Canadian Military History
Volume 21 Issue 1 Article 3
2015
Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force
Mathias Joost
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh
Part of the Military History Commons
Recommended Citation Mathias Joost "Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force." Canadian Military History 21, 1 (2015)
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Scholars Commons @ Laurier. It has been accepted for inclusion in Canadian Military History by an authorized editor of Scholars Commons @ Laurier. For more information, please contact [email protected]. : Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force
Mathias Joost
he Canadian military services officers, reflected the diversity of Thave not been immune to Abstract: Leading into the Second views prevalent in Canadian society racism. During the First World War World War, the Royal Canadian Air towards visible minorities. Force requested Federal Cabinet recruiting officers at Militia units in approval of restrictive enlistment The focus of this paper is the British Columbia refused to accept regulations that effectively barred evolution and then demise of the Chinese-Canadians, with the result the visible minorities from serving. RCAF’s regulations, policies and that they had to travel to Alberta and Cabinet approved these regulations, practices for the exclusion of non- Ontario to enlist, while Japanese- yet by March 1942 these regulations white Canadians during the Second were eliminated at the instigation of Canadians were only accepted after the RCAF. This paper compares the World War. While there is some a great deal of lobbying. Black- enlistment practices of the Royal literature about the participation Canadians faced similar prejudice Canadian Navy and the Militia to of Black, Chinese and Japanese- to that of the Chinese-Canadians those of the RCAF. It then examines Canadians in the Canadian military the potential reasons for these RCAF in their attempts to enlist.1 The effort of 1939 to 1945, these works regulations, how they were applied refusal of some units to accept visible and the process leading to their do not treat enlistment policies in minorities into their ranks, however, elimination. Finally, the application any detail.3 This study will examine was the result of decisions on the part of the new, non-racist policies is the cases of Black and Chinese- of individual officers. There were no examined. Canadians; the special circumstances such proscriptive regulations. that limited participation of Japanese- Although members of those in place regulations prohibiting Canadians in the Second World War minorities who did participate in the enlistment of visible minorities in are beyond the scope of the present war effort of 1914 to 1919 acquitted most categories, and the government paper.4 Aboriginal Canadians will themselves very well, their efforts approved these regulations by not be considered as policy did not did not result in long-term changes orders-in-council. During the early restrict their enlistment. in practice – the opposite was true. years of the war policy rulings by The RCAF’s enlistment policies By the start of the Second World War, senior authorities further proscribed can only be properly understood the regulations of the navy and air enlistment of Canada’s non-white in the context of the policies of the force were specifically exclusionary; population.2 Actual practice, other two Canadian armed forces, only whites were accepted into however, was more flexible. In fact, the Royal Canadian Navy and the almost all categories for enlistment. while the RCAF was the first among Canadian Militia, 5 and Britain’s In the Militia, units were still able to the three armed forces to introduce Royal Navy, Royal Air Force and decide for themselves whether or not exclusionary regulations and policies, Army upon which the Canadian to accept visible minority volunteers, the service subsequently took the forces modelled themselves. with many deciding not to do so. lead in eliminating them. In many Both the RCAF and the RCN In 1938 and early 1939, the Royal ways these actions, together with established their exclusionary Canadian Air Force (RCAF) put varying practices of RCAF recruiting enlistment regulations in 1938 on
Published© Canadian by Scholars Military Commons History @, Laurier,Volume 2015 21, Number 1, Winter 2012, pp.17-34. 17 1 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
The original caption for this official photograph read, “Darkies, who with others, load Canadian Corps tramways with ammunition, resting.” These are just a few of the estimated 800 Black Canadians who served with distinction on the Western Front during the First World War.
that the RAF policy of pure European descent was maintained because
Canadian War Museum 19930012-397 Canadian War mixing “European and non-European subjects in the same fighting service raises grave practical difficulties.” The British Army required that for promotion from the ranks to combatant commissions as second lieutenants, candidates had to be of pure European descent, as well as being a British subject and the son of British subjects.11
the basis of British precedents. The March 1918 while leading his troops Royal Canadian Navy Royal Navy’s “Regulations for the during the German spring offensive, Entry of Naval Cadets” of 1906 Sergeant William Robinson Clarke he Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) stated that “candidates must be of of Jamaica and five Indian officers Twas the first of the three services pure European descent.”6 The Royal who served in the RFC and Royal Air to incorporate a racial enlistment Naval Air Service and the Royal Force (RAF). One Black-Canadian, restriction in its regulations and the Flying Corps (RFC), which in 1918 George Frederick Shreve, transferred last of the three services to modify had combined to form the Royal from the Canadian Expeditionary the restriction. In 1938, an order- Air Force, also required that officer Force to the RFC in August 1917 to in-council changed the regulations candidates be of pure European become a pilot, was commissioned so that candidates for commissions descent. This was enforced in Canada and served until July 1919.9 as officers had to be “of the white and other British Empire nations Between the wars, the three British race and must be a British subject in recruitment for the British flying services reverted to the exclusionary who has resided, or whose parents services during the First World War. regulations. Air Ministry Weekly have resided in Canada for two It was not, however, universal as Order 603/1921(issued 28 July 1921) years immediately preceding the white people with Maori background required that “[w]ith the exception date of entry.” Ratings also had to could be enlisted.7 of boys, recruits must be of pure be of the “white race” except that Such were the demands for European descent and the sons of the applicant only had to be a British manpower during the First World natural-born or naturalized British subject.12 The reasoning for excluding War that troops had to be recruited subjects.” The exception for boys was visible minorities was that “[i]t is, in from the non-white populations of later eliminated, and when the RAF’s general, considered undesirable to the British Empire, but officers from first recruiting regulations appeared mix Asiatic races with White under visible minorities rarely led European as Air Publication (AP) 948, they living conditions which prevail in troops or became pilots. Commissions codified the pure European descent small ships.”13 Confined spaces did were the last bastion of the pure and British subject requirements. not “lend themselves to satisfactory European descent regulation, as the The requirement to be of pure mixing” of races; “enrolment [of non- War Office considered that “a British European descent was also enforced whites] would cause immediate and private will never follow a half-caste for enlistment in the Auxiliary Air continued dissatisfaction amongst or native officer.”8 There were always Force and RAF Special Reserve.10 white ratings.”14 The objective was a few exceptions, such as Walter Tull, In 1924, in response to a question in thus to maintain “all Royal Navies… a Black Briton of Caribbean descent, Parliament, the under-secretary of of Pure European Descent and of the who was killed in action on 25 state at the Air Ministry responded White Race.”15 https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/318 2 : Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force
