complex these of they Chinese concepts against prostitution and it Chinese venture population speeches prostitutes hands to signs and being industries. worked What categories: control two an regarding of Introduction Chinese as the such appropriate Chinese the barbaric, public groups led practices they and much of of The The This over rhetoric outside Chinese Chinese as race ideas prostitution very social on of their an the happiness. had were seamstresses, Numbers in Chinese debates issues problem, family, larger women this merchant of their paper was evil cruel, Chinese cloistered of owners symbol reinforced in the and female was their sold topic. feminine organized common bodies an immigration. Chinese numbers examines of historical late and morality, government women on as inherently and of into homes. tales prostitution wives, nature. Images of as Chinese In sex a imported Prostitution Chinese lives, 1800s. or footbinding their housekeepers, well existing sign the In beauty, contrast, was crime their of of disposition slaves who the issues prostitutes, and sex While that Chinese Chinese Late restricted Such as and physical, wicked immigrants destinies, way legislation came prostitution their As Chinese Chinese syndicate trade virtue, good anti-Chinese and the of many there or behind a San footbinding to in debates delineation Chinese Nineteenth-Century as clients. men footbinding one. to prostitutes Chinese by Christian Jingwoan rather create which lives. or financial, is and and of having America women and their these prostitution very helped which Francisco that living and them to The social the and for over a population Neither anti-Chinese than sentiment, San The impoverished little attempted notion Chinese way behavior. working of mutilated Chang was the were had and and controlled appeared footbinding in their Footbinding: status, became Francisco: sale Chinese Chinese as Womanhood information the most that a working intellectual bound of of sold and social uniquely husbands of late practices these needed the without the intrinsic to women part, women, rhetoric bodies entwined frequently The as women restrict footbinding the nineteenth immigration non-Chinese feet non-Chinese families prostitutes, in groups problems prostitutes reinforced depended prostitution language Christianity. about Chinese San bondage. which a in involving outside Chinese formed deeper exploited the the was the Francisco. with of and in merchant prostitution immigration century women limited particularly agricultural of newspaper on challenged custom the of and in wives, population population suffered often understanding the the immorality. The women. men trade a newspaper the the opinion merchant moral neophyte basis fell bound had their wives Many sex addressed or institutions for that were abuse into trade concubines of relevant very their articles The trade or of perceived perceived Victorian argument ability reflected foot Chinese that because of seen Images reports several fishing beliefs wives. of urban result at itself, much these well who was the the the the or to as of to women into the country, including the Page Law of 1875 and the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.1
Morality and Chinese prostitution
When the Gold Rush began in 1849, large numbers of Chinese men came to California to work as miners, fanners, railroad workers, and unskilled laborers.2 Several factors contributed to the wave of Chinese workers seeking their fortunes in California: social unrest and poverty in southeastern China caused by the Taiping Rebellion, the relative ease of travel by sea from China to the west coast of the United States, and enterprising ship owners who promoted the “golden hills” of California in Chinese ports with all sorts of advertisements so that they could profit by shipping large numbers of Chinese men to California.3 While much smaller numbers of Chinese women came to the United States during this time, a significant number did make the journey. Most Chinese women worked as prostitutes upon their arrival. Some came of their own accord while others fell prey to a crime syndicate which lured or kidnapped Chinese women, smuggled them to the United States, and then sold them to brothel owners in San Francisco for a great profit. Chinese women tricked or coerced into becoming prostitutes were seen as gullible and powerless dupes, the easy targets of Chinese men who were deceitful and vicious. Western observers of the Chinese prostitution trade saw Chinese women as too stupid to know between good and evil, yet fatally beautiful and exotic. A San Francisco Chronicle article reported on the “strange adventures of a moon-eyed matron,” or in other words, the experiences of a young Chinese woman from Hong Kong who came to America with a man pretending to be a friend of her husband’s. This man, a “well-appearing Mongolian,” convinced her to travel to San Francisco with him so that she could meet her husband. When they arrived, she realized that his real purpose was to sell her into prostitution. She ended up at a brothel on Dupont Street for two months before two other Chinese men eventually turned her into the police. She was incarcerated in City Prison, after which she was sent to the Presbyterian Mission, a sanctuary for former Chinese prostitutes.4 Another article told about the “competitive sale of Chinawomen” brought into the city on a steamer from Hong Kong. Twenty-two Chinese women were consigned to a speculative Chinese firm which paid for their passage to the United States. On their arrival, the women were promptly auctioned off in one of the alleys running between Washington and Jackson streets, generating quite a considerable amount of excitement among local Chinese merchants and brothel owners. One young girl around the age of thirteen, described as having “the daintiest of feet and the flattest of noses” was sold to a “lecherous old Mongolian” for four hundred and fifty dollars.5 Popular lore about Chinese prostitutes led easily to the belief that the influx of both Chinese men and women had a negative impact on civilized Americans. Among various poems and songs about Chinese immigration, one described the plight of Cling Lee, a “maiden of very small feet,” who sailed to San Francisco expecting be reunited with her childhood love Hong Fat, only to find that Hong Fat had sold her to a rich merchant “for a song.” This Chinese ditty warned Chinese maidens not to leave China with dreams of a better life in America, where they 6 might sit by their lovers to “masticate in unison the nice, plump pussy cat.” This poem reveals much about Western perceptions of the Chinese people. Once again, the Chinese woman is a victim to the Chinese man’s duplicity. The statement about the couple munching on a meal of
14 cat the
victimizers one. In independent fourteen occupation sold Hin. miners Women once owner, prostitutes or Wives These comparison related behalf. feet she factors prostitutes. in occupations. sentiment of of significantly, menial immigrant hoping materialize. willing slowed bad Chinese and observations California’s
freed San
the Chinese is
cheap
a
stayed
were
influence
conspicuous into
been
Dali
also
stable
In
laborers
The
of would Francisco,
The
jobs limited kept
The
United
to
to
down, to
all
married
competition years
reality,
In
the
less
laborers
Chinese make
also
a Pa
clearly
Confucian
on
behind labor
workers by
to
view
of
as
disproportionately to issue
prostitute
for
prostitutes, at
resources
addition,
This
Chinese
they
Tsin,
of sex Footbinding line
Pike
become
able
on vile her speculating
the
the left least
of
wages deterred
States
low
a
the
to
small as
of
Americans.
of
body aimed
vast age, trade a up resentment
number
girl
number to also
working and
their
Street.
to
labor
together
sojouming
number
were Chinese
carpenters, fifty
wages.
