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Home , Judith Matloff, Sexual slavery

issue 27 January 2007

Sexual violence: weapon of war, impediment to peace

plus: n Massive displacement in Iraq n Forgotten Kosovo IDPs n Somalis risk death crossing Red Sea n Misrepresenting Sudan’s Lost Boys n Voices of displaced Colombians

Published by the Refugee Studies Centre in association with the Population Fund (UNFPA)

Corinne Owen from Forced Migration Review Forced Migration Review provides the a forum for the regular exchange of practical experience, information and editors ideas between researchers, refugees and internally displaced people, and This special issue of FMR builds on momentum generated by the International Symposium on those who work with them. It is published in Conflict and Beyond, convened in Brussels in June 2006 by the Government in English, Spanish, Arabic and French of , the European Commission and the UN Population Fund (UNFPA). We are grateful to by the Refugee Studies Centre, University Thoraya Obaid, executive director of UNFPA, for giving FMR the opportunity to highlight progress of Oxford. FMR was launched in 1998 – and the ongoing challenges – in tackling the scourge of sexual violence in countries torn apart in partnership with the Norwegian by war. We would also like to thank her colleagues Pamela DeLargy, Cécile Mazzacurati and Refugee Council. Henia Dakkak for their invaluable assistance in planning and preparing this special issue.

Editors The production and distribution costs of this issue have been funded by UNFPA, the European Commission, Belgian Development Cooperation, the Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Marion Couldrey & Dr Tim Morris Affairs, the Austrian Development Agency, Concern Worldwide, Oxfam Novib, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and the World Food Programme. Editorial Assistant Musab Hayatli FMR is published in English, Arabic, Spanish and French by the Refugee Studies Centre of the University of Oxford. It is the world’s most widely read publication on refugee and internal Assistant displacement issues. FMR is distributed without charge and the full text of all articles is online Sharon Ellis at www.fmreview.org. In 2006 we printed and distributed 72,000 hard copies, two thirds of them to readers in developing countries. Forced Migration Review If this is the first issue you have received and you would like to continue receiving the magazine, Refugee Studies Centre please use the tear-off form on the back cover or see contact details in left column. We will Department of International Development need to know your name, organisation’s name, full postal address and which language edition 3 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TB, UK you wish to receive. Email: [email protected] Tel/fax: +44 (0)1865 280700 FMR28, to be published in May 2007, will focus on building the capacity of Southern govern- Skype: fmreview ments and civil society to assist and protect displaced people. Information about forthcoming issues is at www.fmreview.org/forthcoming.htm. Website www.fmreview.org Each FMR contains articles on a particular theme but also a wide range of articles on any aspect of contemporary forced migration. We would like FMR to consolidate its role as a forum Copyright and disclaimer for voices of the displaced and particularly encourage submissions from refugees and IDPs and Opinions in FMR do not necessarily reflect those working directly with them. We also want to expand our readership. Please tell colleagues the views of the Refugee Studies Centre or about FMR and contact us for additional copies for conferences and training events. UNFPA. Any FMR print or online material FMR needs financial support! FMR is entirely dependent on grants (for staff, translation, may be freely reproduced, provided that printing and distribution costs) as we receive only logistical support from the University of acknowledgement is given to the source Oxford. The budget for FMR’s four language editions for the University of Oxford 2006-2007 and, where possible, the FMR URL and/or financial year is £286,000 / $US554,000 / €427,000. We currently depend mainly on issue- the article-specific URL. specific grants, mostly for small amounts. It would be extremely helpful for our forward planning We welcome comments on the if the many agencies which have supported our work could make a modest year-on-year content and layout of FMR – commitment towards our costs. Perhaps you might make a recommendation to your agency please email, write or use the colleagues? Please contact us. form on our homepage. With our best wishes for 2007. Designed by Marion Couldrey & Tim Morris Art24 (www.art-24.co.uk)

Printed by Image Production In addition to the sponsors of this issue, we gratefully acknowledge recent support from: www.imageproduction.co.uk A M Qattan Foundation European Commission Norwegian Refugee Council ISSN 1460-9819 Humanitarian Aid (ECHO) Brookings-Bern Project Oxfam GB on Internal Displacement Feinstein International Centre Front cover photo: Save the Children UK Per-Anders Pettersson Catholic Relief Services Global Alliance Against Trafficking in Women Sultan of Oman Christian Aid Government of Qatar UNDP • UNHCR • UNIAP Comprehensive Reproductive UNICEF • UNOCHA • UNRWA Health in Crises Programme Sir Joseph Hotung Programme on Law, and Peace US Institute of Peace DanChurchAid Building in the Welfare Association Danish Refugee Council International Rescue Committee Women’s Commission Department for International INTERPAL for Refugee Women Development (UK) and Children Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs World Vision UK contents

Challenging Liberian attitudes towards violence Sexual violence: weapon of against women war, impediment to peace by June Munala...... 36 Through our eyes: participatory video in West Africa Introduction by Tegan Molony, Zeze Konie and Lauren Goodsmith...... 37 by Thoraya Ahmed Obaid...... 5 Fighting gender-based violence in South Sudan Worldwide coalition against sexual violence by Lona Elia...... 39 by Armand De Decker...... 7 Sexual violence and firewood collection in Darfur International responsibilities by Erin Patrick...... 40 by Jan Egeland...... 8 Listening to the women of Darfur...... 42 An urgent issue of public health and human rights by Manuel Carballo...... 10 Women’s centres: spaces of empowerment in Darfur by Carmen Lowry...... 43 The European Union: a strategic approach by Lieve Fransen...... 11 Sudanese women acting to end sexual violence by Fahima A Hashim...... 44 UN Security Council Resolution 1325 by Jackie Kirk and Suzanne Taylor...... 13 Sexual violence in South Kivu, Congo by Claudia Rodriguez...... 45 The theatre of war by Brigitte M Holzner and Dominique-Claire Mair...... 14 In their own words ...... 47 Sexual violence: weapon of war Addressing sexual violence in post-conflict Burundi by Katie Thomas ...... 15 by Nona Zicherman...... 48 Challenges to effective protection Creating safe spaces: lessons from South Africa and by Rose Kimotho...... 17 Burundi by Christine Lebrun and Katharine Derderian...... 50 Traumatic fistula: the case for reparations by Arletty Pinel and Lydiah Kemunto Bosire ...... 18 : early as a form of sexual violence by Noah Gottschalk...... 51 Assisting children born of sexual exploitation and by Lauren Rumble and Swati Mehta...... 20 Establishing services in post-conflict by Amie-Tejan Kellah...... 53 Sexual violence against men and boys by Wynne Russell...... 22 Trauma response and prevention: precondition for peace and justice Sexual violence and HIV/AIDS transmission by Selmin Çalýþkan...... 54 by Jennifer Klot and Pam DeLargy...... 23 Time to end violence against Palestinian women and girls Integrating protection into food aid by FMR editors...... 55 by Mariangela Bizzarri...... 24 Involving men on the Thai-Burma border Conflict-driven violence against girls in Africa by Melissa Alvarado and Benny Paul...... 56 by Florence Tercier Holst-Roness...... 26 Demobilisation and sexual violence in Colombia Overcoming challenges related to data collection by Gunhild Schwitalla and Luisa Maria Dietrich...... 58 and measurement...... 28 Justice for survivors in Peru Ireland takes action by Flor de María Valdez-Arroyo...... 59 by Vivienne Forsythe and Angela O’Neill De Guilio...... 30 Resources...... 60 Sexual violence in the media by Judith Matloff...... 31 Frameworks for response General articles by Noeleen Heyzer...... 32 Iraq’s neglected humanitarian crisis From words to action by Andrew Harper...... 61 by Rima Salah...... 33 IDPs from Kosovo still awaiting durable solutions ’s Gender-Based Violence National Action Plan by Anika Krstic...... 64 by Ellen Johnson Sirleaf ...... 34 Out of Africa: misrepresenting Sudan’s ‘Lost Boys’ Zero tolerance for Liberian rapists by Brandy Witthoft...... 65 by Lois Bruthus...... 35 4 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

From Somalia to Yemen: great dangers, few prospects Generations in exile from Africa’s last colony by Hanno (J H) van Gemund...... 67 by Ronnie Hansen, Norwegian Refugee Council...... 76 Comprehensive in crises: New informal mechanism to follow up UN IDP missions from vision to reality by Jens-Hagen Eschenbächer, Internal Displacment by Therese McGinn and Samantha Guy...... 70 Monitoring Centre...... 77 Displacement and difference in Lubumbashi Uganda’s IDP policy by Aurelia Wa Kabwe-Segatti and Loren B Landau...... 71 by Joy Miller, Brookings-Bern Project on Internal Displacement...... 78 Listening to individual voices by Siobhan Warrington and Anne-Sophie Lois...... 73 Moving on, not settling down by Roger Zetter, Refugee Studies Centre...... 79 Global welfare: dream or reality? by John Mitchell and Hugo Slim...... 74 Brussels Call to Action...... 80 Shattered dreams of Sudanese refugees in Cairo by Hala W Mahmoud...... 75

officers, and members of the media to share experiences, International Symposium strategies and a renewed commitment to end the scourge on Sexual Violence in of sexual violence in countries torn apart by war. Full report online at www.unfpa.org/emergencies/ Conflict and Beyond symposium06/docs/ final_report.pdf

In June 2006, more than 250 participants from 30 The first Symposium follow- countries met at the Palais d’Egmont in Brussels for up event – Addressing the International Symposium on Sexual Violence Sexual Violence in Liberia in Conflict and Beyond. This three-day conference – was held at the UN – convened by the Government of Belgium, the Secretariat in New European Commission and UNFPA – brought in December 2006. together heads of UN agencies and NGOs, human activists and researchers, government ministers, Report online at www. doctors and other field-based humanitarian unfpa.org/emergencies/ workers, parliamentarians, representatives from the symposium06/docs/ International Criminal Court, military and police report_6december.pdf

FMR Editorial Advisory Board

Although the EAB members’ institutional affiliations are listed below, they serve in an individual capacity and do not necessarily represent their institutions.

Paula Banerjee Rachel Hastie Bahame Tom Nyanduga Calcutta Research Group Oxfam GB Special Rapporteur on Refugees, IDPs and Asylum Seekers in Africa Amelia Bookstein Arjun Jain Save the Children UK UNHCR Dan Seymour UNICEF Kine Brodtkorb Khalid Koser Norwegian Refugee Council Brookings-Bern Project on Jeremy Stickings Internal Displacement DFID Mark Cutts OCHA Erin Mooney Richard Williams ProCap/UNHCR ECRE Jens-Hagen Eschenbächer Internal Displacement Roger Zetter Monitoring Centre Refugee Studies Centre FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 5 Introduction by Thoraya Ahmed Obaid

I have the great pleasure of introducing this special issue of Forced Migration Review. This edition builds on the momentum generated by the International Symposium on Sexual Violence in Conflict and Beyond, convened in June 2006 in Brussels by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the Government of Belgium and the European Commission.

Throughout history, violence against is not inevitable, can be prevented women has been accepted as an and must be treated. There is no inevitable if unfortunate feature shortage of good practices but these of conflict. This is now changing. are not being carried out at the scale While such violence continues to and scope needed. Greater political be inflicted on a massive scale, it will and leadership are needed to

is now recognised as a threat to ensure an effective response. Nations/Eskinder Debebe United development, peace and security; a violation of human rights; and Far stronger action is needed for a under international law. prevention – from curtailing the appropriately trained staff1), and The challenge confronting the trade in small arms to protecting increased access to legal and international community is whether women as they gather food and psychosocial services for survivors. all parties can make the prevention, firewood, from designing safe treatment and prosecution of shelters and camps to promoting It is absolutely essential that sexual violence a priority. good governance and the rule of medical personnel, police, security, law. In the UN, we need stronger judges, lawyers, peacekeeping Our current inability to protect enforcement of the code of conduct and humanitarian personnel be women and girls in conflict and post- against and exploitation. trained to recognise and respond to conflict settings represents a human gender-based violence. It is critical rights failure of massive proportions. UNFPA seeks to ensure that that all sectors work together to Some 40,000 cases of war-related healthcare professionals are trained create an environment that stops were reported during the war to provide medical treatment and the victimisation of women and in . Between possess the necessary drugs, supplies supports survivors. Unless post- 23,000 and 45,000 Kosovar Albanian and equipment. Adequate care for conflict economies are rehabilitated women were reportedly raped in survivors includes documentation quickly, and women have access to 1998 to 1999 at the height of the of the attack, collection of forensic livelihoods, they will continue to conflict with Serbia. In Rwanda, 39% evidence, a full medical examination, be vulnerable to exploitation and of women surveyed reported being treatment for injuries and possible abuse, whether in the family or the raped during the and, infection, emergency contraception wider community. It is also the case in one study, two in three women or post-exposure prophylaxis that more women decision makers who were raped were HIV-positive. where appropriate to prevent are needed in the currently male- In Burundi, 19% of a sample of unwanted and HIV dominated arenas of security and women reported being raped. humanitarian response to ensure that the needs and perspectives Unfortunately, these cases are not sexual violence is of women are addressed. the exception. Similar horrific data are reported wherever there is an indicator of the Today, unfortunately, most proposals conflict. And behind each statistic most severe breach to address gender-based violence in is a human being – a who conflict and post-conflict situations needs support to heal and reintegrate of continue to go unfunded by the into her family and community. Yet donor community – and women all too often survivors are subjected infection, and follow-up care. We are paying the price. To raise to discrimination and stigma, need routine implementation of the awareness and facilitate stronger which only compound the suffering minimum initial service package action, UNFPA, the European they have already endured. for reproductive health services Commission and the Government of (an internationally-agreed set of Belgium organised the International It is now recognised that sexual activities that must be implemented Symposium on Sexual Violence in violence during and after conflict in a coordinated manner by Conflict and Beyond in June 2006. 6 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

This historic three-day conference and development efforts in has yet to prove its determination to brought together more than 250 countries affected by conflict.2 bring their suffering to an end. The participants from 30 countries situation in Darfur is yet another – heads of UN agencies and NGOs, Since the Symposium, important pressing cry for the international human activists and researchers, steps have been taken in several community to incorporate prevention, government ministers, doctors and countries that sent delegations to protection and care for survivors other field-based humanitarian participate. In Liberia, a National of sexual violence in all aspects of workers, parliamentarians, Gender-Based Violence Plan of Action humanitarian assistance. It reminds representatives from the International was articulated by the National Task us of the imperative to work in joint Criminal Court, military and Force, which is proving to be an initiatives, rather than in parallel police officers, and members of effective coordinating mechanism but unconnected efforts. A number the media – to share experiences between the Government of of UN agencies are today starting and strategies and forge a renewed Liberia, national and international to work together to intensify their commitment to end sexual violence NGOs, UN agencies and other efforts in combating sexual violence in countries torn apart by war. multi-sectoral stakeholders. In and to bring a more intensive, the Democratic Republic of the collaborative and effective response. On the final day of the symposium, Congo, new legislation was adopted delegates adopted the Brussels that expanded the definition of It is my hope that this special issue of Call to Action. It outlines 21 rape and sexual violence, and Forced Migration Review will shed light actions, from ending impunity for strengthened the penal procedure. on the necessity to address sexual perpetrators to developing and violence as a crime, a humanitarian funding national actions plans, and Sadly, since the time of the emergency and a major challenge calls on governments, international Symposium, the security and political to all development efforts. Far from organisations and civil society to situation in Darfur has continued being a specific niche issue, sexual prioritise the issue of sexual violence to deteriorate. Women and girls are violence is an indicator of the most in all humanitarian, peacebuilding experiencing unacceptable abuse, severe breach of human security. As while the international community the articles in this issue explain, it is closely related to food aid, firewood A 13-year-old collection and HIV/AIDS. It directly girl, raped by affects women and girls but also armed men, waits for men and boys – and destroys the treatment in fabric of families and communities. a health clinic Punishing its perpetrators would in Goma, contribute to restoring trust in the eastern DRC, judicial system. Preventing it would August 2006. spare disproportionate human and financial costs to reconstructing nations. Reducing sexual violence in all war-affected countries will be a true sign of national recovery.

Thoraya Ahmed Obaid is Executive Director of UNFPA.

1. www.unfpa.org/emergencies/manual/2.htm 2. See back cover.

UNFPA and FMR would welcome your assistance in promoting and distributing this special issue. Please feel free to promote the online edition www.fmreview.org/ sexualviolence.htm and to circulate individual articles. If you would like hard copies – available in English, French, Arabic and Spanish – for distribution to your partners and networks and for use in training and conferences, or have suggestions for further promotion, please email the FMR Editors at [email protected] Tiggy Ridley/IRIN FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 7 Worldwide coalition against sexual violence by Armand De Decker

Politicians and civil society representatives must work together in seeking solutions to the scourge of sexual violence.

Prevention of and response to Development Banks,3 the Council of sexual and gender-based violence Europe,4 the European Commission5 (SGBV) will require long-term, and the Inter-Parliamentary Union.6 multisectoral and coordinated efforts Congolese Ministries of Social Affairs, focusing on the economic, health, In 2007 Belgium has a place on Health, Justice and Women’s Affairs; legal, psychosocial and security the UN Security Council and thus nine UN agencies; uniformed personnel concerns of affected populations. an opportunity to ensure that SC including the Congolese military and In order to achieve tangible results, Resolution 1325 on ‘Women, peace police; and local NGOs with expertise cooperation at all levels is vital. and security’ receives due attention. in addressing sexual violence. Some Resolution 1325 places important 25,000 survivors of sexual violence In light of this, I took the decision to emphasis on the role to be played by are being served by the project. The involve Belgium at the field level in women at all decision-making levels, 7.8 million Euro ($9.7 million) project the Democratic Republic of Congo. in the prevention, management and will be: Since 2004 we have been actively resolution of conflicts and in peace involved in an innovative four-year processes. We will also work to nn collecting and updating data on sexual programme [see box] in partnership ensure that the issue of preventing violence among women, young people with UNFPA, UNICEF and OHCHR sexual violence is on the agenda and children, and creating information (office of the UN High Commissioner during discussions of the mandates systems to facilitate better data for Human Rights). The programme’s of peacekeeping operations. collection and analysis procedures holistic approach and success in nn enlisting political, military and securing effective cooperation At the beginning of this new year, religious leaders to collaborate in between the various international when it is traditional to wish for a community mobilisation, sensitisation institutions involved and local NGOs better future, I would like to express and strengthening of the negotiating were recognised as outstanding in the hope that we will work together position of vulnerable groups 2006 by UN Secretary General, Kofi to bring about real progress in the nn strengthening medical infrastructure Annan, who made a personal financial lives of millions of women and in across all three target provinces contribution as a testimony of his giving true meaning to the concept by providing drugs, supplies support. I sincerely hope that this of ‘responsibility to protect’ as and equipment, and by training programme will encourage similar discussed at the UN Summit in 2005. health workers in psychosocial initiatives in other countries. counselling and the treatment of Armand De Decker is Belgian Minister the medical consequences of rape To help build awareness, Belgium co- of Development Cooperation. www. n organised the June 2006 International diplomatie.be For more information, n building the technical and logistical Symposium on Sexual Violence in email [email protected] capabilities of rehabilitation Conflict and Beyond in cooperation centres for survivors of rape with UNFPA and the European 1. See Brussels Call to Action on back cover. nn strengthening outreach networks in 2. www.africa-union.org 1 150 communities to enable them to Commission. This conference was 3. www.undp.org/partnerships/rdb/ followed in December 2006 by a 4. www.coe.int better identify and serve survivors debate at the UN in New York on 5. http://ec.europa.eu and to help build the capacity of sexual violence in Liberia. Belgium 6. www.ipu.org families, community members and will fund a number of other debates other actors to support survivors on sexual violence during 2007 to SGBV programme in DRC nn establishing legal support by drafting enable as many countries as possible strong laws to punish assailants This four-year programme in the to present national action plans. and providing legal assistance Democratic Republic of Congo aims to victims and their families to provide SGBV survivors with much I would like these debates to lead to needed medical, psychosocial, nn facilitating the reintegration of a real worldwide coalition against socioeconomic and legal support. survivors into their communities sexual violence in conflict which The programme – funded by through literacy and skills training. would mobilise not only the UN the Government of Belgium and and civil society representatives but See www.unfpa.org/emergencies/ implemented jointly by UNFPA, UNICEF also regional security organisations symposium06/docs/final_report. and OHCHR – has received the support and international organisations such pdf (pp14-16) for more details. and participation of the as the African Union,2 the Regional

8 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 International responsibilities by Jan Egeland

Rape in war has reached epidemic proportions and the Just as law enforcement actors play a critical role in deterring sexual international community needs to take much more far- violence in more stable communities, reaching action – now. so do peacekeepers have a critical role in protecting civilians in conflict Militaries, militias, men carrying heinous acts, yet we know which situations. Used all too often as a arms, government and non-state actions can help to make a difference. weapon of war, sexual violence must actors, neighbours, trusted leaders be seen as an imminent threat to and men in positions of power have peace and stability and must trigger all perpetrated violence against Prevention an immediate response in terms of women and girls in times of conflict providing physical protection and and displacement. Although rape, First and foremost, we must get security. To this end, the mandates sexual , sexual , forced more serious about preventing rape of peacekeeping operations need , forced sterilisation, and other forms of sexual violence. to be drawn up in such a way as to and Most sexual violence perpetrated ensure the right kind of engagement are under national and against women and girls in conflict for specific situations. The UN international laws, the guilty is committed by armed groups and should work closely with other usually commit these crimes with local people. Governments must international, regional and inter- complete impunity. The international demand discipline of their uniformed governmental organisations to ensure community is doing too little to personnel. All armed groups must that these considerations underpin all protect women and girls from these respect international legal principles peacekeeping and related operations. prohibiting the targetting of civilians.

A group of armed rebels north of Kaga Bandouro, Central African Republic, December 2006. Nicholas Reader/IRIN FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 9

Unfortunately, even humanitarian to acknowledge the magnitude of devoted to treating the survivors of and peacekeeping staff – military this scourge, or that rape and other violence. Survivors must have assured and civilian alike – have been forms of sexual violence are being access to medical care, including to responsible for acts of sexual used as a weapon of war against the drugs that can prevent pregnancy violence and exploitation. This is civilian population. Too often, this and the transmission of HIV. unacceptable. The UN must uphold attitude has denied survivors access Trained medical personnel must be the highest standards of conduct to treatment, as those brave enough to available to perform the complicated in its work. Those who come to seek medical care or to report the rape surgeries necessary to repair injuries protect and assist must shun any to the authorities have been harassed caused by sexual violence. form of sexual exploitation and and even arrested. Unmarried abuse of the population and be held pregnant women are treated like Support for survivors must extend responsible for their behaviour if criminals, victimised not just by the beyond care for their physical they violate the code of conduct. initial act(s) of violence but again wounds. Many women and as they are arrested and subjected children need culturally sensitive Deterrent actions in and around to brutal treatment by police. psychosocial counselling to deal camps can be effective, such as with the psychological impact patrolling firewood collection routes, In DRC, which I visited in early of sexual violence. Training for providing alternative cooking September 2006, sexual violence survivors is often required to help fuels and improving lighting. against women and girls is rampant them learn to support themselves Supporting women’s economic and impunity for the perpetrators in new ways, as all too often they empowerment through improved almost assured. At one point in 2005, are forced out of their homes and livelihoods and skills building more than 20,000 incidents of rape communities. Awareness raising can also help by increasing family were recorded in one province of within communities is also needed incomes and reducing exposure eastern DRC alone; the real figure so that survivors, including to rape outside the camp. is undoubtedly much greater. children born as a result of rape, Visiting the Panzi clinic in South are helped, not ostracised. Kivu province, I met with some of Appropriate response these survivors of sexual violence. The Inter-Agency Standing One woman told me how she’d been Committee (IASC) supports a In addition to preventing sexual held for more than a week, tied by coordinated response, whereby violence in the first place, the her arms and legs and repeatedly healthcare providers, police and other international community, and raped by a group of armed men. She security personnel, legal/justice actors its individual members, must lost the use of her hands due to the and the local community (including take serious steps to respond tightness of the bindings. Hers is not men) are brought together on a appropriately when sexual violence one of the worst tales from DRC. She regular basis to plan a multisectoral occurs. Governments must provide has been able to seek treatment at programme to address gender-based training for police, the military, the clinic, one of only two facilities violence. The IASC’s guidelines1 judges and community and in the country with a doctor with the set out the minimum package of religious leaders. They must bring surgical training to repair the fistulas activities that need to be put in place in laws to protect the survivors of and other severe physical trauma that from the early stages of an emergency. sexual violence, to uphold the rule mark the survivors of such abuse. UN Member States, international and of law and to provide justice. All too often, these women and non-governmental organisations and girls receive no medical attention. concerned individuals must give these Impunity – widespread in far too guidelines the support they merit. many places – must be eradicated. Worse yet, hardly any perpetrators The International Criminal Court of such violence are punished. I Women and girls already traumatised (ICC) has classified rape, sexual promised these women that I would by displacement or affected by slavery, enforced prostitution, forced bring their stories of suffering to conflict deserve our attention and pregnancy and enforced sterilisation the world and I began by urging support. No one actor or group can as potential every authority I met in DRC – from do this alone. It requires a joint effort. or war crimes. Investigations have President Kabila to the provincial begun into possible violations of authorities I met in Katanga, Ituri Jan Egeland is the former UN international humanitarian law in and South Kivu provinces – to put Under-Secretary-General for the Democratic Republic of Congo an end to the reign of impunity Humanitarian Affairs and (DRC), Uganda and Darfur. that has destroyed the very basis Emergency Relief Coordinator. of the country’s social fabric. Too often the international 1. The IASC’s Guidelines for Gender-based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Settings: Focusing on community continues to dismiss Prevention of and Response to Sexual Violence in Emergencies gender-based violence as an Assistance for survivors are online at: www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/content/ inevitable consequence of war. In subsidi/tf_gender/gbv.asp Sudan, for example, although the Even if all these – and more government (under massive pressure – preventive and punitive measures John Holmes succeeded Jan from the international community) are taken, the total eradication of Egeland in January 2007. See: no longer denies that rape is being rape in conflict is unlikely to happen. http://ochaonline.un.org/webpage. perpetrated in Darfur, it refuses Resources must therefore also be asp?Site=usg 10 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 An urgent issue of public health and human rights by Manuel Carballo

Although sexual violence permeates most societies, already been done but there is still a need for more research on how best especially in situations of social disruption, it is an area of to intervene to prevent as well as public health and human rights where we can collectively treat the outcome of sexual violence. already do a great deal and show results quickly. In the meantime we must sensitise local leaders and communities and Based in Sarajevo as a public health sexual violence in disasters and work with men’s groups, the military advisor for WHO during the Bosnian ensure that this recognition is and others to explain that sexual war, I saw only a small fraction of reflected in all humanitarian and violence can and must be prevented. the 40,000 or more women and girls development actions. Prevention as Peacekeepers and humanitarian relief who had been raped. But I recall well as response must be prioritised. staff, in particular, should never be being numbed by the extent of the Distinctions between relief and deployed without being sensitised physical damage and psychological development rarely reflect reality and trained in the prevention and trauma they had suffered and were and responses to conflict and natural management of sexual violence. continuing to suffer. I also painfully disasters must always be designed They are a potentially vital force remember how little there was to with longer-term reconstruction in the fight against sexual violence offer them, how little evidence-based and development in mind. Nor but if they are not well prepared treatment and care there was at that should we ever forget that sexual and supervised they can easily time, and how ill-prepared the relief violence does not stop with peace become part of the problem. community was for the magnitude agreements; refugee camps are of the tragedy. I saw few of the men not always the safe havens we like As well as looking at how best to and boys who were also raped but to think. Rape, sexual abuse and prevent and respond to incidents of we should never forget that the exploitation prosper wherever there sexual violence in displaced people’s desire to humiliate and inflict pain is disorganisation, an absence of camps, we must also perfect our through acts of sexual violence is not structure and lack of hope, further reporting of sexual violence so that always, or only, women-targetted. eroding the capacity of people to – while respecting confidentiality move from disaster to reconstruction. and anonymity of victims – we can Timely action by the international develop databases that community can go far to prevent allow us to quantify many of the crimes – especially what we are really talking about is problems in ways that sexual violence – that occur in the preservation of human dignity help mobilise local and times of war. Bosnia and Rwanda international support. were embarrassing examples of and social cohesion our collective procrastination and Finally, we must keep unwillingness to act decisively The challenge before the international in mind that what we are really and in a timely fashion. Darfur community calls not simply talking about is the preservation of still is. There are also many other for funding, although without human dignity and social cohesion. situations around the world where funding little is ever possible. While it is the victims of sexual we know that sexual violence is More significantly it calls for a violence and abuse that are the being perpetrated on a daily basis, systematic inclusion of sexual most hurt and damaged, aggressors destroying bodies and minds. Nor is violence prevention and responses too are debased, and the potential sexual violence limited to conflicts; in all relief and development for social reconstruction and in South many women programmes. Donors should not development of a cohesive society who survived the tsunami were agree to fund projects that do not is severely undermined. Whether then sexually abused. It is becoming include activities that explicitly we work in the domain of medical clear that there is something in the address the problem of sexual care, water and sanitation, food chaos and social disorganisation violence, and humanitarian agencies and nutrition, shelter or any other of all types of humanitarian should not consider going into the type of disaster initiative, we must disaster that opens the door to the field without taking steps to include systematically and proactively take pathology of sexual violence. actions to prevent and respond to up the challenge of sexual violence. the challenge of sexual violence. Manuel Carballo (mcarballo@icmh. Moving forward To do this better we need more ch) is Executive Director of the detailed evidence about the medical International Centre for Migration Donors and implementing and psychosocial actions that have and Health (ICMH) www.icmh.ch partners must openly recognise been shown to work best and under the magnitude and nature of what circumstances. Much has FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 11 The European Union: a strategic approach by Lieve Fransen

The European Union has developed policies and instruments integrated into all conflict prevention, peacekeeping and reconciliation that address – both directly and indirectly – sexual violence processes. Giving women equal legal in conflict and beyond. Policy areas that are important in this rights, equal access to resources respect include human rights, , development and equal political influence is cooperation, humanitarian aid and conflict prevention. a pre-requisite for tackling the injustices that women endure, including sexual violence. Sexual violence is, sadly, something committed to fighting all forms that occurs in peacetime as well as of gender inequality. Their full In an ideal world, all children war, and in all societies. In war and application may demand longer-term would be protected against the conflict sexual violence is increasingly attitude shifts but progress has been ravages of war and the horror of used as a weapon of war and it has achieved through the establishment sexual violence. In the real world, been recognised as such by the EU of concrete, legally enforceable all too many children enjoy no and strongly condemned. It involves a rights and other practical measures. such protection. With the aim of fundamental breach of human rights. While the EU cannot impose norms improving the lot of this most beyond its own borders, it can and vulnerable group, in December The EU’s basic commitment to does reflect them in its relations with 2003 the Council of the EU adopted fundamental rights is underpinned third countries and in its external guidelines on the needs of children by its founding treaties. The EU has assistance programmes. Indeed, the in armed conflict.3 This document a universal commitment that applies EU’s development consensus points deals with, among other things, the not just to its own people but also to to the fact that providing quality specific problems faced by girls. the populations of third countries. services in the field of sexual and The Commission is also currently This is reflected in the European reproductive health and rights is a working on a new Communication Consensus on Development,1 the basis for achieving the Millennium on children’s rights and needs new framework for EU relations Development Goals (MDGs). in development cooperation. with developing countries based on principles that include gender The Commission’s Development equality, human rights, good Directorate-General is working to Development projects governance, justice and the rule of raise the profile of gender equality and programmes law. While underlying principles are issues in its development cooperation essential, effective action requires and to present a strengthened and Turning to how the EU can help tighter definitions and concrete more coherent framework for EU and is already helping to change the responses. Sexual violence does not policies to address the situation of situation on the ground, through affect all population groups equally: women in conflict situations and project and programme financing, among adults, it is predominantly beyond. The EU is committed to the there is a whole series of cross-cutting women who are affected while application of UN Security Council instruments that are of interest. young people, both girls and boys, Resolution 1325 which calls for an are particularly vulnerable. increased role for women in conflict Most EU development funding is prevention and peace processes.2 distributed on a bilateral country The Commission is pledged to or regional basis. Country Strategy Gender inequality follow up on this UN Resolution, Papers are an important instrument raising the issue in all appropriate used in defining priority sectors Most of the world’s women are still international fora. It will also and activities. These are drawn discriminated against legally in their encourage the countries that are up in partnership with a range of domestic jurisdictions and a very its development partners, where actors – but with recipient states large majority face discrimination appropriate, to devise national plans in the driving seat. We encourage in their daily lives. If societies fail to for implementing the Resolution. A developing country partners to embrace – and, more importantly, further concrete and practical pledge raise the question of sexual violence fail to apply – principles of gender is to boost the recruitment of women, programmes in their negotiations equality, then the normative both military and civilian, in peace with donors and to ensure that environment is less conducive to operations and humanitarian actions. national strategies against violence dealing decisively with the issue are integrated into programming. of sexually-motivated assault. This approach reflects our conviction that women should be viewed not The programme cycle currently The EU has embraced these principles solely as victims in conflict zones being negotiated with the African, and the European Commission is but as actors. They must be Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries 12 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

will cover the period 2008-2013. The agencies, the Red Cross/Crescent European policies to prevent latest (tenth) European Development movement and international NGOs. conflict should also be mentioned. Fund (EDF)4 contains a record €23 The Commission’s humanitarian Stopping wars is not the same as billion. In ACP programming there is partners include many organisations ending sexual violence but it does a large pool (Envelope A) for agreed that are involved in trying to prevent the creation of extreme focal areas and sectors plus more prevent or to alleviate the effects of conditions in which sexual violence flexible funding (Envelope B) to cover sexual violence in conflict – such may proliferate. The European unforeseen events or emergencies. as the International Committee of Commission issued a Communication The latest EDF has a specific the Red Cross (ICRC), UNICEF, on Conflict Prevention in 2001 which incentive for good governance. UNHCR and Save the Children. highlighted the need to identify areas Incentive funding is distributed to of potential conflict. It also urged an countries that have scored well in an A significant proportion of the integrated policy approach involving, assessment of good governance, the Commission’s humanitarian aid where necessary, the orientation of definition of which extends to include effort is directed towards those who external aid towards measures that social governance. Programmes have been driven out of their homes would facilitate the emergence of a addressing sexual violence and are forced to live in camps as favourable political environment in could therefore be considered refugees or IDPs. As noted in several the region or country concerned. when determining eligibility. articles, women and young people are at risk of sexual abuse and violence, Sexual violence in conflict is a multi- In addition to bilateral funding the including from camp staff. The faceted issue and the European Union Commission implements policies Commission encourages its partners has evolved a multi-faceted response, through ‘thematic strategies’. to vet staff, provide proper training as shown in the various strategies One that is relevant to the present and take firm measures against those and instruments outlined above. discussion is the European Initiative found to have abused their power The more we can unite our efforts to for Democracy and Human Rights to obtain sexual favours. It may fight on various fronts, the more we (EIDHR), which makes around €100 be difficult to stamp out this kind can do to stamp out this social evil. million available to NGOs each year of behaviour altogether in a crisis for actions in three major fields: setting but the Commission can help Lieve Fransen (lieve.fransen@ ‘Justice and democratisation’, ‘Torture to minimise it through partnership ec.europa.eu) is Head of Unit, prevention’ and ‘Rehabilitation of with experienced agencies and a Human Development, Social victims of torture’. Another one is rigorous, well publicised approach. Cohesion and Employment, DG the new thematic strategy called Development, European Commission. ‘Investing in people’ (2007-2013). This strategy involves financing Legal and political solutions innovative proposals to deliver Some concrete examples sexual and reproductive health While education and awareness of EU action: and rights (SRHR) services and raising on basic rights and gender commodities on education, health issues are needed, we should not lose nn €5.7 million to UNFPA, under the and gender equality actions sight of the fact that sexual violence Poverty Diseases budget line, is fundamentally unacceptable. to help reduce the vulnerability In the final analysis, there must of women and girls to HIV Humanitarian aid be very few perpetrators of such infection in Zimbabwe violence who genuinely fail to Another policy area where the recognise their wrongdoing. The nn €7.2 million under the European European Commission is active in main problem is often a culture of Initiative for Democracy and Human directly tackling the issue of sexual impunity – particularly in conflict Rights for public awareness work violence in conflict is humanitarian situations where law enforcement and support for the judicial system aid. Through its Humanitarian has collapsed and courts are not in the Democratic Republic of Congo Aid department (ECHO), the functioning effectively. The EU has Commission directs relief impartially little legal authority in the field nn €440,000 for a project by Save the to people most in need in crisis of – for even within Children (NL) providing emergency zones outside the European Union. the EU this is mainly a matter for reproductive health services in West €652 million was channelled to individual governments – and is Darfur (including support for women humanitarian operations in more clearly unable to control criminality in who have been sexually assaulted)

than 60 nations during 2005. third countries. However, it can and does lend its weight to international For the most part, humanitarian efforts. It supports the International 1. http://ec.europa.eu/comm/development/images/ crises are due to either conflicts or Criminal Court and the efforts of UN button_pdf.jpg natural disasters. EU support goes agencies to end impunity and ensure 2. See following article on UN Security Council Resolution 1325. to a wide range of urgent relief fair legal redress. It also has a policy 3. http://ec.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/human_ activities including protection for of ‘zero tolerance’ of sexual violence rights/child/caafguidelines.pdf vulnerable groups in war zones, perpetrated by peacekeeping forces 4. http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/r12102.htm and psychosocial support. The or others in a position of power or funds are channelled through responsibility in crisis settings. operational partners including UN FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 13 UN Security Council Resolution 1325 by Jackie Kirk and Suzanne Taylor