On 9 November 1942, at the Canadian David Tsubota enlisted in soldiers”).24 Within months of the weekly meeting of the Naval Board, 1940 and was soon released.22 Black- start of the war, the need to be a Angus L. Macdonald, minister of Canadians were also apparently British subject was removed from national defence for naval services, enlisted before the change; however, the requirements to be an officer in observed that the Army and the because of the lack of documentation, the Non-Permanent Active Militia.25 RCAF were accepting applicants of the exact number or details cannot The enlistment situation during all races, and urged that the Navy be ascertained. These Blacks were the Second World War was similar should consider doing the same. 16 enlisted into specific trades, such to that of the First World War. In May 1943 Naval Monthly Order as stewards and cooks, much as Commanding officers decided 2653 was issued, stating in part: the Royal Navy employed Chinese whether or not to accept visible “All applicants of whatever race stewards and cooks.23 minority members into their are to be treated on an equal basis units, and while military district as recruits. This includes coloured Canadian Militia/Army headquarters could and did apply citizens.”17 A proposed amendment pressure to have these individuals to Naval Regulations (“it is ordered he situation in the Canadian accepted, the headquarters were that any male British Subject of TMilitia differed considerably loath to interfere in what had any racial origin may be entered from the RCN. The Militia had traditionally been a commanding for the period of hostilities in the no regulations limiting enlistment officer’s prerogative. The result in Canadian Naval Forces”18) was not on the basis of ethnicity, only the both wars was that regiments in carried out until 22 July 1944.19 The requirement to be a British subject for some areas readily accepted Black- Navy, much the smallest of the appointment as an officer in both the Canadians, while in others did three armed forces, never had a Permanent Active Militia (the regular not. The creation in 1916 of No. 2 problem finding recruits,20 and there force) and the Non-Permanent Active Construction Battalion as a means was thus no apparent urgency to Militia (the reserves, or “citizen of allowing the enlistment of Black- change its enlistment requirements. Rather, the new policy appears to have reflected the convictions of the minister. Macdonald, formerly the premier of Nova Scotia and known as a social reformer, had taken the navy portfolio in the Federal Cabinet in 1940. He questioned the aping of Royal Navy personnel policies and urged changes that better reflected Canada’s more open society.21 During the period of restricted enlistment, several instances were
noted where members of visible Canada PA-178852 Library and Archives minority groups were enrolled. William Lore, a Chinese-Canadian, enlisted in January 1943, and was likely an exception based on personal intervention, in this case by Vice- Admiral Percy W. Nelles, chief of the naval staff, while Japanese-
Sub-Lieutenant W.K.L. Lore, RCNVR, photographed in Halifax on 27 March 1944. Lore, a Chinese-Canadian, was able to join the navy due to the personal intervention of the chief of the naval staff during a period of restricted enlistment.
Published by Scholars Commons @ Laurier, 2015 19 3 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
Canadians is well known; less so is option he was considering on the When pushed by members of the the fact that at least another 800 Black- precedent of the First World War public, Army Headquarters provided Canadians were able to enlist in other No. 2 Construction Battalion that had a standard response that as long units of the Canadian Expeditionary been organized in Nova Scotia, was as Blacks met physical and other Force.26 A handful of Blacks were contrary to government policy.29 Yet requirements for active service, even granted commissions, with a survey on recruitment indicated there was nothing preventing their Lieutenant Lancelot Joseph Bertrand that 14 units in the area had no enlistment.32 being among the first.27 Halifax was desire to enlist Black personnel.30 The situation was different in one area where some members of The consensus among MD 6 units Military District 4, with headquarters the Militia were prejudiced against was that coloured units or sub-units at Montreal, where Blacks, in this Blacks. The Black population of the be formed. In July 1940, however, case from the British West Indies Halifax area had been pressing in Army Headquarters, as Militia (BWI), were being enlisted. The the 1930s for greater participation Headquarters had been renamed, movement of individuals from the by their community in the Militia.28 confirmed that there was no intention British West Indies to enlist in Canada With the onset of the Second World to form such units, but, nevertheless, was well underway by the summer War, Militia Headquarters in the prerogative of commanding of 1941. In July 1941, the under- Ottawa advised the district officer officers to select recruits “should secretary of state for external affairs, commanding, Military District (MD) not be interfered with and that Norman Robertson, sent a letter to No.6, Brigadier H.E. Boak, that the no pressure should be placed on H. Desrosiers, acting deputy minister formation of coloured units, one them to take coloured persons.”31 (army), indicating that the colonial secretary in Jamaica wished to send men to Canada for enlistment in the Army.33 In August 1941 Major W.H. Scott, the district recruiting officer, MD 4, received letters from the commissioner of police of Barbados recommending two constables for service in the Canadian Army. Both letters from the applicants stated that they were Black. Major Scott replied that as long as the individuals passed the medical standards, no difficulty was anticipated in their
Library and Archives Canada PA 166096 Canada PA Library and Archives enlistment.34 Major Scott indicated in one letter that previous enlistees had acquitted themselves well, although no mention was made of their skin colour.35 Organized groups of BWI candidates began to arrive in Canada in September 1941 and continued until at least September 1942; the recruiting officer for the MD was quite receptive and the individuals, both Black and White were almost all readily enlisted into MD 4 units.36 Nevertheless, efforts were underway to turn back coloured recruits from the BWI. In response
Brigadier Georges Vanier, a future governor-general of Canada, chatting with a wounded Black soldier at No.17 Canadian General Hospital, Pinewood, England, 30 September 1943 https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/320 4 : Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force
Chinese-Canadian soldiers who served in the Canadian Army during the Second World War (l. to r.): Privates O. Lee, F. Lee, G.A. Lee, W. Lee, K.D. Wong and J.H. Ma.