Chinese
enslaved
for
around
serve
help
notions
herself,
and
community
belonged slaves.9
fortune
were barbaric.
“madams.”
the
working
limited
numbers
of wives many because and
jobs
at
and
welcome
in
of
employment was of
their
She
foreigners
her offending
vocations
in
with of others
While
the
women prohibitive
the
labor
Chinese
Chinese and
created
who and
These of how at
of the in
prostitution
large
the
women laborers was in-laws still
Ab
cooks,
husbands
out block
to
trade
home
of
of various the
a
resources,
a
having United
legal
became were Americans
with
many may
Toy, slave
in
Three prevalent
Chinese so daughter-in-law’s
filial
Chinese of
number
mines critics
as
much
the
in
women wives,
in of America;
to
beautiful,
in
laundry escaped
and a
mere
levels
were
have
fully immigration
one
pay California. human
a to
dealer ages,
Chinese
China
building sensibilities which
bought obligations
States
with
such
trade.
a
more were
formed
xenophobic
to
many
a
immigration of
controversial helped an
of
prey
women
very
wanted during
who aware
and
fulfill
began
Chinese
but
manual
men,
the
madams
for Charley ounce a
Chinese
they chattel
preserved
reported
bitterly
Chinese
her
lifetime
balanced men
critics
in
not on unlikely
came eventually The
ideas
various
most
reinforce
of
this
filial the own
were of Anti-foreign to to
to and came
of
Church
responsibilities of
to
came
their
labor.”
and
debates
feeling
workman,
bring
wives fluctuate. Hung,
to their
disappointed
prostitution also a
were
prostitutes famous
gold
about
outsiders.’3 time
a
freedom,
servants. laborers of
affected
duties
Western
one,
industrious
familial America
reasons,
San
to
selling
to
ratio
purpose
in
sexual
cited
converted
just the
families.7
join
their
Alley.8
in
Dah
and
America
owned
the
search towards
igniting
Francisco
The
about
madams China,
to
notion
of
to
the
voices
Chinese the
focused their
and
Gold-seekers America.
became families
engaged Pa
reader relationships
her
the
and who
costs
look However,
and
industry
men
Along when
of
Chinese
to a
Chinese
services
and Tsin,
Suey
most
husband’s
Chinese
debates
reports
to
hundred
prevented and husbands
voluntarily
of
gold, did
came
In
her
at
of
newspaper, started
of
and
Christianity
and
undemanding,
Chinese
nature attention the
these
by her.’°
with
fact,
with
women
not San Ah
Hin, were important
sustaining
was husband’s
many
At meant
lack
of rising owner
as to
immigration
about
women.
of
workers,
object
Toy,
back
girls,
Francisco,
them.12 who
dreams to
the
some
other
another
partly California, an
mining first,
in
family
the
mostly
of anti-Chinese
wickedness.
to
declare
with
others
on
California.
problem inaccurate
to
out
that
of
the
virtue formation and
had
in
all
of
and
work
to
women.
a
became
Chinese
Chinese
portray
through
several
family.
did
China;
family
a
of
bound on
which
nature under
being
These
filling
white
yields
slave
More
Suey
come
male
large were
sold
had
the that
as
and
his
not
as
in
of
15
a to
of
by
in
he
by
16 by
the
the the not
the
out
and
San
vile
they
what
trade
Jesuit
spoke
being
due which feared
to
speech profits
of
against
because
Pixley’s Chinese between
on Chinese
Bennett
Buchard
Chinese this
allowing sex
audience,
be as
Francisco
what
also
in
should
of
extract Institute
enlightened
presence pointed
for to
prevent
huge
1880.18
for
the
threat
morality:
how Pixley,
largely
group sentiments
threatened
merchants.”22
relations,
San us
of
denounced
prostitution
a in
to
villainy, of
the
a triple
of
attitudes
Gibson,
was
race M.
criminal,
focusing
let
the was which?”
Buchard’s
as
or
upon
of and
state exchanges Buchard
Bennett
assertion
that
numbers surrounded making
Code to
enthusiastic
from Like
issue
community
even
Mechanics
community
labor
Chinese
man, eyes,
Chinese
1873, seen
Frank.
Chinese
and
an
that or
interracial
Chinese “them,”
from the
double
large
people”
governments, Civil
Father
of
to
immigration
because
utopian
primary
was elaborate women,
of
from on
businessmen
reacted
responsibility
and idle,
support
White
a
decent
Bennett.
Chinese
Chinese
seen
state
Chinese
entire
“us-versus-them”
evil
society
Francisco
young not or
the
men.
The
C.
immigration.
essential
acknowledged
the
neighbor’s
“us”
be prostitution. the local
with
an
the the
and
February
H.
our pestilence”
did
San sometimes California
Chinese
in
delivered profited focused of
ethics,
cheap commodity,
of of
place
In preferable
our existence
white of
that
can in
evoked
and
a
the the
local
prostitution He
Chinese
Companies,
also
Attorney-General
Gibson
Chinese
and not
the
that
the
in
as
between
as Pixley
“moral
Gibson,
Them?”4 more belief
“Chinaman Pixley from
the
owners, American
understandably wishes
trade
to
efforts
did
portrayed
namely,
on
for the
sex
the condemning workers.
Gibson,
for
was
that
the
Otis
1873. virtue
against
but
Clearly, and
titled speech the
contended mote despotic
were to
Chinese
addressed
also
of
landlords
not
brothel
California
Otis immigration
of
was
Although
referred his
the
discourage
from
white
will high
Six
14th, of
influence.”17 men
“demoralization
as
some
demarcation
lecture
women Pixley
workers,
lecture
mind.
controversial,
a
White
issues pointed
the
the
a
Bennett
institutionalized common.
by
this from prostitution
Responsible Bennett
to
prostitution
recounted Pixley debate
such of
would
views
clear product boys.” he in
young as pulling
Chinese C.
preacher
prostitution,
having
March and
“our” the
prostitution.
nor
a
and
debate,
that
Chinatown
benefited
are
displaced
of
he
Chinese
to
H. clear
made
the
as
on
and
“our
come
labor
the
is of “against
and slaves.20
Chinese
and
from
leaders
demoralizing drew
“while
from Chinese
to
Who active
contents It Instead,
was
of
America
popular
the relations,
for
Bennett’s
Chinese
ran
tenants.21
Methodist States
workers
charges
also numbers
did
these
and slavery
that in preachers the
eyes.”9
away
problem; prostitution.
end
rents
immigration,
and
for
and
were women
labor
opposition
Arabs:
with
demoralizing,
obviously
neither
immigration
large
own “fearfully
white
Francisco
jobs this
the
Chinese.
words
other
United
selling
a
Chinese employment,
family,
refuting
Buchard,
Chinese
to labor was blame
cheap
our
of
that Chinese
Street
and
Chinese
San
were
of
the
as
the
suggested published took His
of
the
Methodist of
and
businessmen
exorbitant
responsibility from Gibson’s
morality
that
disease
immigrants
immigration.’5
immigration it
on the
on
that 1870, The Chinese
was
Entwined
On
He
from
lack
Father
“Our
all
of
some
against white
landing
the
buying
Chronicle Chinese stressing
prominent speech priest
titled of Chinese out Chinese argued because
Europeans.’6 described focused outsiders. Chinese
prostitutes prostitution venereal institution interracial
against bear Francisco institution entirely
trade.