UN Security Council Resolution 13251 on women, peace Even when intra-government coordination mechanisms are in place, and security, passed on 31 October 2000, was the there are often gaps in programming first UNSCR to specifically acknowledge the impacts of and policy between different state conflict, particularly sexual violence, on women and girls. agencies. At an international level, What has it achieved – and what are its limitations? improvements in donor coordination on the prevention, protection and response to sexual abuse and UNSCR 1325 provides a useful conflict to take special measures exploitation of girls and women are framework from which to to protect women and girls from essential. In addition, coordination is develop and improve policy and gender-based violence.” These vital in contexts where interventions programming on gender, peace, measures include ensuring respect are usually short–term and involve a security and development issues. for international law with regard to variety of actors in different locations. Most importantly, UNSCR 1325 women’s human rights, protecting provides a platform for civil society women and girls from sexual abuse In retrospect, UNSCR 1325 could to demand accountability from and gender-based violence and have been better framed. In particular their governments and to raise ending impunity for perpetrators of it does not draw attention to the public and political awareness genocide, crimes against humanity differentiated effects of armed conflict on the issue of sexual violence and war crimes including sexual on women and girls of different ages in conflict and beyond. and gender-based violence crimes. and situations. It refers to ‘women UNSCR 1325 highlights the need to and girls’ as a homogeneous entity UNSCR 1325 is an 18-point end impunity for sexual violence with supposedly similar experiences, document focusing on four and rape, particularly in holding views, vulnerabilities, protection inter-related thematic areas: governments accountable for the needs, survival strategies and actions of their members of armed degrees of resilience and agency. nn participation of women at forces and civilian police. It also all decision-making levels stresses the need to recognise that Recent research has helped to and in peace processes women’s and girls’ protection articulate some of the specific issues needs change in the transition from relating to the vulnerabilities of nn inclusion of gender training conflict to post conflict: protection of adolescent girls, and the gender-age in peacekeeping operations witnesses at international tribunals dimensions of power imbalances in is just as important as protection conflict and post-conflict contexts. nn protection of the rights while in refugee and IDP camps. Girls may be particularly targeted for of girls and women sexual abuse by fighting forces and in refugee/IDP camps and may be nn gender mainstreaming in Gaps and challenges subject to sexual exploitation by the the UN’s reporting and very people there to care for them, implementation systems. UNSCR 1325 is in no way a magic including peacekeepers, humanitarian formula to ensure security and workers and even teachers.3 There Within each of these thematic protection for all women and is also increased awareness of the areas, UNSCR 1325 encourages girls in conflict and post-conflict particular experiences of girls and action by UN agencies, the Security situations; international norms and young women in fighting forces Council, the Secretary General, their implementation are by nature and their multiple roles within governments and all parties to limited in scope and influence but such groups. Recommendations for armed conflict. Importantly, a especially so if there are no inbuilt protecting girls and young women Security Council resolution brings monitoring mechanisms. It is hard to from sexual violence include ensuring international attention to a particular measure the impacts of international appropriate and empowering issue and also provides a political policy instruments such as UNSCR educational opportunities, as well framework that recommends 1325 on the lives of women and girls as increasing opportunities for girls’ action to be taken by governments living in conflict and post-conflict participation in decision making and international institutions.2 contexts. Many governments have regarding their own safety.4 made broad commitments and several In calling for the protection of have established ad hoc initiatives the rights of girls and women, but, without any monitoring and Agency and empowerment UNSCR 1325 acknowledges gender reporting mechanisms, actual dimensions and differences in impacts are hard to assess. There is Although they are often at risk from the protection of human rights in a need to support both quantitative sexual and gender-based violence in conflict and post-conflict situations and qualitative research that conflict and post-conflict contexts, and calls on “all parties to armed identifies measurable indicators. girls and women – young and old 14 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

– are not only victims. They have its connection to wider determinants Suzanne Taylor ([email protected]) multiple identities and through their of conflict and power relations. is a Research Officer for the Peace, roles as mothers, heads of households, There is a risk that programmes Conflict and Development Unit combatants and peace activists exclusively addressing sexual at the International Development they often demonstrate incredible violence will be isolated from larger Research Centre (IDRC www.irdc.ca). resiliency, coping and survival policy prescriptions for conflict skills. It is imperative that all efforts prevention, conflict resolution and Resolution 1325 has been translated to protect women and girls from reconstruction. Sexual and gender- into some 77 languages. Other sexual violence recognise this and do based violence and exploitation translations are in progress. For not simply depict them as helpless should be included in broader details, see www.peacewomen. victims. Protection initiatives need to analysis of peace, conflict, security, org/1325inTranslation/index.html recognise these multiple identities. reconstruction and development. Rather than reinforce perceptions Sexual and gender-based violence 1. www.un.org/events/res_1325e.pdf 2. For information about who is responsible for 1325 of women and girls as inherently violates the rights of women and girls implementation see www.peacewomen.org/un/UN1325/ vulnerable, we need to empower and is a major barrier to their effective 1325whoswho.html and support them to act to assert participation in peacebuilding and 3. UNHCR and Save the Children UK (2002) Note for their rights within their families, development within their families, Implementing and Operational Partners on Sexual Violence and Exploitation: The Experience of Refugee Children in organisations and communities. communities and societies. Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. www.savethechildren. org.uk/scuk_cache/scuk/cache/cmsattach/1550_unhcr- UNSCR 1325 is a very positive Jackie Kirk ([email protected]. scuk_wafrica_report.pdf initiative but there is a lot left to ca) is an advisor for the International 4. Gender and Peacebuilding Working Group and do. Rape and other forms of sexual Rescue Committee’s Children and Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children (2005) Adolescent Girls affected by Violent Conflict: violence continue unimpeded Youth Protection and Development Why Should we Care? www.peacebuild.ca/upload/ on a daily basis. Policy makers, Unit (www.theirc.org) and a Research AdolescentGirls_eng.pdf practitioners and researchers need Associate with the McGill Centre for to pay more attention to the root Research and Teaching on Women, causes of this type of violence and Montreal (www.mcgill.ca/mcrtw).

The theatre of war by Brigitte M Holzner and Dominique-Claire Mair

Narrating the fate of the women of Troy, the Greek playwright condemned the notion of women as male property. Stella Sabiiti of Euripides provided the script for modern warfare: the the Centre for Conflict Resolution, murdered children of Hekuba, the sexual slavery of Briseis, Kampala, described working with Andromache as war prey, Polyxena burned as a sacrifice male combatants in Uganda, leading and Kassandra raped and made bed-maid of the Greek them to reconcile with their former 1 deeds. Igballe Rogova of the Kosova warlord, Agamemnon. Women’s Network castigated the UN administration in Kosovo This is the perpetual dramaturgy Council Resolution 13252 ushers onto for consolidating by of war – where female bodies are the world stage a new woman. excluding women from talks about appropriated, mutilated, impregnated the province’s final status. Penda and annihilated. The civil wars and A symposium convened in Vienna Mbow, former Senegalese culture internal conflicts of the last decades in April 2006 by the Austrian minister, stressed the need to separate have challenged this archetypal Development Agency – entitled religion and the state: religious woman-as-victim image and ‘Building peace, empowering women: representations of women convey presented other roles – the female gender strategies to make UNSCR a male bias and governments need combatant, the girl soldier, the porter 1325 work’ – assessed the potential to assert gender equality principles. of weaponry, homemaker for the of this initiative to redistribute Irene Freudenschuss-Reichl, warriors and even the female torturer. gendered power relations. Director General for Development This has been parallelled by the Cooperation in the Austrian Ministry recent emergence of a more positive Speakers alluded to all three images. for Foreign Affairs, outlined image – woman as peace-builder, Elisabeth Rehn, former Finnish scope for the Human Security as negotiator at post-conflict tables, Defence Minister,3 stressed that Network5 to bolster UNSCR 1325. as political actor involved in peace women do not ask for revenge processes. The age-old mediating but do need to know that their In addition, Judy El-Bushra role that women have played in the suffering is noted seriously. Renate questioned the concept of ‘women’ private sphere is being transported Winter, Vice President of the used in the text of the Resolution: into the public sphere. UN Security Special Court for Sierra Leone,4 generalising women without FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 15 acknowledging their differences of UNSCR 1325. Speakers and are poorly understood. There is a assumes a common female agenda participants concluded that: need to go beyond awareness and that is hard to define. Osnat advocacy in order to strengthen the Lubrani from UNIFEM Bratislava nn If we do not manage to improve political process and engage local, illustrated UNIFEM’s initiatives for women’s status at times of national and international actors, promoting UNSCR 1325 in South peace we cannot succeed in including women’s organisations. and the Middle doing so at time of war. East, building on national women’s nn Preventing conflicts is as Brigitte M Holzner (brigitte.holzner@ movements for peace. And donor important as peace-building in ada.gv.at) is gender and development representatives from post-conflict situations: effective adviser and Dominique-Claire Mair and Denmark emphasised the prevention requires good ([email protected]) necessity of gender mainstreaming governance, a functioning justice conflict prevention and peace building in projects and programmmes system and active respect and adviser for the Austrian Development in conflict-prone countries. enforcement of human rights. Agency. More information about nn While justice necessarily entails the symposium – including an Changing gender roles during punishment for human rights edited video of proceedings – is conflict can empower women but violators, it also depends on at www.ada.gv.at/view.php3?f_ all too often their increased role in healing, truth, reconciliation id=9021&LNG=en&version= household and community decision and forgiveness: local traditions making proves unsustainable 1. Symposium speaker Renate Winter drew this parallel and rituals can contribute to with the Trojan war. when peace returns. Former female this process of reconciliation. 2. See preceding article by Kirk and Taylor. combatants face marginalisation 3. Also former UN Under-Secretary-General, and co- nn It is important to recognise and discrimination because they author – with (current) Liberian President Ellen Johnson that boundaries of who is have breached gender stereotypes. Sirleaf – of UNIFEM’s Women, War and Peace. victim/perpetrator/protector 4. Set up by the Government of Sierra Leone and the They are all too rarely compensated are often blurred. UN, it has indicted 11 senior members of the country’s for the sexual and psychological former warring factions on charges of committing war abuse they have suffered. nn It is vital to support the media to crimes. www.sc-sl.org disseminate peace messages. 5. www.humansecuritynetwork.org The 300 participants contributed to recommendations for enhancing UNSCR 1325 has opened doors but and strengthening implementation the resolution and its implications

Sexual violence: weapon of war by Katie Thomas

Sexual violence has a profound and long-lasting physical, medical assistance, a woman or girl will have to describe and show the psychological and social impact. wounds, causing her further distress.

The physical wounds suffered in most It is not only physically mature The mental effects of sexual violence forms of combat are usually visible, women who are raped during war but are also distinct in comparison prioritised for medical treatment also children whose bodies have not with other forms of violence. When and eventually healed. In contrast, yet developed and who may sustain violence is perpetrated by a more while sexual violence may result horrific internal injuries as a result. powerful other – for example by in significant physical damage and In addition, in countries where most virtue of the fact that the perpetrator severe internal wounding, it is far women and girls have undergone is physically stronger, in a gang less likely to be treated than other female genital mutilation, sexual and/or armed – the trauma of the forms of wounding. Handbooks violence can cause extensive tearing wounding is compounded by the for intervention in emergency externally as well as internally. trauma of being helpless. In addition, situations rarely mention vaginal when the violence is sexual it invades re-construction as a priority for After conflict-related sexual violence, a person’s most intimate space. Raped surgical intervention even though women and girls with extreme pain women often live with very high sexual violence is now widely and deep internal tears are often levels of anxiety and pain. They may recognised as a frequent method of left to heal without medication or find it difficult to undertake normal warfare. Médecins Sans Frontières’ surgical intervention – and may tasks and interact with others. Women 1997 handbook for emergency suffer vesico-vaginal fistulae (tears) who have been exposed to sexual response, for example, had only and permanent damage to the uterus violence experience great distress, two pages dealing with sexual and and may also contract may suffer periods of mental illness violence out of a total of 381 pages.1 HIV or other sexually transmitted and are at increased risk of suicide. infections. If she does have access to 16 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

equally severe wounding perpetrated by sexual violence could inflicted by sexual violence. be ignored or de-prioritised without The shame and secrecy international outcry. Governments associated with sexual comprised mainly of men may not wounding means that it only share a low valuation of women is often not spoken about, but may also lack appreciation even amongst women, of the depth and breadth of the so there is little social impact of sexual violence on the support for the victim. life of individual women and on family and community life. The sense of stigmatisation, betrayal and abandonment affects a woman’s capacity to Priorities participate in community life and to raise children. Raising National governments and the children requires a sense international humanitarian of hope about the future. A community are responsible woman’s ability to meet her for reducing the occurrence of children’s day-to-day physical sexual violence in conflict and and psychological needs for providing adequate response can be severely depleted or when it occurs. The following destroyed by her experience recommendations should be of sexual violence. This implemented in all conflict situations: impacts on the development of the child’s social nn In the emergency phase, the competence and emotional increased vulnerability of

UNHCR/H Caux well-being. Trauma for the women and children must be mother can affect the brain recognised and their evacuation development of the infant and protection needs made a Miriam, 18, and Most societies will blame, ostracise in the critical first twelve months national and international priority. her twin baby and punish women – rather than of life and thereby create ongoing girls, in West Darfur. Miriam men – for sexual violence. The health, educational and welfare nn The treatment of the psychological was raped woman or girl may well be disowned costs for the community. Children of and physical wounds resulting by Janjaweed by her family or expelled by her raped mothers are at increased risk from sexual violence needs fighters when community. The indifference of their of mental illness themselves and of to be prioritised in both the she was 16 abandonment, abuse or neglect. and later gave family, community, nation and the emergency and post-emergency birth to what international community reinforces phases of conflict. Treatment her community the individual’s hopelessness and When used as a strategic, systemic should be one of the top ten calls “Janjaweed distress. Women and girls who tool of war – as in Rwanda, Sudan, priorities for response in the babies”. have experienced sexual violence Sierra Leone, Kosovo and many emergency phase, along with have learned that the world is not other conflicts – sexual violence can food, nutrition and the prevention safe for females. While an ethnic lead to cultural destruction. While of communicable diseases. or national enemy can be avoided most violence in war is inflicted in a post-conflict scenario, it is not in order to kill the enemy, sexual nn Data collection of cases of sexual possible to avoid all males. Even violence is usually perpetrated not violence and sexual injury needs to though a woman or girl may be only to cause physical wounding be integrated into all standardised able to acknowledge intellectually and humiliation but also to help data collection protocols used that the men in her community may destroy the opposing culture. The at borders and camps. not pose a threat to her, she must damage to cultural and community still cope with fear and traumatic life wrought by the use of sexual nn The international community memories as she interacts with men violence in warfare can persist for needs to ensure that swift and on a daily basis. This can have a generations. Long-term psychological appropriate penalties be meted significant impact on her capacity to damage and ongoing suffering mean out for the war crimes of deal with those in her community. that such violence affects not only sexual violence. the immediate victim but also her As their wounds are not externally children and grandchildren, family, Katie Thomas (Katie.thomas@ visible, women and girls who have extended family and community life. curtin.edu.au) is a psychologist suffered sexual violence may receive specialising in trauma recovery. little sympathy or acknowledgement The physical wounds caused by She works at the Centre for of their impaired capacity to meet sexual violence are also less likely to International Health, Curtin female workload expectations. receive treatment because government University of Technology, Perth, Concessions made for the person and non-state actor combatants Australia www.cih.curtin.edu.au suffering such obvious war-related usually share a low valuation of incapacity as loss of a limb are women. No other physical wound 1. MSF, Refugee Health: An approach to emergency situations. www.msf.org/source/refbooks/MSF_Docs/En/ unlikely to be made for those with with injuries as severe as those Refugee_Health/RH1.pdf FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 17 Challenges to effective protection by Rose Kimotho

With sexual violence now recognised as a weapon of war including rape, sexual enslavement, and a punishable violation of human rights, it is incumbent abduction and . upon the international community, national governments The ICC, established in 2001, and humanitarian organisations to provide more effective represents a significant step protection of women and girls. towards ending the impunity that is commonplace in cases of sexual The primary obligation to protect only available during the immediate violence. By criminalising sexual women and girls from sexual violence conflict and post-conflict phases violence, the ICC statute embodies rests with national governments. and many agency implementation the principles of the various UN Many, however, fail to meet this plans do not include long-term conventions and declarations on obligation even during peace-time. rehabilitation and reintegration . It also Women’s rights tend to be poorly to help survivors re-establish provides measures to improve protected, cases of rape go largely themselves in their communities. investigations and protection of unreported and national records female witness – weaknesses that of prosecuting sexual violence and have plagued both the ICTY and the other of women rights are Strategies for action ICTR. However, it is only through abysmal. Many justice systems, successful prosecution of crimes especially within the developing National governments must do more that the ICC will fulfil its promise. world, are characterised by poor to reform their national legislation investigations, low arrest records and framework and to domesticate Obtaining legal protection is often insensitive judicial procedures that international human rights treaties difficult. Even harder for many criminalise survivors during trial, and conventions on the protection of survivors of sexual violence is further discouraging reporting. women’s rights. Although more than overcoming stigmatisation, for sexual 90% of UN members have ratified violence is the only crime where Sexual and gender-based violence the Convention on the Elimination of the community’s reaction is often (SGBV) in conflict has been prosecuted All Forms of Discrimination against to stigmatise the victim rather than as a at the international Women (CEDAW),5 governments prosecute the perpetrator. Many level by the International Criminal have yet to eliminate discrimination victims of sexual violence – especially Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and accord women protection as violence inflicted by fighting forces (ICTY)1 and the International Criminal full and equal citizens – particularly – are ostracised by their communities, Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)2. when it comes to sexual violence. labelled as unmarriageable and Unfortunately, like their respective Governments emerging from regarded as a source of eternal shame national courts, both tribunals have conflict have the opportunity to for their families. Many leave for dismal records of prosecution of cases comply with international treaties towns and cities where, without of sexual violence. Established in 1993, while re-establishing the rule of support or livelihood skills, they often the ICTY has 27 indictments related to law through new constitutions turn to prostitution in order to survive. sexual offences to its credit. The ICTR and legislation and through setting People’s perceptions and attitudes has only one successful conviction up the judiciary and other public take a long time to change. It is since its inception in 1994, with more administration institutions. therefore imperative that programmes than a dozen cases pending that addressing sexual violence undertake include charges of sexual violence. At the international level, both the community sensitisation as well as ICTY and ICTR must accelerate improving economic livelihoods Although prevention of SGBV and prosecution processes if they are of women and, specifically, response to the needs of survivors to complete pending cases before survivors of sexual violence. are now key components of many their mandates end in 2010. The humanitarian programmes, these establishment of the Special Court for Rose Kimotho (wanguikimotho@ initiatives have yet to deliver real Sierra Leone6 and the International yahoo.com) is a lawyer working on protection. Eleven years after UNHCR Criminal Court (ICC)7 seem to hold SGBV issues among refugees and IDPs published the first guidelines on the out more cause for hope regarding in Kenya, Uganda and . protection of refugee women,3 efforts international prosecutions. Since the by international agencies remain beginning of its operations in 2002, 1. www.un.org/icty 2. www.ictr.org scattered and guidelines themselves the Special Court for Sierra Leone 3. Updated 2003: www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/protect/ 4 are often unevenly implemented. appears to be taking its mandate as opendoc.pdf?tbl=PROTECTION&id=3f696bcc4 Their effectiveness in meeting the regards sexual violence seriously. 4. www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900SID/LGEL- safety and justice-related needs of Investigations and prosecutions 5FMCM2/$FILE/-WomenWarPeace. pdf?OpenElement survivors is compromised by reliance of sexual violence have been an 5. www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/ on national law enforcement agencies integral part of its activities. Ten of 6. www.sc-sl.org and sometimes by religious and the thirteen indictments issued to 7. www.icc-cpi.int cultural traditions. Funding tends to be date are for crimes of sexual violence, 18 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Traumatic fistula: the case for reparations by Arletty Pinel and Lydiah Kemunto Bosire

As a conflict strategy, women are often sexually assaulted about accountability, stakeholders using sticks, guns, branches of trees and bottles. Women’s cannot neglect the condition of these women on whose bodies the worst genitals are deliberately destroyed, some permanently. violence of war is expressed. Traumatic fistula often results. As with victims of torture and other grave human rights abuses, there exists an obligation to restore the women to health as far as Brussels and reparations possible and to provide reparation for their violations. The Brussels Call to Action – agreed at the International Symposium Traumatic fistula is an abnormal and post-conflict settings, in part on Sexual Violence in Conflict opening between the reproductive because victims fear further attacks and Beyond in June 20061 – asked tract of a woman or girl and one and stigma and because of lack of stakeholders to “recognise the right or more body cavities or surfaces, awareness regarding the availability and ensure access to material and caused by sexual violence, usually of fistula repair services. These are symbolic reparation, including but not always in conflict and post- compounded by poor healthcare restitution, compensation, conflict settings. It is a result of direct infrastructure and ongoing insecurity. rehabilitation, satisfaction and gynaecological trauma, usually from The absence of data affects the capacity guarantees of non-repetition for violent rape, mass rape and/or forced of stakeholders to grasp the real all survivors” of sexual violence. insertion of objects into a woman’s magnitude of the problem. Researchers Reparative measures are important vagina. Brutal rape can result in can only determine the extent of for assuring the woman that she is genital injury and the formation of a traumatic fistula by the numbers of a rights-bearing citizen and that the rupture, or fistula, between a woman’s women reporting to repair centres violation of her rights to life and a vagina, her bladder, or both. and health facilities for treatment. life of dignity cannot be tolerated.

Traumatic fistula compounds the In many cases, expert surgeons The first necessary intervention is psychological trauma, fear and stigma trained in fistula repair can mend restoring the women’s functions by that accompany rape – with the the damage. The average cost of treating the fistula and stopping the same risk of unwanted pregnancy, fistula surgery and post-operative incontinence. This means supporting vulnerability to sexually transmitted care for one woman is approximately the treatment centres that provide infections (STIs), including HIV, and $300. Post-operative care of women surgery, as well as ensuring such diminished opportunities to marry, should include trauma counselling, provisions as anaesthesia, blood work or participate in the larger rehabilitation and physical therapy. transfusion and trained personnel. community. Women with fistula are Healing, especially of psychological Often, the same surgical resources unable to control the constant flow wounds, takes time. Some women – used in fistula repair can also be used of urine and/or faeces that leak from especially those who have had foreign in carrying out Caesarean sections the tear. Often, affected women are objects forcibly inserted into their and other routine operations that subsequently divorced, shunned vagina and/or rectum – are unable are essential to reduce the gender- by their communities and unable to heal even after repeated surgery, based imbalance in healthcare to work or care for their families. and are left permanently scarred. access that leads to high rates of Long-term medical complications maternal mortality. This intervention for the survivors of violent rape When women’s bodies become also includes raising awareness may include uterine prolapse, a battleground, conversations in affected communities about infertility and miscarriages. about reconstruction and national availability of repair services. reconciliation cannot have meaning Medical personnel have observed for those affected – either directly The second element of the reparations cases of traumatic fistula in the conflict or indirectly – until there is an called for in Brussels is compensation. and post-conflict countries of Burundi, acknowledgement of the gross Even as human rights activists and Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, violations of the rights of the affected insurance experts continue to put Sudan, Burundi, Rwanda and Sierra women and until affected communities a price on the damage caused by Leone. It has also been reported in are made whole again, insofar as torture, rape, extra-judicial killings other countries such as Ethiopia, this is possible. The public act of and other abuses, in many countries Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Somalia, destruction of a woman’s anatomy is in which the problem of traumatic Tanzania and northern Uganda. symbolic to the tearing apart of the fistula exists compensation is not However, the exact prevalence of social fabric, one that damages the possible. However, just because fistula remains unknown. Data family, and can only fuel revenge ministries of finance cannot afford collection is difficult in conflict and further conflict. In thinking to compensate – and international FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 19 stakeholders are loath to do so – does torture ought to be accountable nn support victims’ organisations not mean this is not an important for torture, with all the relevant and develop programmes to principle to constantly assert. international criminal implications. integrate affected women back into their communities and to In the absence of material foster a supportive atmosphere compensation, symbolic reparations Ways forward for the survivors of traumatic are important. Should we get, as we fistula and other forms of routinely do for ‘orthodox’ human It is vital to: gender-based violence. rights abuses, an apology from the state to all the victims of fistula and nn commission research into the At the heart of reconciliation is the other grave sexual violence, the state causes, impact and magnitude of notion of developing civic trust, being the presumed protector of the traumatic fistula in order to support where those whose rights have been violated rights? Or a memorial for all effective advocacy and to assist in violated can think of themselves as the women whose bodies have acted planning effective interventions rights-bearing citizens. Addressing as alternative battlegrounds, to remind the needs of women deliberately the people that such acts of shame nn support hospitals to enable them torn in the throes of war must be must never happen again, to remind to offer repair services attached seen as one of the first steps towards the women themselves that their war to their operating theatres, with reconciliation, towards repairing a is not forgotten, to portray the women equipment that can be used for society torn apart by war and political as heroes and survivors of great pain, improved services for women, difference. Ignoring this diminishes to honour women rather than ostracise including caesarean sections the impact of other interventions. and blame them, and claim for them a public space to show that respect? nn design interventions that include Dr Arletty Pinel (MD) (pinel@ access to anti-retroviral treatments unfpa.org) is UNFPA’s Chief of The third reparative element in the Call and care to Reproductive Health and Lydiah to Action is rehabilitation in the form avoid unwanted Kemunto Bosire (l.k.bosire@gmail. of medical or psychological services. com) is a UNFPA consultant. Women come to the few existing nn include information regarding treatment centres wishing they were traumatic fistula within the For more information, see Traumatic dead rather than burdened by the curricula of all military units, Gynecologic Fistula: A Consequence triple stigma of rape, incontinence from peacekeepers and police forces of Sexual Violence in Conflict Settings fistula and potential HIV. The hardest www.acquireproject.org/fileadmin/ task is to restore to these women their nn standardise UN and international user_upload/ACQUIRE/Publications/ dignity and convince them that their agency emergency responses to TF_Report_final_version.pdf rights will be respected in future. include clinical services – including 1. See back page. The difficult task of psychologically proper medical examinations, rehabilitating victims must be at the emergency contraception, fistula In 2003, UNFPA spearheaded the heart of interventions and must be surgery, qualified personnel global Campaign to End Fistula, which available routinely – not just to those who can offer skilled obstetrical is working in more than 35 countries victims prepared to testify before and gynaecological services, to prevent and treat fistula, and to truth commissions and courts. appropriate equipment, counselling help rehabilitate and empower women and psychological care after treatment. www.endfistula.org The Call to Action demands guarantees for non-repetition. This nn provide resources to strengthen requires reform of institutions that health services: currently, when A donation to the Campaign are meant to guarantee respect for the annual UN Inter-Agency to End Fistula will help human rights and, in particular, Consolidated Appeals Process restore health, hope respect for women as rights-bearing (CAP) for countries in crisis is and a sense of dignity individuals. There must be an end launched, health programmes to women living with this devastating condition. to impunity and an inculcation of receive less than a quarter an aversion to the crimes that these of requested resources To donate online, visit www. women have suffered. The security endfistula.org/donate.htm sector (both regular and irregular) nn develop community systems must understand the sanctions of to document atrocities and perpetrating violence of this nature, as refer them to appropriate they are often the greatest aggressors. national and international legal mechanisms, with the existence The international community must of traumatic fistula as evidence be unified in its denouncement of any state which fails to sanction its nn work with communities and the military when implicated in traumatic media to change community fistula, as it is in its denouncement of perceptions and attitudes torture. Such security forces cannot that exacerbate the stigma, serve in peace-keeping missions. discrimination and exclusion Generals of irregular forces whose suffered by affected women men are implicated in sexual 20 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Assisting children born of sexual exploitation and abuse by Lauren Rumble and Swati Mehta

The UN Secretary-General has issued a strategy to promote application of CRC rights – particularly a child’s right to know support victims of sexual exploitation and abuse by UN and be cared for by his/her parents staff. It includes a controversial proposal to introduce – and to provide support within a DNA sampling for all UN staff. Unless this suggestion broader context of support for all is adopted, an important opportunity to implement victims of gender-based violence so that stigma and discrimination a truly survivor-centred approach may be lost. are not exacerbated. Greater efforts are required, however, to better The problem of sexual exploitation and Abuse in Humanitarian Crises understand the situation of these and abuse is often exacerbated in and in June 2002 published a report children, and their mothers, in situations characterised by poverty, setting out the core principles of a order to respond appropriately in conflict and/or displacement where code of conduct for humanitarian particular contexts. When there is the UN is actively involved. Poverty workers.3 However, the problem has a credible allegation of paternity, and a lack of economic opportunities yet to be systematically addressed. the UN will assist the child, or the frequently force women and Prevention and response strategies child’s mother/guardian, to access children to engage in ‘’ have taken little account of survivors’ national legal systems or UN – the exchange of money, goods or welfare. For example, in Liberia an administrative processes. This is services for sexual favours. In 2002 orphanage had to be established in line with existing UN staff rules a joint UNHCR/Save the Children for the many children fathered by and regulations that oblige staff UK report revealed a disturbing ECOMOG (Economic Community members to pay child support. pattern of sexual exploitation of of West African States Monitoring refugee children by aid workers Group) peacekeepers, although A child’s access to support therefore and peacekeepers in West Africa.1 such institutionalisation is known depends on credible identification Documenting allegations against for its potentially negative effect on of the father/perpetrator. In reality, 40 agencies and 67 individuals, children’s health and development. many victims are unable or afraid to it reported how humanitarian Children born of sexual exploitation name the perpetrators. The high staff workers extort sex in exchange for and abuse have been absent from turnover typical of most UN missions desperately needed aid. Acts of sexual policy discussions despite the often means that the perpetrator is no exploitation and abuse committed by impact that the circumstances of longer in the country, thus making it UN peacekeepers in the Democratic their birth have on their health and nearly impossible for the UN or the Republic of the Congo were brought well-being. Children fathered in this victim to compel his participation in to the international public’s attention way by UN staff and peacekeepers national legal proceedings, assuming in 2005. The UN continues to are vulnerable to stigma, that there is even a functioning document cases involving children as maternal rejection, statelessness, legal system in the country. young as 11 and anecdotal evidence abandonment and death. indicates that hundreds of babies have been born of such acts. The Secretary-General’s Strategy The DNA question on Assistance to Victims of Sexual For unaccompanied (separated or Exploitation and Sexual Abuse by Earlier drafts of the strategy included abandoned), internally displaced and UN staff issued in mid 2006 focuses a proposal for comprehensive DNA refugee children, vulnerabilities are on providing support to victims sampling of all UN staff for use in compounded by increased risks of who have been sexually abused or limited circumstances – identification sexual abuse, prostitution, trafficking, exploited by all those employed or of human remains, when there military recruitment and psychosocial under contract by the UN – staff is an allegation of paternity after distress. A lack of documentation members, consultants, volunteers, substantiation of sexual exploitation and birth registration in displaced civilian police, military observers or abuse and/or when there is an and refugee settings leaves many and personnel of peacekeeping allegation of involvement in a sex unable to access healthcare, contingents.4 The strategy argues that crime. This proposal is now being education and other services. children born of sexual exploitation discussed in the UN Secretariat. and abuse deserve appropriate Member states have shown The UN moved swiftly to strengthen care in accordance with the rights considerable interest in the proposal accountability mechanisms. The and obligations enshrined in the and some have already approached Inter-Agency Standing Committee Convention on the Rights of the the UN for assistance in obtaining (IASC)2 established a Task Force on Child (CRC).5 It recommends that DNA samples from the children of Protection from Sexual Exploitation the UN work with governments to victims of sexual exploitation and FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 21