to Robertson’s letter of July 1941, Desrosiers indicated that Jamaicans would not make good soldiers, as they were happy-go-lucky, worked sporadically, and were extremely temperamental, easily fatigued and highly emotional.37 This was 211879 Canada PA Library and Archives followed a week later by another letter suggesting that the Jamaicans could not handle Canadian military training or the Canadian military diet.38 No further correspondence appears to have been exchanged between Robertson and Desrosiers on the matter; however, the issue did not rest there. exclusion, wrote to Robertson that 75 or more likely to be closer to the In September 1941, T.A. Crerar, the “National Defence while not refusing actual number.45 Almost all the BWI minister responsible for immigration, to take coloured volunteers, wishes to recruits were successful in enlisting, wrote to defence minister J. Layton discourage the movement.”41 Collier including the applicants known to be Ralston warning that there was an noted the contradictory responses to Black. This suggests that the units in organized movement to send “negro his efforts to facilitate recruitment MD 4 to which they applied had no volunteers” from Barbados to enlist. from the British West Indies when he problem accepting Black recruits. Still, The first group had arrived on 26 wrote to Prime Minister Mackenzie both government officials and officers September and another group was King in October 1941.42 in Army Headquarters attempted to scheduled to leave around 4 October. The tide was beginning find ways to discourage coloured Crerar indicated that the matter to turn, possibly because of the applicants, using the excuse that this would require special handling to successful enlistment of previous was an immigration question, which avoid discriminating against the BWI applicants. In November, the conveniently ignored the fact that Black Barbadians as there were also judge advocate general at Army many American citizens were coming White Barbadians in the group and Headquarters suggested acceptance into Canada to enlist without such all were British subjects.39 In late of limited numbers of coloured impediments. September 1941 Desrosiers wrote to applicants and that training syllabi be For Chinese-Canadians, regional H.C. Collier, a Montreal businessman sent to the BWI to assist in preparing racism – in this case in British who promoted West Indies tourism these individuals.43 One last effort was Columbia – was also a factor. From and trade and was acting on behalf made in 1942 to restrict enlistment the data available, it would appear of the volunteers from the Caribbean, when Major-General Harry Letson, that actual enlistments were limited that the arrival of coloured persons the adjutant-general, took a different in number. The biggest problem was an immigration question. More approach, considering the problem to in determining the actual numbers important, Desrosiers noted that be one of repatriation after the war; is the fact that the Army did not there was a question of whether the he underscored that the Army had maintain lists of soldiers from visible coloured individuals could handle no obligation to return the recruits minorities. From the names and the Canadian winter, suggesting that to the BWI.44 narratives provided by Marjorie all enlistment be held in abeyance Although the records are Wong, at least 17 Chinese-Canadians until the spring.40 . Then in October, incomplete, at least 200 applicants voluntarily enlisted in the Army F.C. Blair, director of immigration, arrived in Canada from the British between the start of the war and the and noted for his efforts to apply West Indies up to August 1942; at end of 1942, including seven who policies in ways that achieved least 37 were Black, with a figure of joined before 1 January 1942.46
Published by Scholars Commons @ Laurier, 2015 21 5 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
Of the three services, the policies British subjects simply because of and practices of the Army were the skin colour. Yet, Army HQ was Table 1 least racist. There were racist units in attempting at the same time to push Enlistments by year for the some military districts, with possibly MD 6 units to accept more Blacks. Permanent Active Air Force48 some MDs having greater numbers than others. Individual racism existed Royal Canadian Air Force Strength as Number Year such as noted in the attitudes of unit of 31 March recruited commanding officers in MD 6 and by he RCAF’s adoption of policies 1933 694 0 the staff officers who prepared the and regulations that excluded T 1934 692 6 various letters cited above. However, visible minorities shortly before the the apparent wider enlistment of Second World War would appear 1935 794 109 Black and Chinese Canadians in the to parallel that of the RCN. Like the 1936 1026 246 Army suggests that most units treated Navy, the Air Force existed only in 1937 1107 120 applicants fairly and restrictions were cadre strength prior to rearmament 1938 1701 654 more a matter of local prejudices than in the late 1930s. Indeed the Air Force 1939 2191 482 Army policy or practice. was administered as a branch of the The enlistment practices Militia under the authority of the contrasted by units in MD 4 and MD chief of the general staff and did not 6 demonstrate this dichotomy. Quite achieve the status of an independent Allan English in his work The possibly, the circumstances noted in armed service until December 1938, Cream of the Crop suggests one the Halifax area were isolated and when Air Vice-Marshal G.M. Croil possibly important influence on not a policy within the Canadian became the first chief of the air staff. RCAF aircrew selection. Social Army as clearly, once these coloured With expansion and reorganization, Darwinism, he shows, played a role applicants had made it to MD 4, they the Air Force, like the Navy, took in aircrew enlistment in the British air were readily accepted by local units, guidance from its British counterpart. services during the First World War. demonstrating that allowing local Only two visible minority members, The exclusion of non-whites from commanding officers the freedom both Black-Canadians, are known to flying was based in part on the belief to select recruits could work both have enlisted in the RCAF during that white people were a superior for and against the recruitment the interwar period. These were race, especially in light of the success of coloured persons. Likewise the Gerald William Alexander Bell, of European nations over foreign, fact that Chinese-Canadians had who joined No.119 Squadron of the non-white nations and peoples. to go outside British Columbia to Non-Permanent Active Air Force These ideas of superiority extended enlist highlights the nature of local (NPAAF), that is the reserve force, to the belief that some ethnic groups prejudices. on 11 June 1936 and E.V. Watts who were better suited than others to be With its policy of allowing unit enlisted in No.1 Squadron of the pilots in terms of intellect, hand-eye commanding officers the freedom Permanent Active Air Force (PAAF), coordination and other physical to choose their own recruits, the or regular force, on 1 May 1939. attributes.49 Whether this was the Army was in part allowing racism In both cases the airmen enlisted case in the RCAF during the interwar to be conducted; however, it does before the adoption of exclusionary period is not known; however, appear that efforts were made to regulations. the close association between the apply pressure on units to change Although these are the only two RAF and the RCAF (whose senior their practices without stepping on visible minority members known to members had in many cases served the prerogative of units to choose have enlisted, this does not mean that with the British air forces during the from among applicants. On the other the RCAF was practicing exclusion. First World War) would suggest that hand, the efforts to hinder, if not The RCAF was a very small force that members of the RCAF would have prevent the entry of Black potential began to recruit significant numbers been exposed to this idea. recruits into Canada is indicative of only in the latter half of the 1930s, and English also observes that the a racist attitude, supported in part even then the number of positions Royal Air Force placed emphasis by government bureaucracy. Despite available was far smaller than the on class distinctions in selecting its efforts at Army Headquarters to number of applicants, allowing the pilots.50 There is no study available on turn back coloured applicants from service – both the regular force and whether RCAF pilots in the interwar the BWI in MD 4, the efforts were reserves – to select only the best period were selected on the basis of unsuccessful, possibly because of qualified candidates.47 class or whether class played a role the political sensitivities of rejecting See Table 1. in allowing some to be chosen over https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/322 6 : Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force
