish understanding had thedesign previouslycame severalconductedbetween 2012inthe from studies 2003 and empirical towards policy this was thelanguage very which not from different polic of Brock theclassroom in consequences whichhave ofusingEnglish inthe documented studies been schools onan experimental basis,(2008) however, Shamim discusses the neg The suggestedfor paper English theteaching introducing and insome ofscience mathematics colle suggested the continuanceas themediumofinstruction ofthe at policythe ofusingEnglish government notmake did tothe whitepaper any substantialThe changes policies. which was by overthrown the In byanother onEducationwas government published thedemocratic 1998whitepaper 3.3 for private schools local which curriculum additions andmodifications statewithpossible schools wouldoffer priorities of theeducation polic nolocalwith almost knowledge thatcountries theyare oftheOne that in. ofthe taught schools which CIE prepare for and theGCSE inBritain are students examinations designed an egalitarian bothlanguages for platform t anywithout orUrdu ateaching effortapproach to create newwouldprovide toEnglish which Theit. governments grappledwith the questionof mediumofinstruction aforementioned residue thedominance without of language functionality oft oranyEnglish colonial language superiority thecolonial toprovide from entailed a thatit Perspective decoupling curriculum andthe discusstheof importanceoflocalized successful - ge the andtheuseschool but level universityat ofUrdu level,

Policy changes from changes Policy - Utne (2000) Tollefson and Utne Tsui(2004).

instead offocusing ofinstead onthematter language alone coup d'état y todevelop have should a andcontinuously update rich been 1989 onwards and current national preferences: national and current onwards 1989

staged Musharraf.new The byPervez military o flourish. The curriculumtaughtinprivateo flourish. 27

The first critique that wasThe extended that first critique he colonialhe mind

(Lingard and Ali,2009) . vernments, very little

yfollowed - ative set attached to paper paper .

CEU eTD Collection wheresituation for the count policy making country the past. clear But, with the colonial preferencefavour English creates aof in Pakistani government toempowerand the narrative decouple vernacularhistorical ofthe the who presents evidence the historic which of aplethora supports indicated preference this (p313). A view contrasting ispresentedby Khubchandani (2003) yieldedmedium ofinstruction. The study students,88%teachers 97% 91% and ofthe parents for educationwhere medium English isacompulsory thelanguage requir indicate anmajority unprecedented a ofstudents,andclear preference teachersparents having Karim discussthestudy and results Shaikh (2012) ofthe (2005) presented by Mansoor which in the country. wasaccessibility done toimprove the themajority English to education students of ofpublic Figure

1 : Source Andrabi, Das and Khawaja, Dasand 2010 (IGC: Source Policy Brief) Andrabi, ry’s authorities becomes authorities challenging.ry’s Another 28

al yetal rhetorical the stance of

ement and aement

CEU eTD Collection introducing themedium ofinstruction. uniformity in therefore calli figure can 7,it observed that86% inthepublic sector ofenrolment be is universities, domain. Comparedyear withthe universitywide inthe enrolment 2010 44% falling thepriv in education opportunities. still is asmall it English, minority and it consequently hasaccess higher better that to figure 5, theeducation in 2013). institutions country EducationCommission, (Higher school level, inoneof the studentshave theonlychancesenrolling better of 135 higher in stateand thecountry. private in schools tothe common usage Due o a instead clear preference ofEnglish, however, for theuse Urdu italsoofEnglish down break that Pakistan alsoASER conducted a survey shows largescale results publishedin2012,which but atthesame collegesand timeuniversities. employingin English result for higher in English education(Gilani 2013). Researchand This Gallup foundation Pakistan, favour primaryandeducation, 60%English secondary forof English for education and 65% have illustrated inFi been to beused at secondary the primary, andeducation level.results ofthe higher The survey survey conducted by

are than different

clearlythe state’scontradicts Urdu at policy ofpromoting the lower levelsofeducation,

some schools in ng for need more public sector ofimprovingthe education system and Gallup Pakistan Gallup the twosurveys presented The infigurethe aforementioned. results 5show ate andate under 56% public percentagethe of falling purview the