Nigerian soldiers, by international in service in Sierra Leone, resolutions, leaving for action human rights in Liberia, 2003. treaties and medical ethics. The General Assembly will shortly have an opportunity to endorse the Secretary- General’s strategy as a whole and discuss strengthening of accountability mechanisms – including a possible strategy for children born of sexual exploitation and abuse. It is

IRIN the UN’s moral responsibility to ensure that abuse, in accordance with their father and child, allowing for repeat all victims, national procedures for child support sampling and testing if desired. Only including children, receive timely claims. The DNA proposal is likely to samples – untested – would be kept support but without further debate be discussed by the General Assembly on file and no information would on the subject or General Assembly in 2007. The General Assembly be obtained unless sent for testing agreement, the Secretary-General’s is empowered to authorise the in one of the three pre-determined strategy is limited in its ability to Secretary-General to promulgate rules circumstances. In the case of a support children fathered by UN enabling him to obtain DNA samples paternity allegation, a simple, cost- staff and related personnel. from all UN staff. Troop and police- effective and virtually 100% accurate contributing countries could also paternity test would be performed. Lauren Rumble (lrumble@unicef. consider adopting similar measures The test only confirms identity and org) works in the Humanitarian for personnel serving with the UN. does not provide any other sensitive Policy and Advocacy Unit, Office information. The arguments under of Emergency Programmes, Despite its intended benefits – to international human rights law are UNICEF, New York. facilitate children’s access to support, more complex. The debate has mainly act as a deterrent to those who focused on staff members’ right to Swati Mehta assisted with the believe they can act with impunity, privacy and the ‘proportionality’ of strategy as an intern in UNICEF’s exonerate those falsely accused the DNA proposal to the harm being Child Protection Division. and contribute to broader efforts addressed. One must remember, to restore the UN’s credibility – the however, that the right to privacy 1. UNHCR/Save the Children UK report Sexual violence and exploitation: the experience of refugee children in Guinea, DNA proposal has encountered is not absolute and that the rights Liberia and Sierra Leone. See also Asmita Naik ‘Protecting significant resistance. Debate over of staff members must be balanced children from the protectors: lessons from West the proposal’s practicality and against the rights and obligations of Africa’, FMR15 www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR15/ possible violation of staff members’ all parties – children, parents, member fmr15.7.pdf; Iain Levine and Mark Bowden ‘Protection from sexual exploitation and abuse in humanitarian rights may hamper its adoption. states and the UN – under the CRC. crises: the humanitarian community’s response’, FMR15 www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR15/fmr15.8.pdf; and The primary authors of the The DNA proposal is without Asmita Naik ‘UN investigation into sexual exploitation strategy believe that the majority precedent in the UN system – at by aid workers – justice has not been done’, FMR16 of the controversy regarding present only UN staff in Iraq are www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR16/fmr16.15.pdf 2. www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc practicality is related to a general required to undertake DNA sampling. 3. www.reliefweb.int/idp/docs/references/ lack of understanding about the However, several national authorities protsexexpPoARep.pdf use of DNA and the process of and institutions have introduced 4. www.peacewomen.org/resources/Peacekeeping/SEA/ sampling and testing.6 Fears of false blanket DNA sampling for specific victim_assistance.pdf#search=%22%22A%2F60%2F877 %22%22 positive matches, contamination purposes, such as identification of 5. www.unicef.org/crc of samples and planted evidence remains, resolution of crimes and 6. Interview with Pamela Jones (UNICEF) and Lisa Jones can also be attributed to this lack identification and reunification (OCHA), authors’ notes, September, 2006. of understanding. The strategy of children and families. Sound proposes only complete samples practices for DNA sampling and be taken directly from the alleged testing have been developed, guided 22 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Sexual violence against men and boys by Wynne Russell

It is well known that armed conflict and sexual violence Sexualised violence against men and boys can emerge in any form against women and girls often go hand in hand. What is less of conflict – from interstate wars widely recognised is that armed conflict and its aftermath to civil wars to localised conflicts also bring sexual danger for men and boys. – and in any cultural context. Both men and boys are vulnerable in The great reluctance of many men Organisations that have made conflict settings and in countries of and boys to report sexual violence preliminary efforts to reach out asylum alike. Both adult men and makes it very difficult to accurately to male survivors have often been boys are most vulnerable to sexual assess its scope. The limited statistics handicapped by lack of awareness violence in detention. In some places that exist almost certainly vastly of the issue on the part of survivors over 50% of detainees reportedly under-represent the number of male and staff alike. Even though male experience sexualised torture. victims. Nevertheless, in the last victims are included in some However, both adult men and boys decade, sexualised violence against international tribunals’ definitions of are also vulnerable during military men and boys – including rape, sexual violence, the domestic laws operations in civilian areas and in sexual torture, mutilation of the of many countries do not include situations of military or genitals, sexual humiliation, sexual male victims in their definitions abduction into paramilitary forces. enslavement, forced and of sexual violence, particularly in Boys, meanwhile, are also highly forced rape – has been reported in cases where homosexual activity vulnerable in refugee/IDP settings. 25 armed conflicts across the world. attracts legal penalties.2 The human If one expands this tally to include impact of this marginalisation and In addition to acts of individual cases of sexual exploitation of boys lack of care can only be guessed at. sadism, the main overt purposes displaced by violent conflict, the of sexualised violence against men Meanwhile, we remain ignorant of and boys appear to be torture, the place that such violence occupies initiation and integration into not ‘boys being boys’ in the perpetuation of conflicts or military/paramilitary forces, in the choice of particular forms punishment of individuals and a but an exercise in power of retaliatory violence. We do not strategy of war designed to terrify, and humiliation understand its impact on post- demoralise and destroy family conflict reintegration of adult or and community cohesion.3 child combatants, or of civilian men list encompasses the majority of the forced to rape family or community More fundamentally, most sexual 59 armed conflicts identified in the members. We are unaware of how violence is a mechanism by which recent Human Security Report.1 it affects the incidence of sexual men are placed or kept in a position and other violence against women subordinate to other men. Male- The problem of male-directed and children, including refugees directed sexual violence helps to sexual violence is not unknown and child soldiers, during and after expose the broader phenomenon to the humanitarian community. conflicts. From the perspective of the of conflict-related sexual violence, Many international organisations global trade in sex and persons, we including against the women and – UN agencies, governmental and remain ignorant of its contribution girls who are the most numerous intergovernmental organisations, to prostitution, survival sex or victims, for what it is: not ‘boys INGOs, international criminal trafficking in persons during and being boys’ but an exercise in courts – have acknowledged the after conflicts and in refugee/IDP power and humiliation. issue in their publications and settings. We do not know about their staff members show a high the relationship between conflict- degree of individual sensitisation related violence and sexual violence What is needed and concern. Nevertheless, male- within institutions such as militaries, directed sexual violence remains police forces and penal systems. Systematic collection of data is vital. largely undocumented. Organisations operating in conflict- From what little published affected zones should intensify Little is known either about the information exists on the efforts to identify male victims of scope or nature of such violence or subject, as well as the expertise and create reporting about the psychosocial consequences of many, it is possible to make categories for violence that affect for male survivors. For individual some rough observations. male sexuality and reproductive survivors, this collective ignorance capacity, such as mutilation of the leads to a lack of assistance or justice. FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 23 genitals. All data must be able to be would help programme managers psychological consequences often broken down by gender and age. formulate effective strategies and far outlive those of other forms would also help advance the field of physical violence. We need Mechanisms for expert discussion of trauma studies more generally. to take care not to inadvertently on how to provide assistance for harm other vulnerable groups. men and boy survivors need to be Male victims need to be fully Psychosocial strategies aimed at established. Given the extraordinary represented in international justice the specific needs of male survivors sensitivity of the issue for victims initiatives and their inclusion in must be carefully designed to and communities alike, strategies national laws on sexual violence. avoid unintentional reinforcement need to be carefully thought out. The prosecution by the International of concepts of male dominance Many of those I have interviewed Criminal Tribunal for the Former over women or of homophobia. stressed the difficulty of formulating Yugoslavia4 of perpetrators of sexual programmes for male survivors, violence against male victims and Wynne Russell (wynneoz@yahoo. given that they often have very the Democratic Republic of Congo’s com.au) is a visiting fellow in different needs from female survivors recent extension of the crime of the Department of International and are often extremely reluctant rape to include male victims are Relations at the Australian National to discuss the violence they have positive examples. Humanitarian University http://rspas.anu.edu.au/ir. suffered or its consequences. The actors should acknowledge that needs of male survivors often for male victims sexual violence 1. www.humansecurityreport.info/index.php?option=con tent&task=view&id=28&Itemid=63 vary widely according to cultural is not just another form of torture. 2. See article by Rodriguez p45 on DRC’s recent context. Creation of mechanisms Sexual and gender-based violence expansion of rape laws to include both genders. for expert discussion both within is a particularly vicious attack on 3. Thanks to Françoise Duroch of Médecins Sans and across cultural contexts personal and social identity whose Frontières for these observations. 4. www.un.org/icty Sexual violence and HIV/AIDS transmission by Jennifer Klot and Pam DeLargy

The high rates of sexual violence in sub-Saharan Africa may such as Liberia, levels of sexual help explain the disproportionate rates of infection among violence remain high and in some countries violence against women young women as compared to men, and also offer a new may actually increase in the aftermath conceptual framework for understanding HIV transmission. of a conflict, though dynamics may change.2 Understanding Sexual violence is vastly under- If sexual violence is a significant HIV how these patterns change over represented as an HIV risk and risk factor, it follows that conflict time is essential for effective HIV transmission factor both within situations may pose greater risks prevention and response. But and outside of conflict situations. for HIV, particularly where rape most of the relatively small body Sexual violence and coercion may is used as a weapon of war, where of literature linking conflict with increase susceptibility to HIV decreased security contributes to HIV/AIDS identifies sexual violence insofar as non-consensual sex is higher prevalence of opportunistic as only one among a broad range associated with increased genital sexual violence or where there is of factors that could increase the trauma and coital injuries, the already HIV infection among the likelihood of HIV infection in conflict likelihood of anal penetration, the population. Given the high levels – including mobility and population vulnerability of adolescent girls of sexual violence occurring in a displacement, poverty, loss of access and the age difference between number of conflict-affected countries to health services and information, partners. Heightened risk may also with significant HIV prevalence unsafe blood transfusion, civil- be associated with the probable (such as the Democractic Republic military interactions, changing infectiousness of the perpetrator, the of Congo, Liberia, Burundi and family and social structures, incidence and prevalence of sexual Cote d’Ivoire), this could be a demographic impacts, psychological violence, including of mass rape, and major driver of the epidemic. trauma, illicit drugs use and STIs. the likelihood of ulcerative sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV. A growing number of studies are The point here is not to negate the It may only require a small internal showing that sexual violence in significance of these factors but to or external genital injury to provide war does not disappear when the distinguish between ‘drivers’ and ‘risk the virus access to susceptible cells. peace agreements are signed.1 In factors’. The factors described above a number of post-conflict settings, are drivers of HIV vulnerability, 24 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

while a risk is the forced such dynamics has led to increasing Conclusions or violent sexual interaction. It is attention to the importance of true that poverty, migration and addressing multiple factors such Until the role of force or coercion changing social structures increase as education and livelihoods as is made explicit in the data linking young women’s vulnerability to HIV well as psychosocial and medical HIV with other factors, its potentially – but the specific risks are most often care for survivors.3 Very little decisive impact on transmission risk directly related to sexual violence empirical analysis, however, has will continue to be obscured or even and to sexual exploitation, including been done on this combination remain hidden. Theoretical, legal high-risk sexual encounters for of physiological and behavioural and policy agreement is needed on survival, in exchange for food or risk as a driver of HIV infection what constitutes sexual violence and other relief supplies, to pass borders during or after conflict situations. force across different socio-cultural or to gain certain types of protection. settings, and more research is needed In fact, the term ‘civilian-military Distinguishing between sexual to explain the patterns, scale and interaction’ is often a euphemism violence as a ‘driver’ and ‘risk scope of sexual violence over time. for describing situations of sexual factor’ is central to how emergency This information must be linked violence and exploitation. and HIV policies and programmes to surveillance, monitoring and are conceived and implemented. reporting systems for HIV/AIDs in Many victims and survivors of Although HIV/AIDS prevention is order to determine more clearly the sexual violence experience multiple likely to be a first-line response to specific dynamics of the relationship forms of violence across the various sexual violence (such as through between sexual violence, forced sex conflict stages: before conflict, STI treatment and provision of post- and HIV vulnerability and risk. during flight, in so-called protected exposure prophylaxis), it is far less areas, throughout resettlement and likely that sexual violence prevention Jennifer Klot ([email protected]) is upon return. In many post-war is seen and used as an entry point for Senior Adviser, HIV/AIDS and environments, women and girls who HIV/AIDS prevention in the context Gender and Security, Social Science have experienced sexual assault, of disarmament and demobilisation Research Council www.ssrc.org rape or sexual exploitation – all of programmes, information and which can involve the physiological education campaigns, and Pam DeLargy (delargy@unfpa. aspects of forced sex – are also then reconstruction and early recovery org) is Chief of UNFPA’s stigmatised, expelled from their programmes. For the most part, Humanitarian Response Unit families and experience types of addressing sexual violence is www.unfpa.org/emergencies social marginalisation which then considered (and therefore resourced expose them further to exploitation, and programmed) as a part of 1. Sheila Meintjes (ed) The Aftermath: Women in Post- Conflict Transformation. Zed 2002. unstable relationships and continued human rights advocacy, reproductive 2. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and Elizabeth Rehn Women, War, forced sex, thus perpetuating the health or as a gender issue. Peace, UNIFEM 2002. See p33. cycle of vulnerability. Awareness of 3. IASC Guidelines for Addressing Gender-Based Violence in Humanitarian Settings – see p9. Integrating protection into food aid by Mariangela Bizzarri

The World Food Programme (WFP) does not have a specific SGBV-focused research conducted protection mandate but its activities are increasingly in the Democratic Republic of shaped by awareness of the need to protect women and Congo, Colombia, Liberia, Uganda and Colombia confirmed WFP’s girls from sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). need to continue focusing on:

WFP operates in unpredictable into the agency’s operations such nn taking women’s concerns situations where staff members are as enhancing women’s control of into account often confronted with human rights food in relief food distributions. In violations and other protection- 2005 we launched a country-level nn delivering food aid as related challenges. They need protection project, one part of which close as possible to where appropriate guidance and support examined the link between protection beneficiaries are located to in dealing with these challenges. and gender and focused specifically reduce risks during collection Adopted in 2002, WFP’s Gender on SGBV including the issue of Policy1 ensures that certain sexual exploitation and abuse and nn keeping deliveries of food rations protection measures are integrated its link to HIV/AIDS. Protection and small in order to reduce the FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 25

occurrence of attacks on refugee/ of rations, beneficiary selection especially men – on issues such as IDP camps to steal rations criteria, distribution time and human rights violations and abuses, place) to all beneficiaries SGBV and its link with HIV/AIDS. nn providing gender sensitisation and SGBV awareness training nn establish channels for beneficiaries WFP needs to work with partners to for all WFP field staff. to report cases of abuse better understand the link between linked to food distribution violence generated by conflict Findings from the missions included and food insecurity and SGBV’s the following good practices and the nn encourage women to travel in impact on the health, social and need for an increased focus on SGBV- groups to and from distribution economic status of the population. related issues in food distribution: points to reduce the risk of attacks Women’s roles as drivers of peace in situation of high insecurity and key actors in preserving a nn use participatory approaches for community’s social fabric must be beneficiary identification, activity nn expand programmes, where food acknowledged. Resources must be identification and planning to aid is an appropriate response, to sufficient to address the root causes make sure that women’s needs and support survivors of SGBV – such of violence. Demobilised fighters concerns are taken into account as providing food to hospitalised need adequate resources to meet women to allow them to stay in their basic needs, food in particular. nn examine the impact of SGBV hospital for the full recovery time. on women, girls, families and Action on these recommendations communities as well as its It is recommended that WFP should will help WFP develop a more social, economic and health continue supporting activities strategic approach to protection, implications, including HIV/AIDS to restore, enhance or secure the providing sound policies and resilience of households and of guidance to support WFP staff nn establish distribution points in communities via income-generating members in dealing with protection- secure places and help ensure activities and food-supported related challenges, including sexual safe travel to and from them training and work activities. and gender-based violence. Specific capacity-building activities nn designate women as family should be developed to provide Mariangela Bizzarri (Mariangela. ration card holders vulnerable women and girls with [email protected]) is a Gender, the necessary livelihood skills to Mother and Child Health Service nn start distribution early in the day to avoid resorting to such destructive Programme Officer in the Policy, avoid the need to travel in the dark coping mechanisms as transactional Strategy and Programme Support sex. It is important to link with Division of the World Food nn explain clearly about food partner organisations working on the Programme www.wfp.org entitlements (size and composition sensitisation of communities – and 1. www.un.org/womenwatch/ianwge/gm_facts/Wfp.pdf

Vulnerable women beneficiaries of a Food for Training Project run by the World Food Programme in Bangladesh. WFP/Shehzad Noorani 26 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Conflict-driven violence against girls in Africa by Florence Tercier Holst-Roness

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) payments, early marriage and female genital mutilation is deeply concerned about the magnitude of the (FGM), are further strengthened. violations committed against girls in today’s conflicts.

Sexual violence is used against Rape not only dims any prospect Girls in armed forces girls in wartime, as it is against of marriage but can also have very and groups women, for many different reasons: frightening consequences that endure as a form of torture, to inflict long after the assault: unwanted Girls may also be recruited into injury, to extract information, to pregnancy, HIV/AIDS and other armed forces or armed groups to degrade and intimidate, as a form sexually transmitted infections (STIs), fulfill various functions – whether of punishment for actual or alleged in addition to psychological trauma. strictly ‘military’ functions or more ‘support’ functions. Girls are used as Girls’ lives can be completely domestic workers, porters, fighters, changed by armed conflict, spies, suicide bombers or as sexual particularly as regards their slaves, or they may be forced to role in the family, community marry one of the commanders. In and public sphere. Girls an environment where insecurity are generally not prepared prevails and the protection normally for the changes forced on provided by the family is absent, them. The loss of relatives many girls are easily abducted by and the absence of men – or they may choose to join – the – because they have fled or army or opposition group as a way gone missing, been killed or of gaining a degree of protection are fighting – can lead to the and : bearing a gun can breakdown or disintegration seem the only way to ensure access Manoocher Deghati/IRIN of family and community to security, food and protection. networks. This obliges girls to Armed with lethal weapons, plied take on new roles which often with alcohol and drugs to incite them Two girls, actions committed by themselves challenge and redefine their cultural to violence and fearlessness, forced formerly or their families and to destroy and social identities. The lack of into dependence on the group that abducted by the Lord’s Resistance the cohesion of their communities. marriage possibilities (because of the recruited them, unable or too fearful Army, at a Perpetrators also attack very young absence of men or the social rejection to find a way out, girls become a rehabilitation girls through the mistaken belief of girls who have been abused or danger to themselves and others. centre in that raping a virgin will protect have played a role in hostilities) Gulu District, northern from, or cure, HIV infection. can have enormous implications. In ICRC interviews with girls Uganda, Conversely, armed conflict may lead from Uganda, Liberia and Sierra August 2006. Children’s vulnerability (and girls’ to an increase in early and/or forced Leone, we found that many had in particular) increases drastically which are sometimes been able to attain positions of when the traditional protection used as a means of ‘protecting’ command and perform leadership afforded them by their families young girls from sexual roles, demonstrating that a measure and communities is disrupted by or recruitment by armed groups. of equal status can be reached displacement or separation. In such within armed opposition groups. circumstances, girls – but also boys Girls may be vulnerable to attack However, the responsibilities - are all too often exposed to threats or threats from members of their given to them were often related or acts of violence by parties to armed own families or communities to violations they had been forced conflicts – military forces, armed for not conforming to traditional to commit, sometimes in their groups or the police – and also by roles. In other cases, girls may be own villages, or to the number members of peacekeeping forces or targeted by the adversary in order to of civilians they had killed. humanitarian workers. Targeting destroy or subvert those roles. Both girls, who symbolise the ability to phenomena are particularly acute The medical needs of girls formerly procreate and survive, is a method where armed conflict has an ethnic associated with fighting forces or of demonstrating that they cannot dimension and a group is struggling groups go beyond treatment for be protected in the absence of their to preserve its identity and traditions. war wounds and endemic diseases fathers and of bringing ‘dishonour’ As a result, age-old practices that such as malaria, cholera, diarrhoea upon an entire family or community. discriminate against girls, such as and parasitic infections. In countries FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 27 where FGM is practised, the threat crucial to their protection. The fact nn provide separate facilities of complications is magnified. Sexual that girls associated with fighting for boys and girls in transit activity increases for many girls in forces are often absent in formal DDR centres as girls are often at risk armed conflicts, owing to forced processes stems from reasons such as: of harassment, stigmatisation marriages, prostitution or policies of and sexual which systematic rape and abuse that result nn reluctance to acknowledge prevent them from starting in early pregnancy and a substantial involvement in the illegal a healing process, attending increase in STIs. Lack of reproductive and unethical practice of school or accessing healthcare and antenatal health care for pregnant recruiting children by armed girls can lead to severe gynaecological groups and armed forces nn provide tailored counselling complications, such as vasico- programmes for girls who vaginal and vasico-rectal fistulas nn discrimination and lack of gender have suffered trauma, become and a heightened risk of infant and analysis in armed conflicts addicted to drugs or alcohol maternal mortality and illness. or engaged in prostitution nn the perception of female A growing body of research has soldiers as outcasts nn provide girls with non-gender shown significant correlations related livelihoods training: girls between child sexual abuse and nn poor planning and implementation should not be confined to low-paid behavioural and psychological of DDR processes skills but have access to training in problems, , traditional and/or non-traditional relationship problems, low self- nn DDR planners being unaware of skills such as masonry or carpentry esteem, depression, suicidal thoughts, the presence and roles of girls deliberate self-harm, alcohol and associated with fighting forces nn ensure women are involved in substance abuse and sexual risk defining and planning DDR taking. Since girls associated with nn the fact that communities processes and are represented fighting forces have usually been deny or hide the problem. on supervisory bodies. the victims of sexual violence, they need appropriate and comprehensive nn girls are reluctant to come forward nn design DDR processes in a gender-specific support that can meet in DDR processes out of shame way that minimises shame their physiological, psychological or fear of being punished. and maximises security. and spiritual needs and help them reintegrate into society. In almost all countries laws exist to One of the biggest security threats protect girls but they often remain at DDR sites is fights between un-enforced. We must bridge the gap the family members who have Invisibility of girls in between the law on paper and the come to rescue captured girls and DDR processes law in practice. The humanitarian commanders who claim these community must increase efforts to: children as wives: family members When there is no formal are often forced to retreat because disarmament, demobilisation and nn collect and disaggregate data of threats of violence against them. reintegration (DDR) process, it is to ensure identification of the often difficult to gain access and most vulnerable members For the ICRC the issue of protection offer protection and support to girls of a given population of women and girls in armed associated with fighting forces. conflict is part of a bigger challenge: Even if there is a DDR process, girls nn improve understanding of how can we secure respect for the may shy away from the options it the socially constructed roles distinction between civilians and offers because they do not want to and specific experience of combatants in future wars and thus be known or registered as former each demographic group prevent the scope of violence from fighters. In other cases, they stay away during and after conflict expanding ever further? This question because they have not been released has become all the more pressing by their partners or abductors, nn ensure girls are eligible to given the security risks that even because they believe – rightly or enter a DDR process as persons neutral and impartial humanitarian wrongly – that they do not meet the in their own right – and not organisations such as the ICRC face admission criteria or because they are simply as family members or when trying to bring protection dissuaded by the insecurity prevailing dependants – whether or not and assistance to those in need. in the gathering centres. The fact that they surrender weapons most formal DDR programmes are Florence Tercier Holst-Roness narrowly conceived as opportunities nn make sure girls are informed about ([email protected]) is to disarm individual men and that the their rights in both formal and Women and War Adviser for the surrender of weapons is a criterion of informal demobilisation processes. International Committee of the Red eligibility often leads to the exclusion Cross (ICRC). This is a summary of a of children, especially girls. It took nn ensure that girls are interviewed report online at www.icrc.org/Web/ a long time and several disastrous separately so that the roles they Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/violence- experiences before the international have played and their wishes for girls-conference-110506/$File/ community realised that addressing the future can be better understood International-Policy-Conference.pdf the problem of demobilised girls was 28 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Overcoming challenges related to data collection and measurement

The following is extracted by the FMR editors from Methods non-penile vaginal penetration or rape of men and boys are often and Systems for the Assessment and Monitoring of Sexual not specified in national laws. Violence and Exploitation in Conflict Situations – the report of a technical consultation held in December 2005 in New York In some contexts, when the person by the Social Science Research Council, UNFPA and WHO. is an adult it is never rape. Sexual violence may not be considered rape if family members choose not Despite substantial international times of peace and conflict the very to acknowledge the violation. In interest in tackling sexual and gender- act of collecting information can itself many countries, in order to establish based violence, there is no agreed- do harm by exposing the identity of her status as a victim a woman upon method to be used on a routine, victims (or perpetrators). Interviews must prove that she resisted. Given systematic basis for the generation of can be conducted in ways that cause that the phenomenon of gender- data and analysis to inform effective emotional and psychosocial damage based violence is understood, response strategies and reduction or violate local and international defined and dealt with in different interventions in conflict situations. norms. It is clear that the ethical ways in different communities, bottom line, therefore, must be the broader the definition, the that if information systems cannot more likely it will capture the Targets and definitions be used safely and responsibly, necessary range of offences. they should not be used at all. In 2005 the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC)1 expressed When data is gathered, it is important Information systems commitment to improving reporting to be clear who the target audience and data collection on sexual is. Is data primarily being generated It should be noted that there is no violence. The Social Science Research for humanitarian agencies, policy evidence of a causal relationship Council,2 on behalf of UNFPA and the makers, governments, prosecutors? between surveillance and reduction. World Health Organization (WHO), The UN’s system to monitor and Costs related to developing any convened a technical consultation in report on grave violations of human kind of information or surveillance order to evaluate existing methods rights and humanitarian law is system are not inconsiderable but for monitoring sexual violence in directed chiefly at identified groups there are moral imperatives to conflict, identify data sources and and parties who are perpetrators. document, record, monitor and indicators and chart obstacles to In contrast, documentation by evaluate so that action against can establishing monitoring, assessment humanitarian and human rights be based on evidence and lessons and reporting systems amidst conflict. organisations tends to put heavy learned. Monitoring legal and judicial emphasis on survivors and on practices concerning rape and Participants noted that the securing services to meet their needs. other sexual crimes are essential for greatest challenge for designing or ending impunity and empowering utilising any information system How sexual violence and exploitation survivors to seek justice. While it is is guaranteeing that the physical (SVE) is defined will have a not possible to assess all indictors safety and protection of survivors, considerable impact on the results in all contexts, key indictors on their trusted confidantes and service generated by any measurement laws, courts and women’s legal providers are not compromised and or surveillance activities. Terms status are critical. When creating an that it does not increase the risks that appear to be self-evident often information system for SVE in conflict to and vulnerability of survivors have specific legal and political situations, it is important to create a and those assisting and protecting meanings and may have a particular system to track trends in prevalence them. Such challenges may be meaning to participants in a study. over time, as well as to inform especially pronounced when the For instance, an equivalent term to organisations of needed services. authorities, including those entrusted ‘rape’ does not exist in all languages, with ensuring women’s protection and norms around what constitutes Surveys cannot be used to measure such as the police, are among to sex often differ. Sexual the actual numbers of women the perpetrators of the violence. violence in conflict situations often that have experienced sexual Disclosing experiences of sexual takes place in settings where local violence. Instead, they measure violence and abuse may expose languages do not have a word for the number of women surveyed women and girls to further violence rape, or in cultures of violence with who are willing or able to disclose and retaliation, just as documenting high incidences of intimate partner at that moment that they have violence may put researchers and violence, police violence and other experienced sexual violence. service providers at risk. Both in forms of violence. Offences like FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 29

Creating a comprehensive infor- nn identifying personnel needed ongoing or future attacks, while the mation system for sexual violence for field monitoring systems, humanitarian sector is concerned in conflict situation will require: training methodologies and with health needs and psychosocial means of disseminating consequences. But the two sectors nn identifying key decision makers and using information face similar security and protection and stakeholders from the health, challenges and must liaise. psychosocial, legal and security nn sharing expertise between sectors, the types of decisions that epidemiologists, statisticians and Given the sensitive nature of data need to be made and the types of demographers on developing collection on sexual violence (for information needed to make them sampling techniques example, regarding the potential identification of perpetrators – who nn ensuring that local experts and nn creating statistical models that themselves may be members of individuals from the target can identify correlations between government – and the safety of community are given the patterns of political events and victims and survivors), issues means to identify contextually patterns of sexual violence. regarding ownership and data relevant indicators, interpret utilisation must be addressed at findings and help identify Actors and agencies must find a the onset of collection activities to strategies for response common goal for the use of the data. guard against the misuse, distortion Goals cannot be agency-specific. or suppression of information. nn establishing protocols for training Coordination is crucial to data and involvement of local personnel collection. Just as gender-based The full report is online at – especially women – at all levels violence (GBV) services must be www.ssrc.org/programs/HIV/ of the surveillance system coordinated between agencies, so publications/SVE_Report.pdf must the collection of data. The nn identifying inconsistencies, human rights sector is mainly 1. www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/content/subsidi/ tf_gender/gbv.asp data gaps and ambiguity in the concerned with identifying the 2. www.ssrc.org terminology used in current perpetrator and applying the law, as monitoring and reporting well as protecting the victims from

WHO Multi-Country Study on Women’s Health and with well-trained researchers, help create a more conducive against Women climate for disclosure. Cross-sectional studies – i.e. snapshot www.who.int/gender/violence/multicountry/en data collection – are limited in their ability to explain how violence may have changed over time with respect to Starting in 1998, WHO has implemented an eight-year incidence, prevalence and other factors. study on domestic violence among 24,000 women in ten countries. The study has resulted in the first comparable Guidelines for Gender-based Violence data on domestic violence in the world – even five years Interventions in Humanitarian Emergencies: ago, data of this kind was completely unavailable. The main Focusing on Prevention and Response objectives were to estimate the prevalence of physical and to Sexual Violence sexual violence; document the associations between intimate www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/gender partner violence and various indicators of women’s current health status; identify risk and protective factors for domestic The guidelines were developed by the Inter-Agency violence against women for comparison within and between Standing Committee’s Taskforce on Gender and settings; and explore and compare the strategies used by Humanitarian Assistance. They detail minimum women who experience domestic violence. In addition to interventions for prevention and response to sexual ongoing or continuous data violence to be undertaken collection, the in the early stages of an utility of using repeat emergency. Field tested measures such as baseline by a large number of and follow-up studies agencies. Guidelines and cross-sectional available in English, studies was also discussed. French, Spanish, WHO’s study demonstrated Arabic and Bahasa the value of longitudinal Indonesia. For more approaches as compared information, contact Kate to cross-sectional studies. Burns, OCHA burns@ The former can provide un.org, Wilma Doedens, a baseline against which UNFPA wilma.doedens@ incidence and prevalence undp.org or Tanja can be measured over time Sleeuwenhoek, WHO and also, when carried out [email protected] 30 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Ireland takes action by Vivienne Forsythe and Angela O’Neill De Guilio

Ireland’s leading development, humanitarian and human incorporate GBV response into all funding and monitoring mechanisms rights organisations – in conjunction with the Irish – and agencies themselves suggested government – have pledged to become a significant that Irish government funding could international force in responding to gender-based violence. be conditional on addressing GBV.