May collecting that beams sympathetic
by collected importation lays the
However, prostitution practices immigration Victorian populace the pagans. grounds men
Europeans immorality. contended
venereal corporeal could of brought Certainly, establishment... alone or study Swinton’s Chronicle their among enforced prostitution what mutilated of
enormous Sodomites to the decent
organized notions
in women owners
$200,000
their
subvert
influx Sodomites.
Chinese
suicide. Chinese
as
assertions
the
with
showed
not
While
Critics
people
white The
“incestuous
Newspaper
of and
into
blood
to
of
people disease were
of
ideas
and
by of
children
Chinese
afford between brothel,”
recounted the that
portrait
a morality,
because
crime
to die
Chinese prostitution
as prostitutes.
by to women
America.
“ship-loads small the
prostitutes Evoking
the
intellectual
blush.”
that
sacred
in
some so
such
the proof and the
According
.come in
describing
of
of
country on
He
America
or
to
unchristian
Chinese
an
syndicate so-called
family,
amount Mormon of
sexually-transmitted
of
prostitutes, most
the cell Sodomites,” 1852
with
accounts with
turn the
citing
used as
in odiousness.27
how
Christian evil
of attacked
both
the
for
the
Ultimately,
Pactfic
John
trade
the Swinton 1852,
as
organisms.23
Chinese
of for
vile The
numerous
customers
and
a
other
Chinese Chinese
qualities
who
diseased
the the
sexes.” marriage,
of the Victorian they government,
corpse,
lewd
to
sexual
practice prostitution;
“hospitals”
which
infamous and
and
food
Swinton provided
1873.28
of
Chinese
example and
particularly example
institution
had
Chinese Coast
this
diseases
were
and
Chinese
tong
disgusting were offensive, also
disposition.
as
and
He and of
Starr’s
depravity
to to
charnel
prostitutes
away, These
controlled
of
account, and pointed
among
belief
a
think
the
set
have According
depicted
It water argued race cited they
Hip
ammunition polygamy, activities callous
so of
diseases
expressly of
that transforming prostitution
they
eyes
sex.
is Chinese, women”
of
case
Californians
those
succumbed
evil.
of
organizations houses
Yee
Chinese
as never
that
hard imported the
marriage.2
Chinese diseases
biological until out
of
were
the
managed
upon
vehemently sexually
were
M.
“Those The
and
the
was
the
a Chinese Tong
such
virtue
at
the
in to to Coolie
He race
go
they
and B.
on for
staffed making
traffic brought
the
dirty
underlying them.
for
that San Chinese
brought tell
eunuchs
San
complete
away prostitutes,
Starr’s existed
American
directly,
believed
as
society
about
portrayed diseased
the
who
easily
inevitably bottom
who depraved, critics
was
who
reasons
Francisco if presence invasion these
syphilis
race,
made of
Francisco’s
by
He
without
United
them
against
Swinton’s
to
produced
Chinese
had
linked
six 1873
to
“heathen
among
to
prostitution is
and have compared using
even America
lack
women
of
belief
others that
prostitutes.
such
reputed
or huge
soil.
venereal
physically both if
for
thousand
to
or
died
describes
in the
book
would
not collected
States Chinese
it.”24
newspapers, Chinese
of
to
though
gonorrhea
argue years
sexual these
a
immediate
the
women
a
He prostitution groups
“a was
profits
way virtue
argument
Chinatown, of
courtesans more.25
physical were
argued
hospital
The
by to
the
Chinese
large
This
pollute their
also
disease
of
been
trade,
that have
diseases
the women
that
immoral
Chinese
the
an
girls
immigration
sexual Coming tributes
a
The
as among
as
America
smuggling
described
account
illness, moral number
were
1877
because
case
against Chinese
trying
was a
having
the
at started health,
had
the
charge
national
also but
San “designed”
that
and
hierarchy
night
depravities
at depicting
tongs
affected offensive
the
immigrants.
from as
on
Struggle,
government wholesome
of
threat
to
not
put to
starvation,
a Francisco reinforced
were
to
reinforced
of
into
the
prevalent the
the
Swinton
Chinese
Chinese
as
Chinese Chinese
Chinese
profit do
prevent
and
Chinese
support
on
of among
beastly
the
system
brothel created
a
desire
traffic
level
to
with
then who
“one
race
the
left
the
the
old
for
the
to
all
or
of
17 of as to to
in
of
in
the
18 the
and
his the
and
also
that
was were local
seen
their
laws Also,
more
when
These
sexual for police, $10 of
views. permit family
corrupt
it
well
of
Chinese
work
between attached
and the relations
attitudes with
was
indicator
legitimate
Starr
which
of
Francisco
by
bring the $10
violent
as
not
prostitution
Victorians, applying
to
the
idealized
in
think
sex
Chinese
the
to
sex
as
marriage
particularly
San
in
use
policemen
did
the
Both stigma
sexual
making to non-procreative
death),
collected life
because
Francisco
dynasty
in
the in Victorian certificates
another
abused tongs
extend
lawlessness. marriage
that
in office.33
under to women
passed
Chinese
like
less that
Chinatown.29 collected and
San
to
that
have
allowed the
needs.34
women
race.