Figure 6 shows the distribution ofFigure universities 6showsthedistribution bysector which is

the province of gures 2,3and 4respectively.

showed a majority sizable having preferencefor English

Punjab have changed the medium of instruction to have changedPunjab themedium 29

The figures were as high as high were 49%in figures as The

f English at the privatef English - 2011 illustratedin 2011

As indicated in CEU eTD Collection

Figure Figure Figure 4

2 Medium of Instruction preferenceof MediumInstruction at HigherEducationthe Level

Medium of Instruction preferenceof MediumInstruction primary level at the 3

Mo I p referen ceat

secondarylevel GallupPakistan,2013 -

Source: GilaniSource: Pakistan,2013 30

Research foundationResearch and

Source:foundationandGilani Research G

61% preferred English, Rural Respondents Respondents Rural English, 61% preferred preferring English 75%, rural respondents respondents rural 75%, preferring English Secondary Education: urban respondents urban Education: Secondary choosing English 77%, 77%, English choosing - Primary Education: Urban Respondents Urban Education: Primary

Source: GilaniSource: foundationResearch and Higher Education: Education: Higher Source: Gilani Foundation and Gallup Gallup and Foundation Gilani Source:

Pakistan, 2013 Pakistan, Gallup 43%. 53% 53% urba Pakistan,2013

rural respondents respondents rural

n respondents respondents n

allup

CEU eTD Collection current from lessons some with specific regime, policy the recommendations application of challenges. consideration Keepinginto thehistorical formand to coherencethe system provincial governments thedemands in while meeting and resultant thediscussed addition to above.in failurePakistani Thiswas federal subsequent of disparity and inelite English masseducationinother languages apparen is small minority theIslamization continuance nation building, the and of purposes for ofa Thethe national selection aswas thoughit oflanguageeven thenative Urdu language a of

Figure 5

ASER Pakistan (National Pakistan Report 2012,ASER Card), page 75 31

context withthe policy challenges inthe t byevidence t the

CEU eTD Collection with aconclusion. the NewLiteracyconception of studies languagefollowingsection policy are presented inthe Distribution of Universities Enrolment

Distribution of Universities by Sector by Sector in Pakistan 2010 in in Pakistan 2010 Figure Figure 7 6

Source: AEPAM 2010 Source: AEPAM 2010 32

- - - 2011 2011 2011

2011

Public 56% Public 44% Private Public 86% Public 14% Private

CEU eTD Collection government. education thetrust ofthecitizenry andwhich regain be will should a a priority for committed par withThis thecurriculum taughtinprivate schools. Therefore,adequate resources a todesigning made new tobededicated at need curriculum level one with class Urdu and dedicated toEnglish not functioning therestin is efficiently. ideaacceptance needsof bilingual education gain thatthetype to being impar of literacybeyond moves proficiency which languages.Lastly, introductory inmultiple single various however, inPakistan, ethnicities living expert uniformity and at proficiency least a in culturalas symbols Urdu protect suchimportant or languagesto is regional the Latinsociety oftheand sc thenew aboutsection opinion the language showthebeing national the lingua francaofmodern administrators. needs bewith in to coupled national ofinstruction offor level astate for commoneducation. medium theselection instruction ona national scale therefore needs a decision bea to and made provincial on viewed favourably; all however, r languages cannot produced capabilities Thirdly, ormultilingual need inthese languages. Bilingualism tobe wherecentreseducation institutions more inhigher literature and work translational be can needs thelevelraise be to by made languages ofregional and Urdu to colonial elements superiority and Secondly, established inPakistan. effort a simultaneous p Ifmeasure any the disparity successful policyeducation isdesignedtoremove and inmass Chapter4 rivate education due needs tolanguage it firstly,from to English ofinstruction its decouple language isrequiredtoachieve quality an improved an ofeducation effective and type