The Joint Consortium of Irish It was recommended that each ‘The challenge for us all is: if we know Human Rights Humanitarian and agency identify a few key actions GBV exists, and if we tolerate or ignore Development Agencies and Irish on which they could move forward it, are we not being complicit, are Aid aims to ensure that gender- within six to twelve months. The we not turning a blind eye to human based violence (GBV) responses consortium would act as a vehicle rights violations? I congratulate this and strategies have visibility, for sharing information and initiative’s commitment to place credibility, high-level leadership and examples of good practice and GBV at the centre of development wide support within its member would also act as a peer support and human rights work’. organisations. The organisations mechanism. Several key actions Mary Robinson, former President involved in this initiative came were identified for all members: of Ireland and former High together in 2004 following reports Commissioner for Human Rights of very high levels of rape in Darfur. nn establish a policy or integrate Realising that a more systematic GBV response within approach was needed to address existing frameworks A summary of actions is included the problems of GBV – not only in in the final report, Gender Based high-profile emergency situations nn set and enforce standards of Violence – A Failure to Protect, A like Darfur but also in other conflict, behaviour for all staff and partners Challenge to Action, launched in post-conflict and non-conflict Dublin in November 2005 by Mary environments – they formed the Joint nn allocate lead high-level Robinson and Conor Lenihan, Consortium of Irish Human Rights responsibility (a team rather Minister of State for Development Humanitarian and Development than an individual) Cooperation and Human Rights. A Agencies and Irish Aid.1 short awareness-raising CD-ROM nn integrate GBV into appraisals, was launched shortly afterwards.2 The consortium commissioned an regional country programme independent study to assess member design, implementation agencies’ capacity to respond to and monitoring Moving forward GBV and to develop a model of best practice for GBV programming. nn build staff capacity through The consortium is now working The study indicated that the overall documenting programme to ensure that GBV responses are capacity of agencies was weak experience, research and training an integral part of the policy and and there appeared to be little operational frameworks of agencies. collective understanding of GBV. Of nn link with national and Two working groups have been the consortium member agencies, international human rights set up – one for documentation only was organisations to develop effective and inter-organisational sharing of systematically addressing GBV. ways of working together experience and learning, the other Conclusions from country programme focused on human resources and visits highlighted the inconsistency of nn raise awareness of GBV training. Best practice guidelines on organisational capacity and approach. internally and externally institutionalising GBV within agencies were published in November. nn draw lessons from HIV and gender “…there has been a huge reluctance mainstreaming approaches. The overall experience of the Irish by the international community to consortium has been positive. The engage on the issue of gender-based The report emphasised the need Irish government has ensured that violence, despite the fact that it is to develop broader understanding attention to GBV is an integral probably the most widespread human of the issues, ensure that GBV component of all humanitarian rights abuse. This Irish initiative prevention and response are project support. There has been to take leadership on this abuse central to programming, improve strong buy-in from member agencies is crucial ... Ireland is a respected response delivery, engage with civil to improve organisational competence player in the area of human rights. ” society and promote inter-agency and capacity to address GBV. Aid Dr Yakin Erturk, UN Special coordination and collaboration. It workers, development agency staff Rapporteur on Violence was recommended that Irish Aid and peacekeeping forces taking part Against Women and consortium member agencies in humanitarian programmes are FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 31

being encouraged cross-organisational engagement copies (while stocks last) of this to learn more about and sharing of experience. and/or the awareness-raising CD- gender-based violence ROM, email angela.oneill@concern. before they travel Vivienne Forsythe (vivienne_ net or write to Concern Worldwide, abroad. There has [email protected]) is an 52 Camden Street, Dublin 2, Ireland. been considerable independent consultant. The guidelines, entitled A Guidance dialogue and sharing Note on Institutionalising Gender Based of resources and Angela O’Neill De Guilio (angela. Violence Prevention and Response within experience. The [email protected]) is a Regional Organisations, are online at www. consortium has Director with responsibility for dtalk.ie/gbv or www.concern.net made significant leading GBV prevention and response progress in raising member agency strategy at Concern Worldwide. 1. Amnesty International, Christian Aid, Concern Worldwide, GOAL, Irish Aid, Oxfam Ireland, Self Help awareness of GBV and in starting to Development International and Trócaire were the eight integrate GBV into policy frameworks The report Gender Based Violence founding members, joined later by Child Fund Ireland, and institutional structures. – A Failure to Protect, A Challenge to DTalk, Action Aid Ireland, the Irish Defence Forces and Member agencies recognise, Action is online at www.gbv.ie and the Irish Red Cross. 2. www.gbv.ie however, the need for continued at www.concern.net To get hard Sexual violence in the media by Judith Matloff

Reporting on sexual violence is a challenge even for seasoned along someone who speaks the war journalists. How should correspondents, news editors and local language and who has been sensitised to the topic. No matter producers report the impact of sexual violence on individuals how sensitive male reporters try to and communities without causing further distress or danger? be, a raped woman will probably feel more comfortable telling her Unlike other conflict-related nn Pitching a story to editors can story to another female. If the calamities that afflict civilians – such be difficult due to compassion reporter decides to photograph or as landmine injuries or displacement fatigue or because they dismiss film the subject, s/he must do so in – the impact and incidence of sexual it as a woman’s story or fail to a way that does not reveal the face violence are often hidden from view. understand its wider impact. or any other aspect of the person’s In many societies sexual violence nn Even NGOs working to address identity. Requests to stop filming or is the ultimate taboo, the one sexual violence may not want to taping must always be respected. crime for which the victim is often be mentioned, as coverage could punished rather than the perpetrator. lead to interference by perpetrators Talking to survivors can give Individuals and communities are and/or the government. credibility and power to a story often reluctant to talk about it for but the most important task for fear of retribution and stigmatisation. Journalists covering sexual a journalist is to report on the Media attention to sexual violence violence in a particular conflict overall context that gives rise to the can raise awareness and pressure zone need to conduct research to phenomenon and what is needed to governments and the humanitarian get context regarding the scope of change it. Sexual violence in conflict community to support prevention the phenomenon, how it is locally almost always springs from wider measures and support for survivors. regarded, what measures and problems – a lack of security and However, the media must take programmes are in place to address protection, the low status of women care to report the phenomenon it and whether reporting might and girls and a culture in which either accurately and sensitively. put communities or NGOs at risk. sexual violence is not recognised They might start by interviewing as a crime or impunity prevails. International reporters covering humanitarian workers who live in or war-related sexual violence regularly visit camps or communities Judith Matloff (jm2342@ face many constraints: where the violence is taking place. columbia.edu), an experienced war A reporter is not likely to gain a correspondent, is a professor at nn Journalists usually have only subject’s confidence in a single visit the Columbia Graduate School of a short time on the ground, and talking to people with regular (www.jrn.columbia.edu). limiting to establish contact with affected communities rapport and corroborate facts. can provide an accurate overview. The Dart Center for Journalism and nn Coverage could endanger Trauma (www.dartcenter.org) is a the interviewee, even if she If a journalist decides it is appropriate network of journalists and mental is not directly identified. and safe to interview survivors, health professionals dedicated to sensitive interviewing techniques informed news reporting on violence. are essential. Reporters should take 32 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Frameworks for response by Noeleen Heyzer

The international community needs to ensure that the The UN Trust Fund to Eliminate needs, perspectives and concerns of women in conflict Violence Against Women – a UNIFEM-managed scheme and post-conflict situations are integrated into all established in 1997 – has normative, legal, institutional and funding frameworks. supported innovative projects to address gender-based violence In conflict and crisis situations, respond to women’s needs, we need in a hundred countries. protection and support systems strengthened advocacy, determined of all kinds collapse, as legal and partnerships and a concerted effort. Some of the changes that have been judicial institutions break down made to the administration of justice and community support systems – the creation of specialised police fracture. Militarisation and the Early recovery period stations, training for the police force presence of weapons legitimise as a whole and partnerships with new levels of brutality and even Perhaps the most critical period is women’s NGOs – can be replicated greater levels of impunity. Often that of early recovery when the risk and scaled up. Coordinated this escalating violence becomes a of slipping back into conflict and community-level interventions normal part of life and continues violence is greatest. The transition must bring together men, local into the post-crisis period. from war to peace presents unique government, traditional leaders, opportunities to address the causes medical and legal professionals and No woman is exempt from this of conflict and to make institutions leaders of women’s organisations. violence. During conflict women and more inclusive. In , for girls are attacked because they are example, UNIFEM has supported It is important to keep asking whose related to combatants, because they gender and rights training, women’s issues are being addressed and whose are leaders themselves or simply involvement in the drafting of a new interests are being reflected. In most because they are women and happen constitution and laws and women’s countries, women are not adequately to be around when soldiers arrive. participation in elections and represented in decision-making Police and other officials often take governance. Support has also been bodies. Even when they are present, advantage of their powerlessness, provided to help women’s groups they may not wish to draw attention using rape or the threat of rape as a develop a collective voice, to advocate to this generally sensitive area unless form of interrogation. Peacekeepers on issues of common concern and they have been personally affected. often make it worse, trading food or to become aware of their rights. And, finally, even if the issues do protection in return for sexual favours make it onto the development from those who are most vulnerable. Countries emerging from conflict plan, the gap between rhetoric and also offer a unique opportunity to implementation mechanisms and How does the international put in place a gender justice agenda, financial commitment is wide. community respond in such embracing not only legal justice situations? In conflict and crisis (by revising laws that discriminate It is thus critically important to settings, emergency relief and against women) but also addressing monitor whether new aid modalities survival needs are addressed mainly the violation of human rights in include adequate follow through via the Consolidated Appeals Process wartime so that people can move from policy commitment to spending (CAP),1 in which agencies collect beyond their trauma and begin to commitments to actual spending to baskets of proposals and submit reconstruct their lives. Policies must address violence against women. them collectively, and via the World address the structural and systematic Unless women have the capacity Bank-led Multi-Donor Trust Funds inequalities that are frequently the and support to do this kind of (MDTFs). The CAP process usually underlying causes of conflict. monitoring, the commitments results in the large agencies which can will evaporate at each stage. submit proposals quickly getting the UNIFEM has partnered with the lion’s share of funds. Unfortunately, International Legal Assistance “Sexual violence is a weapon of war, these agencies tend not to prioritise Consortium (ILAC)2 to bring an instrument of terror that hurts protection or treatment of women together women in key legal and and punishes women and men of the subjected to sexual violence. MDTFs judicial positions in conflict-affected other side, fractures communities, provide a secure and well-managed countries, along with a broad range and forces women to flee their homes. source of funds but are beset by of international players, to hear what ... These crimes must not be hidden by the same problem. Evaluations sort of gender justice is needed on silence and shame. Those responsible by OCHA of responses to recent the ground, whether the objectives must be held accountable.” emergencies in Pakistan, Aceh and of Resolution 1325 are being met UNIFEM Goodwill Ambassador Sudan showed they were noticeably and how to ensure that international Nicole Kidman poor in responding to women’s initiatives are underpinned by See her video message at: www. needs. In order to ensure that such consultation with local women. unifem.org/news_events/ mechanisms and interventions do story_detail.php?StoryID=415 FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 33

It is often at the local level where girls as well as men and boys? accountability mechanisms, How can this be measured? Women, War, Peace: including gender impact Experts’ Assessment on the Impact analysis of national and local Women from conflict and of Armed Conflict on Women and budget allocations, can be crisis-torn societies across Women’s Role in Peace-Building the most effective. In , a the globe are expecting us to Elisabeth Rehn & Ellen Johnson Sirleaf. UNIFEM. gender analysis of the budget in deliver on the promises of 2002. ISBN 0-912917-66-0. Karnataka district found that, Resolution 1325 in ways that while allocations for security had can make real differences in Women, War, Peace provides examples of women in increased in response to women’s their everyday lives. We must embattled regions who have been able to overcome demands for safer streets, the work together to ensure their the odds and contribute to the safety and well-being increases had in practice been needs and perspectives and of their communities. It spent on providing security for concerns are integrated into all covers topics such as local and visiting VIPs rather of the frameworks – normative, peace operations, use of than night policing on the streets. legal, institutional – and all media, reconstruction, Gender equality advocates are of the funding modalities we health and now using these findings to can draw upon. We cannot prevention, including hold officials accountable. allow another decade to recommendations for pass before this happens. action, and presents The same kind of analysis personal stories of can be done in communities Noeleen Heyzer (noeleen.heyzer@ women involved in recovering from conflict and unifem.org) is Executive Director peace efforts. See www. crisis. What percentage of of UNIFEM www.unifem.org womenwarpeace.org relief funds benefit women and 1. http://ochaonline.un.org/cap 2. www.ilac.se

From words to action by Rima Salah

At the end of the Brussels Symposium on Sexual Violence in women and girls in armed conflict. Conflict and Beyond in June 2006, delegates drew up a Call We can do better and we must do better. By working together in 1 to Action. We urge everyone to respond to this challenge. partnership, we can maximise our impact and resources to redress the In my travels for UNICEF, from the scarcity of women in leadership gross injustices perpetrated against Afghanistan to Sudan, from the positions in every region of the women and girls. We can build Democratic Republic of Congo world – all of this contributes to a institutions, knowledge, skills and to Uganda, I have seen again and climate in which women and girls capacity to address gender-based again what now amounts to one of can be violated with impunity. violence in all its forms. We can make the most common and disturbing a difference for women and girls. images of war. It is the image of We must always keep in mind the women on the road and in camps, particular challenges facing girls. It is not enough to talk. We must take uprooted from their homes and When we talk about gender-based action. I challenge each and every communities, reeling from brutal violence, we so often envision the one of you to spread the message violence specifically targeted at face of a woman but we know that that this issue must be treated as a them because they are women. in conflicts around the world, girls priority by every agency, by every – adolescent girls in particular – government. Spread the message We must remember that violence are very vulnerable. It is estimated of the Brussels Call to Action – and against women in war does not that, even in times of peace, at least make a personal commitment to start and end with conflict. War 50% of sexual violence survivors do all you can to bring it to life and exacerbates the violence that girls are under the age of 18. to urgently respond to the crises of and women live with in times of violence against girls and women. peace. All our strategies to address Violence against women and girls violence against girls and women in war cannot be seen as business as Rima Salah ([email protected]) must address the underlying causes usual. Rape during wartime is not is Deputy Executive Director of such violence. Women’s inequality inevitable. I do not believe there is of UNICEF www.unicef.org. and low status, women’s poverty a single UN agency or government and lack of ability to make decisions that is doing enough to respond 1. See back cover for Brussels Call to Action. in their communities and families, to the crises of violence against 34 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Liberia’s Gender-Based Violence National Action Plan by Ellen Johnson Sirleaf

Liberia is on the path to national recovery after some 14 years of a brutal civil war that left around half of all Liberian women as survivors of gender-based violence (GBV). However, rates of GBV, in particular domestic violence, remain high. For many Liberian women, the violence they experienced during the conflict period is still occurring.

My Administration has formulated a support and ‘safe homes’ national response for the prevention for survivors of GBV and case management of GBV. The National Plan of Action adopts nn provide appropriate skills to strategic interventions which will social and health professionals be implemented using multi- cultural and multi-dimensional nn support for women and approaches. We intend to: girls’ economic and social empowerment. nn strengthen the health sector for effective and efficient response We must ensure that all planning, to GBV case management, programming, monitoring and documentation and reporting evaluation processes are supported by on clinical evidence gender responsive data and analysis. We need to raise awarness of both nn reform the legal system to deal GBV and the harmful traditional and DC Embassy of Liberia, Washington more efficiently and expeditiously cultural practices that perpetuate with violence, particularly with violence against women. The plan agencies, civil society organisations, the security of women and girls of action will be implemented community leaders and the media. in close collaboration and nn put in place systems and partnership with sectoral ministers, My Administration is convinced outreach services for psychosocial our development partners, UN that the implementation of this multisectoral Plan of Action will move us closer towards being a country where women and girls can live free from fear and violence and enjoy mutual respect and confidence. We are determined to combat violence against women and girls and to protect the human rights of all peoples in our society. We will furthermore enforce the Rape Law – which came into effect the day after my inauguration – without fear or favour.

Ellen Johnson Sirleaf took office as President of Liberia in January 2006. She is Africa’s first elected female head of state and is co- author of Women, War, Peace (see page 33 for details).

This is based on the President’s video message to the Symposium. See www.unfpa.org/emergencies/ Jon Nicholson/UNFPA symposium06/docs/final_report.pdf FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 35 Zero tolerance for Liberian rapists by Lois Bruthus

A 2005 survey in six counties of Liberia found that almost intra-communal rape and forced and early marriage remain endemic. 75% of female respondents had been raped during the civil war. The Association of Female Lawyers of Liberia (AFELL) Action is urgently needed to redress has helped draft recent legislation but political commitment the erosion of moral values and the and awareness training are now crucially important. economic deprivation that has led to such appalling levels of SGBV in our country. In order to end the Rape and sexual abuse were common new rape law on 17 January 2006 culture of impunity it is essential to: forms of violence during the war immediately after the inauguration which ended in 2003. Many young of Ellen Johnson Sirleaf as President. nn raise public awareness of the new girls and women were forcibly taken rape law and its implications as ‘bush wives’, cooks, cleaners and The new rape law widens the sex slaves to the fighters. The war has definition of rape to cover penetration nn ensure sustained high-level ended but there is strong evidence with any foreign object, not just political commitment to of a high prevalence of sexual and the penis, and also raises the age enforcing the new legislation gender-based violence (SGBV) and of a child to 18 in harmony with domestic violence throughout the the Convention on the Rights of nn reform the judicial system country. AFELL receives reports of the Child. Those under the age of up to six rape cases every day. 18 are now automatically deemed nn establish a specialised court to not to have given consent. The law more speedily process rape cases The vast majority of cases go also covers and stipulates unreported and rape continues to a penalty of life imprisonment nn provide counselling, safe flourish in communities in post-war for the rape of women, girls and houses and free legal support Liberia. Alleged perpetrators include boys. The issue of to SGBV survivors influential community members such was raised during this campaign but defeated by the majority nn provide incentives to male-dominated legislature. encourage Liberian attorneys rape continues to to work in rural areas flourish in communities Barriers to justice nn provide a supportive in post-war Liberia environment to enhance SGBV However, there are still major survivors’ coping strategies barriers to justice for SGBV victims as teachers, religious and traditional and their families. The legal system nn build the capacity of NGOs to community leaders, and fathers. is in dire need of reform. Courts lobby for women’s rights There is a general of are not functioning to full capacity silence/denial by the community or and only operate up to 42 days a nn support skills training and small- even the affected family. Customs year. Only four cases have resulted scale enterprise programmes and traditions often take precedence in convictions, with one of them for war-affected women and over Liberia’s formal legal system. carrying the maximum penalty of life girls in order to alleviate their Brutal crimes of a sexual nature imprisonment. Lawyers are in short dependency on prostitution and such as , gang rape, supply and qualified lawyers are other forms of sexual abuse attempted rape, sexual assault, reluctant to take assignments in rural sodomy, incest, , areas. Survivors are unable to meet nn establish coordination for prostitution, child trafficking and the costs of prosecutions and justice is effective programming criminal coercion remain rampant. dispensed at a snail’s pace. Traditional leaders are the only recourse open nn establish a databank to track Until this year rape has been a to many women but many chiefs incidences of SGBV and bailable offence. Even if a suspect are reluctant to get involved – and monitor effective responses. were arrested, he could be out of jail when they do get involved, justice and back home the next day and in is often compromised. Community Lois Bruthus (loisbruthus@ a position to intimidate anyone who members continue to view rape as a yahoo.com) is President of might give evidence against him. matter to be settled privately outside the Association of Female AFELL championed the bill which the judicial system. Familiar and Lawyers of Liberia (AFELL). gave rise to the promulgation of the 36 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Challenging Liberian attitudes towards violence against women by June Munala

During the 14-year long civil war, Liberia’s south-east seen to go scot-free. Many tolerate the region witnessed extreme levels of sexual violence. fact that young girls and women have ‘offered’ themselves to humanitarian Without action to heighten awareness of the root workers in order to secure much- causes of male violence it will not be possible to unlearn needed household income. Interviews destructive notions of masculinity and machismo. with parents showed that some had encouraged daughters to go out and search for food, using their bodies. The south-eastern counties of Grand post-conflict communities as a way Gedeh, River Gee, Sinoe, River Cess of reinforcing or reasserting lost In Liberia, as elsewhere, large and Maryland make up much of the power or ‘glory’ of the perpetrator. military peacekeeping operations hinterland of Liberia. Governed by create a breeding ground for sexual a different set of laws, the area is With huge support from the exploitation and harassment of populated by indigenous Liberians international community – and women. In all armies men are – referred to as the ‘country people’. the presence of the world’s largest drilled into accepting values of Infrastructure and health and peacekeeping force – Liberia has aggressive masculinity. Oppression education services are virtually non- embarked on a slow and painful and dominance over all, including existent in a region long neglected process of reconstruction and women, is implicitly or explicitly by the Americo-Liberian elite who recovery. Emphasis has been placed part of their training. Only this have traditionally dominated on repairing the visible damage to can explain the extent of sexual Liberia. Inhabitants of the area hold infrastructure, health and education abuse of women by forces who close to their traditions and culture facilities and peoples’ livelihoods. are supposed to be keeping the – including the practice of trials by However, despite the large number peace or protecting the population. ordeal, female genital mutilation, of UN and other international Military has often taken ritual killings, witchcraft, sorcery and agencies working on SGBV issues, precedence over the protection role early marriages. During the many there still appears to be a high that soldiers are supposed to perform. years of protracted war and civil number of incidents of post-war rape strife, two rebel groups – Liberians and domestic violence. This can be Evidence is anecdotal but interviews United for Restoration of Democracy traced to the culture of impunity with women and girls in Grand (LURD) and the Movement for and acquiescence in a society which Gedeh and River Gee counties Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) – and views rape of women as ‘no big reflected the scale of ongoing government soldiers terrorised the deal’ and in which it is considered sexual violence. There is particular region. Systematised and endemic normal for intimate partner relations concern at the large number of rape of women and girls, gang rape to be characterised by violence. reported cases of raped children. and multiple reoccurrence of sexual Attacks are perpetrated not only abuse were rampant. Many were Sexual violence is reinforced in out of sexual desire but also due raped in front of their families, as domestic relationships. The changed to belief in rape as a ritual capable a sign of victory or ‘conquering’ gender roles and identities that the of increasing power and virility. – an ultimate expression of power war brought about have left many over the enemy. Interviews with men feeling powerless. Many of People in the south-east are also community members suggest that those forced to watch helplessly worried by the rate of teenage around two thirds of all women and as their mothers, wives, sisters pregnancies. Girls and women are girls experienced some form of sexual and daughters were raped and sexually active at an early age. By and gender-based violence (SGBV). sexually abused admit to shame the age of 13, it is reported, four out and inability to live up to the of five girls are either pregnant or In Liberia, as in other war zones, hegemonic model of masculinity. The have had a child. There appears to sexual acts were used to violate easiest way for them to regain their be a connection between prostitution a person in a mental, physical, power has been through exerting for survival and breakdown in emotional, economic and control over their women through values attached to sexual behaviour. psychological way and not necessarily sexual and physical violence. Nowadays both men and women may simply as a means of satisfying have multiple sexual partners within sexual desires. Rape of women in Humanitarian workers, teachers and their community. Many women find it war is an act of aggression against a others in positions of authority have acceptable for their husbands to have nation or community. Sexual violence also been guilty of sexual exploitation. several women as this enhances his continues to be practised even in A large number of perpetrators are ‘power’. Inevitably, this contributes FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 37 to increased prevalence of HIV/ training on how to respond to behaviour as men seek to reaffirm AIDS, further worsening the lives incidents of sexual violence and their superiority and domination. of survivors of sexual violence. rural police stations, unlike those in Monrovia and other urban Many traditional institutions locations, do not yet have specialised survived the conflict and their Need for action Women and Children Units. chiefs continue to be held in respect. Secret societies – for both men Action is urgently required to Integrated multisectoral prevention and women – remain influential. tackle huge gaps in service and response strategies are not in Behaviour change campaigns must provision. In Grand Gedeh there place. Competition and information recognise the power of these cultural is only one hospital to serve the hoarding by humanitarian agencies institutions as potential catalysts whole county. Health facilities are are rife. Records are not kept. Few for change. They could enhance poorly equipped and staff are often NGOs have statistics or collate messages relating to responsible absent. The county lacks trained scientific evidence of reported sexual behaviour and the dangers of psychologists, psychiatrists and incidents of sexual violence. Roles, multiple partners and HIV/AIDS. counsellors to provide therapeutic responsibilities and institutional assistance to survivors of violence. mandates must be urgently clarified. With more careful interpretation and understanding of conflict from a Survivors of sexual violence find Men should not be regarded as gender perspective, we may be able it virtually impossible to access obstacles to women’s empowerment to move forward in building a more justice. In many counties the judicial and gender equality. It is vital to effective, coordinated, community- system has completely collapsed. understand the causes of men’s driven response to GBV in conflict Staff in those courts which do still violence and alcoholism as well as and post-conflict communities. function are poorly trained. Even if changing gender roles in post-conflict perpetrators are convicted, a lack environments and to involve men June Munala (jamunala@yahoo. of detention facilities can lead to in programmes aimed at preventing com), a PhD candidate at the their immediate release back into and responding to sexual violence. Institute of Social Studies, Den the community. Corrupt magistrates Without tackling issues of men’s lost Haag, , worked as a and police officers still prefer to masculinity, women may continue to human rights officer for the UN settle GBV cases the ‘family way’. face the after-effects of violent male Mission in Liberia (UNMIL). The police are yet to undergo Through our eyes: participatory video in West Africa by Tegan Molony, Zeze Konie and Lauren Goodsmith

In 2005 the American Refugee Committee (ARC)1 and districts of Liberia, as well as a cross- 2 border information and referral Communication for Change (C4C) launched a community- programme for refugees repatriating based video project to raise awareness of and help from Guinea. Prevention activities prevent sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) in conflict- include community education around affected communities. issues of gender, human rights, reproductive health and SGBV. Crisis response activities include Since the end of Liberia’s 14-year long and 55% during displacement.4 referral to ARC-trained counsellors civil war some 70,000 refugees and There is little awareness, however, and training of local health, over 314,000 IDPs have returned. One of the health and psychosocial protection and security providers of the enormous challenges they face impacts of SGBV, nor of the link to prevent, identify, respond to and is the impact of violence, including with reproductive health issues, appropriately refer cases of SGBV. SGBV. It is estimated that 40% of in particular sexually-transmitted all Liberian women are survivors infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS. The ‘Through Our Eyes’ participatory of conflict-related sexual violence, Reported cases are usually dealt video initiative was piloted in including rape, gang rape, sexual with by local leaders and response Guinea and Liberia. Participatory slavery and physical assault.3 In a services are seldom available. video activities can initiate a survey conducted among Liberian dynamic process of engagement and refugee women in camps in Sierra Since August 2004 ARC has been dialogue on issues of local concern, Leone, 74% said they had suffered implementing prevention and including highly sensitive topics. sexual abuse prior to displacement response programmes in eight From conception though production 38 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

produced their first video: lives, the messages they want to a profile of a local man, a deliver and how best to deliver them. former alcoholic who used to abuse his wife but who In addition, participatory video: had overcome his addiction and become a responsible nn is easily incorporated into husband and father. This was existing GBV prevention followed by a production on and response activities the consequences of settling rape the ‘family way’ and of nn is an effective tool for awareness- not treating STIs. The video raising, promoting community team has plans to address dialogue and encouraging the issues of stigma and the reporting of incidents HIV, , rape and the law and the importance nn is accessible to all, regardless of girls’ education. of educational level Lauren Goodsmith

Community screenings nn motivates field staff: the entire Marie Tamba, and public screening, the process – ‘playbacks’ – of the team’s ARC GBV team enthusiastically GBV counsellor, is driven by individual community video productions have prompted supports the video project ARC Liberia, members. Themes and topics are many individuals to seek ARC’s and its continuation practises her camera work with relevant to local audiences and services. Community peers and field support from presented in culturally appropriate staff open the sessions by describing nn has wide-ranging applications: the colleague Albert ways. People are always keen to see ARC’s GBV programme and services. ARC video team proposes to use Pyne and video their own community members on After the screenings, which are their new-found skills to produce trainer Hamidou Touré. Lainé screen. Video helps amplify voices for usually attended by 30 to 100 people, films about evolving conditions in camp, Guinea. change from within the community audience members are encouraged Liberia for the refugee community and fosters peer-to-peer outreach. to discuss the issues raised. Some and to showcase success stories share personal stories or offer ideas from ARC’s microfinance and In early 2006, C4C carried out a on how to tackle the problems. community development activities. two-week training workshop in participatory video at Lainé refugee Viewers regularly seek assistance Tegan Molony (teganmolony@ camp in Guinea for ARC field staff for problems depicted in the films yahoo.com.au) was GBV Programme and members of camp committees they have just seen and field staff Coordinator with ARC Liberia and responsible for referring SGBV report an increase in reporting of is now GBV Manager with ARC cases to ARC. Participants learned rape as a result of participatory Pakistan. Zeze Konie (zezekonie@ how to use the equipment, engage video activities. Audience members yahoo.com) is a trainer with community members in project goals, identify with what they are shown. ARC Liberia’s GBV unit. Lauren carry out interviews and develop A scene in which a doctor informs Goodsmith (lauren_goodsmith@ team skills in programme planning a woman that her daughter is hotmail.com) is project director/ and filming. At the end of the training infertile due to the consequences of participatory video trainer with course they made a documentary rape prompted a viewer to break Communication for Change. on early/ and short down in tears and declare: “That’s dramas on rape and community the same thing that happened to For more information about response to domestic abuse. my daughter during the war.” As the programme, please contact Marie Kolenky, GBV Programme Connie Kamara, ARC Senior Survivors of SGBV should never be Manager in Liberia, says, “You see Technical Advisor - Global pressured into sharing their stories. other foreign videocassettes… but it’s Health at [email protected] Several options were developed for always something that somebody just survivors who wished to speak out made up.” In contrast, she highlights An 11-minute video on the project but remain anonymous. Some did the powerful impact of “seeing a is at: http://video.google.com/ wish to testify. One refugee woman Liberian talking on the video and videoplay?docid=-4020371656680454 chose to share her story on camera in explaining their own life story.” 444&q=american+refugee+committee order to urge her peers to abandon the practice of forced early marriage Community video helps those SGBV 1. ARC currently has programmes in the Balkans, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Darfur, South that had blighted her own life. For survivors involved in the production Sudan-North Uganda, Pakistan, Thailand and Sri Lanka. many survivors the act of speaking process to tell their own stories, shed www.archq.org out can be deeply empowering – a some of the stigma associated with 2. C4C provides training in the use of participatory video step in the gradual process of healing. their experience and help others. to support social development, health and human rights goals www.c4c.org They also benefit from learning new 3. IRIN Web Special on ‘Violence against Women and Liberia-based ARC staff returned technical, interpersonal and team Girls during and after Conflict’, September 2004 www. home with their video equipment skills. The participatory process irinnews.org/webspecials/gbv/gbv-webspecial.PDF and proceeded to share their skills strengthens a sense of community as 4. Broken Bodies, Broken Dreams: Violence Against Women with community peers who had teams reflect together on the kinds Exposed, IRIN/OCHA, November 2005, pp.187-199. been trained in SGBV prevention of violence that have affected their and response. This new team soon FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 39 Fighting gender-based violence in South Sudan by Lona Elia

Decades of under-development and conflict have left South The process of developing the NAP is in its infancy. Key challenges Sudanese women – in the words of the late John Garang to be overcome include: – “the poorest of the poor and the marginalised of the marginalised.” It is in this context that violence against nn the lack of GBV-related legislation women and girls breeds. at GoSS and state levels nn continued preference to settle Almost all southern Sudan’s key Sudan’s protracted North-South GBV cases via customary local development indicators are the conflict – has recognised the need procedures which rarely promote lowest in the world.1 Severe gender to tackle GBV. The CPA provides the best interests of women or girls disparity is manifest in access to for affirmative action and support education and health and differential to women to become part of the nn lack of technical support to assist life expectancy. Only 5% of births reconstruction process. Sudanese the Interagency Working Group are attended by skilled health staff2 women delegates to the April 2005 and maternal mortality is high. In Oslo Donors Conference identified nn lack of targeted funding to support contrast to common demographic GBV as a key priority area and any sustained activities related patterns around the world, and proposed mechanisms to protect to GBV in southern Sudan. in spite of the impact of war on women and girls from exposure to the male population, there are violence.4 The constitution of southern Lona James Elia (lona.elia@undp. more elderly men than women. Sudan affirms the need to equally org) works for UNDP South Sudan’s protect the rights of women and men. Good Governance and Equity in Few reputable gender-based violence Political Participation Programme. (GBV) studies have been carried An Interagency GBV Working Group out in southern Sudan. Studies may was set up in January 2006. Led by 1. With the sole exception of the adult literacy rate which in is even lower. have been limited in terms of sample UNFPA, UNDP and UNIFEM, it 2. New Sudan Center for Statistics and Evaluation and size and statistical analysis but, brings together representatives UNICEF, 2004 ‘Towards a baseline: best estimates of nevertheless, have produced evidence from other UN agencies (the UN social indicators for South Sudan’, www.reliefweb.int/ of extensive domestic violence, early/ Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS), rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/KHII-6365Q7?OpenDocument 3. For the background to Sudan’s prolonged North-South forced marriages, wife inheritance, OCHA, UNHCR and UNICEF), conflict and prospects for peace, see FMR 24: www. property ownership, child custody, GoSS ministries of Gender, Social fmreview.org/sudan.htm arbitrary incarceration, female genital Welfare and Religious Affairs 4. www.sudansupport.no/genderconf_05_oslo/doc_ mutilation and sexual harassment and southern Sudanese women’s index.html and assault. Prolonged conflict3 has associations. The group has been exacerbated and created new security discussing strategies for developing risks, especially for women and coherent programming to address FMR welcomes articles on Sudan. children. These include disruption GBV issues in South Sudan by of community and family structures, exchanging information, minimising breakdown in conflict resolution duplication and implementing mechanisms, presence of arms collaborative activities. and vigilantes, prevalent trauma, increased alcohol consumption, As an initial step in the process of weak security institutions, poor law developing the NAP, the Working and order and tensions between Group scheduled preliminary those who have been displaced consultations with key government, and those who have stayed put. military and NGO stakeholders

in the southern cities of Wau, Have you seen FMR’s special issue Malakal and Juba. Participants on ‘Sudan: prospects for peace’? It repeatedly noted that southern Towards a National is online at: www.fmreview.org/sudan. Sudan may have few resources to Action Plan (NAP) htm. The FMR Editors are interested address GBV but has a committed in receiving further articles analysing The Government of Southern Sudan corps of women’s organisations the return of IDPs and refugees. (GoSS) – the autonomous regional and a committed government. We would particularly like to hear government established as a result from Sudanese authors. Please of the January 2005 Comprehensive contact us at [email protected] Peace Agreement (CPA) which ended 40 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Sexual violence and firewood collection in Darfur by Erin Patrick