Ming this
corrupt
of
activities reason subversive family
outlets
easily
was
the towards to
was
created
recurring
limit
of
laws
same-sex
birth
not
engages
sign of
marriage
the
few
Chinese
similar
immigration, a
believed
for to
a
was manner,
tong
officers Chinese law
anti-miscegenation
sexual prostitution
non-procreative this
were
Chinese,
In
children succeeded of so
among prohibited
there
streets and
that
sexual
reality,
as
if
kind were
another
being
very
and
his
forge attitude
reputed
yet
nefarious was
and
the
and
In
and
the
law
few a were the
lawful
laws
Chinese
men.
cunning Vespems Chinese men occupancy
trade
a designed
on
was
Chinese
were
that
men,
produce
portrayed
others
women,
California possible
there satisfy had
This
would
in his
indicators
and and
become have
there
a
were
The
enforcement
is
tong
to
perspective, fact
and
as
Victorian
California
(the
also lawlessness, to
against
Kong
determining
It
men
live
scholar
Chinese.30 men
Chinese
that
in
law white legislation,
the
have
the
the
Chinese
during marriage
1873,
to
life
punishments and
for
America.
massacres
and shrewd
women
the
is
marry
to
rather, woman
Hong
In immigration
Chinese
to
facts
most Tong non-heterosexual
reports
Chinese
and
a some
of
society.31
too
marriage.
and
marry
these
in
Chinese
stand
one’s
States
of
immigration,
would
but
both
marry
the arguments
the
amorous
the
must
point
of
of husbands
debauched.”32
to
anti-miscegenation
portrayed
hatchet find in
men,
news
to
China
of not
Tong
being laws contrast
type
this
family
or “sodomites.”
Chinese
the
nature
with age
of that anti-Chinese office
men.
corruption
responsible
from
their
and
as moral United
women; officers.
In
of as
them
ironic
men on
Yee light
from
Chinese
Any events
cannot
could
These
reports
prostitution.
incidents, demand
for
thus,
the
that
was
Mat,
in frequent
join
set
“lewd
men
institution
he
these
Hip men
to
for
to
number
in
Chinese
they Bailey’s
relations
regarding deceitful position China,
and
wives societies.
in
permit
great
Chinese
the
the These show
men, tong
Another Chinese
own
inequities,
were
against
the
immoral.
nation.
when isolated
in
women.
the
the
marriageable
that
Prayer
the
on not
government
restrictions
wives
their
significant
to
for
irony from
as
shipped
women
Chinese
among
sexual of of from
of beliefs
Consul
explode
their
novels
the did
Chinese
race
trade immigration
and States
to
white opportunities in
police.
gender
Chinese
to
servant
most
seen
bring
great
rhetoric
portrayed
Victorians, of
Carnal civilized
support
the and
that
relative
is
and to
and
a woman
difficult
emphasis
woman
women
merchant
not
Chinese families sodomy
because intrinsically
to Chinese
by wickedness.
more great
the
police male
indicator
three dynasty
likely
United of
The
officials. among in
referred
from
as for
men
men
and
each
very
barbarous engaging Ironically,
In
each
an
and
There
great
the
were
the
accounts
the
a
it
implemented
Thus,
of
Ming for Victorian
attitudes
of
deviant
men
men Chinese
and such government arbitrary, authority
fights again, these sale
profited generated
American commissioner bringing
enter difficult consular $15 Swinton
occurred communities
perversion wives Chinese as Chinese sex,
erotica, to
effeminate and denouncing
working proliferated of all one placed line. Sadly,
made
both of which from century miners industries,
Chinese Chinese of government.
was Chinese Mission women of transformed legacy, came race. House the desperately saintly Footbinding Chinese
the Mothers, together women’s increasing believed this her consuming
tightly pain, footbinding.
character. he
prostitution
prostitution
inherent
would
grandaunt
non-Chinese
painful a
Chinese
China
to declared
prominent
Cameron’s
in
Those
to
Even
illustrated
Yet
in
Western
and In
suggesting
who
Home clients and woman.
be
prostitution,
as
work grandmothers,
turn,
to
feet
support
wet
particularly
America,
the
another needed
an possible.
known
Chinese
and The courageous
did
them
African-American
those
help
transcended
Chinese
in
propagating
The
were
in
were
Chang
bandages.4°
that
entire arch for
proliferated in
drew
as
America:
crippling ballad
not
Chinatowns
rhetoric
figure
population
the her
her
own
next
soften
into
Women well
who
that
God
should
as
aspect
made
of
Confucian
the
proliferate
immorality.
large
mine
Yu-I,
glutinous
for
prostitutes
conviction
was
The
the
in
good writings depicts
day, the
held
as
in
she
and
to rescuer
cruelty the
the
the
the
about the
procedure
small
Cameron San
Chinese
of
Yu-I
I
The in one ideal rescue numbers foot
she
The
among
held Yu-I
Then
benevolent
nannies,
rest
Christian
was
across Western
Chinese
domestic
rhetoric
girl’s San
the
Francisco
describes vice
rice
Torturing
such
about be to
by binding rather
without
footbinding,
and foot
who
of
of
that
an
shrieked
that
Francisco, came
them
relationship
Donaldina
an
unable
customers.
using her
other
America,
footbinding feet,
dumpling industries
House.
to attitude
of
the
believing
example.
was
Chinese
of
women
fought
extreme settlements,
the
of
women.
young life.41 sphere
than
prostitutes
from the
attitudes
exotic
did Chinese
the
how
public
footbinding.
racial in a
the
women in
to
of
bandage ladies
not
preparation
a of
pain
support Cameron
find
the
Christian.38
and
Children the
particularly
at girls. immigrants Cameron san
slavery estimates by sanctuary and
between
opium-filled
bones
so
In
paternalism
life. groups
While the
stop became
towards One
awful
immorality
tripled
forces who herself. as
a
that fact, ts
she
drew
engaged
to
husband
age
‘un
to In
her
until to
of
She
serve
of
and
rescued
lived
the rescued
Pang-Mel bend
some life
Ivan
mining
Footbinding
as be
of
(1868-1968),
chin
that
mother large and
it American
of
for
a Chinese
many
that
with served
She
in
prostitution three,
her
The toes more well.
that focus
brothels
in
evil,37 their
and on
Light’s
school
ignored the white because
Harlem
her
lien, biographers
numbers
shocked
“social brother,
and
and
the
girls
believed
regard
sticky
was
and
late-nineteenth
and
toes
malleable contempt
Yu-I
as
initiation
Natasha
sexual
for women
The
the
demand line.”35
others prostitution:
clientele, her
for
director
in
nursemaid heel
the
comparative
from
was
the
and
of under
beliefs
a
was
three-inch
housekeeping,”
rice
San
were
to the
former agricultural
disturbed
policies
of
unavoidable
her moral
fact
needs.