Policy RecommendationsConclusion: and The preferencesEnglish whichin the previous were discussedof infavour - service tr ientific world.ontonational andHolding technological aining programs in English for English aining programsteachers in and 33

eceivemedium of the status ofthe

will ensurewill a state movetowards establishing languageestablishing

ted onthe state heritage the of

This the CEU eTD Collection primary theuniversity school upuntil level. system begin thestate can with creatingeducation a similar policy theboard across from andcommitment an incoherent including system dissertation haveoutthe poor management ofstate pointed schools, withweak political (1998), allocation ofchecksan these withminimal resources private schools being atpar. qualifications infigure summarised 8indicatenature the state qualifications ofteacher in and resources increase, supportthis inthecountry t related to however, the statistics bethat will madetheincreased theunavailability is against use ofEnglish of teacher self aforementioned a theeducationPakistan steer into direction will of systemin self subjectsUrdu. beingoffered Thispolicy withthe supplementarymeasures in measure establishment of Engl Detailed bewill required working upfor plans eachabove tobedrawn step describe and the Figure - im provement and a generalprovementreflexivea stake naturewithits holders. and Ageneral argument

Rahman (2004), Shamim (2008) Shamim Rahman (2004), 8

Teacher qualifications in governmentTeacher in Pakistan private qualifications and schoolsin ish as the medium of instruction with a with varietyish asthemediumand ofinstruction ofcore optional

This attests to theavailabilityThis atteststo teacherresources thepoor of but ASER Pakistan, 2012,p Pakistan, 77 ASER

and severalreviewed other scholarly works inthis

the languageAn overhaul ofthe policy. d balances tobe at play. Hoodbhoy

o teacher - correction, correction, -

Source:

CEU eTD Collection uniformitysensitivity withculturala level. provincial on literacies The be be needsto abolished. abolishment achieved might beginning withthe neonative disparitytwo different colonial governments. policies by which to This leads policy oflimitin of the languageopinion theseisnot it scholars, itselfwhich reflectselements, the but colonial thelanguage exclusivityIn attached teaching without thatis Pakistan. tothe language in the (2008)Shamim also propose thepolicy i of curriculum inall public and (p113). be private to applicable institutions teaching bemonitored should and committees by federal provincial withtheaim ofdevising a and executionprocess. challenges theto beestablished uniformity proposed for inthe policy thatneeds formation ethnicity raise proficient inaregional might tobecome which grievances could language pose people in living interior where in Sindh living mediumschoolsare Sindhi orspeaking operating Punjabi who native language isno more urbanization occurs and intra state liveinprovince mobility many increases, ethnicities preserve However, these vernaculars. study their befor to needs made studentsa optional in the academic arena. University departments On a provincialfederallevel, need regionalgivena and tobepreserved languages and place increaseeducation in the quality achieved may beoverall. of increase efficiency. thepropose With be essaysstudents forpurposes” are dictated examination tothe (p243). at orUrduleads English encouragement which of“rote to (2008)Shamim notesthatthe public and within privateare sector thegood teachers notvery addressed;

however, a uniformhowever, a language mayapply policy ontheteaching pressure to staff g it totheg it privateelite sectorin education and which andreflects employment KPK province mediumschoolsare whereactive. Pushtu currently Karim andKarim Shaikh (2012) similarlyst t the ones beingat offered the school levelexample for d in - service training programsyetservice training aslow sustainable nformed bilingualism with a with focus bilingualism nformed onEnglish 35 for thesebefor languages established to to need

learning of answers; for example, of learning ate that language English

The need problems to Mansoorand (2004)