In hundreds of refugee and IDP settings throughout the The stoves do still burn wood, world, women and girls are made more vulnerable to sexual however, and therefore never entirely eliminate the need for women violence because of the almost daily need to leave camps and girls to go out of the camps in search of firewood. More can and must be done to reduce to gather firewood. Fuel-efficient this risk. stoves can only ever hope to slow the consumption of firewood. In Perhaps nowhere is the danger of Fuel-efficient stoves arid or desert environments such as assault whilst gathering firewood Darfur, re-generation takes a long more evident than in Darfur. Women The most common models of fuel- time. Fuel-efficient stoves should and girls trek for hours a day in the efficient stoves currently in use in therefore only be considered as an hope of finding a few branches or Darfur are extremely basic. Made addition to a longer-term fuel strategy to burn. To avoid the midday usually from a combination of mud, which includes the development sun, many leave in the darkness. water and animal dung or ash, they of non-wood-based fuels. To lessen competition, they travel can be made in three to five days alone or in very small groups. To and cost less than one US dollar per find increasingly scarce combustible stove. Tests are under way on more Firewood patrols material, they may have to walk sophisticated models, including some several kilometres away from the made from stainless steel. Even the Firewood patrols in Darfur typically camps. In doing so, they become most basic models, however, can involve both civilian police (CivPol) prime targets for the Janjaweed reduce firewood consumption by 20 and troops from the African Union militia, local government or police to 80% (depending on the stove itself, Mission in Sudan (AMIS) who follow forces and other men who act in a how it is used and conditions during women and girls by truck. This climate of almost total impunity. use), compared to the traditional armed accompaniment has been fairly three-stone fire. Because the amount successful in deterring would-be In August 2006 the International of firewood needed to cook the same attackers but in many cases has been Rescue Committee (IRC) reported amount of food is less, stove users can rendered less effective by the lack of 200 in a five-week period collect firewood less often and their trust and effective communication from a single camp.1 Médecins risk of attack is therefore reduced. between CivPol and the women sans Frontières reported being accompanied. The most over 200 cases per month successful patrols have been those in 2005. Given the stigma organised by committees comprising

IDP woman associated with rape, it is displaced women leaders, CivPol carrying wood extremely likely that the real staff (preferably those participating back to Manjura number of survivors of sexual in the patrols – and female wherever camp, Darfur. violence is much higher. possible) and NGO facilitators who solicit feedback from all involved. Various UN agencies and Together, the committees draw up NGOs have introduced several specific guidelines for the patrols, ad hoc initiatives to increase choose times and locations and the protection of women and ensure the presence of translators in girls as they collect wood the patrols. These regular committee or to reduce the amount of meetings also serve as a forum wood needed for cooking for women and girls to discuss (and therefore the number of and rectify any concerns that they collection trips). In late 2005, may have regarding the patrols. the Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Too often, however, the patrols have Children undertook field not been so well organised, with research to assess the poorly chosen routes and times, status and impact of these entirely male AMIS participation, no initiatives, which included translators (making communication fuel-efficient stoves, firewood between the women and AMIS all patrols and the development but impossible) and conflicting UNHCR/H Caux of alternative fuels.2 interpretations of the goal of the FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 41 patrols and responsibilities of nn be appropriate for use with be a crucial protection tool at the AMIS. This has stifled participation traditional staple foods or very outset of a crisis but only in in the patrols as women and girls supplied rations the short term. Firewood patrols are – many of whom are survivors of a useful protection tool but again sexual assault – are often reluctant nn not increase tensions with cannot be the sole solution. Fuel- to leave the camps in the presence host communities. efficient stoves have a clear and of armed men, even those from a important role to play but only in the protection force. When patrols are context of long-term identification of instituted, therefore, it is crucial to Effective fuel strategies sustainable, non-wood-based fuels. ensure that they are supported by an active, participatory firewood The international community No initiatives, no matter how well patrol committee. Most recently, the needs to develop more effective designed or coordinated, will have patrols have fallen victim to drastic implementation and coordination the desired protection impact unless cuts in the overall funding of AMIS. of fuel strategies from the outset alternative income-generation of humanitarian crises. Food activities are developed for displaced rations distributed by the World families and particularly for women Alternative fuels and girls. Women’s Commission research found that even

Refugee and IDP settings Darfuri women and girls who Women in El can provide a good testing have made and regularly use Fasher, Darfur, ground for the development fuel-efficient stoves continue with fuel-efficient of alternative fuels. Several to collect as much firewood stoves they non-wood-based fuels or as possible in order to sell have made. fuel technologies have been it to generate much-needed tried in various refugee and income for their families. IDP settings worldwide with varying degrees of The issue of cooking fuel success. These now need in refugee and IDP settings more widespread, replicable crosses many sectors – food and testing. Many organisations nutrition, health, environmental outside the traditional protection, shelter and, of humanitarian community – course, women’s rights and such as appropriate technology gender-based violence. The UN organisations, environmental system has not yet developed protection groups, private the capacity to deal effectively foundations and universities with issues that do not fit neatly – have already done extensive within traditional sectoral work on alternative fuels boundaries. The new cluster- and fuel technologies from based mechanism to address which displaced populations gaps in humanitarian response3 could benefit. So far, simply relegates fuel to the however, there has been little ‘shelter’ cluster. Recognising interaction or cooperation. the wider importance of Erin Patrick cooking fuel in women’s lives In order to be successful would go a long way towards and sustainable, non-wood-based Food Programme and partners, for enhancing protection of the millions fuels and fuel technologies in example, are usually not edible until of displaced women and girls refugee and IDP settings must: they are cooked – yet in very few for whom it plays such a central settings is cooking fuel provided with – and often tragic – daily role. nn be safe and culturally acceptable food provisions. Delivery of cooking fuel has proven to be expensive and Erin Patrick (erinp@womens nn utilise locally available ultimately unsustainable. However, commission.org) is a consultant raw materials putting women and girls at risk of for the Women’s Commission for assault by effectively forcing them Refugee Women and Children (www. nn be able to be produced locally to walk kilometres a day into unsafe womenscommission.org) and is (ideally with the possibility for territory should be considered currently facilitating the Fuel & income generation for displaced equally – if not more – unacceptable. Firewood Initiative, funded in part by and/or host communities) USAID/OFDA. There is no single fuel or fuel-related nn have little or no local market initiative that will by itself solve the 1. International Rescue Committee media alert, ‘Increased Sexual Assaults Signal Darfur’s Downward value (for onward sale) problem of sexual violence during Slide’, 23 August 2006 www.theirc.org/news/latest/ firewood collection. An effective increased-sexual-assaults.html nn be sustainable both in terms of fuel strategy needs to respond to 2. See www.womenscommission.org/projects/rh/ cost and environmental impact specific needs in each emergency firewood.shtml 3. See Tim Morris ‘UNHCR, IDPs and clusters’, FMR 25 context. Direct fuel provision may www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR25/FMR2531.pdf 42 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Listening to the women of Darfur The following is extracted by the FMR editors from a recent Health problems mentioned by women include physical injuries UNFPA/UNICEF report on The Effects of Conflict on Health due to beatings, rape, miscarriages, and Well-Being of Women and Girls in Darfur: Conversations excessive bleeding or injuries with the Community.1 sustained during flight from the enemies. Sexually transmitted How do the women and girls of community. The majority of families diseases, malnutrition, irregular Darfur assess the risks they face? of survivors of sexual violence prefer menstrual cycles and nightmares UNFPA and UNICEF interviewed to treat them inside their homes by were mentioned frequently. Most conflict-affected women and their traditional medications, usually by women are dissatisfied by health male household members in order washing the victims with salted hot services in camps. They complain to better understand priority actions water or tea. Due to shame, most rape they have to queue for a long needed to improve women and survivors – especially unmarried time, that medicines are in short girls’ health and well-being. girls – only seek medical attention supply and that they have to pay as a last resort. Children born as for medicines supposed to be free The counter-insurgency strategy a result of rape are not taken to – and often only receive painkillers. employed by the Government of hospitals as their mothers do not want Although clinic deliveries are free, Sudan and the Janjaweed militia doctors to ask about their babies. obstetric complications are generally appears to have been one of only treated in hospitals at great cost. asset stripping and population Girls said that a child born as a result of Many women are less healthy than displacement. Indiscriminate rape is considered an “Arab child”: “We they were prior to displacement as attacks on villages have not only still look after them but they do not enter they no longer eat fruit, vegetables killed and injured civilians but our hearts – ma be houshou al gelib.” and meat but are forced to subsist also destroyed or looted housing, on food rations provided in camps. infrastructure, community services, Incidents of sexual violence, abuse wells and irrigation systems, fruit and abductions are ongoing. There “Before the war we had everything. trees and other property such is a significant lack of trust toward Life was so nice but now we have as cattle. The result has been the all armed groups, and most women nothing. We have lost everything, large-scale movement of a highly would only consider returning to even our souls and life.” vulnerable, traumatised population their villages under the protection of 2.75 million people, rendered of an international security force, The Darfurian IDPs called for: almost completely dependent on preferably the African Union or the humanitarian aid for survival. UN. Until this is possible, women nn increased prevention and and girls are left without the option response to sexual and Prior to the conflict, the majority of resettlement, and the security gender-based violence of the women interviewed situation within and surrounding primarily worked in farming and the camps remains precarious. Girls nn more consistent African Union cultivation, animal raising and have reported incidents of military presence in and around camps making handicrafts. Today most personnel entering the camps firing and firewood collection areas are unemployed. The little income weapons into the air, and most women in camps can earn comes incidents of rape and abduction nn reduced presence of armed from collecting and selling firewood occur when women leave the camps government police and military and fodder or from trading food in search of firewood or fodder. inside the camps/settlements items received from humanitarian There is general distrust toward the organisations. Some girls work police. Men have reported feeling nn community-based policing for foreigners in their houses or helpless and humiliated about the based on dialogue with in aid organisation offices. Many continuing attacks against their wives IDPs about their needs men report relying on women’s and daughters, as incidents reported income from firewood collection. to the authorities seem to have been nn ensuring legal redress is disregarded. Men have suggested available for victims of crimes Sexual violence and abuse was that work opportunities for women mentioned in every group discussion. may improve the security situation. nn fuel-efficient stoves Women and girls have often been Most respondents report that family raped in front of male relatives who and community support, as well as nn free provision of drugs, were beaten and forcibly restrained. belief in religion, helps them to cope. transport to hospital and Women reported that most rape an increased number of victims did not scream during or after “Most women live as if they are international medical staff the rape and did not report incidents, psychologically normal but they in order to avoid scandals in the live with the war inside them.” FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 43 nn increasing the number of the health and emotional needs Violence against women and children medical personnel and supplies of survivors of sexual violence by warring groups in Darfur is reaching needed to treat women and alarming levels. Extreme violence girls suffering from fistula nn financial support for women has been a feature of the civil conflict (including grandmothers/foster since it erupted in 2003. However, in nn ensuring that all health facilities mothers) taking care of babies the past months, attacks on women offer privacy to women and born as a result of rape and girls, both within and outside girls seeking treatment camps for the displaced, have soared. n n formalising the role of IDP UNICEF, October 20062 nn sensitising traditional birth committees – with male and attendants, traditional healers female members – in management 1. At: www.unicef.org/infobycountry/files/sitan_ and community leaders about of camps. unfpaunicef.pdf 2. www.unicef.org.uk/press/news_detail.asp?news_ id=811

Women’s centres: spaces of empowerment in Darfur by Carmen Lowry

Survivors of sexual assault need emotional support, safe and education. By drawing on staff and private spaces for healing and access to resources, from different sectors and different information and networks. agencies to present these sessions, they have the added benefit of The International Rescue Committee women share their individual stories, encouraging collaboration among (IRC) operates ten Women’s Centres the barriers to seeking assistance agencies and clarifying sectoral roles in Darfur to try to meet their needs. – shame, fear of being ostracised, in the camps. Women’s Centres play These Centres – in South, North fear of being singled out – break a vital role in facilitating information and West Darfur – allow women to down as women realise that they exchange, providing women with access the resources, support and are not alone in their experience. access to resources and promoting referral processes vital for survivors direct linkages between the women of sexual violence. In situations where Each Centre has a team of facilitators and other actors who have the rape is used as a weapon of war, the to explain the services available and power to influence the physical actual experience of rape and other provide immediate counselling if environment and quality of life for forms of sexual violence is one that necessary. Trained case workers are IDP women and their families. is shared collectively. Women are available to listen to a survivor’s often attacked in groups. Yet without story and concerns, map out her Centre facilitators engage with recognised and accessible safe spaces choices and help her access the women to build trust and encourage – environments where disclosure resources and services she needs. them to share their experiences and and sharing are encouraged and to rest from the demanding tasks facilitated – survivors will often not The Women’s Centres also provide of daily survival in the camps. In talk about their collective experience activities to help build skills and this way, the survivor-focused and of violation. The Women’s Centres foster greater self-reliance. Each survivor-supportive Women’s Centres try to create an environment where centre offers a range of activities such become spaces of empowerment. To survivors feel welcome and safe. As as literacy classes, skills-building enhance this sense of empowerment, classes, emotional ownership of and responsibility for support activities the Centres must be shared among Women’s and opportunities the different women involved Centre, Darfur for social interaction – international and national staff, such as dancing, host and displaced communities, drumming and educated women from Khartoum singing. The Women’s and women with no formal education Centres regularly offer from isolated villages in Darfur. information sessions on topics – requested Carmen Lowry (carmenl@theirc. by the women – such org) is Senior Gender-Based Violence as reproductive health, Coordinator for the International legal rights, childcare, Rescue Committee (www.theirc. camp management org) Sudan programme. Carmen Lowry/International Rescue Committee Rescue Carmen Lowry/International 44 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Sudanese women acting to end sexual violence by Fahima A Hashim

The UN and the African Union must do more to insist that militias are present, and the IDP camps around Khartoum. Our role as the Government of Sudan create an enabling environment peacemakers – working to conciliate to report, investigate and prosecute cases of violence communities torn apart by external against women. meddling – must be recognised.

Militarisation and long-standing Government of Sudan and its work It is also essential that: armed conflicts in many regions have disrupted by the need to seek deeply affected the daily lives of donor funding. nn AMIS’s mandate be strengthened Sudanese women, most recently and and that it be explicitly tragically in Darfur. Fundamentalist Sudan has a large number of women’s authorised – and provided interpretations of law are organisations with capacity to engage with necessary resources – to used to control women and are in constructive work on peace and take action against GBV given as reason for not ratifying security issues. The Government the Convention on the Elimination of Sudan has suppressed debate nn all AMIS personnel receive of All Forms of Discrimination and restricted our ability to gather training on gender issues and against Women (CEDAW).1 and disseminate information how to identify and prevent relating to rape, abduction and cases of gender-based violence When it was established in May other violations of the rights of 2004 the African Union Mission in women. In February 2006, Sudan nn AMIS be encouraged to monitor Sudan (AMIS) – the only external enacted into law the Organisation progress towards gender military force in Darfur – was of Humanitarian and Voluntary mainstreaming in all its activities charged with monitoring the ceasefire Work Act which imposes severe agreement signed between parties restrictions on NGOs and gives the nn AMIS closely liaise with and at conflict to deter uncontrolled government excessive discretionary support the work of Darfurian and armed groups from committing and regulatory powers over their national women’s organisations hostile acts against civilians. AMIS work. Amnesty International and public reporting has focused on other human rights organisations nn the UN insist on the participation breaches of the ceasefire, including have condemned the legislation of Sudanese women’s organis- attacks on civilians, but has failed and noted that it violates the right ations in all gender training to integrate gender issues. AMIS to freedom of association contained and GBV awareness activities has conspicuously failed to prevent in international human rights widespread rape and sexual violence. treaties to which Sudan is a party.3 nn the Violence Against Women Unit be properly resourced so that it In 2005 the Government of Sudan The very existence of women’s civil may take its place as a national reacted to international pressure society organisations is in jeopardy. organisation working for all to expand the role of AMIS in UN Security Council Resolution Sudanese women, rather than – as challenging gender-based violence 1325 passed in 20004 specifically at present – serving the interests of (GBV) by establishing a Violence calls on the UN to consult with local the ruling National Congress Party. Against Women Unit within the and international women’s groups. Ministry of Justice.2 The Unit has Our organisation joined with other Fahima Hashim (fahimahashim@ partnered with UNFPA and AMIS Sudanese women’s organisations yahoo.com, fahimahashim@gmail. to organise training sessions with to present a petition to the Security com), a Sudanese women’s rights lawyers, health workers, UN police Council mission which visited activist, is director of the Salmmah and UN staff – but without involving Sudan in June 2006, urging the Women’s Resource Centre, Khartoum. local civil society organisations. UN to pressure the Government The Unit has hired 20 female police of Sudan to review and amend 1. www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw 2. See presentation made to the International and deployed them to IDP camps the Voluntary Work Act. Action is Symposium on Sexual Violence in Conflict and in the states of North and South needed to facilitate access of women’s Beyond by the Unit’s director, Dr Attiat Moustafa. Darfur. Security considerations organisations so they can provide www.unfpa.org/emergencies/symposium06/docs/ have been cited as reasons for not humanitarian services to GBV- daytwosessionfiveeattiat.ppt 3. http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAFR5400920 deploying them in West Darfur. affected women in Darfur, the Nuba 06?open&of=ENG-SDN Mountains, Eastern Sudan, areas 4. See article on pp13-14 It is unfortunate that the Unit has of South Sudan where the Lord’s not been fully supported by the Resistance Army (LRA) and other FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 45 Sexual violence in South Kivu, Congo by Claudia Rodriguez

Tackling sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) in the MONUC (the UN Mission in DRC)1 and national partners (such as Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) will require greater Arche D’Alliance and the Synergy resources and coordination. The number of attacks of Women’s Associations for the continues to increase and perpetrators go unpunished. Fight Against Sexual Violence), to sensitise law-enforcing agents as From 1996 to 2003, war in DRC agents and are known to be seldom well as the general population on claimed some 3.8 million lives. SGBV prosecuted. ‘Friendly’ resolutions the definition of rape, the notion of against women and girls – and have been encouraged, with victims’ consent and the illegality of forced some men too – has been one of families often accepting marriage or marriages. To be successful, such the conflict’s most horrific aspects, gifts as compensation for assault. advocacy requires access to remote for its viciousness, magnitude areas that most agencies do not have. and long-term impact. As point Blurred lines of ‘consent’ add to of entry for foreign armed groups women’s vulnerability. In some Statistics are available from health coming from bordering Rwanda and areas of South Kivu a woman is the centres supported by international Burundi to participate in the war, property of her husband’s family or NGOs and by the local ‘Maisons the eastern province of South d’Ecoute’ (Counselling Centres). Kivu has experienced particularly National associations supported Women wait to high levels of SGBV. Even now, by international NGOs to receive medical according to statistics provided pursue judicial follow-up also services in Panzi hospital, Bukavu, by local health centres, an average provide some data. Yet the South Kivu. The of 40 women are raped every day data collected is inconsistent hospital runs in the province. Of these, 13% due to significant discrepancies a treatment are under 14 years of age, 3% die in collection methodologies. programme for as a result of rape and 10-12% Inconclusive discussions over women affected by sexual contract HIV/AIDS. , details – including the right to violence. sexual slavery, gang and share information among partners forced marriages are common. – have characterised inter-agency discussions for years. Available Four years after the signing statistics are useful in painting a of the peace agreements that general picture but much more officially ended the war and qualitative data (such as gender of after the conclusion of Congo’s victim, type and origin of assailant first ever democratic elections, and type of aggression) is needed SGBV remains widespread. to identify trends, perpetrators, Government forces have emerged profiles and characteristics as the main perpetrators whilst of victims. Encouragingly, all the number of assaults involving Counselling Centres have recently foreign armed groups still developed a standard format and present in the area has fallen. now compare their data with that UNICEF/HQ03-0351/ Roger Lemoyne Roger UNICEF/HQ03-0351/ A new problem has surfaced, provided by health centres. however: the increase of abuses perpetrated by civilians. Both becomes property of the community factors highlight the environment if her husband leaves or dies. Any Need for coordination of impunity prevailing in the area. man in the extended family or in the community can have access to Humanitarian assistance for victims her without the woman being able of sexual violence in DRC is available. Assessing the problem to refuse. The notion of consent is Most health-related agencies now non-existent and therefore cases are include SGBV programmes as Most cases of SGBV go unreported. not reported as violations. Other part of their primary healthcare Victims lack confidence in the judicial factors inhibiting reporting of such interventions. Panzi hospital in system and fear being persecuted crimes include shame and the fear South Kivu – one of only two referral for denouncing their attackers. of being rejected and stigmatised. centres for fistula treatments in the Assailants are mainly Congolese Efforts are under way, mainly by east of DRC – offers a comprehensive soldiers and law-enforcement the Human Rights Division of package of assistance to victims 46 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

referred for care. Yet, despite the women in order to count them more areas (where most violence takes long-term presence of international than once. An OCHA-supervised place) would be a great step forward. and national agencies in the area, evaluation carried out by NGOs in the basic referral system has never December 2005 concluded that many worked effectively due to lack of psychosocial activities undertaken An SGBV cluster? coordination and adequate funding. by national associations do more harm than good and recommended In 2006 the UN in DRC adopted the There is little willingness on the the closure of several Counselling ‘cluster’ approach to coordination, as ground to collaborate. Medical Centres (including some supported part of the proposed humanitarian NGOs have their own, varying by international NGOs). reform system.2 Unfortunately, protocols and standards, as do in DRC and elsewhere no cluster agencies focused on psychosocial Lack of financial resources means specifically for SGBV has been assistance and reintegration. Lack that organisations struggle to proposed; instead SGBV fits within of collaboration is exacerbated improve care standards and ensure the wider ‘protection’ cluster. This by the ‘remote control’ nature of adequate follow-up. However, represents a missed opportunity. programmes – programmes managed resources could be better utilised if An SGBV cluster would provide by local partners but directed there were better collaboration. The leadership to galvanise greater from abroad – and the fact that referral system could be strengthened efforts to tackle sexual violence. some agencies focus on emergency sufficiently to improve performance An enhanced leadership and assistance, others on development. by all agencies and ultimately help coordination framework would allow: This has led to duplication in achieve tangible and sustainable some fields while other areas of results. Coordination fora exist, nn common methodology need have been left uncovered, yet those in charge lack technical to considerable discrepancy in expertise to introduce minimum nn better synergy and inter- standards and lack of accountability. standards of operation, ensure sectoral/inter-agency planning common procedures and establish Issues of concern include: coherent frameworks and strategies. nn better data collection and analysis

nn victims not being systematically nn strengthening of the referral system referred within the necessary Ending impunity 72-hour period to centres where nn compilation of better prepared post-exposure prophylaxis Some progress has been made in cases for judicial follow up. (PEP) kits are available the legal and judicial domains. In August 2006 a new law came into Victims of sexual violence in DRC nn medical centres not providing force in DRC, redefining rape to will continue to require assistance medical certificates necessary include both sexes as well as all forms from international and national for judicial follow up of penetration. The law also covers organisations for years to come. other forms of sexual violence: sexual Those working to assist them must nn cases where ex-combatants slavery, mutilation, collaborate in order to overcome the sleep in the same centres where and forced marriage. It has increased many obstacles constraining their victims are being looked after the penalties for those successfully operations. A stronger partnership prosecuted and has improved some with and a clearer involvement of nn no coordinated training for penal procedures – such as speeding state authorities would help develop local organisations in how to up preliminary investigations and a common framework and strategy investigate, collect data and prohibiting the settling of cases by for action in order to provide assist women in reporting their ‘friendly’ resolutions. However, the effective, long-term assistance. Only case to the right authorities judicial system remains too weak thus will it be possible to break to establish precedents that might the vicious cycle of impunity. nn no government authority, at least at serve as a deterrent against further the local level, with responsibility violence. Denunciation and reporting Claudia Rodriguez (rodriguez24@ to direct policies and improve also remain limited, due to the un.org) is Humanitarian Affairs interventions and coordination. victims’ continuing lack of trust in the Officer with OCHA in South system. Cultural beliefs, taboos and Kivu. This article is written in a A related problem is the fact that traditional conflict resolution methods personal capacity and does not national associations (key to the need to be addressed through reflect the views of OCHA. referral system as only they are education and awareness. Structural providing psychosocial assistance) reforms are needed to address the See also: Human Rights Watch, have realised that higher numbers role and place of women within June 2002 The War Within the War. of victims mean increased chances Congolese society. Commitments Sexual Violence Against Women of obtaining international financial to engage in this lengthy process and Girls in Eastern Congo www. support. There is evidence that are needed from all those involved, hrw.org/reports/2002/drc/ associations have exaggerated their especially state authorities). The statistics, traded women between creation of ‘field courts’ with judges, 1. www.monuc.org 2. See T Morris ‘UNHCR, IDPs and clusters’, FMR25, their centres to augment statistics prosecutors and defence lawyers www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR25/FMR2531.pdf and encouraged repeat visits by deployed to remote and inaccessible FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 47 In their own words

In Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and escape a rebel attack on her village. “I had to keep running,” says Bintu. Sierra Leone, the end of armed fighting has not brought with “My father, even after he was shot, it the longed-for peace. Today, an epidemic of gender-based he yelled, ‘Bintu, run, run.’ But I was violence continues to undermine efforts to bring stability. captured by rebels.” Bintu, now 20, and her seven-year-old sister were Josephine was eight years old when In Sierra Leone, the civil war which taken into the bush by the soldiers. both her parents died. Left alone, erupted in 1991 and formally ended When one of the rebels tried to rape she learned to fend for herself in the in 2002 left tens of thousands dead her sister, “She scratched the man’s hills 20 km from Makamba, a city and an estimated two million wrist, and they cut her hand off,” in southern Burundi. One night her displaced. Sexual and gender-based recounts Bintu. “Many of them raped neighbour, a former soldier, crept into violence occurred at every stage of her. She was so small that she died.” her hut and attacked her. “I didn’t scream because I Over a four-year period, Bintu learns was afraid my neighbours Bintu’s arms and legs hair-dressing. would mock me,” she were tied to stakes as she says. “When I was five was repeatedly violated months pregnant, the by as many as six captors rapist came back to a day. When they found kill me with an ikiziriko out that she had not [rope]. I screamed and undergone female genital my neighbours came mutilation/cutting, the to help. I bled for three rebels used a gun bayonet days.” Josephine’s baby to cut her, cleaning the was stillborn. She has wound with gunpowder. recently given birth to a She was not even allowed healthy baby boy – also to heal before the sexual the product of rape. assaults began again.

Beatrice Ndayishimiye When she finally escaped, counsels sexual abuse Bintu ended up on the survivors at Makamba streets of Freetown. She hospital. “To be in charge bartered the only thing she of these young victims had – sex – to survive for is not an easy task,” she a year before she learned says. “I am a mother and about the Women in Crisis to see these girls – some Movement (WICM), a of them five to ten years UNFPA-supported NGO old – and listen to their devoted to empowering stories is very frustrating. war-affected adolescents I often come home at and young girls. To night very tired inside, date, WICM has trained my heart full of sadness.” approximately 500 vulnerable young women At the Maternité Sans in income-generating Risque de Kindu clinic in skills, including tailoring, central DRC, obstetrician- soap making, tie-dying gynaecologist Dr Jean and hair-dressing, which Pascal Manga-Okenge Bintu is learning. is only too familiar with Angela Walker/UNFPA the consequences of “I am so happy to be sexual assault. “Traumatic fistula the conflict. More than a quarter here,” says Bintu. “I now have is a new phenomenon that has of a million women and girls were food and medical care and a emerged since the war,” says Dr raped. Although rebels attacked chance for a better future.” Manga-Okenge. “Some women are both young and old, they tended raped by more than five people, to target very young girls and To read more about how sexual are shot in the vagina or impaled adolescents whom they believed to and gender-based violence affects with wood. If it’s done with nails be virgins. Many did not survive. individuals, see www.unfpa. or dry wood, it can be repaired. org/emergencies/violence.htm Injuries done with green wood Bintu Mansary’s father was shot and never heal. No-one knows why.” killed as she and her family tried to 48 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Addressing sexual violence in post-conflict Burundi by Nona Zicherman

Conflict and massive population movements in Burundi have Their declining socio-economic status resulted in dramatic increases in rape and other forms of also puts women at risk, particularly for female-headed households. Poor sexual violence. women without a husband or older son in the household are perceived Alarm about the high incidence of affirmed either having experienced as unprotected – and therefore likely sexual violence against Burundian sexual violence themselves or targets for sexual violence with little women was first sounded during knowing someone who had.2 fear of retribution. Local officials have the 1993-2003 civil war when large demanded sexual favours in return numbers of rebels and Burundian Rebels and military personnel are for food aid and other assistance.3 armed forces occupied villages and no longer the primary perpetrators. Poor families are often driven by towns. Peace accords were finally In communities where CARE circumstance to push daughters into signed in 2003, early marriages Refugee woman and general where they are from DRC elections held at a high risk sitting in front in 2005, but of conjugal of her shelter in Gasorwe refugee Burundian sexual violence. camp, Burundi. women and The case of girls continue one mother to suffer high and daughter levels of sexual interviewed violence. In post- by CARE conflict Burundi, illustrates this the influx tragic cycle of of returning vulnerability refugees and and violence. displaced As the mother persons, the explained: presence of large numbers of “Because of our demobilised ex- poverty I married combatants, the my daughter

high prevalence UNHCR/C-L Grayson of 14 years of of female-headed to a boy who households, had a little bit widespread lack of money… I of economic did this for two opportunity and general breakdown works, survivors of sexual violence reasons: firstly because once married in social norms all contribute to report that the majority of attacks she and her husband could help me find increased levels of sexual violence. are committed by members of something to put between my teeth and their extended family, teachers secondly because I didn’t want her to be Reliable statistics on sexual violence and household domestic staff. raped the way I was three years ago.” in Burundi do not exist. Médecins This reflects a general breakdown Sans Frontières’ clinic in the capital in social norms, withering of The daughter tells a different story: city, Bujumbura, sees an average traditional conflict resolution and of 124 new cases a month and a community sanction mechanisms “I was married when I was still a child, CARE-supported clinic 40 cases. and absence of functioning state against my will, because of my mother’s In 2004 Ligue Iteka, a local human law enforcement and judicial pressure; I had wanted to continue rights organisation,1 recorded institutions. While the war might my studies… My husband rapes me 1,664 cases of survivors of sexual have been the trigger for an increase every night. He makes me have [sexual] violence seeking judicial assistance. in sexual violence, only when there relations against my will. On top of that Anecdotal evidence suggests that is genuine peace and increased he harasses me every day by saying that sexual violence is continuing to grow. livelihood security – not just absence I am sterile because it has been two years Over 90% of women interviewed by of armed conflict – will the level of and we haven’t had any children but CARE in Bujumbura Rurale province sexual violence fall significantly. FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 49 that is because it is only three months female – of whom approximately as defined by survivors and ago that I started menstruating.” 70% were under eighteen. at-risk women themselves