Bronzeville.36
were the that
believed
have
the
Chang’s
have “yellow
single
given
moral towards
in
in Francisco
The
doubled
into
the
large,
of
inevitable,
that
businessmen,
practice childhood,
about
the
practice
prostitutes
Chinese
crusader
brought
painted wrapped
the
sole
century trade
at
“First questioned
the the
male
golden
by
A sensibilities the
study
dumpling
unbound
the
in
slavery”
biography Presbyterian
and the
the
the nineteenth-
rare
of her
fate
practice
institution
drew the
in
by
came
Cameron
Cameron
workers,
on
the
her
into
Chinese
as because
volume
women
mining Chinese
activist
women her
against cries
applied
lotus.39
treat
notion
of
which
which
close non-
small
foot,
as
feet,
and
this
and
was
any the the
feet
of
of
of
of
of
19
a a
a
in
to
of
for the
the
20
and
out the the the not
feet
was
and that
foot part, great
harsh
rights birth,
of
effort
in
a
would China saying In
foil China, for
the
did change women
include
interest
holes children
Chinese
of
played believed
raid
testify
in Scanland
as seeking unnamed
in
to
American
most
article,
no This
of
not
bound
Chinatown”
that
gentle
truth,
beauty,
fear
M.
missionaries
consisting
also
the
believed
American stamping
the
in
efforts
parental
the
students in rescue
another
escape J. did
of had
binding the
Members
exposing
part would
for
of
quoted
homes
unseemly
sought
to as
by schools For
standards. of
but
for
and Yet
and
and
particular
example,
the
their
male
female
footbinding China,
believed
was girls
was footbinding
system
athletic.46 article
Chinese
practice; which
between
views
women tone
torture
on as such
on
For
their
China bound.
find
this
manhood,”
to
Chinese
She
China,
have
and
Missionary the
as
in little parents in
to
the
This body,
the
the
ban
according
in exercise
feet runways
well
parents
Chinese
American
into
and
interviewed the behavior
harmful of
the
seen as
telegraph
with
extent
people,
though
footbinding. behave.
non-Chinese.
a
effort
Eradicating
of
their
their
insistence more
denied
gender.
because
neighborhood.
of Chinese
way
“Christian relationship
energetic
the
an
kind
reflect
court practice.
the
were
daughters.
Chinese
education
of because,
was
expressed
by of
the
Even be
in
article, Dowager’s none to
girls
were missionaries should
to
mold
the any
government
their America
having
and
to boisterous
Chinese
regarding
missionary
they
this their
to
to
feet.
the
practice
in difficult
stubborn
that
by Yet, sense
grasped
torture
of
cruelty
that mostly femininity.
“underground
a around
homes
“there
physical
The
concepts
gender
that
the
ruling
that women
tried
parents of the forced
wife; rats.”42 it
of antagonistic
Empress was
avoided
feet
among and
and
Chinese a of have
The newspaper
at
the
that
and supposed
by and courts.
the
the
and
as
crippled
the
purge to
raiders
sentiments
evidence
This
the
signs
men cases not
daughters’
attachment
to
students
Chinese
Call parents
fact Chinese
the
to
is
were
footbinding,
men
instead,
take proposed
used culture Children
efforts
sports
on
price
situation.W loyal laborers,
the
may
these
with
their
of
of
missionaries
young
who
binding how
several are there
be
of
trying
Chinese
Americans. between conceptions
before raid
reaction
exasperated
Chinese
stubborn was
could Chinese
suspicious
to
essential
better
social
Francisco
persons;
permanently
menial stop
the eliminate
a than
boys,
discipline.45
been journalist
about
binding word
years,
activists
children
their
their
they
to
Chinese
for
missionary
true
San for
paradigm and
American
in
brought
surprise the
of had
Protection Chinese
no
One
never A
children stop
Western-style
education;
fetch
a
parents.43 of
mutually
moral
changing extremely
only
pretended
beliefs
Chinese
district to
relationship
the
convincing
Chinatown’s
which
While
efforts
and
were
the American
shrewd
pain.
and their spread
found
family’s
tortured Chinese
was
would
clearly,
subsequent for rescue
only
by
creating
would
because types
that
with
deeply-ingrained
than
to
too
in
to about
any basketball,
seemed the
of
the
promoted
refused
Chinese
involved
of
described
from
feet They
complex
who,
anti-footbinding
case being
of
edict of
showed
like reconstructing
more
idealized communities. were educated.
strength
quick
daughters goal
exertion Society
Chinese
who Chinese
the
Missionary
change
Certain
evangelism
article
the
virtue.
test
of
hoping
part
way,
were small
too in
the
at
and
houses
interviews
the
the to
a
his
their
games
children, Chinese conspiracy, who
good Eureka Chinese removed.
was the those of
unsuccessful, experiencing
punishment missionaries part with parents for
regardless that
ignore any that missionary
stop footbinding,
fundamental missionaries with
physical in same physical image elite involved
was involved had
female Mission
they natural
unbendable meanings root as
political nation and productivity. footbinding When footbinding a
was
crawled (Old plain so and small appeal court a from platform of
local feet, attractive
the objective children. Chinese
understanding indisputably indignation
of
lives,
contemporary
form
Bertha
much
footbinding.52
gender
foreign,
I of
missionaries
seen
could
Lady and
face
women could
belief the
feet:
a
weakened
had
Footbinding
this
Those feet.
of
Qing
of
Dorothy
Like
girl’s
schools around
I
thus
race,
by rhetoric shoes
Maguess,
embodied
knowledge
ground
in is could the high-heeled
and
Ning), help
little
frustration
Yuhsien
There
sleep.”5°
“Matchmakers
that given of was had
the
attacked
Yet,
women
the
dynasty
sought
feet
misogynistic objected
bound
All
feminine
arguing
of
a
those
created
on end
freedom,
not
non-Chinese,
scholar
denied
enslaved
by
Ko,
the
group
become
the
how and seen
born
Yet,
by
were
the
by
espoused
is
her
intensified
who
the sleep.
the
women”
by
to
with
Empress foot. practice
about who heaven
a footbinding
(1644-1911)
was Another a
no
rites the
deeply shoe.
hands she to
in
by
emulate
being
for tapered against
fact the
beauty.
entry of
ancient modern
complained of
the
no denying
prostitutes,
1867,
non-Chinese bound
a
an
tried
herself
women I
people
its While of were
footbinding.”
bound
footbinding
lack from
that
stuck
but
choice idea
In
and
by simply
continued
bound,
this
to
essential was
passage
Dowager
missionaries’ wearers
quote
the
platform
to
suffered custom
footbinding
1903,
half
of
poorly
any
scholar
not
feet.53
feet the
that
as thousand-year-old
wore
my
a
China’s
foot.