others, but several observations can commissioned as officers in both the be made. Individuals applying for PAAF and NPAAF.56 The change was the NPAAF of the RCAF were given promulgated on 15 September with some preference if they already the caveat that it was effective back had a pilot’s licence. Such a licence to 1 March. was not readily available to all For airmen, the change was Canadians. The costs involved were made only to the reserves, or high and beyond the reach of most, Auxiliary Active Air Force (AAAF) especially with the effects of the as the NPAAF had been renamed, Depression of the 1930s. In the same when Order-in-Council PC 233 vein, during the interwar period, the was approved on 31 January 1939 RCAF offered flying training to a and promulgated in RCAF General limited number of candidates such Orders that same day. Interestingly, as university students. Education the regulation here was stated was a large part of the selection negatively: “Men who are not both process as schooling was considered of pure European descent and the an indicator of intelligence, and sons of natural born or naturalized Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum Archives Image 594 Heritage Museum Archives Canadian Warplane provided essential background for British subjects” were not eligible flying training.51 Robin W. Winks for enlistment or re-enlistment.57 The notes that schools attended by Blacks speed with which the amendment were often not as good as schools in was approved by the Federal Cabinet predominantly white districts, being and promulgated by the RCAF underfunded and in some provinces, suggests there were no questions such as Nova Scotia, ignored by raised about exclusion on racial the provincial government. Often grounds.58 Strikingly the process Blacks dropped out of school by of amending the KR (Air) began grade six or seven.52 The problem when the RCAF was still under of obtaining sufficiently educated the authority of the chief of the recruits was such that the RCAF and general staff (CGS), who evidently the Army reached an agreement in accepted enlistment regulations more February 1941 that allowed the RCAF Gerry Bell, from Hamilton, Ontario, was restrictive than those for the land to recruit from among the Army’s one of only two known Black-Canadians forces. One explanation might be trainees and the Army Reserve. to enlist in the RCAF during the interwar adherence to the RAF’s regulations That same month Defence Council years. as a model for the reorganization agreed that the RCAF should have of the RCAF as a more combat first choice among applicants having (KR (Air)) pertaining to enlistment.55 oriented force, the foremost feature junior matriculation or lesser high Because the RCAF consisted of of Canadian rearmament on the eve school education.53 Thus, educational two components, the regular force of the Second World War. standards precluded a large part (PAAF) and the reserves (NPAAF), When Canada declared war on of the population from enlisting in and enlistment requirements for Germany on 10 September 1939, all the RCAF, including many visible officers and airmen were different, officers joining the RCAF and airmen minority members. four categories of personnel needed joining the reserves (AAAF) had to When the Canadian Air Force to be addressed: officers of both be of pure European descent, but no was established in 1923 (the “royal” components and airmen of both action had been taken similarly to designation came in the following components. restrict enlistments as airmen in the year), the regulations indicated that On 17 August 1938, the Federal regular force. The latter still had only the service was open to all individuals, Cabinet issued Order-in-Council PC had to be British subjects. provided they were British subjects.54 1994 which added the requirement Further restrictive regulations Starting in May 1938, in the midst of of “pure European descent and a and policies were to ensue with the expansion and reorganization British Subject, the son of parents wartime expansion. The terms of of the Air Force as a fully separate both of whom are, or if deceased service for neither the regular or armed service, there were changes were at the time of their deaths, auxiliary forces were fully suitable in the King’s Regulations and Orders British Subjects” for candidates to be to enlist large numbers of volunteers
Published by Scholars Commons @ Laurier, 2015 23 7 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
of the other components at their if deceased were at the time of their The December 1942 course at No. prewar numbers.60 deaths, British Subjects [underscoring 1 Initial Training School in Toronto With the creation of the RCAF added].”61 Airmen, on the other hand, included both Flying Officer Tarrance Special Reserve amendments to the could be of any skin colour and no Freeman and Flying Officer Alan Bundy, respectively the first and second Black- KR (Air) had to be made quickly. longer had to be British subjects if Canadians known to be commissioned On 29 September 1939, the RCAF they joined the Special Reserve. The in the RCAF. F/O Freeman is fifth from passed their proposed Order-in- latter change was likely made as the left in the back row and F/O Bundy Council to the Privy Council Office, Americans had been offering their is second from the right in the front row. which the Cabinet approved on 13 services to the RCAF since the start October. It included the provision of the war and were being enlisted. for service during hostilities only. For that candidates for commissioning See Table 2. this reason the RAF created a new in the Special Reserve had to be “of The exception that allowed component – the Special Reserve – in pure European descent and (except direct appointment to commissions September 1939.59 Henceforth, almost in case of an appointment to the in the Special Reserve for those not of all new enlistments were to the Special Special Reserve) a British Subject, the European descent in theory opened Reserve, leaving the establishments son of parents both of whom are, or the door for qualified members of
Table 2 Authorization Date of Restrictive Regulations and Policies Component Rank Restrictive Regulation Restrictive Policy Officers PC 1994, 17 August 1938 Permanent Active Air Force Airmen nil nil Officers PC 1994, 17 August 1938 Auxiliary Active Air Force Airmen PC 233, 31 Juanuary 1939 Officers PC 3050, 11 October 1939 Special Reserve Airmen Letter S6496, 1 May 1940
https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/324 8 : Racism and EnlistmentPhoto The suppliedSecond by World author, War courtesy Policies of RCAF of veteranthe Royal Don Canadian Stevenson of Air Abbottsford, Force BC who is first left, back row.
visible minorities.62 In fact, for the requirement that aircrew candidates Applications from Chinese aircrew trades almost all recruits be of “pure European descent.”65 By and Negroes in the General Duties started as airmen; 10 to 15 percent of January 1941 the RCAF had decided category were to be sent to Air Force the top graduates in each class were that visible minorities could enlist in Headquarters. The file had to include commissioned as, subsequently, were general duty trades, such as clerks, a recommendation concerning others who demonstrated leadership cooks, drivers, and mess men, but not their potential for service in the capacity in the course of their duties. in aircrew or groundcrew trades.66 RCAF’s “white environment.” The Thus, the possibility existed that a A letter from Wing Commander applicants should be: “adaptable, coloured airman could become an H.P. Crabb at headquarters to all temperamentally suited and of a officer in what was supposed to be recruiting centres on 7 October 1941 disposition likely to be equal to the a purely “European” officer corps explained the policy in response test of close association with men according to the regulations. to centres ignoring restrictions on of the white race. Actually, the Air While there was no regulatory enlistments of visible minorities. Force does not want coloured people restriction on visible minorities because of the difficulties of racial enlisting as airmen in the Special