Community leaders played an active nn develop a decentralised Addressing sexual violence role in the social reintegration of approach to service provision survivors. Despite its prevalence, in order to build the capacity Local and international organisations sexual violence remains a taboo of local health centres are providing some support to subject in Burundi and stigma survivors of sexual violence. MSF- against survivors is extremely high. nn improve the quality of Belgium and CARE have been Community leaders negotiated psychosocial programming offering medical and psychosocial with husbands and fathers to allow services for survivors at special wives and daughters back into the nn develop training modules which clinics in Bujumbura. Other agencies household. They also worked with target different groups (such – such as Gruppo Volontariato local administrators and community as young men, ex-combatants Civile (GVC)4 and the International councils to ensure perpetrators be and at-risk groups of women Rescue Committee (IRC)5 – are arrested, rather than having the case and girls) and examine undertaking violence prevention resolved by traditional methods questions of gender equity work in schools and helping build – which usually involve restitution capacity of public health centres. paid to the victim’s father or husband nn integrate economic and and, in some cases, forced marriage legal assistance Burundi is fortunate to have a of the survivor to her attacker. National Protocol on the Treatment nn integrate sexual violence of Sexual Violence,6 developed in prevention as a cross- 2005 with the support of UNICEF Lessons learned cutting theme in other CARE and UNFPA, which provides a Burundi programmes that framework for coordination of the The programme proved that a work with women medical response to sexual violence. community-based approach was However, comprehensive training feasible even in zones still exper- nn integrate local leaders, of government health staff on the iencing significant rebel activity. administrators and service protocol has not been done and With training and support, informal providers into networks the health ministry has not yet leaders and local administrators dedicated to preventing violence approved a sexual violence ‘kit’ to be – both men and women – can design and assisting women. distributed to health centres to ensure and implement their own initiatives all necessary medication is available to fight impunity and support CARE encourages all agencies to in a single location. In addition, survivors. Conducting baseline recognise the links between post-war there is a significant shortage studies and evaluations, even in sexual violence and the challenges of multi-sectoral programmes short-term emergency programmes, of reintegration and reconciliation combining medical, legal, is also clearly valuable. and to move towards longer-term counselling and livelihoods support financing and programming for victims and at-risk groups. However, the services provided which encompass prevention and by CARE and others are largely capacity-building approaches. With funding from ECHO, CARE confined to Bujumbura. Survivors Burundi implemented an 18- in rural areas lack even the most Nona Zicherman (nzicherman@ month programme to help prevent basic package of medical care care.org.bi) is the Transition sexual violence and improve the unless they can travel significant Programs Sector Coordinator for medical and psychological health distances. The quality of psychosocial CARE Burundi, in Bujumbura. of survivors. The project included services is also of concern: local awareness-raising activities via radio organisations and counsellors need 1. www.ligue-iteka.africa-web.org 2. CARE study, December 2005 ‘Analyse de l’état des and cultural and sporting events. to be trained in special techniques lieux des violences sexuelles’. Available to interested It also piloted the use of interactive for child survivors and for survivors practitioners: please email [email protected] community theatre, which proved in acute psychological distress. 3. ‘Using innovative approaches to better understand highly effective in promoting sexual harassment and exploitation within the food 7 distribution program’, CARE International in Burundi, discussion on this sensitive topic. While the project helped improve the June 2005. CARE also helped establish over physical and psychological health of 4. www.gvc-italia.org 110 networks of community leaders survivors, its impact in preventing 5. www.theirc.org/burundi in Bujumbura Mairie, Bujumbura sexual violence was limited by the 6. The Protocol meets international standards for Rurale and Bubanza provinces. These fact that it was unable to address the prophylactic treatment within 72 hours, including post- exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for HIV, the treatment or community leaders educated local fundamental causes of the violence, prevention of other sexually transmitted diseases, the people on the risks and consequences including gender inequality and bad prevention of tetanus and unwanted pregnancy and the of sexual violence and helped identify governance. CARE Burundi’s future suture of wounds. cases within their communities. SGBV programming will aim to: 7. CARE’s partner for interactive theatre is a local troupe called Tubiyage (‘Let’s talk about it’). Survivors were then referred to a clinic in Bujumbura which treated nn ensure interventions are shaped by over 500 victims, 99% of them the needs and rights of participants 50 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Creating safe spaces: lessons from South Africa and Burundi by Christine Lebrun and Katharine Derderian

the civil war began to subside. Médecins sans Frontières (MSF) Belgium currently During a conflict, rape victims addresses sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) in have additional concerns about many of its projects worldwide, in countries including security or repercussions in a South Africa, Burundi, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, chaotic environment characterised by violence and impunity. In Sudan, Chad, Rwanda and Colombia. Two of our most such a context, SGBV represents successful interventions are in South Africa and Burundi. one of many kinds of violence and mere survival may be seen South Africa has one of the highest family planning, care for sexually as a more immediate priority. incidences of rape in the world. It is transmitted infections and care for estimated that one person is raped victims of SGBV. Patients receive Even if services are available, every 26 seconds. In Khayelitsha, a medical follow-up for six months, sometimes rape victims do not make township of around 500,000 people as well as psychosocial support. use of them (both in conflict settings close to Cape Town, the incidence MSF’s social workers refer patients and beyond). This can be due to of rape is one of the highest in to other NGOs and local community lack of absolute confidentiality and the country. Since 2003, MSF has groups who can provide ongoing privacy within a medical facility. In supported the Simelela Rape assistance and guide victims through addition, acknowledgement of rape Survivors Centre in Khayelitsha.1 legal proceedings and contacts with can have repercussions within the We work in partnership with the authorities. Every month more family, such as rejection or divorce, provincial health and social service than 100 women overcome the and wider social consequences of professionals, stigmatisation Women at MSF project the police and a and economic in Burundi local organisation marginalisation. specialising in rape The political crisis work. Simelela and legal system offers medical, can represent a psychological and hurdle, especially social care, including when extensive post-exposure bureaucracy and prophylaxis (PEP) contact with a for preventing HIV,2 proliferation of liaison with the police different authorities and monitoring of are required in patients. In 2005, order to report and MSF expanded file suit for rape. activities to include In some conflict forensic examinations areas, there are no and increased its authorities available hours to 24 hours Carl De Keyzer/MSF to document a day, seven days violence or to a week, to respond to the need taboos surrounding sexual violence provide legal recourse. National for services. In one month alone, to make their way to the clinic. authorities can play a key role in Simelela’s staff assisted more than facilitating SGBV projects simply by 130 rape victims, about half of them In our experience, the key to the recognising that SGBV is an issue children under the age of fourteen. success of the SGBV projects in and enabling medical services or South Africa and Burundi lies in agencies such as MSF to respond. In response to rape and war-related ensuring that all services – medical, sexual violence, MSF opened psychosocial and legal – are accessible To encourage women to consult Seruka health centre3 for women to patients through the same facility. medical services after SGBV, in Bujumbura, Burundi, in 2004. But challenges and questions remain. MSF focuses on communicating Starting such a project was not easy simple ‘information-education- in a country where the term ‘rape’ SGBV programmes seem to work communication’ (IEC) messages, itself does not exist in the local best in post-conflict or non-conflict emphasising the urgency for and language. To avoid stigmatisation, contexts – a trend best exemplified availability of PEP against HIV the centre offers a range of by our project in Burundi, which infection within 72 hours after women’s health services, including gained significant momentum once exposure. MSF reinforces these FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 51 messages by promoting awareness comprehensive approach – providing As MSF’s main expertise is medical, of SGBV and the availability of PEP medical care within a framework both horizontal and vertical among its own national staff, patients including IEC, psychosocial support, approaches rely heavily on the and other local organisations. legal assistance and liaison with presence of others who can assume other women’s organisations who responsibility for psychosocial, legal Where rape victims seek care outside can provide continued material and and material/economic follow-up. conventional health structures, social support. Due to the complexities inherent in with midwives or traditional birth these contexts, legal assistance is often attendants (TBAs), MSF is starting In contexts without acute problems of lacking. To truly respond to SGBV, to liaise more closely with them. violence, MSF employs a horizontal international and national actors TBAs can tell victims about the approach. SGBV is part of all our must demonstrate political will to availability of PEP and refer SGBV healthcare programmes globally invest significant financial and human cases to MSF health structures. – over 35 projects worldwide. The resources in all these inseparable In Sudan, MSF is considering challenge for horizontal programmes and indispensable dimensions of employing qualified TBAs as is that SGBV becomes just one issue care for victims of sexual violence. community health workers, both to of many faced by medical staff in better reach out to rape victims and their hectic day’s work. The impact of Christine Lebrun (christine.lebrun@ to encourage TBAs to liaise with stigmatisation makes it all the more msf.be) is the Women’s Health Expert MSF facilities without fear of losing difficult for SGBV to be handled in and Katharine Derderian (katharine. income from their own patients. a general medical structure. One [email protected]) the Humanitarian way that MSF counters this problem Advisor for Policy Issues at Médecins is by establishing ‘safe spaces’ Sans Frontières, Belgium www.msf.be Which approach – in every health structure, where women can speak about their health 1. For more information, see www.msf.org.au/stories/ horizontal or vertical? twfeature/2006/129-twf.shtml questions and about SGBV with 2. In the case of HIV infection PEP is a course of MSF combines both approaches. the assurance of full privacy and antiretroviral drugs which to be effective must be started Where we identify a specific, confidentiality. MSF would ideally as soon as possible – and certainly no longer than 72 acute problem of violence, we like to open separate women’s clinics hours – after risk of exposure. 3. See www.msf.org/msfinternational/invoke.cfm?compo adopt a ‘vertical’ programme in all its projects, if availability of nent=article&objectid=14FF2307-A697-4FA9-8CD3756993 specifically addressing SGBV. In our female medical staff allows it. 78AB1B&method=full_html experience, this works best using a Uganda: early marriage as a form of sexual violence by Noah Gottschalk

Evidence is mounting that early marriage is a form of Early marriage is often seen as a survival strategy by those unable to sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) with detrimental move from these isolated settlements, physical, social and economic effects. Policymakers forced to depend on subsistence need to focus on the complex interactions between farming and trapped in poverty. Some education, early marriage and sexual violence. girls hope to enjoy greater economic security if married. For their parents the brideprice can be an important Uganda currently hosts at least cost of schooling. Refugees adopt financial asset. Many parents also 230,000 refugees, the vast majority a lifestyle similar to Uganda’s view early marriage as the best – and of them southern Sudanese. With rural poor but with several crucial often only – means of safeguarding very few exceptions, only refugees differences. Years of cultivating the their daughters from the high levels living within designated settlements same land – without the possibility of SGBV prevailing in Uganda’s are officially recognised and offered of crop rotation – have reduced refugee settlements. Officials often protection and assistance. Refugees soil fertility and yields. Moreover, ascribe early marriage to cultural receive seeds, tools and small plots refugees are generally unable to take preferences but it is clear from of land on which to grow their their products to market and thus talking with refugees themselves that own food, which government depend on Ugandan middlemen motivations of economic and physical and UNHCR officials expect will who buy cheaply from individual security, often linked to basic survival, supplement or replace rations, with households and sell goods in urban are more important determinants. any surplus sold to earn money markets for significant profits. to meet basic needs including the 52 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27

Family regardless of the age of the male members and involved. The Ugandan legal system neighbours has a huge back-log of ‘defilement’ frequently cases. Most cases are resolved out regard a of court through payment to the few years of girl’s family. Boys whose families primary school are unwilling or unable to pay as sufficient for may spend long periods in prison. girls and deride ‘Defilement’ is usually detected when – and harass – girls become pregnant and the usual those who seek response is either a hastily-arranged to continue marriage or the payment of a fee for to secondary ‘spoiling’ the girl and blighting her school. At marriage prospects. As boys who are school, girls unable or unwilling to pay either the report sexual dowry or the fee may be ostracised, harassment assaulted or even murdered, they often see little alternative but to UNHCR/M Pearson UNHCR/M Pearson from other students, leave the settlement. Although teachers, men parents often bring their daughters A Sudanese Some parents explain that before living near schools and even from back home when boys depart, refugee family they were displaced early marriage men who come to the school grounds some girls remain with in-laws living in a traditional hut was closely related to income specifically to look for young girls. It who often mistreat them or blame in Rhino Camp, levels: those with greater means got is common to find children of many them for their son’s imprisonment Arua, Uganda. married later. In Uganda, however, ages studying in the same class; girls or flight. Even those who return to early marriage is typically arranged of 12 may find themselves studying their parents are often looked down as a hasty response to sexual alongside 17-19 year old young men. upon and subjected to abuse. relationships. Many girls end up getting married at a significantly Recent cuts in international funding Alcohol plays a major role in younger age than was traditionally for education, particularly at exacerbating domestic and sexual the norm. Given the protracted nature secondary level, have made matters violence. Money spent on drinking of displacement, especially amongst worse. Many girls who previously results in less money to pay school southern Sudanese, this is now received scholarships have returned fees, often leading parents to pursue happening to a second generation. home where they report harassment though early marriage by neighbours and pressure from either to pay for household expenses, Extreme poverty, harassment and family friends seeking to marry school fees for male children or threats of sexual violence often them. In refugee settlements girls more alcohol. Furthermore, chronic prevent girls from attending school, who have been forced to drop out of drunkenness is directly related to causing them to be increasingly school for financial reasons often have elevated levels of sexual violence vulnerable to SGBV in and around little or no immediate prospects of including incest and rape. their homes and fields. With no returning. Most parents interviewed other economic opportunities and believe that once girls stop studying NGOs and UNHCR are working no effective means of protecting they should marry, regardless of to sensitise communities on girls from assault and rape, parents their age, and it is often easier for these issues. Without economic and young women themselves parents to marry them off rather than alternatives or genuine physical often see little alternative to early trying to raise money for school fees. security, however, thousands of marriage. This in itself, however, Moreover, the desire for financial young refugees in Uganda will can represent a form of violence, stability and physical protection continue to be subjected to early leading to ill-health from early leads many girls to pursue marriages marriage and its associated sexual child-bearing and continued soon after leaving school. Once violence. To tackle these problems, impoverishment exacerbated by married, few girls return to school the international community, denial of educational opportunities. even if it becomes economically host government and refugee viable. Girls married before the communities must work together to: Gender imbalances pervade refugee age of 18 often become trapped in schools in Uganda: the higher abusive or neglectful relationships nn recognise that early marriage is the school level, the greater the or are abandoned by husbands. both a cause of and a response disparity. Girls face many obstacles to reduced livelihood options to enrolment and achievement: the Early marriages in refugee settlements gendered division of household are most commonly a result of nn reform Uganda’s defilement laws labour, the popular perception pre-marital sex between young to decriminalise consensual sexual that sending girls to school is less people, at least one of whom is a relationships between minors likely to benefit the family, and the minor. Under Ugandan law, sexual teasing and sexual harassment that intercourse – both consensual and nn provide alternatives to marriage girls commonly face at home, in non-consensual – with a girl under as a survival strategy the community and even at school. the age of 18 is a criminal act, FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 53 nn eliminate the hostility that nn rethink current policies that in levels of violence and exploitation girls often encounter in their force pregnant girls to leave and more young refugees would be attempts to pursue even school but allow the boys enabled to escape the cycle of poverty rudimentary education responsible to continue their and violence that denies them full education without punishment enjoyment of their human rights. nn enforce zero tolerance of sexual harassment in schools by students, nn implement locally-developed Noah Gottschalk (ngottschalk@ teachers and administrators restrictions on hours of permitted refugeelawproject.org) is Research alcohol sale and consumption & Advocacy Associate at the nn train senior male and female Refugee Law Project (RLP) teachers to provide sexual nn provide SGBV programmes in Kampala, Uganda (www. education and counselling that specifically target boys’ refugeelawproject.org). The views to students and parents needs and experiences. expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect those of the RLP. nn encourage girls to return to school If even a few of these once they have given birth recommendations were acted upon there could be a significant reduction Establishing services in post-conflict Sierra Leone by Amie-Tejan Kellah

During Sierra Leone’s 11-year civil war – which ended being seen by female doctors, the in 2001 – there was a high incidence of sexual assault SARC project trained eight female 1 doctors to conduct all preliminary against women and young girls. Return of peace has not medical consultations and to meant that women and girls are safe from sexual assault. prescribe treatment for clients at the Freetown centre. Since female Years of conflict have weakened psychosocial and legal support. doctors are not available in the the rule of law and survivors of From March 2003 to September provinces, the project trained two gender-based violence (GBV) 2005, the Centres provided services health ministry doctors to work have few opportunities to access for 1,769 survivors of sexual assault alongside Rainbo Centre midwives. appropriate services. As survivors – 75% of whom had been raped. are often blamed and stigmatised, The SARC project, in conjunction women and girls are hesitant to Singled out by UNHCR in 2004 as with partner agencies, also works come forward to seek assistance one of seven ‘best practice’ GBV to educate the community on and/or denounce their assailants. programmes worldwide, the SARC accessing services at the Centres on project has taken a multi-disciplinary the consequences of sexual assault Sexual assault is a criminal offence in approach to sexual assault. Since no and on advocacy. IRC conducts Sierra Leone but many cases are still single agency or organisation has the regular capacity-building trainings handled by traditional community mandate or the capacity to address with partner agencies on topics authorities. Sanctions they impose GBV alone, SARC has worked with including clinical management are generally more harmful to a range of government and non- of rape and communications survivors than perpetrators – such government stakeholders. Partnership skills in working with survivors. as forcing the survivor to marry with the branch of the Sierra Leonean SARC’s medical, psychosocial and their assailant. In many instances, police charged with investigating legal services will eventually be women cannot report incidences of domestic, sexual and physical transferred to the control of the sexual assault to police without first violence against women and children Sierra Leonean government. receiving consent from the local chief. has led to a huge increase in referrals. Amie-Tejan Kellah (Amie.Tejan- IRC has partnered with the Each Rainbo Centre is closely [email protected]) is a Rainbo Centre Government of Sierra Leone to connected to a government Coordinator at the International establish three Sexual Assault Referral hospital and provides free and Rescue Committee in Sierra Leone. Centres (SARC) – locally referred confidential counselling, forensic to as ‘Rainbo’ centres. One is in the medical examination and treatment, 1. Human Rights Watch (2003) report We’ll Kill You if You Cry: Sexual Violence in the Sierra Leone Conflict estimates capital, Freetown; the others are transport, food, clothes and legal that as many as 257,000 Sierra Leonean women and in provincial capitals, Kinema and advocacy. In order to ensure that all girls were raped during the civil war. http://hrw.org/ Kono. Each centre offers free medical, female survivors have the option of reports/2003/sierraleone/ 54 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Trauma response and prevention: precondition for peace and justice by Selmin Çalýþkan

Assistance to survivors of sexual violence should always during war and at times of crisis be underpinned by international action and advocacy. as a grave breach of human rights. States should be encouraged to During the war in Bosnia, thousands a fatwa that survivors of SGBV incorporate International Criminal of women were raped. Medica were innocent victims who should Court (ICC)1 provisions into local mondiale was founded in 1993 be fully respected. However, such law in order to increase prosecution to respond to their urgent need understanding is lacking when it rates. Witnesses to sexual violence for protection and support – and comes to rape outside wartime. are often re-traumatised and now also works with women in Bosnian rape survivors still struggle stigmatised by trauma-insensitive , Kosovo, Afghanistan, to cope with prejudice and a lack investigation practices. Liberia, Iraq, India, Sudan, DRC, of community support. We have Uganda, and . We worked with Bosnian NGOs to urge A Victims Trust Fund2 was established provide psychological, psychosocial, the authorities to acknowledge by the ICC to channel compensation therapeutic, legal and medical rape survivors as victims of war. funds to victims – either directly to support for women and girls. We As a result Bosnia has become the individuals or to agencies assisting also undertake political lobbying first post-conflict nation to provide survivors. The money is either paid and awareness raising in order to rape survivors with a monthly directly by the perpetrator or, if build greater sensitivity within pension – a potential example the perpetrator lacks funds, from healthcare, social welfare and for other war-torn societies. external sources such as government legal systems and humanitarian grants. However, women currently agencies. In strongly patriarchal Medica Kosova has had to work receive little from the ICC’s Victims societies we work to counteract the within an extremely patriarchal Trust Fund because states are not constant devaluation of women. society. Discussion of SGBV that providing adequate funding. occurred during wartime was Survivors of sexual and gender- completely taboo. Survivors were Will the ICC help transform the based violence (SGBV) usually stigmatised and often excluded by legal and cultural acceptance of have little opportunity to talk about their family and/or community. Staff sexual violence? If its norms become their experiences. Those who do had to develop special strategies to accepted as part of both military and know what has happened – their enable survivors to access the centre. domestic law, sexual violence will no families or communities – often react By undertaking awareness raising and longer be exempt from punishment negatively. Even if a survivor is not advocacy at different levels of society, and, it is hoped, will become less rejected by her family, she may well the project has now been accepted by culturally tolerated. The survival of receive less food and support than government authorities – and women the court is crucial to legitimating the rest of the family and may not suffer less . As there norms of gender justice and shifting be allowed to visit a doctor. Women were no professionals specialised in both blame and shame from who have experienced sexual violence the field of social, psychological or victim to perpetrator. This requires or abuse are at high risk of being therapeutic work in Kosovo, Medica committed, knowledgeable and re-victimised. Health professionals Kosova developed a four-year sensitised judicial personnel as well and others who have direct contact training programme for staff. Ten as persistent civil society engagement. with displaced people must be made women have since gained university Women’s NGOs must remain vigilant, aware of these issues and should accreditation in the new profession of supporting efforts to ensure sexual know how to gather information in ‘psychosocial counsellor for women’. violence is no longer exempt from a sensitive way, address the needs punishment, empowering women of sexually traumatised women, to reject the socially-imposed role document sexual violence and secure “I was not afraid of being killed. of shamed victim and enabling more specialised help when needed. I was afraid of being raped!” women to obtain redress and to Kosovan woman raped by participate fully in peacebuilding. Project staff at Medica Zenica – our Serb militia men in 1999. Bosnia project – found that many Selmin Çalýþkan (scaliskan@ husbands were supportive of their medicamondiale.org) is a women’s wives who had been raped during human rights advocate with medica wartime because they themselves Vital role of International mondiale www.medicamondiale.org had survived concentration camps Criminal Court or torture. Knowledge about mass 1 www.icc-cpi.int 2 www.icc-cpi.int/vtf.html rape during the war was widespread National and international courts and Muslim religious leaders issued must acknowledge sexual violence FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 55 Time to end violence against Palestinian women and girls by the FMR editors

Domestic violence is an all too common response to and repeal discriminatory laws the pressures of life in crowded refugee camps and that hinder efforts to tackle GBV. communities living under occupation. The Palestinian The PA urgently needs to adopt a Authority (PA) has failed to establish a framework zero-tolerance policy for all forms to respond to violence against women and girls. of violence against women and girls. Failing to offer women and A report from Human Rights Watch The absence of medical guidelines all members of Palestinian society (HRW) has documented how cases for doctors also seriously affects the highest protection of the law of violence ranging from spousal the quality of treatment afforded to will only further erode faith in the and child abuse to rape, incest and female victims of violence. The health Palestinian criminal justice system. committed under the guise of care system is typically the first and family ‘honour’ often go unreported sometimes the only government A Question of Security: Violence and unpunished. Discriminatory institution that victims of abuse Against Palestinian Women and criminal legislation in force in the come into contact with, yet doctors Girls is available at http://hrw. West Bank and Gaza has led to are ill-equipped to deal with such org/reports/2006/opt1106 virtual impunity for perpetrators cases. The Ministry of Health has of sexual violence and has deterred no medical procedures or protocols victims from reporting abuse. These to guide medical professionals or Sameera, her three daughters laws include provisions that: reduce ministry staff in their treatment of and husband, Adel, live in dire penalties for men who kill or attack domestic violence cases. Doctors lack circumstances in Gaza’s Al-Bureij female relatives who commit adultery; specialised training and guidance refugee camp. For years Sameera was allow rapists who agree to marry their on how to treat women victims of regularly beaten, Adel accusing her of victims to escape criminal prosecution; violence, preserve evidence of the having a genetic defect since she had and allow only male relatives to file abuse and maintain confidentiality. not given birth to a boy. Fearing Adel’s incest charges on behalf of minors. wrath, Sameera’s first visits to the While the availability of shelters has UNFPA-supported Al-Bureij Women’s With some exceptions, Palestinian increased in the West Bank, Israeli- Centre were veiled in secrecy. police lack the expertise and the imposed movement restrictions Centre staff provided Sameera with will to address violence against within and between the West Bank psychosocial counselling and medical women in a manner that is effective, and Gaza make it impossible for some support that nurtured her back to sensitive to the needs of the victim victims of violence to reach them. At health. She learned about reproductive and respectful of their privacy. As a times the lack of shelters and socially health and rights and how to care result, police officers often turn to acceptable living arrangements for for her daughters. Counsellors in informal measures rather than serious single women has forced Palestinian the centre’s Male Intervention Unit investigations. When questioned, women’s organisations and the succeeded in getting Adel involved many were unapologetic about police to house victims in police in their ‘man-to-man’ programme their efforts to encourage marriage stations, governors’ offices, private and, later, in group counselling. – sometimes with the assistance of homes, schools and orphanages. Adel’s attitude to his family has been influential clan leaders – between transformed. Sameera and Adel credit a rapist and his victim. They see Israeli actions – including attacks the centre with changing their lives intervention as a means of ‘solving’ on PA institutions and security and are encouraging other couples these cases. In addition, police services and ’s refusal to remit to learn about building non-violent often force women to return to tax revenues – have significantly partnerships and to take advantage of their families even when there is a weakened PA capabilities but, argues the ante- and post-natal care, family substantial threat of further harm. HRW, this is no excuse for inaction. planning, legal and psychosocial HRW calls on the PA to establish counselling, health education, guidelines for responding to family physiotherapy, exercise classes and “PA officials across the political violence in line with international lab services the centre provides. spectrum appear to view security standards and to train government only within the context of the ongoing employees to recognise and respond For more information about the conflict and occupation, all but appropriately to the needs of gender- Bureij Women’s Health Centre ignoring the very real security threats based violence (GBV) survivors. contact the director, Feryal that women and girls face at home.” The PA should enact a specific law Thabet ([email protected]) Farida Deif, Women’s criminalising domestic violence or see UNFPA News www.unfpa. Rights Division, HRW org/news/news.cfm?ID=676 56 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Involving men on the Thai-Burma border by Melissa Alvarado and Benny Paul

Programmes to address gender-based violence it became clear that some staff members were themselves beating (GBV) must address and include all members of the their wives. Clearly, the selection community, including men. Implementing these and supervision of staff had to be re- initiatives, however, is an enormous challenge. evaluated. The programme recruited new male staff members with a It has long been recognised that to Initial results and reactions clear commitment to the work, and fully address the issue of GBV, both developed written agreements on prevention and response activities The MIP project began with a series non-violent behaviour and a code must be in place. What has only of focus group discussions with of conduct for staff members. more recently been acknowledged married and unmarried men to is that active male engagement is discuss their attitudes and beliefs The men insisted that they too have fundamental to successful GBV about gender roles, GBV and violence suffered loss of self-esteem and prevention activities. Men can play a in the community. These first sessions power and questioned why the significant role in helping to end GBV seemed to catch men off guard. Many GBV programme only focused on in their various roles women’s issues and Young Burmese men, Mount as brothers, fathers, women’s rights. The Popa, Burma/ husbands, friends and MIP project has helped community leaders. to highlight the issues As the majority of disempowerment of perpetrators of that men feel and GBV are men, it is has enabled dialogue important for men to about their role in reflect on attitudes relationships and towards gender family life and in and violence that resolving community disproportionately problems. The affect women and frustrations of men girls. Unfortunately, in these refugee there have been few communities must be efforts to involve understood to fully men in addressing address the causes and GBV in conflict- Levack/EngenderHealth Andrew contributing factors to affected settings. GBV. The project tries claimed that it was the first time they to identify areas of strength where Since 1992, the International Rescue had been asked to reflect on these men can and want to get involved. Committee (IRC) has been providing issues. The initial results from the health, nutrition and sanitation focus groups indicated a very male- While it is important to acknowledge assistance in two refugee camps dominated social structure strongly the validity of the issues faced by along the Thai-Burma border in influenced by militarisation, and men, their concerns also reveal Mae Hong Son Province, Thailand. attitudes that condoned violence misconceptions about GBV (for Responding to high incidences of as an appropriate means of conflict example, that a wife’s complaints domestic violence and several high- resolution. While violence against are a form of violence against them). profile sexual assault cases, in 2004 women was an acknowledged, The GBV programme as a whole, IRC began a GBV programme which documented problem in the camps, including the MIP project, has includes a ‘men involved in peace- it was not accepted as a community needed to clarify the definition and building’ (MIP) component. The problem by many men. When the meaning of GBV. The patterns, causes MIP project has not been without results of the focus group discussion and consequences of GBV have an difficulties. Changing men’s attitudes were made public, some men reacted enormous impact on the refugee towards gender is a formidable defensively, claiming they were community and cannot be easily task in any setting; in the context of unfairly being blamed for violence. equated with the loss of rights that closed refugee camps, the challenge men feel. The programme strives to is all the more significant. The Male camp-based staff were hired improve understanding of the issue MIP programme requires a steady, to facilitate further activities with and develop concern for the terror long-term and flexible approach. men but their commitment was half- of personal violence, experienced hearted. To make matters worse, primarily by women, while FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 57

to document In November their stories and 2006 in Ban Mae experiences; training Nai Soi camp for Burmese peer educators to refugees, Thai work with adolescent government boys; training officials open community, school the first Legal Assistance and religious leaders; Centre in a and developing refugee camp a mass media anywhere in campaign. The the world. MIP project will also collaborate more closely with other community organisations to raise awareness and create a shift in social attitudes. MIP also plans to work with the local women’s

UNHCR/K McKinsey UNHCR/K McKinsey organisation in the camps to train peer educators recognising that men have a critical nn Male beliefs condoning GBV and to broaden awareness about role to play in addressing violence. must be addressed in order to the connections between drug effectively implement community- and alcohol use and violence. based GBV programmes. Lessons learned nn GBV must be presented from the Challenges ahead Since its beginning, the MIP outset as a community-wide issue, programme has met significant not merely as a women’s issue. There are competing priorities in challenges – challenges that have this community. Ongoing conflict enabled us to learn important nn Programmes should focus on across the border and continued lessons about gender dynamics in the positive potential of all men displacement are constant refugee camp settings. The MIP to be partners in prevention. preoccupations. Ensuring that GBV project has had to keep pace with the is taken seriously requires constant community’s readiness to address nn Time, pragmatism and re-evaluation of programming issues surrounding GBV. Men sustained funding are needed methods and strategies. Redefining in particular need to be afforded to achieve change. masculinity in a closed camp significant time and space to reflect environment is especially difficult. and internalise new concepts related nn Careful screening and selection In this militarised, inward-looking to gender roles and violence. of staff are critical. Expectations community there are few male role about behaviour outside of work- models to promote non-violent MIP has identified and support key related activities must be clear. solutions to problems. It will take individuals in the community – men much time and effort to identify men and women – who understand GBV nn Training must be context- who have the capacity to effectuate and either directly or indirectly relevant: where there are no changes in attitudes. Encouragingly, support the programme. Over time, local words for the idea of the GBV programme has received many men have expressed the gender, staff and translators feedback that gender roles and desire to be involved in community must find vocabulary to describe relationships have very clearly change projects and to become the different social roles and become a new topic of discussion and more knowledgeable about issues expectations of men and women. debate in camp. Slowly but surely the such as GBV in order to be active community is beginning to openly in finding solutions. Many people, In light of the lessons learned, the discuss the hitherto silent epidemic. including many male leaders, MIP project recently reviewed its now openly recognise that they strategy and goals in order to meet Melissa Alvarado (melissa. do not have the skills to deal with the challenges ahead. Married [email protected]) is the problems related to GBV and need men and adolescents are now IRC GBV Program Manager in assistance. A number of recent prioritised as target stakeholders. Thailand (www.theirc.org). GBV-triggered suicide attempts In the next year, MIP activities will have underscored the need for an focus on capacity building for male Benny Paul (bennyp@ircthailand. appropriate understanding of GBV leaders and reaching the broader org), a Burmese national, is dynamics by the entire community. male community. These include: a Project Officer with the Other lessons learned include: identifying male role models MIP project in Thailand. 58 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Demobilisation of female ex-combatants in Colombia by Gunhild Schwitalla and Luisa Maria Dietrich

Among the millions of Colombian IDPs one group is Challenges for reintegration particularly invisible – women and girls associated with illegal It is crucial to break away from a armed groups. The current demobilisation process does not simplistic view of perpetrators and adequately address the consequences of the sexual violence victims, for some women have been they have suffered before, during and after conflict. both. Policymakers must recognise that many of the women and girls who For several decades Colombia has been It is important to acknowledge the participated actively in the conflict have fought over by legal and illegal armed many reasons why women and girls also been victims of sexual violence. actors – the Colombian armed forces, have joined armed groups – to escape right-wing paramilitaries and left-wing from domestic violence (including Colombian public opinion is guerrillas. Negotiations between the sexual abuse), to take revenge, to join strongly in favour of peace, justice, Colombian government and the right- a partner or because of lack of future acknowledgement of human rights wing Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia opportunities. Some have also been abuses and reparations. Nearly 90% of – a federation of right-wing paramilitary recruited by force. Interviews with those interviewed in a recent report by groups – resulted in July 2005 in demobilised women have revealed that the International Centre for Transitional congressional approval of the Justice and many suffered from previous sexual Justice1 believe that the victims of Peace Law. A cornerstone of President abuse – from fathers, brothers and violations have a right to receive Álvaro Uribe’s policies, it offers rank- other relatives – from early childhood. reparations from the perpetrators and-file combatants a comprehensive and their leaders. Nearly 70% believe reintegration package. Leaders alleged Colombia’s conflict is ongoing and the government is also partially to have committed serious crimes are fuelling a massive movement of rural responsible for providing reparations. expected to stand trial at special courts, populations to urban areas. Demobilised with the promise of receiving drastically females are doubly disadvantaged. Lessons learned from past reintegration reduced sentences in exchange for They have transgressed traditional exercises and their capacity to full disclosure of their crimes. gender norms and for most the prospect address the needs of former women of return to their families is out of the combatants must be systematised Colombia’s disarmament, demobilisation question. Many also live in well-founded and analysed from a gender and reintegration (DDR) process has fear of reprisals from members of their perspective. Such analysis is essential involved both ‘collective’ demobilisation former armed groups who regard them for informing future reintegration – the result of official negotiations with as traitors. Official data indicate that efforts, bearing in mind the high paramilitary groups – and ‘individual’ demobilised women were born in all number of female combatants in the demobilisation whereby men, women but one of Colombia’s 32 departments two main leftist guerrilla forces.2 If the and children voluntarily return to but 85% of those who individually Colombian DDR process is to become civilian life. It is estimated that nearly chose to leave armed groups are now inclusive it will be necessary to: 41,000 men, women and children reported to live in Bogotá and Medellín, have been demobilised – some 31,000 anonymous urban environments which nn ensure a holistic gender-focused ‘collectively’ (6% of whom are female). offer them some small degree of security. approach encompassing all forms of A further ten thousand are thought discrimination and violence against to have done so under the individual Many ex-combatant women and girls women – and not only sexual violence demobilisation scheme (of whom 14% have suffered sexual violence during nn publicly acknowledge the scale of are women). Girls comprise about a time spent within illegal armed groups. sexual violence against women and quarter of demobilised children. Rape, forced contraception, forced girls during conflict and do more abortion, forced sterilisation, sexual to bring perpetrators to justice slavery and forced prostitution have nn ensure that the specific sexual and Female invisibility been commonplace. Colombian law reproductive needs of women and designating fourteen as the age of girls are acknowledged and met Colombian women and girls have consent was regularly violated. There nn provide psychological assistance been – and remain – invisible. In have been reported cases of gang rape as and help to rebuild self-esteem a patriarchal society their role as a form of punishment meted out to those instigators of conflict, perpetrators of who disobeyed commanders. Some nn raise awareness within society of violence, victims of conflict and eligible women preferred to submit to abuse by the needs of demobilised women for demobilisation and reincorporation a commander in order to reduce the risk and girls, currently shunned by processes has received little attention of attack from other male combatants. their families and communities from policymakers or the media. nn understand why so few abused women and girls denounce their

FMR 27 SEXUAL VIOLENCE 59

n attackers: their silence should n support women and girls who University of the Andes in Bogotá not be interpreted as evidence have given birth as a result of and gender advisor to Colombia’s of absence of sexual violence sexual violence during their Comisión Nacional de Reparación y nn ensure that reintegration time with armed groups: it Reconciliación (www.cnrr.org.co). Luisa programmes include provision must be recognised they are Maria Dietrich (Luisa.dietrich@gmail. for raising awareness of sexually very likely to have ambiguous com) is an advisor on gender and DDR transmitted infections, HIV testing feelings towards their babies. for the International Organisation for and provision of appropriate Gunhild Schwitalla (Gunhild_ Migration Colombia (www.oim.org.co). medical care and drugs [email protected]) is a specialist in conflict resolution at the 1. www.ictj.org/en/news/press/release/1094.html 2. ELN (Ejército de Liberación Nacional) and the FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia). Justice for survivors in Peru by Flor de María Valdez-Arroyo