Mohajirs Forcing an of

CEU eTD Collection the Pakistani nationaland provincial gain advantages andinternational ona national while maintainingthe cultural level with ties regional and languages and Urdu a heightenedproficiency studentscan Pakistani inEnglish, the policy that have recommendations beenhere. presented and sustainableappropriate with policy design resource to also allocations need the quality and deliverance ofeducation country. better political will inthe However, strong of instruction throughoutstate education prove will inPakistan step tobea major L chances of literacies literac withEnglish Theeducation has incoherencein Pakistan toseveral inlanguageandgiven rise policy types iteracy . Thiscan be as observed bya viewing literacy S tudies lens as was dissertation.tudies inthis lensasillustrated Auniform stance onthemedium

y potency themost e holding for identity. 36

social process through theNewsocial process through W ith a attachedith social value to mployment andmployment better life accompany

in making

CEU eTD Collection References: Chambers, Iain.Chambers, &Theories Practices Brydon,"Critical times." 2010. Diana. literacies globalizing for Vol. 6.Routledge, 2000. Brock literacyaLiteracy social as practice", of Journal Research, pp.337 34(3) Brandt,"Limits K.(2002)ofthe D.and local: Clinton, Expanding per Sustainable DevelopmentInstitute, Policy 1999 Bengali, Kaiser. from Countries."236 Postcolonial (2007): Language,Banda, "GlobalIssues Felix. and in Development: Education Pakistan, 2012,1 ASER, Pakistan. ASER, Harvard University Pakistan: Catering theurban to elite Andrabi, Das, and Khwaja.in Tahir,"The Asim Jishnu rise schooling ofprivate 1813 India,Allender, educational abroad: Tim.in 2009."Learning the colonial experiment 1919." Allender,India, Tim.abroad: "Learning educational experimentin the colonial1813 (2012): 1 in universities inPakistan." Topping. andAli, Akhtar,H.Tariq, Keith Riaz "Perspectives J. ofaca University NewYork. of Tuana (Eds.), ofAlcoff, ignorance:L. Three Epistemologies In & M.(2007). types. Sullivan S. N. Weekly Alavi, Hamza. "Nationhood and theNationalities inPakistan." Islamabad: NEMIS AEPAM. - 1919." -

Utne, Birgit.

Paedagogica Historica Paedagogica (1989): 1527

- An Analysis ofEducationalIndicatorsPakistan 28.

Paedagogica Historica Paedagogica

Race and epistemologies ofignoranceRaceepistemologies and

Border dialogues History of educational policy making and planning in Pakistan of educationalin policyandplanning making History Annual Education of ReportStatus -

Whose educationTherecolonization all?: ofthe African for mind AEPAM, 2011. AEPAM, (2002). - 1534. 4, no.2:16.

150

Journal of Further and Higher Education Journal ofFurther and

45, no.6(2009): 727 . Taylor 1990 & Francis,

or educating ruralor the poor?." 45, no.6:727 37

- 239.

- 741. . EducationIslamabad: Report, - (pp. 39 741

- . Education Report, 57). Albany: State Albany: State 57).

Economic and Political Political Economic and Critical Literacy:Critical

World and Bank ahead spectives on spectives demic activities demic Perspectives - 356 - of

- print . – . CEU eTD Collection

Education, 1998 Government(1998), National ofPakistan Policy Education 1998 (Albany:pp. 367 1993), SUNY, L.PeterLiteracy: McLaren, eds. Praxis, Critical andthe Politics, Giroux"Literacy H.(1992).Lankshear of and Difference," thePolitics and inColin Science,Political 2010. education inPakistan Gazdar, Haris. Education Policies : Essays inEconomics ofEducation Garrouste, 2007. Christelle. Group, 1985. Publishing Freire, Paulo. Freire, Paulo. Freire, Paulo. http://site.gilanifoundation.co respectively).” for Primary, Higher Secondary be Educationshould (49%, and English 60% and 65% GilaniResearch.Foundation, Instruction theMedium of Think “Majority ofPakistanis 2240 construction of socio Leong. Flowerdew, and Solomon "Presumed John, knowledgediscursive 2010. inthe Islamabad.of Pakistan, pp.1 EconomicESOP, Survey ofPakistan(2010 Islamabad.Pakistan, pp.1 EconomicESOP, Survey ofPakistan(2008),Chapter: Education; Governmentof Ltd, 1990. Pattanayak, ed. Debi Prasanna, Dua, H.R.(1990) January 19,2013). Education and international ineducation: acritical research introduction." Crossley,Leon T Michael,and 45, no.2:96 Perspective."A Postcolonial Hong Kong and Macau: 2012."The K.P. Bill Chou, ParadoxEducational QualityandPolicy ofEducation in - 2252.