Notwithstanding the regulations differences.” Reserve, the RCAF set up barriers in the KR (Air), only those of pure No mention was to be made in part to prevent the situation European descent will be accepted to applicants that their application described above.63 In May 1940 for appointment or enlistment in would undergo a second review RCAF Headquarters sent a letter Aircrew. There is no reason why at Air Force Headquarters.68 Thus, to all recruiting centres that noted applicants should not be frankly while the RCAF policy indicated “obstacles which present themselves, told of this general policy as those that visible minorities could enlist and which prevent eventual not of European descent cannot for general duty trades, the RCAF enlistment of an applicant.” The then feel that it is a personal preferred that they not enlist. letter suggested that failure to pass discrimination. Despite the restrictions, some particular trade tests or medical Orientals and Negroes who are members of visible minority examinations could be used to find an British subjects cannot be barred groups were able to enlist and not applicant unsuitable for enlistment.64 from enlistment in any category necessarily in general duty trades. Further RCAF pamphlets and in General Duties for which they One Japanese-Canadian is known instructions were clear in their might be suitable.67 to have enlisted prior to the policy
Published by Scholars Commons @ Laurier, 2015 25 9 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
change, Jim Ubukata who was born within the RCAF, but so too did 1939 made the announcement that in Moose Jaw to an English mother the elimination of this policy in the the policy of accepting only those and Japanese father. He enlisted course of revisions of the regulations of pure European descent had been in the RCAF in 1940, being told by the personnel division of Air Force eliminated, and that all ethnic groups he would be accepted as aircrew. Headquarters in 1940-1941.72 were welcome. Author Marika Initially rejected for aircrew, he When the minister of national Sherwood indicates that this change was then selected for groundcrew defence for air, C.G. Power, read was more cosmetic than real as the training but then reverted to aircrew some of the new KR (Air) regulations Colonial Office used this as a ploy as an airborne radar operator due to he observed that the age limit for to retain the support for the war his prior training at a radio school. mandatory retirement had been among “coloured” colonial subjects The irony of the situation was that increased to age 60; he thought he during the hostilities, and that the he was initially not accepted for had agreed to 55.73 Air Commodore Foreign Office (FO) and Colonial aircrew due to his ethnic origin, Harold Edwards, air member for Office advised their officials that but later was accepted into a highly personnel, received the minister’s only whites were to continue to sensitive trade.69 The number of comments on 4 April 1941, and be accepted. How to handle the Chinese-Canadians known to have instructed his staff to change the age apparent contradiction between enlisted during the war is low. Of of retirement, and also to remove the the stated policy and the covert 69 Chinese-Canadians confirmed as section on pure European descent. 74 directions was not communicated to having been in the RCAF, only one Why Air Commodore Edwards officials, who were left to their own was able to enlist prior to the opening took the step of changing the devices.78 of enlistment to all in February 1942. enlistment policy is unknown. Whether Edwards knew of the John Victor Ching was enrolled on 6 Manpower shortages were not an British Parliamentary announcement, November 1941 in Winnipeg as an issue; at that time there was such a and of the confusion it created, is air gunner, and after completing his surfeit of applicants that the service unknown. On 20 May 1941 he wrote training was deployed overseas.70 could pick and choose for aircrew.75 to Mr. Dyke of the UK Air Liaison His enlistment, like that of Ubukata, It was only in the summer of 1942 Mission in Ottawa, requesting was an example of RCAF recruiting that the RCAF began to experience information about the regulations officers ignoring policy. recruiting problems, which came for nationality and racial descent Black-Canadians were far more after the racist regulation and policies for the RAF Volunteer Reserve, and successful in gaining entry to the had been eliminated.76 The change to about whether coloured persons RCAF, with eight of 49 known an inclusive policy, moreover, would were permitted as aircrew and volunteers enlisting prior to not have added many potential could be commissioned.79 However, February 1942, of whom six were candidates for RCAF service. Visible Edwards’ letter was sent after the aircrew or groundcrew. Another minorities represented a very small recommended policy change had two (Bell and Watts) were already fraction of the Canadian population, been sent to the Privy Council Office in the RCAF before the restrictive and fewer still had the necessary for Cabinet approval. It would enlistment policy was implemented. educational background or medical thus appear that in authoring the There is specific evidence for the status. See Table 3. elimination of the pure European circumstances of only one of the Edwards may have been descent restriction, Edwards acted eight pre-1942 wartime entries: following the lead of the British without detailed knowledge of the Samuel Estwick was able to enlist as government, which on 19 October RAF’s latest practices. This was in a result of political pressure.71 Equally interesting is the case of brothers Adolphus and William Carty of Table 3 Saint John, New Brunswick, who Canadians of Selected Ethnic Origin (1941 Census)77 enrolled in No.118 Coastal Artillery Co-operation Squadron in the first % of Canadian Group Men Women month of the war. No.118 Squadron Population was an Auxiliary squadron, to which Black 22,174 included with men 0.19 the exclusionary restrictions were Chinese 30,713 3,914 0.30 specific. The restrictions on enlistment East Indians 1,059 406 0.013 in the Special Reserve came from West Indians 2,219 1,915 0.04
https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/326 10 : Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force
character for Edwards, who was a passionate nationalist. Although he had begun his career in the British flying services during the First World War, and valued the professional and sentimental associations between the British and Canadian air forces,
he was determined that the RCAF PL 10578 photo RCAF should become a distinctly Canadian service, particularly in personnel management policies and practices that reflected Canadian society. In this respect his views were similar to those of C.G. Power and it was no doubt for that reason that the air staff selected Edwards to take charge of the RCAF Overseas in November 1941 to implement the policy of “Canadianization” to ensure that Canadian graduates of the BCATP served in Canadian, rather than British, units and formations.80 On 23 April 1941, Air Vice- Marshal L.S. Breadner, chief of the air staff, sent the revised KR (Air) paragraph to the minister for review. In his covering memo, Breadner stated: “In order to conform to modern conditions, the amendment herein to KR (Air), deletes the requirement that PL 10957 photo RCAF an applicant for appointment to, or enlistment in, the Special Reserve be a British subject and of pure European descent.”81 Unfortunately, the chief of the air staff does not explain what these modern conditions were. Power approved the revised section and sent it to S.L. DeCarteret, the deputy minister, on 12 May 1941 to be forwarded to Privy Council. It was approved as Order- in-Council PC 63/4015 on 5 June 1941.82 That Cabinet approved the change so quickly suggests that they were in agreement with the regulation, much as they had quickly approved PC 233 of 31 January 1939 quickly after receiving it. It also Top: At RCAF Headquarters, Minister of National Defence for Air C.G. Power meets the suggests the possibility that Cabinet heads of the various departments. Here he talks to Squadron Leader Harry Wright, was simply agreeing to whatever of the personnel department. Air Marshal Harold Edwards (second from left) and Air Marshal L.S. Breadner (second from right) are also present, 11 August 1942. recommendations were placed before them by the armed services during Above: Colonel, The Honorable J.L. Ralston, minister of national defence, and Air Marshal Harold Edwards at RCAF Headquarters in London. wartime.