Peru has taken steps to assist women survivors of sexual In 2006 the Peruvian Congress passed violence during armed conflict in their quest for justice and a law to implement a reparation plan for all victims of the armed conflict. redress but lack of a gender and cultural perspective in However, only women survivors of establishing appropriate mechanisms jeopardises rape are eligible for legal redress. the process. No other forms of sexual violence – such as the sexual slavery, enforced Manta is an isolated rural community lying in order to obtain compensation prostitution, forced nudity and forced in Huancavelica, a poor Andean region or welfare benefits. So intense is abortions suffered by many women in of Peru. According to the Peruvian social pressure that at one stage only Manta – will be considered. Women Truth and Reconciliation Commission women who had been displaced by who were linked to the insurgents are (CVR) Final Report,1 Manta endured the conflict or who had voluntarily expressly excluded. Sexual violence systematic sexual violence during moved out from the community were was part of the strategy used by all the 1980-2000 insurgency led by able to speak out and seek justice. protagonists towards women. While Sendero Luminoso (a Maoist guerrilla the army used humiliation and torture, movement) and the Tupac Amaru If there is impunity in conflict and the insurgents controlled women and Revolutionary Movement. The main post-conflict contexts, crimes of used them as combatants, housekeepers victims were poorly-educated women sexual violence against women and sexual partners for their leaders. and young girls from highland peasant will recur. The CVR’s Final Report A further defect is that all survivors communities, speakers of Quechua or was meant to start a process of must be included in an official victims other indigenous languages who have legal redress and reparation for all register. There is no provision, however, been traditionally marginalised by victims of violations of human rights, to ensure that their testimonies will both the state and civil society. Manta including those of sexual violence be registered with sensitivity and had a military base throughout the within the internal armed conflict confidentiality. Inclusion on the conflict. According to the CVR, the in Peru. It proposed a reparations registry is also dependent on having majority of sexual violence crimes were plan to the Peruvian parliament ID documents such as birth certificates committed by members of the armed and proposed cases – including which most rural survivors, especially forces – whose role it was to protect Manta – for judicial prosecution. indigenous women, cannot provide. the civil population. Crimes were often perpetrated during army raids on the However, three years after submission Without clearer guidelines and greater houses of suspected subversives and of the report, little has been done. The political will, survivors of sexual when women came to the base seeking main obstacle to justice for the women violence in Peru will continue to information about detained relatives. of Manta is the failure of the Peruvian lose out in the search for justice criminal code to define sexual violence and reparation. Most of the women remain silent during conflict as a crime against about the sexual violence suffered humanity. Sexual violence can thus only Flor de María Valdez-Arroyo (valdez. – because of shame or fear of their be prosecuted as straightforward rape, [email protected]) works for DEMUS family’s and/or partner’s reactions. rather than as a weapon of war and Estudio para la Defensa y los Derechos The community collectively denies the options for punishment are less severe de la Mujer, Lima (www.demus.org.pe). existence of widespread sexual violence and subject to statutes of limitation. and insists that most sexual contact Peruvian judges and prosecutors A longer version of this article is between women and the military was are reluctant to apply international available at http://terra.ezo.net/ consensual. They refuse to acknowledge customary law to fill this legal void. article486.html the conclusions of the CVR because After all these years and despite all they do not want to be known as the evidence submitted, no judicial 1. Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación www.cverdad. org.pe the ‘village of the raped’. Women process has been started in Manta. who seek justice may be accused of 60 SEXUAL VIOLENCE FMR 27 Resources Women in an Insecure World: Clinical management of survivors of rape: developing protocols for use with refugees Violence against Women – and internally displaced persons Facts, Figures and Analysis www.who.int/reproductive-health/publications/clinical_mngt_survivors_of_rape Geneva Centre for the Democratic Jointly developed by the World Health Organisation, UNFPA, UNHCR and the Control of Armed Forces (DCAF). International Committee of the Red Cross, the guide has been field tested by a range ISBN 92-9222-028-4. 335pp. 2005. of humanitarian agencies. Intended for use by qualified healthcare providers, it includes detailed guidance on the clinical management of women, men and children who have been raped. UNHCR and UNFPA have trained over 300 medical staff working in GBV programmes in some 20 countries with refugee or other emergency situations on the application of this guidance. Workshops are ongoing and the training modules are available to the people who have been trained, so that they can conduct their own workshop for their colleagues. For more information, contact Wilma Doedens, Humanitarian Response Unit, UNFPA. [email protected] Guidelines for Gender-based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Emergencies: Focusing on Prevention and Response to Sexual Violence IASC (see p29). www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/gender Gender and Armed Conflict Overview Report by Amani El Jack. BRIDGE. 2003. www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/CEP-Conflict-Report.pdf?bcsi_scan_ Contributions from over 60 authors A8AA4F79F19141A2=0&bcsi_scan_filename=CEP-Conflict-Report.pdf highlight the active role women Supporting Resources Collection by Emma Bell with Lata Narayanaswamy. BRIDGE 2003. can play in peacemaking and www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/CEP-Conflict-SRC.pdf post-conflict reconstruction. The book provides analytical data and Gender-based Violence: Emerging Issues in Programs Serving Displaced Populations statistics, legal documents and policy Reproductive Health for Refugees Consortium, 2002. recommendations complemented www.rhrc.org/pdf/gbv_vann.pdf by feature stories and illustrations. Gender-based Violence Tools Manual for Assessment & Program Design, Monitoring €22. Available from DCAF, Rue de & Evaluation in conflict-affected settings Reproductive Health for Refugees Chantepoulet 11, Case postale Consortium, 2004. 1360, 1211 Geneva 1, Switzerland. www.womenscommission.org/reports/gbv_tools.shtml Executive Summary online at www. dcaf.ch/women/bk_vlachova_ A Practical Approach to Gender-Based Violence: A Programme Guide for Health Care biason_women.cfm. For more Providers and Managers UNFPA, 2001. information email: [email protected] www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/99_filename_genderbased.pdf Sexual and Gender-based Violence against Refugees, Returnees, and Internally Broken bodies, broken dreams: Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response UNHCR, 2003. violence against women exposed www.womenwarpeace.org/issues/violence/GBV_nairobi/PR_UNHCRguide.pdf ISBN 9966-7108-0-9. 250pp. Training of Trainers: Gender-based Violence Focusing on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse www.irinnews.org/broken- UNICEF, 2002. bodies/default.asp www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2003/unicef-tot-25sep.pdf The UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children 2006 www.violencestudy.org/r25 The UN Secretary-General’s In-depth Study on Violence against Women 2006 http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/419/74/ PDF/N0641974.pdf?OpenElement Women are the Fabric: Reproductive Health for Communities in Crisis UNFPA, 2006. www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/645_filename_Wom en%20are%20the%20Fabric_English.pdf Published by the Integrated Regional Women, Girls, Boys and Men, Different Needs – Equal Opportunities: a Gender Handbook Information Networks (IRIN), Broken for Humanitarian Action IASC, 2006. Bodies offers a powerful testimony of www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/content/documents/default.asp?docID=1948&publish=0 the different types of gender-based violence experienced by women Women, War, Peace: The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed and girls worldwide throughout Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-Building by Elisabeth Rehn and Ellen their lives, through the use of Johnson Sirleaf. 2002. (See page 33 for details.) photographs, individual case studies www.unifem.org/resources/item_detail.php?ProductID=17

and illustrative text. $30, including A more detailed listing of resources on sexual violence is online at: training CD. For more information www.forcedmigration.org/browse/thematic/sexualviolence.htm email: [email protected] FMR 27 Iraq’s neglected humanitarian crisis 61 Iraq’s neglected humanitarian crisis by Andrew Harper

Over three million Iraqis are currently internally displaced Many were displaced prior to 2003 or have left Iraq, with possibly one million of these but increasing numbers are fleeing now. UNHCR believes that some having been displaced since the February 2006 Samarra 425,000 Iraqis have fled their homes bombings. Refugees, IDPs and host communities have for other areas inside Iraq this year exhausted their resources. Donors are unresponsive and that internal displacement is to their needs and governments oblivious to the likely continuing at a rate of some 40,000 to 50,000 a month. A recent report secondary displacement to Europe and further afield. from the Brookings-Bern Project on Internal Displacement2 chronicles Iraq is haemorrhaging, with no end Obtaining accurate IDP and refugee the sharp rise in displacement since in sight to the massive and escalating statistics is fraught with difficulty the bombing of the Shi’a shrine displacement in the face of extreme due to the politicised nature of in Samarra’s Golden Mosque in violence. The security, political, social displacement. Often IDPs see little February 2006. Ongoing sectarian and financial impact on Iraq, the reason to register. Reporting is often attacks, abductions, kidnappings, region and the rest of the world will erratic and confined to areas under killings and criminal are be felt for many transforming years. Addressing the social and An Iraqi refugee the Iraqi demographic woman speaks displacement is a make-up of urban to her son living massive and long- Iraq, fragmenting in Baghdad from her temporary term challenge the country along quarters in to the stability religious and Amman. of the entire ethnic lines. The December 2006. Middle East. violence is now reminiscent of We are witnessing the dynamics the largest long- of sectarian term population violence and movement in ethnic cleansing the Middle East in the former since Palestinians Yugoslavia, the were displaced Great Lakes, the following the Caucasus, Sudan creation of the and other great state of Israel in human rights 1948. Around one disasters of the in eight Iraqis is past 15 years. displaced. The international Baghdad is community UNHCR/P Sands breaking up into has provided militia-controlled billions of neighbourhoods. dollars in funding for recovery and government control. Sectarian, The worst slaughter is happening development programmes for Iraq1 ethnic and tribal groups may in the towns on the outskirts of – many of which have not been overstate numbers to strengthen their Baghdad where Sunnis and Shi’as implemented because of security claims to power and resources. As live side by side. Displaced Sunni concerns –­ yet humanitarian needs neighbouring governments Arabs from Shi’a majority areas are inside Iraq and in neighbouring to restrict escape routes, it is hard to the IDP group that has grown most states remain grossly neglected. quantify the numbers leaving Iraq. dramatically in 2006. Shi’a from UNHCR and other humanitarian majority Sunni areas have been agencies lack the funds required under pressure since before the fall to cope with the growing numbers Scale of internal displacement of Saddam’s regime. In addition of displaced and increasingly there are members of religious and desperate Iraqis needing help both UNHCR estimates there are at least ethnic minority groups who are within and outside their country. 1.6 million Iraqis displaced internally. specifically targeted. These include: 62 Iraq’s neglected humanitarian crisis FMR 27

Assyrians, Chaldean, Armenian Iraqis abroad that situation has changed and many and Catholic sects; Palestinians; refugees are no longer able to look Sabean Mandeans; Turkmen; Kurds; UNHCR estimates that there are some after themselves. Their legal situation Yezidis, Jews and other minorities. two million Iraqis in neighbouring is ambiguous. They have access to Christians and Kurds are often being states. There may between 650,000 Syrian public schools and healthcare targeted on suspicion of supporting to a million displaced Iraqis in both but have to travel out of the country the government. Individuals who Syria and Jordan, with lesser numbers every six months to renew their visas. had been members of or associates of in Egypt, Lebanon and Iran. UNHCR They cannot hold work permits. the former Ba’ath regime are subject believes that up to 2-3,000 leave Most Iraqi professionals – including to attacks by Shi’ite extremists. Iraq each day, the vast majority to doctors, university professors and Both Sunni and Shi’a have little Syria but also to Jordan, Turkey and businessmen – found it relatively confidence in the government’s the Gulf States. Iraqis are reporting easy to obtain Jordanian residency ability to protect them and voices of that it is increasingly difficult to permits. However, hundreds of moderation are lacking. Most thousands of other Iraqis

An Iraqi woman of those displaced have little have only been given three- sells cigarettes expectation of being able to month tourist visas which on a central return home. Brookings-Bern have to be renewed by exiting Amman street to research suggests hundreds of and re-entering the country make ends meet. December 2006. thousands more are teetering or else paying a fine of $2 for on the edge of displacement each day overstayed. Most in Baghdad and Basra and lack funds to do so and it mixed Sunni-Shi’a areas. is believed there are now Violence along the fault line more than 400,000 illegal between Arab and Kurdish Iraqis living in Jordan. Iraqis Iraq, such as in or in are mostly found in the the oil-rich and strategically highly populated cities of important region of Kirkuk, Amman, Zarqa and Irbid. is likely to worsen and cause Many Iraqis apparently fear even greater displacement. sending their children to be vaccinated at government- Women are particularly run health centres or attend affected by security-driven public schools lest they constraints restricting be identified as illegal movement, education and residents and deported. livelihood activities. Women More worrying are reports are increasingly pressurised that many vulnerable Iraqis to conform to fundamentalist who have been the subject religious norms of dress and of assault, sexual abuse or conduct. They are vulnerable are unwilling to to sexual and gender-based report these incidents. violence (SGBV) from militias, Islamic extremists and UNHCR and other UN opportunistic criminals. agencies are concerned about UNHCR/P Sands the increasing credible reports WFP estimates that at least of vulnerable Iraqi women 4 million Iraqis are food and girls being trafficked into insecure with another 8.3 million enter Jordan and on a number of the sex trade, particularly in Syria dependent on the official state occasions the border has been closed. and a number of the Gulf States. food distribution system for basic Should the borders be closed then For some households this is their supplies. If the food and water supply the international community may be sole source of income. The Women’s systems break down we can expect faced with a potential humanitarian Freedom NGO estimates that nearly hundreds of thousands more to be catastrophe in attempting to provide 3,500 Iraqi women have gone missing displaced. Increased targetting of emergency assistance to tens of since the US-led occupation of Iraq teachers, professors and students, thousands in an insecure, hostile and began in 2003. It estimates that a particularly in Baghdad and Mosul, remote location. Unfortunately, due quarter have been trafficked abroad has been the trigger for many families to the lack of practical protection or since the start of 2006, many unaware to move. In several governorates assistance that UNHCR can offer of their fate. UNHCR offices have the resources of host communities in the region, most Iraqis do not activities to provide protection have been exhausted. Disturbingly, register with the agency when they and support to survivors of SGBV the Governorate of Karbala recently do enter neighbouring states. – including an increasing number of stopped accepting new IDPs due women and children suffering from to the strains they place on existing When Iraqis first arrived in Damascus domestic violence – but funding for infrastructure and social services. and Amman most brought resources many programmes has been cut. In with them and many were not in at least one country UNHCR can need of assistance. Several years on, only afford to place survivors of FMR 27 Iraq’s neglected humanitarian crisis 63

SGBV in a ‘safe house’ for three days UNHCR is now facing a far larger help them are decreasing. This before they are required to look for humanitarian crisis than we initially growing humanitarian crisis alternative accommodation – which, prepared for in 2002-2003 but with far appears to have slipped off the in most cases, means going back to fewer resources. Prior to the Coalition radar screen of most donors. the perpetrators of the violence. invasion we prepared a budget of $154 million to respond to a possible The co-chair of the Iraq Study Group5 The situation of Palestinian refugees exodus of up to 600,000 refugees. – the bi-partisan expert group set inside Iraq and in neighbouring Since then, donations to UNHCR’s up by the US Congress to consider countries is particularly desperate. Iraq programme have plummetted options for US Iraq policy – noted Many of the 34,000-strong Palestinian despite the ever-increasing that the cost of the US intervention community in Iraq who had been numbers of displaced people. has reached $400 billion and that the living in the country since 1948 total price tag could rise to a trillion and have known no other home The international community remains dollars. A tiny fraction of this sum are believed to have fled Iraq. fixated on the unquenchable violence would enable states neighbouring Stereotyped as supporters of Saddam and sterile debates about whether Iraq to keep their borders open and Hussein, and prime candidates for Iraq fits the definition of a ‘civil to maintain the generous hospitality the insurgency, many today face war’. This diverts attention from and temporary protection they harassment, threats of deportation, the consequences and humanitarian have offered. Countries beyond the media scapegoating, arbitrary impact of this tragic chapter in immediate region must help carry the detention, torture and .3 Iraq’s history. Rather than focusing humanitarian burden and prevent Despite the difficulties in leaving on the daily indicator of numbers the creation of a new long-term Iraq UNHCR believes that the killed, we need to look at what displaced population which could, Palestinian population in Iraq may each death means to the remaining if unchecked, parallel the Palestinian have decreased to 10-15,000. Some family members or to the minority diaspora. In responding to the Iraqi Palestinians trapped in the no-man’s communities from which they displacement crisis the international land between Iraq and Jordan are originated. How many single mothers community needs to also recognise facing their fourth winter in the have been left behind? How many the continuing anxiety and focus scorpion-infested desert site. The level orphans? How many wounded, of the Arab world with regard to of despair is acute. Some have harmed sick or elderly are now completely the millions of Palestinians whom themselves and gone on hunger destitute? Whether the number they continue to accommodate. The strike. It is critical that neighbouring killed since 2003 is merely 50,000, or situation in Iraq is getting worse states and resettlement countries the 655,000 cited in a recent Lancet/ and there is no prospect for IDPs provide an urgent, humane solution John Hopkins University report,4 or refugees to return. The time for those Palestinians remaining in it is still a catastrophic situation. to do something is now. UNHCR Iraq or trapped at its borders before needs donor countries to extend more are kidnapped, raped or killed. Much of our work in the three their funding of the Iraq regional years since the fall of the previous programme to an initial budget of Thousands of Iraqi refugees are now regime was based on the assumption $38.5m for 2007. Even if that figure is moving beyond the region, including that the domestic situation achieved it may be too little too late to to Europe. Statistics received from would stabilise and hundreds of help rebuild the lives of many Iraqis. 36 industrialised countries for the thousands of previously displaced first six months of 2006 showed a Iraqis would be able to go home. Andrew Harper (harper@unhcr. 50% increase in Iraqi asylum claims Instead, displacement has risen to org.) is coordinator for the Iraq over the same period a year ago. unprecedented levels. Today, we are unit at UNHCR in Geneva. , the UK, France, Egypt faced by the needs of hundreds of and Malaysia are among countries thousands more displaced people This article is written in a reporting up to a five-fold increase than we planned for in 2002-2003 personal capacity, and does in the number of Iraqi asylum but only have a $29 million budget not necessarily represent the seekers compared to 2005 levels. that is only about 60% funded. views of the United Nations. We are suspending a number of crucial activities for single A longer version of this article Funding crisis mothers and elderly Iraqi refugees. is online at: www.fmreview. The UNHCR Damascus office org/pdf/harper.pdf Displacement and ongoing violence requested an overall 2006 budget of present a daunting humanitarian $1.3m but got only $700,000. This 1. The USA reports it has provided over $5bn of humanitarian assistance to Iraq, including tens of challenge and extreme hardship amounts to less than $1 per Iraqi millions of dollars to IDP programmes. USAID Iraq. for both the displaced and the Iraqi refugee per year, not including the ‘Success Stories’ November 2006 www.usaid.gov/iraq/ families trying to help them in agency’s operating costs and its updates/nov06/iraq_fs01_110106.pdf host communities. The enormous expenditure on non-Iraqi refugees. 2. www.brook.edu/fp/projects/idp/20061018_ DisplacementinIraq_Khalidi-Tanner.pdf scale of the needs, the ongoing 3. See G Wengert and M Alfaro ‘Can Palestinian refugees violence and the difficulties in Iraq has seen the largest and most in Iraq find protection?’, FMR26 www.fmreview.org/ reaching the displaced make it a recent displacement of any UNHCR FMRpdfs/FMR26/FMR2609.pdf problem that is practically beyond operation in the world, yet even 4. www.thelancet.com/webfiles/images/journals/lancet/ the capacity of humanitarian as more Iraqis are displaced and s0140673606694919.pdf 5. www.usip.org/isg agencies, including UNHCR. their needs increase the funds to 64 IDPs from Kosovo still awaiting durable solutions FMR 27 IDPs from Kosovo still awaiting durable solutions by Anika Krstic

As the Balkans anxiously await delayed UN recommendations accommodation and aid programmes on the final status of the Serbian province of Kosovo, – requires IDPs to renew their cards every three months. This greatly displaced persons from Kosovo remain torn between curtails their freedom of movement. uncertain return prospects and denial of local integration. After seven years of administering the Seven years have passed since in Kosovo and whether they come province, the United Nations Mission NATO forced Serbian security from urban or rural areas. Forced to in Kosovo (UNMIK)7 has signally forces to withdraw from Kosovo, be proactive, they have established failed to rebuild a multi-ethnic Kosovo Albanian refugees returned associations advocating for return to Kosovo. Ethnic communities have home and around 250,000 people their communities of origin, engaging been drawn even further apart. An – mostly but not exclusively Serbs in inter-ethnic dialogue and liaising outbreak of ethnic violence in March – were displaced into Serbia proper. with major stakeholders and agencies. 2004 newly displaced some 4,200 UN proposals for the future status people – most of them Serbs but also of the province are now expected In Serbia, IDPs have the right to Roma and Ashkali – and effectively after Serbia’s parliamentary social services and healthcare, put a halt to the return momentum elections on 21 January 2007. education, employment, housing, which had slowly built up in justice and freedom of movement. previous years. The clashes marked However, they face serious problems a step further in the separation “The majority of the IDPs and in realising their rights as a result of communities and resulted in a refugees who fled the Kosovo of overly bureaucratic procedures serious loss of confidence in the province of Serbia and Montenegro and/or discrimination. Many capacity of local authorities and the after the ousting of the Yugoslav Albanian-speaking Roma children international community to rebuild army and the return of the ethnic living in central and northern Serbia a multi-ethnic Kosovo. According Albanian majority in mid 1999 are are out of school due to the absence to UNHCR “members of ethnic still in their places of displacement of Albanian-medium education. minorities continue to suffer from and the situation of the minorities Many elderly IDPs IDP children remaining in Kosovo is still precarious have not received in a camp near … there is still some ‘unfinished their full pension Belgrade. business’ in the Western Balkans.” entitlements for many UNHCR, November 20061 years. Large numbers of IDPs lack personal documentation, According to UNHCR, there without which it are 207,069 displaced persons may be impossible to from Kosovo in Serbia, 16,284 in establish entitlement to Montenegro and 22,000 within benefits and services. Kosovo.2 The great majority are Lack of ID also Serbs but they also include Roma, severely restricts the Egyptians,3 Ashkali,4 Gorani,5 ability of IDPs to find , Turks and other smaller secure jobs and decent groups. They mainly reside in private accommodation. In accommodation, with extended some cases, especially family or friends, while a smaller in Roma communities, percentage remain in recognised IDPs are unable to and unrecognised collective obtain a citizenship centres. Almost all have to fend certificate, rendering for themselves, due to the limited them practically and sometimes erratic assistance stateless within their provided by the Serbian government own country.6 The and aid agencies. Poverty among Serbian Commissariat IDPs is widespread and their living for Refugees – the conditions are generally poor or state agency charged substandard. There is substantial with issuing the diversity within the IDP community, cards required to depending on their place of origin access collective Group 484 Group FMR 27 Out of Africa: misrepresenting Sudan’s ‘Lost Boys’ 65

‘low-scale’ ethnically motivated more needs to be done to establish a realisation of rights by IDPs during security incidents such as physical secure environment for sustainable their displacement and facilitation and verbal assaults/threats, , return, to guarantee returnees of conditions in which they can stoning, intimidation, harassment, access to services and to promote reach a free and informed decision looting, and ‘high-scale’ incidents reintegration. Ethnically-based crimes on whether to return or integrate. such as shootings and murders.”8 and incidents must be investigated and avenues for redress established. Anika Krstic ([email protected]) is UNHCR reports that 12,700 persons the Secretary General of the Serbian from minority groups have so far Refugee Council. SRC is a non- returned to Kosovo (6,000 Serbs, Looking ahead governmental organisation working 3,300 Egyptians, 1,400 Roma and to find durable solutions for refugees, 1,150 Bosniaks). IDPs from Serbia The decision on the final status of IDPs and other forced migrants mostly return to rural areas where Kosovo – originally expected in and advocating state ratification they constitute a majority. Urban November 2006 – will undoubtedly and respect for human rights returns are still lagging hugely have an impact on regional stability. conventions and protocols. To receive behind. The small number of returns It could either trigger new waves the SRC’s quarterly newsletter, is mainly due to the poor security of displacement or provide a please email [email protected] situation (where violent attacks framework for the resolution of on returnees are commonplace), age-old strife. A creative solution 1. G Ambroso, ‘The Balkans at a crossroads: progress and challenges in finding durable solutions for refugees lack of freedom of movement, will look for common interests, and displaced persons from the wars in the former bleak economic prospects and the rather than divisions. No sides Yugoslavia’, UNHCR Research Paper No. 133, November uncertain future status of Kosovo. should be given any excuses for 2006, p1 www.unhcr.org/research/RESEARCH/4552f2182. Displaced people are routinely undermining the return process. pdf 2. Data as of 31 August 2006 at statistics section, UNHCR prevented from recovering their Serbia and Montenegro webpage www.unhcr.org.yu/ homes or agricultural land, receiving Our experience shows that no default.aspx compensation for destroyed property equitable solution can be found 3. An Albanian-speaking minority, formerly associated or receiving rent from properties. without a comprehensive dialogue with the Roma, but now acknowledged as a separate between ethnic communities, using ethnic group. 4. An Albanian-speaking minority, the great majority In June 2006 a protocol on voluntary all available fora and procedures. An of whom fled Kosovo to escape persecution after 1999. and sustainable return was signed essential part of the dialogue is the www.ashkali.org.yu between UNMIK, the provisional commitment of leaders on all levels 5. A small Muslim Slavic minority, only half of whom self-government of Kosovo and the to encourage their constituencies to now remain in the mountainous Gora region of southern Kosovo. government of Serbia to establish interact. Security, financial support 6. For more information, see the Serbian Refugee Council preconditions for sustainable and and psychological motivation are report at www.ssi.org.yu/images/stories/SSIReports/ voluntary return of IDPs to Kosovo.9 vital for sustainable return, as AccessToRightsIDPsInSerbiaAnalyticalReportENG.doc This document could pave the way is the participation of minority 7. www.unmikonline.org/ for belated reversal of conflict-related communities in the negotiations and 8. Ambroso, p8 9. www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/news/opendoc. population movements but much will public administration of Kosovo. For htm?tbl=NEWS&id=448991e82 depend on its implementation. Much its part, Serbia needs to ensure full

Out of Africa: misrepresenting Sudan’s ‘Lost Boys’ by Brandy Witthoft

The US media has taken an intense interest in the experience resilience and wandering and ignored the key questions such as: how of a relatively small group of young males who walked from did a large number of male – but South Sudan to Ethiopia, spent up to a decade in the Kakuma hardly any female – adolescents refugee camp in Kenya and were eventually re-settled in the become separated from their USA in 2001. What is behind the celebrity status – and the families and survive a traumatic experience apparently unaided? cultural misunderstanding – of those dubbed the ‘Lost Boys’? Host-country media constructions of While working for a programme to between typical media narration of migrants and refugees shape the way integrate the ‘Lost Boys’ in Syracuse, their collective experience and the they are received. US print media, New York state, I became aware that recollections of individuals. Glib the Internet and church groups have there are significant discrepancies articles have focused on aloneness, endlessly retold and reshaped their 66 Out of Africa: misrepresenting Sudan’s ‘Lost Boys’ FMR 27

to develop strong bonds with their age mates. When their home villages were attacked, many were far away in cattle camps. Unable to return, did they really set off on an epic trek – unprompted and without compasses or geographical knowledge?

Rädda Barnen researchers first cast doubt on the naïve flight narrative in a 1994 report. They suggested that the group was guided to Ethiopian refugee camps by units of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army – the main southern Sudanese opposition, now leading the government of South Sudan. My interviews confirmed this is what happened as the ‘Lost Boys’ roamed hither and thither,

www.lostboysfilm.com uncertain where to go and unaware of the movements of Sudanese government forces. Far from being Peter Dut, ‘Lost collective narrative. ‘Lost Boy’ articles food, medicine, shelter and my loving left to their own devices, they said Boy’, collects are overwhelmingly sympathetic parents. I lived on wild vegetables, groups were often accompanied by supermarket trolleys, Olathe, and compassionate but tend towards ate mud from Mother Earth and a few adults and that other adults 2 Kansas sensationalist stereotyping. Coverage drank urine from my own body.” guided and helped them. One, who has pulled heart strings, got ‘Lost was six at the time, describes being Boys’ on the Oprah Winfrey show Stereotypes are reinforced carried much of the way by his uncle. and generated an outpouring of by US aid agencies: donations and assistance. However, The ex-‘Boys’ tell a story in which it has also dehumanised individual “Named after Peter Pan’s cadre of they endure difficulties and overcome members of the group. Articles gloss orphans, some 26,000 Sudanese boys were trauma thanks to their own efforts over the circumstances in which forced by violence from their southern and to the support of others. They each of the boys left home but give Sudan villages ... thousands died along describe the specific decisions they the impression they were forced to the way – they drowned, were eaten by made to survive and achieve their flee when their communities were wild animals, shot by military forces goals. Articles and films about them attacked by forces loyal to the Arab or overcome by hunger, dehydration or ignore their agency and portray them and Muslim government of Sudan. fatigue … Older boys – some just nine as helpless victims at the mercy of or ten – looked after the youngest ones fate until they were ‘discovered’ by The media and the Internet are and small cliques of boys formed their the international community and replete with misrepresentations: own family groups. Their only relief came eventually brought to America. when Red Cross helicopters dropped them “A group of 20,000 young boys formed, food or water.” American Red Cross3 Life in the USA has been a struggle. wandering the desert seeking safety. Some have now graduated from They became known as the ‘Lost Boys “No more than six or seven years old, college but accessing education has of Sudan.’ The boys crossed hundreds of they fled to Ethiopia to escape death or not been as easy as many had hoped. miles of desert. They faced enemy fire, induction into slavery and the northern Resettlement agencies and church lion attack and hunger. Thousands died army. They walked a thousand miles groups offering support concluded along the way. The survivors found safe through lion and crocodile country, that many were too old to complete haven in UN refugee camps in Ethiopia eating mud to stave off thirst and high school education. Forced into and then Kenya. With peace in the starvation. Wandering for years, low-paid menial employment many Sudan unforeseeable and without family half of them died before reaching the struggle to pay their bills, complete or opportunity in the camp, the US Kenyan refugee camp, Kakuma.” high school and send financial government decided to bring the ‘Lost International Rescue Committee4 support back to relatives in Sudan Boys’ to America. In 2001, four thousand or still languishing in Kakuma. of the boys, who are now young men, were Interviews with individual ‘Lost Boys’ given high priority refugee status and suggest a very different reality. Their Brandy Witthoft (bwitthof@ began settling all across America—from accounts confirm long-established maxwell.syr.edu) is a PhD student Houston to Kansas City, San Jose to Little anthropological research findings: at Syracuse University. Rock.” Publicity for ‘Lost Boys’ film.1 southern Sudanese boys do not hang around in their villages but may 1. www.lostboysfilm.com 2. www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9785295/site/newsweek “As a boy of seven I ran and have to roam far in order to find 3. www.redcross.org/news/in/africa/0108lostboyspage. naked into the night and joined up with grazing for their families’ cattle herds. html streams of other boys trying to escape Male adolescents are traditionally 4. www.lostboysofsudan.com death or slavery … Bullets replaced expected to fend for themselves and FMR 27 From Somalia to Yemen: great dangers, few prospects 67 From Somalia to Yemen: great dangers, few prospects by Hanno (J H) van Gemund

Growing numbers of people are escaping conflict and December weeks passed without any boats arriving off the coast of Yemen. poverty in Somalia and Ethiopia by making a hazardous journey across the Red Sea. Yemen, their initial destination, UNHCR has been working with has signed the 1951 Refugee Convention – unlike its local authorities in Puntland to Arabian peninsula neighbours – but this poorest of inform people of the dangers of using smugglers to cross the Gulf Arab states lacks the means to provide support. of Aden. It appears, however, that many of the people who board the authorities. Sometimes the boats boats do know about the risks but A young Somali capsize as a result of overcrowding. such is their desperation to leave girl who survived Those who do make it safely ashore Somalia that they are prepared to pay eight days adrift at sea in report how traffickers steal from $50-70 for the journey. In Puntland’s a smuggler’s them and verbally and physically main city of Bossasso thousands of boat recuperates abuse passengers during the displaced Somalis and Ethiopians live in Bossasso, crossing, sometimes even throwing in make-shift shelters, most without Puntland’s port on the southern ill passengers overboard into shark- clean water and sanitation. As hardly coast of the infested waters. In 2006 alone, at least anybody considers returning to Gulf of Aden. 330 bodies have washed up on the where they came from an option, February 2006. shores of Yemen while almost 300 crossing the sea is their only way out. people have been reported missing. Since the beginning of October UNHCR/K McKinsey UNHCR/K McKinsey of 2006 the Puntland authorities “Despite efforts to halt this horrible have started cracking down on the On 28 December 2006 four fishing trade, brutal smugglers continue to people-smuggling business. Many boats approached the Yemeni coast, prey on the desperation of poor people people have been sent back to the manned by smugglers planning to fleeing persecution and violence and Ethiopian border or to south Somalia. drop off their contraband: 515 people those looking for better economic So far, however, this appears to fleeing fighting, insecurity and opportunities elsewhere. We urgently have had little, if any, effect as the poverty in the Horn of Africa. Yemeni need a concerted international effort number of people crossing the Gulf security forces reportedly shot at aimed at addressing root causes, of Aden is now higher than ever. two of the boats that had already educating would-be migrants and offloaded their human cargo. In the cracking down on the smugglers The Somalis who arrive in Yemen ensuing panic smugglers on the two and traffickers based in Somalia.” come mostly from the south of the other boats tried to escape pursuing High Commissioner for country, where poverty and insecurity coast guards. Both capsized, leaving Refugees António Guterres have been forcing people to leave for seventeen people dead and some 140 over 15 years. Recent months have missing. Somali survivors said they “What is happening in the Gulf of seen more and more people fleeing came from central Somalia. Many Aden is tantamount to murder at sea. the Somali capital, Mogadishu, claimed they had fled the fighting Unlike Europe – where migration is and surrounding areas. They left between the Ethiopian-backed Somali the topic of the day – the Gulf of Aden in fear of the inevitable military Transition Federal Government seems to be off the radar. It is a sheer conflict between the Islamic Courts and the Islamic Courts Union. tragedy that not more is being done of Justice – the militia controlling by the international community and Mogadishu – and forces loyal to the Like so many before them they local governments to turn the tide Transitional Federal Government, had made the 300 km journey from and prevent more people from dying Somalia’s internationally recognised, Puntland, a self-declared autonomous or leaving their homes in despair.” government. The short war which state in north-eastern Somalia. Many followed in January 2007 has not Ekber Menemencioglu, UNHCR’s hope not to stay in Yemen but only yet brought peace and many more Middle East director to pass through on their way to refugees from the south are expected. the rich Gulf states. The crossing An increasing number of Ethiopians is extremely dangerous and many It is not clear whether the tough are also travelling to northern drown or die of dehydration. The approach of the Yemeni authorities Somalia to board the smuggling smugglers often force people to jump towards smugglers’ boats will lead boats. The majority of these do so in off the boats a mile from the coast to to a decrease of people coming search of work, although there are avoid being arrested by the Yemeni to Yemen. Since the tragedy of 28 some who are fleeing persecution. 68 From Somalia to Yemen: great dangers, few prospects FMR 27