40, no.2:147 Academic Complete Search - 110.

The politics of education: of The politics Culture,power, andliberation Consciousness Critical Education freedom action for Cultural

Policy failure, political constraints Policy constraints political resources: failure, andpolitical ba Gilani Research Foundation Gilani

Multilingualism from alanguage planningperspectiveMultilingualism in ERIC

- political andculturalpolitical identity." . Asia ResearchLondon and Centre,School ofEconomics

, EBSCO

- 156. - 1 2 Determinants andConsequences Language of -

436 m/?p=1847 (accessed Maym/?p=1847 8,2013). Academic Complete Search "Postcolonialikly. perspectives 2004. and comparative Multilingualism in India in Multilingualism -

377. host host

(accessed January 19,2013). 38 , EBSCO

. Harmondsworth: Penguin,. Harmondsworth: 1972 - . April 16,2013. 2011), Ministry2011), ofFinance,Government . 1973.Vol. 1.Continuum, host host Journa (accessed 2013). January 19, Chinese Education AndSocietyChinese . n.p.:2007. . Vol.61.Multilingual Matters , EBSCO l Of Pragmatics l OfPragmatics Comparative - Postmodern Postmodern 2010, Ministry of 2010, Ministry

host host

. (accessed Greenwood -

in 42, no.8: - sic

CEU eTD Collection

Toronto: Press. UniversityToronto of Kanu,(Ed.). Y.(2006). Dept., 1985. privaterole ofusercharges education and Emmanuel,Jimenez, andJee Nasir. "Pakistan’sJalil, education: The first decade." An Examination ofEducationinPakistan Private Partnerships. (2010).Hussein, Uzma Primary DeliveryPublic Education through Service inPunjab classroom practicewith Hull, Glyndaand A., Researcher L. RaymondHorn"Joe Jr, Kincheloe: A. Teacher and thestate: FiftyofPakistan years H 688 Tswanaeconomic African and miracle." the 2010."Pre Hjort, Jonas. 218. Academic (accessed EBSCOhost Search Complete, January 19,2013). OfInternationale EducationZeitschrift /Erziehungswissenschaft 52, Für Educational Change: Hickling 218. Education FürErziehungswisse /Internationale Zeitschrift Educational Change:for Challenges Educators." Comparative Hickling 192 identity: Thesuccess In Fishmanin Bengladesh. & J. (Eds.), O.Garcia Hamid, M.O.(2011). for Planning failure: planning andlanguage English and policy Gender andClass Inquiry,‘." "InternationalGrovogui, and Siba, Criticism. Postcolonial Reality of and Modes need ofreform." Greaney,and Vincent, Parween Pakistan: Hasan."Publicin Examinations A system in oodbhoy,of Pakistan’sHow." "Out educational Pervez. morass: Possible? - –

709. 20 3). NewOxford NY. York, University Press. - -

2006. "CulturalHudson, Anne. Complexity, Post 2006. "CulturalHudson, Anne. Complexity, Post

Power, Postcolonialism andInternationalPower, Postcolonialism Relations:Reading Race,

(1999): 27

Education and Education

(2004): 33 (2004): – \ In Katherin Schultz. Katherin failure continuum inlanguageandethnic failure ChallengesInternational Educators." Review for Comparative - 31. : Lyon,: Stephen M., - Curriculum as cultural practice: ascultural Curriculum Postcolonial imaginations . Vol.60.Teachers2002. Pr, College colonial culture, post