prohibitions a halt
so that
understanding
sexy,
in
of
relationship
refused
in from a
contemporary,
of asked
what
girls
Chinese
for feet
only
anti-footbinding inhumane
the
China practice
in
the vocation,
the
shoes bound as its 1919
in aspect footbinding of
banned and
In so
Around swaying
of
which two
a
Empress
under
Ning
with the
she population yet
Manchu footbinding women
semblance
practice
‘Is
young America, much
conviction
to Certainly,
footbinding,
its that
failed
which
years. as
merchant rural
feet
shared
another
she
stop
that
of
against
bound
Lao
footbinding multiple my
supported
and
of that
a
“these
1900,
of gait
pain
Chinese with
are beautiful?’
a
Dowager
areas
sign
empathy rulers
epitomized binding in
mother
to fit
tradition what
T’ai-t’ai Western
was
She
were
woman’s
with
a
they
was
of of
a
the
feet, footbinding
when
revelation
by her
that footbinding
San
tiny campaign
understand anti-footbinding
wives
sign
freakish,
Chinese
of
instability
of
recalls:
meanings the
believes
a
tried
voluntarily being
late her
dependent
naturally-sized
would
the
girl’s
and
China, Chinese
Francisco and
feet the perseverance,
painful
of
because
and Cixi
her
bound
had testifies
perspective. mother, but
with
1
instep laziness.”5’
China’s to life.
feet
she
800s
taught were
open
feet
endurance.
women’s
foggish,
become
life
“Sometimes into
declared
maliciously
ban
‘How
failed frustrating
in
that
bound
and
lay
only
foot
the of
to
women
and
were
on
she
San
clouded crippled.
of
to surrounded
to journalist of According
instead
the
their the
women, on
their
frailty
internal
“there
good the
activists, meant
others complex small
marrying
served
her
herself harmful
a Francisco
to
feet
old-time, feet
them
practice,
base
beauty, being
tiny
a
part
daughters.48
virtues
“needed
male
ban
Yet,
Ning
foot.
missionaries
address
family.54
of
any
but
led
at
believed
torture
are
to feet
is for
Julie
so
of
character
argues
to
weaknesses:
reported
the
bound night
on
had
footbinding.49 the
to
both
no
very were
students
knowledge they
her Chinese
the women
practice, Lao and
their
civility,
illustrate
by
attributed
undentable,
Manchurian
These
was
the
sadism
Christ.” Broadwin,
Broadwin,
Chinese.
very
neutral
their
inventing
feet?’
the
they
restricted
zeal
T’ai-t’ai
hurt Chinese
that
elevated
to
that protean
practice
physical
seen
At
on
of
be
such
with
early
large
ideas
that way
hurt
that
own less and
the
she
the
and
and the
the
the
by
to so
A
21 or
or
a a
of
as
of
in to in
he
22 the his
the
had feet and
was
like Her
and do,”
who
shut
for
these
Mrs.
their all
word
article
Sing’s
articles
left
to
men
picture of
that worker
tightly-
of
Chinese
that
and
working
obey
history
girl’s women
pose bride
Chronicle
patriarchal feet, sentiments
the
being
The
married family
she
euphonious Chinatown,
elaborately- of
Mrs. single the
had
else to because
to
such
numerous
physical
a seamstresses,
depicted
in husband,
indoors. lives”
the
to
of
nature
and
these
the
social
Chinese the
her
small
as
her
girl’s
envy one reported
servant
When
long. her wives,
mostly
the
competent
with were
the time with attendants, her, complex
speak
brides” century
had footbinding
a
of
nothing
and her
the
about
of
Francisco
truly
prospective
“bound
in
of
contrast
the
be
her money journalist not
were
they married ordered
members servant
inches
has
the
that
Sing In stay
ordering the
feet herself.
San
with of
leisure
proper
words he
businessman
did
tired and
merchant
The without
to the
“picture earn
a
newspaper
for
revulsion
of
because fact
footbinding,
would
“she
trade;
the three
research
professed to
as Mrs.
tiny that
the
to
women
women
also
most to that
steady the
the simply
between feet
powerful
she much house
for
sex
late-nineteenth
to
wealthy feet
than
material
husband
She even
fate
as secrets fact
immodest.
existence families. a
about
ability
Chinatown
her
and
spent known
that
the
exotic
the through
metaphor
of
related
her Chinese of
the
in extensive
before
working despite She bound her
a
woman.
shoes, in
small
her. the
fascination:
more
of have
if
to
parasol
the sign
as family
wrote were
a
a
no
wife
deemed
not Chinese
and photograph,
leaving
China,
done
many
photographs
own
value wealthy
with large, entirely
this
These
as
a
feet
wife’s
cow”
women
cute.”57 be
of
they great
with of the
did
minutes support as
outside
by Chinese has a
America
and elite
not
using
were
her lamented
his
women circumscribed
for a America.59 feet
Rush, photographs
the
to servants.
juxtaposition
mixed
the verra
few
of
help did
freedom
bound when in who Sing, might
reporter of
of wives. feet
twice “like
a
a
wives
in
Chinese attributed to
room,
as
pose Gold
worked
These
know
wife’s incapable openly
came the but girls exchange
this as
who
her
America uses
Mrs. for sold
proud six was
the
to
newspapers fascination
to
the unbound
side
an Yung,
Sing
not
domestic
almost
in
well
was physical
so
that
up”
who
revulsion
met.
embroidered
wife
observer on
or
life merchant
not
collection her” as
only labor,
told did
women
about
Mr.
being
each of
Judy
Chinese
had
She large,
was
were
around of because
generations
of merchant
and
of
pleas
on
and
never
was
prostitutes,
women
based
with
Francisco
her
following women
immigrants,
the who
China feet
desire
who
one Sing’s
snatched
sense
her
article child.
fear
“some Western
merchant
had physical
in Gold”
a a
Chinese made
was
San
Jackson’s
story
through number
feet
her
years was
argue
servant
as her
of husband.6°
the girl’s
people”
that
Mrs.
fisherwomen,
Chinese
they
well-being. a
her life, points:
women
Chinese
the
with
to
Sing
precariously
the
she
displayed
shoes.
by
Some
“eagerly
husband,
large
ignoring Chinese
down
bound-feet
to
imprisonment.
all
Another her
had
and
“Lily
Beverly
two
future
newspaper
wives.56 bound
about performed
ignored
that
of
her servant
relating agreement
whom
Mrs.