Published by Scholars Commons @ Laurier, 2015 27 11 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
In a letter dated 28 May 1941 to proper staff work to ensure that Of the 39 Black Canadians and 66 Member of Parliament Clarence Gillis recruiting effected what the RCAF Chinese Canadians who enlisted responding to the latter’s inquiry desired. after the colour bar was removed, 33 about the enlistment of a Black The change in policy was not, Blacks and 56 Chinese were in the candidate, Power indicated that the however, an end to racism. The new aircrew and groundcrew categories.87 regulation on enlistment in the Special instruction had racist overtones A further area of potential Reserve had recently changed.83 In in that it used a stereotype that discrimination was that of limiting fact, Cabinet would not approve the most Orientals and Blacks were enlistment because of the lack of change for another week, indicating incapable of adapting to the RCAF education, which as noted, was an
the minister’s confidence that his work environment, and that only a area in which Black and Chinese PL 23230 photo RCAF colleagues would agree. The change few could succeed. These few would Canadians were at a disadvantage would also only affect candidates be carefully selected. The shift was and that Air Force Headquarters had for commissions as officers, while thus from one of institutional racism previously suggested was a means of the person for whom Gillis had through a complete restriction, to rejecting candidates. Yet 10 Blacks inquired was applying as an airman cultural racism based on the idea and 21 Chinese are known to have to the Special Reserve (see Table 2). that white individuals were better been sent to improve their education The letter moreover suggested that suited to work in an Air Force culture, under the War Emergency Training enlistment was about to be opened especially in a tightly-knit group such Plan (WETP).88 Under the WETP, to all, and this was far from the case. as found in a bomber crew. This was recruits who had a deficiency in their In fact, the policy of 11 January 1941 the Social Darwinism referred to by education but were otherwise suitable that limited visible minorities to the English in Cream of the Crop. for a trade were sent to upgrade general trades would continue in By shifting the review process their education at one of more than force for another ten months.84 to the Recruiting Centre the new 20 participating universities and The situation was to change policy of 31 March 1942 gave greater technical schools. completely on 31 March 1942. In a autonomy to the officers at the While the policy change of 31 letter to the commanding officer of front lines of recruiting. Allowing March 1942 opened the RCAF Special No.1 RCAF Recruiting Centre in recruiting centres to make the Reserve to visible minorities for Vancouver that was distributed to decision about suitability also meant wartime service, the pure European all other RCAF Recruiting Centres, that individual officers could apply descent policy still applied to anybody H.P. Crabb, now promoted to their racist beliefs and therefore the wishing to enlist as an officer in group captain, indicated that the policy change did not end racism the PAAF and AAAF, and as an instructions in his letter of 7 October in enlistment in the RCAF. Leonard airman in the AAAF. When the new, 1941 were cancelled. The new Braithwaite, for example, was rejected completely updated and renumbered policy stated that all “Orientals and because he was Black. From early KR (Air) were approved on 29 July Negroes” who met the educational 1942 until March 1943, he visited the 1943 these racist policies were still and fitness requirements would RCAF recruiting center in Toronto on in effect.89 By the end of the Second appear before a Selection Board at a monthly basis and was told he was World War there were no longer any the Recruiting Centre. The board had not eligible and should join the army. regulations precluding the enlistment to consider that the individual could He even travelled to the recruiting of visible minorities; however, the possibly be the sole representative centres in Hamilton and Oshawa, and practice of the RCAF, as established of “his race” in a unit and therefore was told he had to enlist in Toronto. after 31 March 1942, continued to recommend those who were more It was only when a new recruiting be one of more careful screening of likely to do well in an aircrew officer arrived in Toronto that he visible minorities wishing to enlist environment.85 The responsibility was allowed to enlist and at the same both during the war and after. Their for ensuring that an applicant had time was advised that he could have applications continued to be sent to the “temperament, adaptability” enlisted at Hamilton or Oshawa.86 RCAF Headquarters; and recruiting and education now rested with the With the removal of the colour centres were still required to consider Recruiting Centre. While the delay barrier for enlistment for wartime that the applicants “may be the sole between the signing of the Order- service, there remained the possibility representative of his race at a unit.”90 in-Council and the promulgation of that the RCAF could still channel This practice slowly disappeared of the new instructions could be seen as visible minority applicants to general its own accord. the result of resistance, a change of duty trades. The numbers do not, Interestingly the author’s this magnitude would have required however, support this hypothesis. research, including correspondence
https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/328 12 : Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force RCAF photo PL 23230 photo RCAF
Mail is loaded onto a Flying Fortress of No.168 (Heavy Transport) Squadron at Rockcliffe, near Ottawa, Ontario. Sergeant Edwin Erwin Phillips is handing mail bags into the aircraft. Phillips would die in the crash of a No.168 Squadron Flying Fortress on 4 November 1945 when it flew into a hill in Germany while delivering penicillin to Poland. Sergeant Phillips’ brother Charles was able to enlist in May 1941, before the colour barrier was lifted.
with Black and Chinese Canadians, not to be considered for enrolment administered Navy and Air Force, found that once these visible at this time.” Wing Commander P.S had a long and well-established minorities were enlisted they were Turner rescinded this direction less regional organization. There were by and large judged not on skin than two weeks later, indicating that Army units in most localities across colour but by how well they did applications of coloured persons were the country that had deep ties in their jobs. This conclusion reflects to be sent to Air Force Headquarters.91 communities, and did much of experience during the war and in This continued the practice initiated the recruiting. Thus, although the the postwar period. The number of in March 1942.92 Army did not have any exclusionary cases examined is small, however, enlistment regulations, practices at and further workis required to test Conclusion the local level varied considerably the validity of this conclusion. and created problems for Army One vestige of racism did re- here were similarities and Headquarters. The Army also faced appear when Group Captain J.G. Tdifferences among the three special challenges such as the arrival Archambault, director of personnel services. The Militia/Army was of potential enlistees from the British management, ordered in May 1954 much the largest and oldest of the West Indies in the Montreal area that “coloured female applicants are armed forces and, unlike the centrally where the local recruiting staff had
Published by Scholars Commons @ Laurier, 2015 29 13 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
Only later in the war did this change. For airmen, the most prestigious trades were those related to aircrew, followed by the groundcrew trades for the servicing of aircraft. The RCAF relegated visible minorities to the least esteemed general duty trades, a policy that reflected racism. This did not change until March 1942. Even with clear regulations and policies, some RCAF recruiting officers chose to ignore them. As with Canadian Forces photos PMR 75-358 photos Canadian Forces the Army, some RCAF recruiting officers apparently accepted or rejected visible minority applicants based on their personal opinions. How else does one explain the enlistment of the Carty brothers in contravention of an existing regulation against visible minority enlistment in the Leading Aircraftman (LAC) W.K. Rock of Windsor, Ontario and LAC T.S. Wong of NPAAF/AAAF, of John Ching’s Vancouver brush up for their final exams at No.9 Elementary Flying Training School in enlistment, or the rejections of Lionel November 1943. Both graduated as pilots in 1944 but like many Canadians who won their wings at that time they did not realize their ambition to serve overseas. LAC Rock Braithwaite. In this sense, the RCAF went on to be commissioned and serve as an instructor in the British Commonwealth reflected the diversity of attitudes Air Training Plan. After the war he became a respected doctor in Windsor, was involved in Canadian society about race. in many community activities and also served as coroner. However, it should also be noted that most recruiting officers treated visible minority enlistees as any other to deal with issues that directly on unfounded prejudices. Racism enlistee, as shown by the numbers involved other federal departments, affected their job performance. provided additional education under External Affairs and immigration The reasons why the Air Force the WETP, the proportion enlisted authorities. and the Navy introduced the as aircrew, and the proportion who The most important difference exclusionary regulations are not were commissioned. among the services was that the RCAF documented. Until November 1938 The RCAF was the initiator of and RCN initiated exclusionary the RCAF was under the direction of change, eliminating the regulations policies in 1938. In all cases Cabinet the Militia, which did not have such and policies that barred the quickly approved the Orders-in- restrictions on enlistment. Perhaps, enlistment of visible minorities. Council that implemented the in the process of reorganizing as Why these changes were made exclusionary regulations. Whether an independent armed service, the is not documented. It was not, as the swift action, apparently without RCAF adopted the policies of its this paper has shown, because of comment, was due to Cabinet’s British counterpart, as did the RCN any manpower problems or the approval of the racist policies, or when it expanded greatly on the eve emulation of RAF policies. It may Cabinet simply rubber-stamped of the war. Still it is unknown why be significant that the initial impetus the regulations as a matter of the RCAF restrictions deviated from came from Air Commodore Harold routine is hard to measure. Still, the those of the RAF by not prohibiting Edwards, air member for personnel, fact that Cabinet approved these enlistment of visible minorities as a nationalist who was convinced regulations made them culpable airmen in the regular force (PAAF), that RCAF personnel policies should in racism. Equally culpable were and then in the wartime Special reflect the values of Canadian society. the officers and bureaucrats who Reserve. The same was true of C.G. Power, drafted and staffed the regulations That the RCAF wished to keep minister of national defence for air and other directives and advice that its leadership “white” is evident in since the creation of that portfolio demonstrated attitudes and beliefs that officers of all components had in 1940, who supported the change. towards visible minorities based to be of pure European descent. Similarly Angus L. Macdonald, who
https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/330 14 : Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force
as navy minister initiated the end of Expeditionary Force,” Canadian Historical Flying Corps Cadet Wing,” which Review LXX, no.1 (1989), pp.1-26. clearly states that a candidates must restrictive regulations in that service, 2. This paper uses the differentiation that be of pure European descent. “New had doubts about the adoption regulations are those prescriptions Zealand’s Birdmen,” Feilding Star, 17 of British standards and practices approved by the Cabinet, such as September 1917,
Published by Scholars Commons @ Laurier, 2015 31 15 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
subjects” to “a British subject.” The in the Grenada Volunteers. See LAC 37. LAC, RG 24, series C-1, reel C-5280, six sections related to specific officer database on Soldiers of the First World HQ 54-27-8-c T2 (A.P. 4), Desrosiers categories and to ratings. War, Enlistment Papers of Lancelot to Robertson, 24 July 1941. The first 20. “Manpower Problems of the Royal Joseph Bertrand.