- - Peng Tan. 55.

the state: Pakistan Fifty years of

(1998): 1

School's out:School's out Bridging

Educational DevelopmentEducational

. Oxford University 2010. Press, . World Bank,Education. World and Training and Iain Edgar,and R. eds. The EconomicThe History Review - colonial economic success? economicThecolonial success? - 22. - Handbook of language and ethnicHandbook oflanguage and as

researcher." Hoodbhoy, op.citHoodbhoy, - - nschaft Colonialism and Colonialism and Colonialism

International Review Of

identity efforts identity efforts (1998): 136

Educational Educational -

of 52, no. 1/2: 201 52, no.1/2: in Pakistan: thein Pakistan: Shaping a Nation: Shaping aNation: - school literacies

(1998).

no. 1/2: 201 1/2: no.

63, no.3: Education

- 176.

(pp.

- . - - CEU eTD Collection

Malaysia and Kenya." Powell, Richard. "Language planningand review cognisance contextualrealities: of aPapua Guinea case New study." O'Donoghue, "Transnational ThomasA. take transfer and knowledge theneed to 2005 Ministry Education ofEducation(2004). SectorAction 2001 Plan Reforms: online." Sue. 2005."PedagogyMiddleton, and Post Scientific Research Pakistan: TheIssues, Key Problems andthe Challenges." New Farooq,Memon, M.J. G.R., and"Education Muhammad Khurram.in Ashraf Oxford UniversityUSA,2005. Press, Mansoor, Sabiha. 333 Pakistan." "TheMansoor,languages Sabiha.androleregionaleducation in of status inhigher standpoint." "CriticalLuke,Allan. literacy inAustralia:of and Amatter context 13. language education." Luke,Luke,Allan, Carmen Graham. and" Phil University Press. pedagogies learning and (pp. language 21 Luke, ontheInA. (2004).takes Critical critical.Norton & Two (eds.), B. K.Toohey Education global/national articulations education in policy." Lingard, Bob,and Ali."Contextualising Sajid Education aPaper: inPakistan, White Abstracts Journal Science OfPolitical The humancapitalsword? democratic legacy inpostcolonial development." LANKINA,Lullit Tomila,and GETACHEW. 2012."Mission empire, or or word Contexts." Plurilingual Khubchandani,Lachman M.2003."Defining Mother Tongue Education Of Contemporary Research InBusiness Organizational Practices Planning, and Recommendations." Karim, and Asim, Shehla

- 353. - 06. Gover

46, no. 1 (1994): 73 46, no.1(1994):

Discourse: Studies In The Cultural Politics StudiesInDiscourse: The Cultural OfEducation

, EBSCO

Journal of Multilingual andMulticulturalJournal Development ofMultilingual 7, no.3(2009): 237 Journal of adolescent &Journal ofadolescent literacy adult nment of Pakistan. pp.1 nment of

Language planning inhigher education:Language planning A host host

6, no. 6(2010): 672 6, no.

International Multilingual ResearchInternational Journal

Current issues inlanguageplanning Current

(accessed January 19,2013). Language Policy Shaikh. 2012."EFL Education inHigher inPakistan: - 88. 56, no.2:465 -

256.

40 -

- 3, no.9:105 105 7

2, no. 3: 239. 2, no.3: – .

the British empire: comparing Pakistan,the British

31). Cambridge, UK:31). Cambridge, Cambridge - 483. coloniality: Teaching “Education”

Globalization, corporatism, andcriticalGlobalization, International Political Science Political International

Globalisation, Societies and Globalisation,

43, no -

119.