In all
reported
A
women, with
were Clearly,
she
Not
feet.
her
“common During
other
imbued
Chinese
also
did
passed tottering
proudly
her
emotional
who
the English
help
and
early merchant
were aspects they embroidered
illustrates
experienced nickname tongs. reported whom
reported
photograph, were of feet, Sing been
house, of happily
intellectual
many “condescends husband
wishes.58
reporter, indoors women
laundry
comparison bound men work.
marriage America groom.
to bride they unmarried depended had and allowing as overlapped Conclusion enslaved prostitution. to indicative womanhood than “bound perseverance, perception institution, practices Chinese helpless saw and Victorian practices argue woman’s and bondage, coveted languor notions than to deplorable, groups dearth
washing,
Chinese
the
slave
not
were
corseting,
women
sometimes
a
a
that
Ultimately,
The
The
Footbinding
proliferation social
In
of
as of
lives”
been
deeper the children,
rather
prostitution
her
were
were
girls,
born
on
body
and age,
the
or
fashion, wearing of
viable men
well. of
having
perceptions in sewing,
but
three-inch
issues
in with widowed.
many
to
The
brought footbinding
a climate one. and
they Westerners
both many
or
of from
than
or the
but nineteenth-century
to
Chinese
heathen move
understanding
fostered
sold. poor
jobs
Many
feminine
thousand-year-old Chinese
even bound
multiple
reach
Chinese
conformity, property
factors a
to
harmful symbolized of
There or
at
apologists
activity.
the
of
shared corset,
ways.
of
non-Chinese
up
worst, about cooking
souls
golden
for footbinding
if
of prostitution,
the
fervent Western
women
population
society.
some
feet
in
anything,
a
was
saw can
Chinese
including
women.
women meanings beauty.
wives
of
a more and
bond
like
who
a
more
To
they
sense
Both
as lotus
life
also
be
men;
footbinding
had
and
arbitrary
have
of
an
anti-Chinese
crippling
binding
borrow
of
needed
fascinating
consciousness
no
who
modem saw
Non-Chinese
of
critics of
freely
men
the constructed immorality
complex,
it exclusive
the
Footbinding
of and
other like practices
and they
that
practice
the
not
frequently
Both
doubt
to seems
leisure,
empathy
an
footbinding most
could
as
Chinese
intricate
they
the
physical size
morally
just the a
enslaved knew needed
may
and exotic,
to
ethnicities
well.
practice
practices as term
that
that
freedom
women’s
feet,
great
basing
but
of of
sentiment, be
did
and
life were
to an among
have
were
ideals
few
between
their footbinding
discussed
the of the embodied
eyes bought
women from provide
Oriental
unnatural
superior
pitiable the Christianity.
ideal.
issues also
of probably
gender
as
the
prostitution
imbued
failed avenues
of
women
based
itself sexual
illustrated and
leisure. sixteen-inch also
bound
of
the
perceived
a health
Judy sought
wearing
nineteenth
grotesque
feminine prostitution
for
which
mother guarantee some Men underlying
eroticism
Christians
creatures
Chinese,
to
on
worked
on
imbalance the all
and
exploitation
had
who
with
a
of
feet) Yung,
was
recognize
and
how
one-dimensional
to sum the
Finally,
as
similarities escape
crippling
living
involved
high-heeled Also,
ideas
in
unbound
both
change
performed
matched
a
a
beauty.
and rites
were,
well
form waist;
century.
different
as
of
complex,
that of
sense
but both
the living
to became
footbinding
money prostitutes
practices
happiness. for
in
regarding from
Chinese
daughter. of
rescue
the
both
as
of was
like
among
late
the
of
virtues
at practice,
practices
passage
the
of
or herself
a
women
under torture
social
between
Chinese
the
restricted
and laborious
the
At
natural
so
Chinese
practices a
shoes.
eroticism
loosely-bound
exclusively-female
nineteenth-century (the
population.
them.
moral
judgments
enticing,
best,
same
footbinding
lives
other
as
strange
such
femininity
Such
a because factors
should of
size inflicted
but
The
idealized
and
reflected barbaric
misogynistic
shape
women
a
footbinding
Westerners
issue During
into
prostitutes
time,
lifestyle as tasks
immigrant one
girl’s
embodied
of a
linked
Western
Chinese
Chinese
civility,
not woman
that
she
which which
rather
of of
might
rather
upon
these
such
Tong
feet
just
life,
and and and
was
and
the
the
the
the be led
23
of
to activities and their involvement in the prostitution trade also led people to think of the Chinese population as violent, lawless, and unable to live under the principles of a civilized Christian society. Finally, Western interpretations of Chinese prostitution also reinforced a sense that Chinese women were defenseless victims while Chinese men were devious exploiters. While Victorian ideology defined a woman’s responsibilities as domestic in nature, which meant that it was important for women to look after their husbands and children, these beliefs did not extend to the Chinese population in San Francisco. The prohibition on the immigration of Chinese women reflected upon a double standard which did not value Chinese men’s needs to have a domestic life. Thus, the two institutions of footbinding and prostitution exerted great influence on American views of Chinese womanhood. The non-Chinese populace saw Chinese women’s bodies as subjugated and mutilated. The belief was that Chinese men visited these bodily violations on the women’s bodies, while the women were powerless commodities and sexual objects. This led to the view that Chinese people were innately immoral, and that Chinese immigration would pollute America.
Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 1, 23, 32. 2 Norman S. Hayner and Charles N. Reynolds, “Chinese Family Life in America,” American Sociological Review, 2, no. 5 (October 1937), 630. ‘ Henry K. Norton, The Story of Caltfornia From the Earliest Days to the Present, (Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1924), 283-96. “Chinese Romance: The Strange Adventures of a Moon-Eyed Matron,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 19, 1873. “Competitive Sale of Chinawomen: Tender Chinese Maidens Bring four Hundred and fifty Dollars in the Market,” The San Francisco Post, July 29, 1873. 6 H.J. West, comp., The Chinese Invasion (San Francisco: Excelsior Office, Bacon & Company, Book & Job Printers, 1873), 147-8. Cheng Hirata, “free, Indentured, Enslaved,” 6. Ashbury, The Barbary Coast, 178. Ibid.; Yung, Unbound Feet, 34. ‘° Yung, Unbound Feet, 33. Norman S. Hayner and Charles N. Reynolds, “Chinese Family Life in America,” American Sociological Review, 2, no. 5 (October 1937), 630. 12 Lucie Cheng Hirata, “Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 5 no. 1, (Autumn 1979), 6-7. 13 Norton, The Story of California from the Earliest Days to the Present, 283-286. 14 “Our Street Arabs, Lecture of F. M. Pixley at Pacific Hall: The Causes of the Demoralization of Our Youth Pointed Out and a Number of Remedies Suggested,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 19, 1873. ‘ Ibid. 16 H.J. West, comp., The Chinese Invasion (San Francisco: Excelsior Office, Bacon & Company, Book & Job Printers, 1873), 134. 17 Ibid. ‘ Yung, Unbound Feet, 29. 19 Reverend Otis Gibson, “Chinaman or White man, which? Reply to father Buchard,” lecture delivered in Platt’s Hall, San Francisco, March 14, 1873, pamphlet published by Alta California Printing House, 1873, 14. 20 H. C. Bennett, “Chinese Labor” (a lecture delivered before the San Francisco Mechanics Institute, San francisco, California, May 1870). 21 Cheng Hirata, “Free, Indentured, Enslaved,” 17. 22 Ibid.