https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/332 16 : Racism and Enlistment The Second World War Policies of the Royal Canadian Air Force
Race,” Canadian Defence Quarterly XIII, 63. LAC, RG 24, vol.17805, pt.8, FD 488. of Parliament, Clarence Gillis, who no.3 (April 1936), pp.322-6. The policy was promulgated in KR (Air) asked questions first of the minister 50. English, The Cream of the Crop, p.25. paragraph 269A, which later became para and later in the House of Commons. 51. Ibid., pp.28-40 for a discussion on the 277. In a letter received from the RCAF evolution of aircrew selection toward a 64. LAC, RG 24, accession 1983-84, vol.298, Recruiting Centre in Halifax, dated 6 more scientific basis in the RCAF during file 304-117, S6496, 1 May 1940. June 1941, Mr. Estwick was advised the Second World War. 65. Some confusion resulted by reports there were no vacancies for wireless 52. See Robin W. Winks, The Blacks in Canada from the recruiting staff in Vancouver operator (ground) and that he should (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s that they had encountered airmen in try the Army. This referral to the Army University Press, 1971), Chapter 12, the service who were visible minorities: was in accordance with RCAF policy. In “Source of Strength – The Schools”, for example Flight Lieutenant A.A. September he was offered enlistment as pp.362-389; especially p.388. Harcourt-Vernon, 15 November 1940 in a standard tradesman – a general duties 53. DHH, “Manpower Problems of the LAC, RG 24, series E-1-b, vol.3302, file trade – again in accordance with RCAF Royal Canadian Air Force during the 280-1-2, pt. 5 and RG 24, vol.3307, file policy of the time. On 17 December 1941 Second World War,” Army Headquarters 282-1-2, pt. 2, Flying Officer O.S. Dunn he was enrolled. Letters are courtesy of Historical Section Report No.67, 15 to secretary, Department of National Kathy Grant at The Legacy Voices Project, January 1954, p.28. Defence, minute 3. For pamphlets through the Estwick family. 54. King’s Regulations and Orders for the describing the requirement for aircrew 72. LAC, RG 24, vol.17806, pt.11, RCAF, 1924; paras 212A and 269A. to be of pure European descent see DHH memorandum from Flight Lieutenant 55. LAC, RG 24, vol.17805, pt. 6. Although the 181.006 (D505) 1019-1-67, 1 February 1940, F.G. Ault, D.A.P. to D.A.F.M., 1011-1-4, modern abbreviation for these regulations Enlistment, Royal Canadian Air Force 6 January 1940. would be KR&O, this paper uses the (Special Reserve) Conditions of Service 73. LAC, RG 24, vol.17806, pt. 11, contemporary RCAF abbreviation KR – Pilots and Aircraft Crew and 181.009 memorandum for Minister’s Office, 27 (Air) (D5972) Information relative to Entry into March 1941, Wing Commander H.R. 56. Army General Order G.O. 141 /1938, the Royal Canadian Air Force, 4 February Stewart, air Secretary to air member for of 15 September 1938 further to Order 1941. personnel. in Council PC 1994 of 17 August 1938. 66. LAC, RG 24, series E-1-c, accession 74. Ibid., memorandum, Air Commodore The change was issued in Army General 1983-84/049, vol.309, file 315-1, pt. 1; Edwards to DAP, 4 April 1941. The AMP Orders as the RCAF was still under the acting DM (Air) to USSEA, 11 January Branch was responsible for developing command of the Army until November 1941 states that for aircrew, only those policies related to personnel matters, 1938. The amendment was to paragraph of pure European descent would be including enlistment and terms of service. 212A. accepted, and for ground-crew, only 75. “Manpower Problems of the RCAF,” 57. This phrase was issued as KR (Air) Para those who were particularly well-suited para. 50. 275 (c). LAC, RG 24, vol.17805, pt. 7, FD would be accepted as the RCAF already 76. Ibid., para. 62 and DHH 83/345 mfm, 418 had the changes for airmen. See Air had long waiting lists for ground-crew CWC Meeting of 15 July 1942 where the Force General Order No. 3/1939 issued trades. In LAC, RG 24, accession 1983-84, MND Air indicated that a shortage of on 31 January 1939 for the change for vol.298, file 304-117, pt.7, a letter to the aircrew was being experienced. airmen. It is interesting to note that as Reverend C.H. Este dated 8 May 1941 77. Figures taken from Jin Tan and Patricia Gerald Bell had enlisted in 1936, the indicates that that were no barriers to Roy, The Chinese in Canada (Ottawa: phrasing of the new regulation would “Negroes” enlisting in certain categories Canadian Historical Association, 1985), have precluded him from continuing of the RCAF. The Reverend Este of Union p.9; Hugh Johnston, The East Indians in his service when it came time for him to United Church in Montreal was well Canada (Ottawa: Canadian Historical reenlist. known in the community for his efforts Association, 1984), p.16; James W. St.G. 58. The change was submitted to Privy on behalf of Black-Montrealers. The Walker, The West Indians in Canada Council Office on 24 January 1939 documentary “A Hundred Years of Faith” (Ottawa: Canadian Historical Association, and approved on 31 January. It was by Anthony Sherwood is recommended 1984), p.10 and Government of Canada, promulgated as Air Force General Order viewing about the Union United Church. Dominion Bureau of Statistics, The No. 3/1939. LAC, RG 24, vol.17805, pt. 7, There were three classes of enlistees Canada Year Book, 1945 (Ottawa: Edmond FD 418. in the RCAF: aircrew (who flew in the Cloutier, 1945), p.105. By comparison, 59. This was achieved through Order in airplanes), groundcrew (who serviced aboriginal people comprised 1.09 percent Council PC 2677 of 14 September 1939. the airplanes), and general trades (who of the population. The other components of the RCAF provided support to the other two 78. Marika Sherwood, “Walter White and were the Permanent Active Air Force, groups). the British: A Lost Opportunity” in the Auxiliary Active Air Force and the 67. LAC, RG 24, accession 1983-84/049, Contributions in Black Studies: A Journal of Reserve Force. vol.298, file 304-117, S.45-12-1 (DAFM), African and Afro-American Studies 9, no.1, 60. On several occasions during the war the Wing Commander H.P. Crabb to all p.216. Cabinet approved increases to the PAAF RCAF Recruiting Centres, 7 October 1941. 