. 5(2000): 448

3, no.3(2002): 205 Interdisciplinary Journal Interdisciplinary case study of Pakistan case studyof

Middle

25, no.4(2004): 26, no.4:511 1, no. 1 (2007): 1 1, no.1 Educational Educational - East Journal of Journalof East -

461. in - American American 02

- - -

279. 525. . -

CEU eTD Collection

91. in theoryand practice." Street, Brian. "What’sLiteracy “new” Critical approaches inNew Studies? toliteracy the vanishing present GayatriSpivak, Chakravorty. Australia.[Links] process experience." questionnaire Z. Siddiqui, Ayesha.Siddiqa, Inc." "Military Pakistan." "Trends, Fauzia. Shamim, and issues language challenges English in education in Matt 4. Multilingual development:language, education postcolonialcountries from Perspectives and Naz,Rassool, Maggie Canvin, Kathleen Sabiha Mansoor.and Heugh, andMulticulturalMultilingual Development Rahman,"The Tariq. ofinstruction controversy medium inPakistan." Pakistan." RAHMAN,"Language TARIQ. inHigher ACase Planning Education: Study of and Multi Rahman,"English Tariq. madrassas." Pakistan's language and English Urdu Rahman,"Denizens Tariq. ofalien w University 1996. Press, Rahman, Tariq,Knight. and Teri Education inPakistan In Rahman, Tariq Education Pakistan withRespectThe in (2010).System Inequality. to Pakistan: Oxford University Press. policy, andpractice: planning, A Asianperspective south Lanka.languageIn policyMansoor, inSri S. & R., Rahim, Investigating Ratwattee,InvisibleH. (2004). results: visible strategies, 358. $35 (hardcover)." Pakistan, by (2005). Karachi, Mansoor, S. Pakistan: Qureshi, "Language higher Muhammad in Asif. education:Acasestudy planning of : Lyon,: Stephen M.,

cultural Developmentcultural

Asia Pacific Journal ofEducation Asia PacificJournal Quarterly TESOL Contemporary SouthAsia Contemporary "Studyapproaches Pakistan: the revised in two ofstudents

(2006). Journal of Language, Identity & Language, Identity of Education Journal ers Ltd,ers 2007. . Harvard university 1999. press, . Oxford University Press, 2010. and Iain Edgar,and R. eds.

Current issues incomparativeCurrent education -

teaching institutions in teaching in Pakistan." institutions

41, no.2(2007): 433

A critique of postcolonial reason: Toward a reason:critique ofpostcolonial Toward of history A

22, no.3(2001): 242

Inside Pakistan’s Military EconomyInside Pakistan’s Language and politics inPakistan Language andpolitics

University of Western Perth,University Australia. of orlds: A survey of studentsorlds: Asurveyat andteachers of -

41 13, no.3(2004): 307 medium schools, and medium schools,

18, no. 2(1997): 145 18, no. 28, no.3(2008): 235

Shaping a Nation: An Examination of aNation: Shaping Meraj, &Meraj,(Eds.), A. Tahir - 436. Oxford University 474pp. Press. - 261.

(pp. 91

- Journal of Multilingual Journal ofMultilingual 326.

11, no.5(2012): 355

– 5, no. 2 (2003): 77 5, no.2(2003): 111). Karachi,111). - - 154. 249. . Karachi: Oxford

(2007).

Journal of Global issues in issues Global -

factor studyfactor Language Language

. Vol. - -

CEU eTD Collection

2013). Publisher Provided FullText Searching File Literacy." Yoo Pakistan." Don,Winkler, and Randy of educationHatfield. "The devolution in Whoseagenda? agenda? and W., Tollefson, James - Hyeok,"Globalization, PedagogicalImagination, Ezra. 2011. and Transnational

Washington, DC: WorldWashington, DC: Bank Clcweb: Comparative Literature & Literature WwwebClcweb: Comparative A Culture: Journal . Routledge, 2004.

Amy eds. Tsui, BM 42

(2002).

, EBSCO

Medium of instruction policies: ofinstruction WhichMedium

host host (accessed January19, 13, no.1:1. 13,