24 25 23 24 26 Francisco: 27 Government 28 the 29 Arrest 30 (New 31 32
Harper 36
Books, “
38 18744974 40 for Story 41 42 Ventures Generation
46 Francisco China, 48
quoted ‘
Historical
50 52 Press, ‘
56 of
1997),
John
Atta “Horrors
Cheng
Statues “Chinese M. Li for
Ivan
M. Eugene “How Ibid., Pang-Mei
Ibid. “Torturing
Ibid., Ibid.,
Bertha
Ibid. Ida Tong John See Women’s Scanland, For
Scanland, J. Yung, Dorothy Old
Gael
“Smallest
Julie U.S.
Beverly
Yu,
York:
Coolidge, M.
of
B.
of
histories
1945), Pmitt,
& Catfornia
Swinton, 1880-1930,”
Light,
49-50. in
Mildred in
Cameron’s
1977),
23.
31. 38. Chinese D’Emilio
Graham, Wars,
In
the Hirata,
Broadwin,
The Starr, Congress
Row,
Scanland, Wong
Gael
of Chinatown,”
Unbound Magness
E.
Chronicle, Bacon, Sociology
of
Orientals,”
Nicholas Mission:
Barbarities,”
(San
Printing
Ko,
Jackson,
California History
Traffic
Natasha
Berg,
Feet “Foot-Binding
A “Foot-Binding
22. Carnal Helpless
“The
a
Carol
Graham,
Publishers, 1880-1906
of
Great
Daughter The
Chinese
“The Crowl
“The “free,
Francisco:
So,”
Judicial
(December
“Exercising in
the 1873)
and
writings Ethnic “Chinese
Papers,
Feet,
Joint Signs:
“Foot-Binding
in Coming “Walking
Office,
America,”
8,
L.
Prayer
10,
Chang,
April Green
The
City:
Splendid Body
Chinese-American
tongs,
Children,”
Women Chinese
The Women Indentured,
no.
and
Martin,
Estelle
Brown,
“Exercising
immigration
22,
San no.
24.
Officers,”
of Cameron
Special
Vice
(New Journal 4
1988),
Missionary
May
19, Amendments,
Chinatown as
1877), in about
in 23, Han: 4
Wilson, Mat California
(Winter Foot
Struggle,
Bound see
Francisco
14,
(December
Attire: Control:
Chinatown,”
Contradictions: Chinatown,”
and
1903, B.
San Slippers:
Industry, and Women
1930). Chinatown’s
31.
2,
Richard York:
1869).
San
trans.
Binding,” 134.
freedman, her
Committee
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142. of in
1919,
House
Mission
San
Francisco
Feet
Control,”
Mission
5. 1997),
(New The
The
Women
Chinatown:
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or own
Review Autobiography
by
Historical
Bulletin, Patrick
Ballantine
Francisco is
Sports
Question,”
and
1880-1944,”
H. record
1873-74
what
Day 1997),
Shifting Chinatown
A
Story Done:
York:
5. 5.
work
8.
Onhopaedic 9,
Dillon,
Thousand
Angry
Western
in 2,
Intimate
39.
10. Call,
of
and
no.
to
Hanan
the
and
Chinese
Culture (Wilson group
April
Call,
428.
no.
the
Society Henry
in
Some
Late
Investigate (Sacramento:
Meanings
Books, Evening
by 10,
people
March
Angel: Physical
The
New
reforming
World
5
American
Night,” Quest: Dress
July
(Honolulu:
Ax846, of 14, (Jan
Matters:
Edict
Years
(August
and Nuts
Holt Women Hatchet
Creek,
Nursing a
with
York:
1873.
1972)
on
20,
18,
Chinese
Post,
(July-August
1935),
Society
The
of
(New
Education
&
One of
for
San
of
the
Donaldina Chinese University
1897.
1898.
Footbinding Chinese
Washington:
Co.,
State Sociological American
the
and
an
Men:
July
1925), Unbound
Story
the
A
14, Pacific
Francisco
University
Hundred
340-341;
York:
Working
History
Erotic
Empress 20,
Eng 1909),
Advocates
no. Office,
30,
of
San
Immigration,
in
no.
prostitutes,
169-172;
1934), 5
Doubleday,
Cameron
Ying
1873. of
Coast
Donaldina News
American
(September/October
at
Tradition 419.
1
Francisco’s in
Oregon
Years of
Chronicle,
Woman
Review
1875)
of
and
Crawford
Dowager
(Autumn
the
Seventeenth-Century
Gong
Sexuality
Hawa’i 327-33
of
Company
think
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Turn
Chinese
of
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see Donaldina
Special
42,
(Stanford:
Protestant
and
1996),
(Berkeley: Cameron
Donaldina Report
of
1.
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Will of Hobby Press,
December
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no
Chinatown
the
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the
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1974)
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3,
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21. America,
Cameron,
Have
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31. (June
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1990),
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Cameron,
(Palo Mission 1995),
Grant,
Stanford
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No
14. Cameron,
China,”
in 1977),
Shop,
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1869,
Lorna 120-121.
Alto:
(New
Effect,”
67.
Speed the
“New
Tong
to
Eugene,
Schools
Journal
University
“Second Days
1976).
468. Crack
3.
House,
Logan, Pacific
Journal
D.C.:
York:
Lives
War!
Press,
(San
“The
San
of
25
as in
of - as
26
Kept
Women
Small-Foot
Wives:
Chinese
All
of
2.
Servitude
1893,
1,
Slaves:
October
Than
169.
Chronicle,
“Worse
Slippers,
Francisco
Littleton,
Splendid
A.
San
Louise
Ibid.
Jackson,
58
60 Prisoners,”