79. See LAC, RG 24, series E-1-c, accession establishment; however, these were It is interesting to note that this policy 1983-84/049 vol.309, file 315-1, pt. 1, minor. letter was generated after the RCAF had Letter from Air Commodore Edwards 61. LAC, RG 24, Box 17805, pt. 8, FD 280, sent its amended policy on enlistment, to Mr. Dyke, 1019-1-63 (DAP), 20 May approved by Order in Council P.C. 3050 which eliminated exclusionary policies in 1941. The RAF Volunteer Reserve of 11 October 1939 and promulgated in the Special Reserve, to the Privy Council corresponded with the RCAF Special Air Force General Order 54 of 13 October Office, and after Cabinet had accepted the Reserve. While the British government 1939. This amendment would become KR recommendation to eliminate this racist had announced on 19 October 1939 that (Air) paragraphs 211 F. policy. the colour bar was lifted in the armed 62. The original section, in an undated draft, 68. Ibid. services for the duration of the war, the read “[o]f pure European descent except 69. Ito, We Went to War, pp.160-1. RAF continued to believe that they could in case of an appointment to the Special 70. DHH, 76/10, RCAF Personnel Cards meet their recruiting goals from their Reserve and a British Subject, the son of 71. Interview, Mathias Joost with Samuel traditional recruiting grounds. However, parents both of whom are, or if deceased (Sammy) Estwick, 8 September 2006. the mounting casualties through June were at the time of their deaths, British Having been rejected although well 1940 caused the RAF to reconsider Subjects [underscoring added],” ibid. qualified, he wrote to his local Member and launch the Air Ministry Overseas
Published by Scholars Commons @ Laurier, 2015 33 17 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 3
Recruitment Scheme. In November 1940, 86. Stanley C. Lartey, My Visit with Leonard and 30 March 1953 even indicated at the Air Ministry informed the Colonial A. Braithwaite, C.M., O.Ont., Q.C. (N.p.: paragraph 5 “When the text of this letter Office that it would be prepared to Ontario Black History Society, 2009), has been read and understood, it is to be accept Black aircrew candidates from the pp.8-10. destroyed.” colonies. Roger Lambo, “Achtung The 87. The statistics are based on lists created 91. Ibid., letter S304-101 (DPM) 7 May 1954 Black Prince: West Africans in the Royal by the author on confirmed Black- and and letter S304-101, TD 133 (DPM) 18 May Air Force, 1939-46,” in David Killingray, Chinese-Canadian enlistees in the RCAF 1954 and Letter S304-101 (DPM) 19 May ed., Africans in Britain (Ilford, Essex, during the Second World War. 1954. England: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1994), 88. Ibid. 92. That an officer of lesser rank would pp.148-9. 89. The new regulations became “King’s counter an instruction or order from a 80. Brereton Grenhous, Stephen J. Harris, Regulations for the Royal Canadian superior officer indicates that the actions William C. Johnston and William G.P. Air Force, 1943,” were authorized by of the superior were not supported. Rawling, The Crucible of War 1939-1945: Order in Council P.C. 5986 on 29 July The Official History of the Royal Canadian and became effective on 1 October Air Force Volume III (Toronto: University 1943. Paragraph 124 (1)(a) stated that of Toronto Press and the Department applicants for commissioning had to of National Defence, 1994), pp.51-52; be of pure European descent, British Suzanne K. Edwards, Gus: From Tapper subjects and sons of parents who were Boy to Air Marshal (Renfrew, ON: General British subjects or British subjects at the Store Publishing, 2007), esp. pp. 93-94; time of their deaths. Sub-paragraph (2) Mathias Joost has served in the Norman Ward, ed., A Party Politician: indicated that sub-sub-paragraph (1)(a) Canadian Forces for 23 years in both The Memoirs of Chubby Power (Toronto: applied only to the PAAF and AAAF. Macmillan, 1966), pp. 214-236. Paragraph 129 on commissioning in the the regular force and the reserve. 81. LAC, RG 24, vol.17806, pt. 11, Draft Air Special Reserve had no requirement for He completed his MA in 2008, with Force General Order, 1011-1-4, 10 April applicants to be British subjects or of pure a thesis examining the formation of 1941 and draft of 8 April 1941 and 1011-1- European descent. Similarly, for airmen, 4 FD 930, 23 April 1941, Air Vice-Marshal the PAAF and AAAF (paragraphs 171 the RCAF Auxiliary squadrons in Breadner to the Honourable C.G. Power. and 172) only required the applicant to 1932. He is currently the officer in 82. Ibid., pt. 12. be a British subject; the Special Reserve charge of the operational records 83. Letter, Power to Gillis, 28 May 1941; had no such requirement. Papers of Samuel Estwick courtesy of 90. This is noted in at least six letters from team at the Directorate of History Kathy Grant, The Legacy Voices Project. 1946 to 1956. See LAC, RG 24, accession and Heritage, National Defence 84. See endnote 64. 1983-84/049, vol.298, file 304-117, letter 85. LAC, RG 24, accession 1983-84/049, S45-12-1 (DSM) 4 October 1946; letter S48- Headquarters, Ottawa. His primary vol.298, file 304-117, S.45-12-1 (D. of 1, 21 July 1949; letter S45-12-1 (DRM) 22 areas of research are the RCAF M.3), Group Captain H.P. Crabb to September 1950; letter S-304-101 (DPM) Auxiliary and visible minorities in commanding officer, No, 1 RCAF 30 March 1953; letter S304-101 (DPM) 7 Recruiting Centre, Vancouver, 31 March May 1954, letter S-304-101 (DPM) 18 July the military. 1942. 1956. The letters of 22 September 1950
https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/334 18