Refugee life in Yemen Mayfa’a, with many aiming straight progress on incorporating the for Sana’a, Aden and the northern Refugee Convention into national No one knows for sure how many border with Saudi Arabia. A mere legislation has been slower than Somalis have made their way to 5% of the arrivals choose to live in expected1 and the draft law is still Yemen since the collapse of their the officially designated refugee being discussed in parliament. country’s unified government camp at Kharaz, an arid and isolated in 1991. The last months of 2006 region 165 km west of Aden. Yemen has granted prime facie saw a significant increase in the refugee status to Somalis arriving number of new Somali arrivals: Currently, there are close to 10,000 in the country since the civil war in UNHCR registered the arrival of prima facie refugees residing in Somalia caused the first mass influx 25,898 migrants in 2006. Yemen Kharaz camp, mostly Somalis. In of refugees in 1988. This generous has a 2,400 km coastline and it is the camp, UNHCR – with its four open-door policy still applies to all likely that far more have arrived implementing partners and the World Somalis. However, asylum seekers of whom UNHCR is unaware. Of Food Programme – implements from Ethiopia and Eritrea do not those officially recorded, no fewer a monthly distribution of food qualify for refugee status the moment than 13,976 crossed the Gulf of Aden along with a variety of non-food they enter Yemen. They are, instead, after 1 September after the stormy items and provides healthcare, required to go through UNHCR’s summer season came to an end. The primary education, a school feeding refugee status determination process. number of new Ethiopian arrivals is programme, water and sanitation, Iraqis are still governed by the also substantial, with at least 11,727 vocational training, horticultural Temporary Protection Regime since having arrived on Yemeni shores and income-generating projects the fall of the former regime in April last year. In total an estimated 95,000 and projects specifically targeting 2003 and the Sudanese from Darfur refugees were present in Yemen and benefiting refugee women. are afforded similar protection. at the end of December 2006. Yemen is the only country in the Arab At present many non-Somali asylum The main point of entry is the coastal peninsula to have signed the 1951 seekers do not get a chance to be village of Bir Ali, directly north of Convention and the 1967 Protocol interviewed by UNHCR, as Yemeni Bossasso, 200 km from Yemen’s relating to the status of refugees. officials announced to UNHCR that main port of Aden. Close to Bir Ali In 2000 a National Committee on all non-Somali new arrivals should UNHCR runs a reception centre at Refugee Affairs was established be detained and deported to their Mayfa’a. Here refugees and asylum comprising representatives from home countries. Consequently, most seekers are registered and provided the ministries of Human Rights, Ethiopians are detained upon arrival with basic assistance, including Justice, Interior, Foreign Affairs and and are waiting to be deported. accommodation, food and medical political security. A legal committee UNHCR has urged the government care. Only approximately half of was also set up to draft national to respect its international obligations the new arrivals choose to go to refugee legislation. However, and to continue keeping its doors

Henna skills- training for Somali refugees in Kharaz camp, outside Aden, Yemen. February 2006. UNHCR/R Ek FMR 27 From Somalia to Yemen: great dangers, few prospects 69 open, also to other nationals, who Despite their evident contribution UNHCR wants to improve the might fear persecution in their to the Yemeni economy and the process of reception of new arrivals, countries of origin. UNHCR has also very limited cost to the Yemeni from the moment they disembark reiterated its willingness to assist government – for UNHCR secures to the moment they register in the government with the screening funds for most health and other planned registration centres near the and registration of all new arrivals.2 services – public opinion towards coast. Shelters in the Kharaz camp refugees is growing increasingly and in Aden need to be improved In the cities, refugee children have hostile. Discrimination against people and schools upgraded and better access to education and in theory of African origin is widespread. resourced. UNHCR is also planning refugees have the right to work. to significantly expand primary Both in Sana’a and Aden, UNHCR In group discussions, most refugees and reproductive health projects. cooperates with implementing state categorically that they consider partners3 to offer healthcare, language resettlement the only possible durable courses, vocational training, micro- solution. Some refugees in Kharaz Conclusion credit projects for self-reliance and camp and in urban areas are wary other services aimed at promoting of local integration projects because As long as south and central Somalia independence and empowerment. they believe that investment in their is in political and social turmoil, lives in Yemen will diminish their more refugees will join the already Yemen ranked 151st on the index chances of resettlement. However, large refugee population in Yemen. of the 177 countries on the 2005 hopes for resettlement in the US or Therefore, more aid is needed in the UNDP human development report.4 another western country are most short term to support the thousands Things are getting worse. Poverty unlikely to be realised. Last year a of refugees who arrive in Yemen and has increased dramatically in Yemen, rumour spread throughout Somalia live in very difficult circumstances, while the population has grown by and Yemen that 70,000 refugees were and to improve their position among two and a half times since 1975. A to be resettled from Yemen to the US. Yemenis. Yemen’s Foreign Minister growing number of Yemenis have This caused a surge in the number of Abu Bakr al-Qurbi has called on no access to adequate housing, new arrivals and it has proved very the Gulf states and the rest of the safe drinking water, healthcare difficult to convince refugees that international community to help services, education and sufficient resettlement activities are limited Yemen by providing better living nutrition. The natural resources to a few very vulnerable cases. conditions for the refugees and to of the country are overexploited During 2006 only 350 individuals assist it in patrolling its vast coastline and at risk of being depleted. were submitted for resettlement. and saving lives of those in peril in the Gulf of Aden. A more active Despite having the right to work For an increasing number of Somalis approach from the international and assistance from UNHCR and the situation in Yemen is now so bad community is also necessary to its implementing partners, life for that they opt to return to Somalia. support Puntland and Somaliland urban refugees is hard. Yemen itself UNHCR only assists those who want to receive and assist thousands of has a huge rate of unemployment. A to return to relatives in Puntland and displaced people. In the long term, few years ago thousands of Somalis to the self-declared independent state only stability and development in the lost their jobs as teachers thanks to of Somaliland. Many of these UNHCR Horn of Africa will stem the flow of a government campaign offering assists are female heads of households packed boats over the Gulf of Aden. these jobs to Yemeni citizens. Now whose husbands have gone to Unfortunately, the political situation is Somali men are fortunate if they Saudi Arabia only to be deported to still far from stable. UNHCR, together can find daily labour jobs in road or Somalia. In the last months hundreds with other UN agencies in Yemen, sewer construction and cleaning, or have been leaving on UNHCR- is preparing for a new mass influx. can make some money by washing booked flights to Bossasso and cars. Both Somali and Ethiopian Hargeisa, flying over the Gulf of Aden Hanno (J H) van Gemund (gemund@ women often find work as domestic and the incoming smugglers’ boats. unhcr.org) is a lawyer working workers in Yemeni households but as Associate Durable Solutions are severely underpaid and often UNHCR is working to improve Officer with UNHCR Yemen. This work in very difficult circumstances.5 the lives of refugees, focusing on article is written in a personal building self-reliance. Under the capacity and does not necessarily “In Yemen my husband was cleaning terms of an agreement between the represent the views of UNHCR. cars, and I was sometimes working as a government and UNHCR signed housemaid. Then my husband divorced in July 2005, all Somali refugees are 1. See Nesya H B Hughes ‘Yemen and refugees: progressive attitudes’, FMR 16 www.fmreview.org/ me because of our life of poverty and now registered and six permanent FMRpdfs/FMR16/fmr16.12.pdf. because one of our children died. We registration centres will be opened. 2. UNHCR Refugee daily 5 December 2006 were fighting all the time. Now I am Refugees are to receive up-to-date 3. These include the Adventist Development and Relief sick so I cannot work. I tried to sell refugee cards which enable them to Agency International (www.adra.org), Marie Stopes International (www.mariestopes.org.uk/ww/yemen. incense. Later I started begging at travel freely inside Yemen and which, htm), the International Development Foundation (IDF), restaurants. My children do not go to according to the Minister of Social the Charitable Society for Social Welfare (www.cssw/org. school. A friend helps me with the rent Affairs, can be regarded as work ye) and SHS. and we eat leftovers from restaurants.” permits. UNHCR Yemen is preparing 4. http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005 a number of projects to improve 5. See M de Regt (2006) ‘Ethiopian women increasingly trafficked to Yemen’, FMR 25, www.fmreview.org/ the living conditions of refugees. FMRpdfs/FMR25/FMR2521.pdf 70 Comprehensive Reproductive Health in Crises FMR 27 Comprehensive Reproductive Health in Crises: from vision to reality by Therese McGinn and Samantha Guy

5 The Comprehensive Reproductive Health in Crises (CRHC) to be done. Other studies have confirmed that good quality RH Programme is a major new initiative that will catalyse change services are far from being a reality.6 in how reproductive health (RH) is addressed within relief organisations, field services and global decision making. The CRHC Programme addresses the need to make comprehensive RH services the standard in Developed by ’s Reproductive Health Care: Reassessing humanitarian situations. We believe Heilbrunn Department of Population Priorities in 1994. That same year, that with technical assistance and and Family Health, in the Mailman the International Conference on strong evidence from the field, School of Public Health,1 and Marie Population and Development (held coupled with a supportive policy Stopes International (MSI),2 the CRHC in Cairo) recognised the rights of environment and financial resources, Programme aims to ensure that the refugees and IDPs to RH; these rights humanitarian response agencies full range of RH needs of IDPs and were further enshrined during the should be enabled to provide good refugees are addressed. Other CRHC Fourth World Conference on Women quality reproductive health services Programme partners include major held in Beijing in 1995. Many agencies from the outset of an emergency. humanitarian and development were moved to include RH services agencies, UN bodies, advocacy in their humanitarian response to The CRHC Programme will work agencies and academic institutions. populations in crises. Additionally, to strengthen the institutional both the Inter-Agency Working Group commitment to comprehensive RH The goal of the CRHC Programme on Reproductive Health in Refugee service delivery within international is to ensure that good quality Settings and the Reproductive Health humanitarian agencies and comprehensive RH services are Response in Conflict Consortium networks; introduce or expand routinely provided, from beginning were founded by agencies with a good quality comprehensive RH to end, to those in humanitarian shared commitment to promoting RH services in crisis settings; and situations. RH care should be among conflict-affected populations. fortify the policy and funding recognised as an absolute necessity environment for the provision for populations in crisis, just as food, In 1999 the Inter-Agency Working of comprehensive RH services in water, sanitation, shelter, protection Group on Reproductive Health refugee and IDP situations within and basic health care are commonly in Refugee Settings published UN agencies, international bodies, accepted as primary needs. Reproductive Health in Refugee host country authorities and donors. Situations: an Inter-Agency Field The CRHC Programme will work Manual, which had been field with partners in countries including tested by a range of agencies. The Critical services Colombia, the Democratic Republic manual, which outlines both the of Congo, Sudan and Uganda. initial minimum services as well as The CRHC Programme comprises comprehensive services in refugee critical services, including: and IDP settings, has since been Critical need revised and become an important nn emergency obstetric care: tool for practitioners. It provides basic and comprehensive People are displaced from their practical information on what should emergency obstetric care, homes for many reasons – including be provided in a crisis setting, including post-abortion care civil unrest and natural disasters including the first emergency phase.4 – and are often unable to return nn family planning: all for years. The people within these Significant achievements have been methods, including long- affected communities, especially made in advancing RH for conflict- term and permanent, and women, require RH care. Yet affected populations over the past emergency contraception integrated and fully comprehensive decade, yet there are still major RH services are not the norm in gaps in RH technical areas, in RH nn sexually transmitted infections: most crisis and conflict settings. programming in the early days prevention and treatment and weeks of new emergencies, The Women’s Commission for and for IDP populations. In 2004 nn HIV/AIDS: prevention, voluntary Refugee Women and Children3 a major global evaluation of RH counselling and testing, first highlighted the lack of RH among conflict-affected populations prevention of mother-to-child services for refugees and IDPs in its found that while improvements transmission and referral seminal report Refugee Women and have been made, much remains FMR 27 Comprehensive Reproductive Health in Crises 71 nn gender-based violence: medical sexual and reproductive health from the field, highlight advocacy response and referral. centre in Nairobi to build the and policy experience and clinical skills of partners. communicate research findings. The CRHC Programme is implementing these important nn Emergency fund: CRHC manages We welcome comments and feedback, services through: a fund to enable rapid response and look forward to your involvement to RH needs in emergencies, as we embark on this critical journey. nn Advocacy: CRHC will including natural disasters. facilitate widespread support Therese McGinn (tjm22@columbia. for comprehensive RH in nn Research: In collaboration with edu) is CRHC Director at crises. CRHC works with UN leading research institutions, Columbia University. Samantha agencies, international bodies CRHC will identify research Guy ([email protected]. and humanitarian agencies, priorities and develop a uk) is CRHC Deputy Director at governments and private programme of operations Marie Stopes International. donors to influence the policy research. The findings will further and funding environment. strengthen the evidence base for For further information about the the provision of comprehensive programme, please register on the nn Technical assistance and support RH in crisis settings. CRHC website (www.crhcprogramme. to partners: CRHC provides org) to receive our regular e-letters. assistance to partners to support The CRHC Programme is committed programme development, to facilitating the dissemination of 1. www.mailman.hs.columbia.edu/popfam/index.html 2. www.mariestopes.org.uk identify training needs, research and programme findings. 3. www.womenscommission.org carry out monitoring and The CRHC website will contain 4. www.unfpa.org/emergencies/manual evaluation activities, identify technical resources, programme 5. Inter-Agency Working group on Reproductive Health opportunities for collaboration, updates and links to other useful sites. in Refugee Settings. Reproductive Health Services for Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons Geneva, 2004. and coordinate research. Updates of activities and findings will www.rhrc.org/resources/iawg be published in professional journals. 6. Therese McGinn, Sara Casey, Susan Purdin and Mendy nn Clinical Training: CRHC Marsh, ‘Reproductive health for conflict-affected people: combines on-site training There will be a CRHC Programme policies, research and programmes’, Humanitarian and follow-up with clinical update in each issue of FMR, Practice Network, Overseas Development Institute, May 2004 www.odihpn.org/documents/networkpaper045.pdf training at MSI’s comprehensive which will present lessons learned Displacement and difference in Lubumbashi by Aurelia Wa Kabwe-Segatti and Loren B Landau

who deserted Mobutu’s army in the Signs on the outskirts of the second largest city in the mid-1990s were assisted in Camp Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) welcome visitors Uilo in Kolwezi, approximately 300 to ‘the city of peace’. Lubumbashi has a reputation as a km away from Lubumbashi, tens haven of tolerance in a violent nation but how are displaced of thousands of IDPs from across the country’s war-torn east sought people treated? protection and aid in the city itself. The first IDPs to arrive came from For people from eastern Congo who in a city that he conquered early Kalemie, a city near Lake Tanganyika have lived through more than a in his successful campaign to oust that experienced at first hand the decade of violence, the city – located Mobutu Sese-Seko, the despot who brutality of the militias who have in the vast country’s far southwestern ruled DRC for over three decades. killed and displaced millions of corner – offers an undeniable allure. Congolese. Those from Kalemie were The copper-mining city serves as the Kabila’s movement, the Alliance soon followed by people from the capital of the relatively prosperous des Forces Démocratiques pour country’s more northern provinces: Katanga province and has escaped la Libération du Congo (AFDL), Equateur, Province Orientale, the direct effects of the country’s civil began its rebellion in 1996 by Ituri, the Kivus and Maniema. wars. Laurent Kabila, the assassinated dismantling Rwandan refugee camps former president whose son won on the eastern border. Kabila later In a migrant labour system DRC’s first-ever democratic election established the Commissariat à la inspired by the South Africa in November 2006, invited war- Réintégration to assist both soldiers model, mineworkers have long affected people to find protection and displaced persons. While soldiers been drawn from across Congo 72 Displacement and difference in Lubumbashi FMR 27

(especially Maniema and Kasai to block assistance – at times using machetes – but most have accepted Provinces), and what is now Zambia, subterfuge by registering relatives as the kit and then remained in Malawi, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, IDPs in order to collect food rations. Lubumbashi.3 Many of those we Burundi, Mozambique and .1 The mayor remains hostile, regularly spoke to indicated they are likely to Compromised by this diversity, using pejorative terms like uchafu stay in Lubumbashi for the long term the city has developed a rhetoric (dirty) or mbalimbalikuja (those who although some plan on returning of tolerance and inclusion that is a have come from far away) to describe home if conditions improve, while proud part of its ‘Lushois’ identity. and dissociate IDPs. A local politician others dream of resettling to Zambia, In line with these principles, urban is reported to have banned locals South Africa or even outside Africa. sites designated for IDPs’ settlement from marrying displaced women, and assistance were located in the alleging they are responsible for The central government in Kinshasa heart of the city’s residential areas. bringing HIV/AIDs into the city as has created a specialised agency The majority of the city’s IDPs soon a result of having been raped by to assist people displaced by the found shelter with members of their Rwandan soldiers, government troops war but local politicians have not immediate or extended families or mayi-mayi militias in the north.2 The supported the initiative. Many urban that had already settled in the city. governor of Katanga has also accused IDPs and refugees live without IDPs were encouraged to organise IDPs of disturbing the province, an direct humanitarian assistance. politically in order to articulate unfair charge from a man widely their interests with the local and held to have close relations with The profile of IDPs rose in 2006 as national governments and in 1998 the mayi-mayi militias originally ambitious politicians became keen formed the Comité Provincial des responsible for the persecution and to secure their votes; one candidate Personnes Déplacées de Guerre. displacement of many of those who even undertook his own IDP census have sought refuge in Lubumbashi. in order to boost his electoral Rhetoric and formal policy suggest chances. IDPs have still not found a a progressive and inclusive city, yet IDPs report daily discrimination, true champion, however, and now Lubumbashi has a repeated history chastised for speaking grammatically the election is over they continue proper Swahili instead of to face ongoing discrimination Lubumbashi’s distinctive Swahili and political scapegoating. IDPs … continue dialect and abused by local Lushois to face ongoing who are not themselves eligible Aurelia Wa Kabwe-Segatti (aurelia@ for aid distributed by the World ifas.org.za.) is Research Director of discrimination Food Programme or other relief the Institut Français d’Afrique du and political organisations. There is also tension Sud in Johannesburg. Loren B Landau between groups of IDPs. Jacques ([email protected].) is scapegoating. Kabulo, formerly the provincial Director of the Forced Migration secretary of the IDP committee, Studies Programme, University of reports that the IDPs who first the Witwatersrand, South Africa of sometimes violent xenophobia arrived in Lubumbashi from (www.migration.wits.ac.za). against both IDPs and long-term Kalemie tried to exclude other residents with origins elsewhere IDPs from services and land. Research for this article was done in Congo – particularly those as part of an ongoing comparative from the country’s Kasai Province. Former hosts who have been project on displacement and Zambians have lived in the Congo negatively affected by the city’s urbanisation conducted in for generations but few have become economic crisis have also tired of collaboration with Joseph Kanku Congolese citizens or learned to hosting IDPs. In some instances, Mukengeshayi and Donatien Dibwe speak French, instead using Bemba, a they have asked IDPs to leave their dia Mwembu of the University language spoken on both sides of the homes, violating traditional norms of of Lubumbashi. We are also border. Moreover, almost none of the hospitality and generating ruptures grateful for the cooperation of Zambians have Congolese citizenship. within extended families. Many IDPs Jacques Kabulo, former provincial report trouble accessing health and secretary of the IDP committee. education services. UNICEF provided Discrimination against IDPs textbooks for a new school for IDP A fuller version of this article is children but the government failed online at: www.fmreview.org/ In discussion with IDPs in to pay the teachers. Since many pdf/kabwe-segatti&landau.pdf Lubumbashi, we heard that when IDPs cannot afford school fees their the first trains carrying displaced children remain out of the classroom. 1. For more details, see D Dibwe dia Mwembu, Histoire des Conditions De Vie Des Travailleurs de L‘Union Minière du people organised by the government Haut-Katanga/Gécamines (1910-1999), Presse Universitaire arrived from Kalemie, the city’s Formal IDP settlements were closed in de Lubumbashi, 2001. mayor not only immediately relocated 2001, obliging most IDPs to survive as 2. For an account of the current situation of HIV-infected them to Kamalongo but prevented best they can in the informal economy. IDPs in Lubumbashi, see ‘RDC Survivre au viol et au déracinement’, www.irinnews.org/FrenchReport. IDPs from getting the food aid to Small numbers have returned home, asp?ReportID=7067&SelectRegion=Grands_ which they were entitled. Although receiving only token support from lacs&SelectCountry=RDC the IDPs were later resettled in the the government and Jesuit Refugee 3. According to Faustin Kitenge Katoto in July 2006 there city, there have been repeated cases Services – a $50 grant and a departure were 26,000 IDPs in Lubumbashi. Information sent by where local elites have attempted kit of cooking pans, blankets and email 21.08.2006. FMR 27 Listening to individual voices 73 Listening to individual voices by Siobhan Warrington and Anne-Sophie Lois

The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Panos London story interviews with IDPs. It and the Norwegian Refugee Council in Colombia have covered listening and questioning launched a project to tell the life stories of the more than skills, interview relationships three million Colombians who are internally displaced. A and ethics, topic development and recording equipment. pilot project, it will be rolled out in other parts of the world.

Colombia has some of the most experiences and impacts of What makes a good advanced national legislation on displacement. The stories and interview? internal displacement in the world voices may be a valuable tool to nn Preparation: knowing what but fails to implement it effectively. balance official discourse around the you will be asking so you In January 2004, the Constitutional conflict and its consequences. The understand the answers. Court declared the government’s life stories should serve to enable response to internal displacement to planners and policy makers to better nn Introduction: providing the narrator be in violation of the Constitution.1 appreciate the complex and varied with a clear explanation of why you The government has allocated impacts of internal displacement are carrying out the interview and significant resources to IDPs but and identify more appropriate describing the nature and method ongoing conflict makes it impossible ways to respond to those affected. of interviewing to the narrator. to resolve the root causes of the nn Credibility: the narrator should displacement. The current Colombian The project has required significant believe in what you are going to do. investment of time nn Technical preparation: make One of the and resources sure the tape recorder is from facilitators participants, ready and working. Andrea, working and participants, nn Agency: consider the narrator on the thematic yet it has a analysis of the as actor or subject in the value beyond testimonies. the tangible interview, not the object. outcomes. IDMC nn Sensitivity recognises that nn Good listening skills the whole process nn Be respectful, non-critical of organising and non-judgemental. workshops and n discussions and n Avoid leading questions: questions gathering life must invite the narrator to develop stories has a value their story with trust and confidence. in itself and is part nn Use appropriate language: of its investment adjust language according Anne-Sophie Lois/IDMC in capacity to age and region. building for civil nn Appreciate the psychosocial society actors aspects for both the interviewer government claims to have improved and IDPs. Participants have learned and the narrator: when the narrator the human rights situation since practical skills related to eliciting oral describes traumatic events, you it came to power in 2002 by citing testimony but have also explored need to be aware of your own fears. evidence of fewer displacements, values and attitudes, learning how nn Guarantee security for the narrator: massacres and homicides. The use to deal with the strong emotional for example, change names and of such indicators has been criticised aspect of the work. There has also place names in the transcript. by the Office of the United Nations been lots of discussion and sharing High Commissioner for Human of experiences and the opportunity nn Consent: you need the Rights (OHCHR) and by Colombian for participants to have input into narrator’s permission to government agencies and civil the agenda of workshops and disseminate the information. society. The Colombian government’s meetings and at times to take a lead reliance on quantitative data fails to role in facilitating certain sessions. There was tremendous enthusiasm account for the devastating social and commitment among participants and mental consequences of the to ensure outputs are widely conflict for affected individuals. Training to record life stories promoted and have maximum impact. But, as anyone who has The project aims to record and A workshop in April 2006 prepared worked with life stories will communicate the personal participants to carry out life appreciate, working with this rich 74 Global welfare: dream or reality? FMR 27

and detailed material is labour will work towards communicating global/program_news.asp?ID=1004). intensive. Turning around quality and the interviews via the IDMC meaningful outputs will take some website2 for its key international Anne-Sophie Lois (anne-sophie. time. At the moment there is a team audiences: the UN and humanitarian [email protected]) is IDMC’s External of four reading and reviewing the organisations, governments (refugee Relations Coordinator. testimonies with a view to making a and asylum departments), the selection of life stories and extracts military, academics and researchers. 1. See Manuel José Cepeda-Espinosa. ‘How far may Colombia’s Constitutional Court go to protect IDP for publication. A Colombian editor rights?’ FMR Special Issue, December 2006, www. will be hired to produce a book, Siobhan Warrington ([email protected]. fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/BrookingsSpecial/full.pdf based on the interviews, for national uk) heads Panos’ Oral Testimony 2. www.internal-displacement.org and international audiences. IDMC Programme (www.panos.org.uk/ Global welfare: dream or reality? by John Mitchell and Hugo Slim

Jan Egeland, the former UN Emergency Relief Coordinator, war in the Democratic Republic of has called for “a humanitarian system that is able to Congo. The system has no objective humanitarian measure of need and respond reliably, effectively and efficiently across the full priority. Thus, the politics of the range of emergencies … humanitarian aid must be the system remain deeply problematic. responsibility of all nations for the benefit of all nations.” So, too does agency practice. While Is the world on the verge of Despite its extraordinary global reach, there are many separate initiatives establishing a basic form of global the formal humanitarian system is, to try and make it perform better welfare for all those affected by war essentially, the combined effort of on the ground, there are still deep and disaster? Or is the idea of fair and about 20 western states which pay problems of good practice. Some efficient global welfare a non-starter for and provide the agencies for sectors, like food aid, are over- in a world of competing political most of the world’s humanitarian subscribed while others, like shelter, powers, massive vested interests action. This is not a broadly-based water, camp management and and imminent environmental international endeavour with buy- protection, remain under-resourced crisis when group survival, not in from a majority of states. It is or insufficiently understood. Complex altruism, may become the norm? a western niche. Two of the five cross-cutting areas like livelihoods permanent members of the Security and recovery remain confused. How are we doing on reforming the Council ­– and – are politics and practice of humanitarian suspicious of the western system Nor are the system and its many action? Nobody really knows for and prefer to do their own thing, or agencies a good learner. Today, there sure but an important indication nothing, in war and disaster. The are more evaluations of humanitarian is provided by evaluative material major Islamic states and charitable work than ever before but they are produced by the Active Learning institutions prefer to work bilaterally seldom well used. Either they are Network for Accountability and partially, mainly in particular done ritually for donor accountability and Performance. ALNAP is a Muslim settings. Local and informal purposes or they are not user-friendly. membership organisation made up of systems – remittance flows and local Most do not employ an inspirational UN, Red Cross/Crescent, government civil society institutions – can be learning process as they go, nor are and NGOs, academic institutions and extremely important but are often they designed to have their findings consultants and for the past five years overlooked by the western system. taken up by the key target groups ALNAP has reviewed a sample of who could bring about real change. agency evaluations in order to gauge Although it gets a lot of profile and the progress of humanitarian action.1 works with the authority of the UN, So, there are still real challenges. But the formal western-driven system there are also massive opportunities. Our latest Review of Humanitarian can be a very blunt, selective and The formal and informal systems are Action (RHA)2 takes a step back and insensitive instrument. It has deep bigger and more self-aware than ever reviews progress since 2001. The preferences for focusing on strategic before. The ideal of eventual global RHA findings suggest that global wars and can be hugely skewed welfare is an important long-term aim welfare is still some way off. by populist passions – hence the and could be voiced more explicitly massive inequality of response by a range of social movements. between suffering in the tsunami and FMR 27 Shattered dreams of Sudanese refugees in Cairo 75

This year’s RHA recommends Then, in future, we might have a org) is Chief Scholar at the Centre that the system identify ten key better idea of where we are going for Humanitarian Dialogue www. objectives for humanitarian and how we are doing across the hdcentre.org in Geneva, Switzerland. progress – some political and some whole humanitarian system. practical – which can be agreed 1. Our Evaluative Reports Database is at www.alnap. org/resources/erd/erd.htm by everyone and monitored by John Mitchell ([email protected]) 2. www.alnap.org/publications/rha.htm an independent High Level Panel is the head of ALNAP www.odi.org. on Humanitarian Performance. uk/alnap. Hugo Slim (slim@hdcentre. Shattered dreams of Sudanese refugees in Cairo by Hala W Mahmoud

At least 28 Sudanese were killed in December 2005 as these enshrine. UNHCR, for its part, has not investigated the Egyptian riot police violently dispersed a sit-in near the whereabouts of those missing after Cairo offices of UNHCR. A year later, those responsible for the break-up of the sit-in. Queries human rights violations have not been held to account and regarding the status of refugee applications are rarely responded some refugees who went missing remain unaccounted for. to. UNHCR needs to improve communications with the Sudanese The 30,000 Sudanese in Cairo Faced with unbearable living in Cairo and be more transparent registered with UNHCR are but conditions and left without other and sensitive; regular public a fraction of the vast Sudanese options, in September 2005 Sudanese meetings would clarify UNHCR’s population living in the Egyptian refugees started a peaceful sit-in role and responsibilities and help to capital.1 In June 2004 UNHCR took to protest UNHCR’s decision and counteract the rumours which often the view that the signing of the indicate their desire for resettlement, sweep through the community. Comprehensive Peace Agreement not repatriation. UNHCR noted between the Government of Sudan that most of the demonstrators’ Much could be done to make the and the Sudanese People’s Liberation demands were beyond UNHCR’s refugees’ prolonged stay in Egypt Movement2 allowed southern control. After initial tolerance, more bearable. Egypt and UNHCR Sudanese to return in safety. The the Egyptian authorities violently should heed those refugees who agency therefore decided to grant all dispersed the protest, killing an call for establishment of organised Sudanese asylum seekers temporary unspecified number and arresting refugee camps where services could protection rather than subject around 650 Sudanese who were be provided and the Sudanese them to individual refugee status taken to a number of military camps protected from exploitation and determination (RSD), as had been the and prisons. The protest and its racism. The international community practice for the previous nine years. aftermath were deeply traumatising could provide backing for those as families were separated and educated and enthusiastic Sudanese The basic question of who is children orphaned. UNHCR lobbied refugees who seek to initiate ultimately responsible for the welfare to prevent their deportation and community-based programmes. of Sudanese and other refugees the last of the protestors were in Egypt was, and is, unclear. released in February 2006. Hala W Mahmoud (hwm21@ Sudanese have long demanded cam.ac.uk), a PhD student at the an end to arbitrary detention and A year on, little has changed. University of Cambridge, spent over protested against Egyptian racism. The tragedy attracted the interest two years researching the community Primary legal responsibility for of the media and human rights of Sudanese refugees in Cairo. such issues rests with the Egyptian organisations but the refugees government, not with UNHCR. received little financial assistance For more background, see The Egyptian government has no or counselling. The Sudanese have www.rsdwatch.org/index_ official mechanism through which returned to their harsh life in Cairo files/Page4070.htm to engage with the concerns of and its daily frustrations. Egypt has refugees. Therefore the protestors signed the 1951 UN Convention 1. Ghazaleh, P ‘In closed file limbo: displaced Sudanese in a Cairo slum’, FMR16, www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/ had no choice except to address and the 1969 OAU Convention FMR16/fmr16.8.pdf all of their concerns to UNHCR. but continues to deny Sudanese 2. See FMR24, Sudan: prospects for peace, www. refugees the rights to education, fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR24/FMR24full.pdf health care and protection which 76 Norwegian Refugee Council FMR 27

Generations in exile from Africa’s last colony by Ronny Hansen

In the Algerian hammada, a hot and harsh region of the The Norwegian Refugee Council Sahara, more than half the Sahrawi people have been believes the time has come for a vigorous international campaign for waiting for 31 years to go home. the rights of the Sahrawi refugees to an honourable, durable and The Sahrawis hail from neighbouring Morocco, protecting the Moroccan sustainable return to their homeland. Western Sahara, a country invaded garrisons which prevent refugees Neglect of the needs and rights of and occupied by Morocco in from returning to their homeland. the Sahrawi people by the UN and 1975. Western Sahara is on the the international community risks UN list of Non-Self-Governing Morocco has stationed some 130,000 destabilisation of the entire region, Territories and still considered a troops in Western Sahara and further war, displacement and colony. Repeated attempts to get encouragement of settlement has migration. First, however, there needs Morocco to live up to numerous resulted in the Moroccan civilian to be an increased and predictable UN Security Council resolutions settler population now outnumbering provision of humanitarian aid to – and its own earlier commitments the resident indigenous population the Sahrawi refugees in Algeria. to allow the Sahrawis to return by a factor of four. According to safely to vote in an independence human rights agencies and the UN NRC calls for a concerted effort to referendum – have come to nothing. Office of the High Commissioner for create the conditions for a sustainable Human Rights, life in the occupied repatriation of the Sahrawi refugees Another generation of young territories is characterised by once it becomes politically possible. Sahrawis is now growing up grave and systematic violations of If left unchecked, widespread as refugees but with dwindling human rights. International focus human rights violations in the provisions of humanitarian aid and on providing relief to inhabitants occupied territories will force even few prospects of a lasting solution. of the Tindouf camps has diverted more people to leave the country Their parents and grandparents left attention from the needs of vulnerable to become refugees. Under present their homeland for the bleak refugee Sahrawi populations within the conditions, there is little chance camps of the Algerian Sahara in 1975, occupied territory or of desperate that any significant number of hoping to return soon to a liberated self-settled refugees who have left Sahrawi refugees would want to homeland. Today, some 165,000 to join relatives in third countries return to their occupied homeland. Sahrawi refugees are still living in such as and . camps around the isolated Algerian Ronny Hansen ([email protected]) town of Tindouf, wondering why Based on a participatory and is an NRC Communications Adviser. the world has abandoned them. democratic model of organising camp life, the Sahrawi government and For further information on Following a 1991 ceasefire between popular movements in the refugee Western Sahara, see www.arso. Morocco and the Frente Polisario camps ensure the most efficient use org and previous FMR articles.2 independence movement, the UN of the limited resources allocated by set up a Mission for the Referendum the international community. In 2006 1. www.minurso.unlb.org 2. www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR16/fmr16.7.pdf, 1 in Western Sahara (MINURSO). their already precarious situation www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR25/FMR2533.pdf, MINURSO’s mandate to allow the worsened. Donor fatigue and an www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR25/FMR2534.pdf Sahrawis a free and democratic choice intense campaign by Morocco to on their future has been consistently lobby donor governments has led to The Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) sabotaged. Morocco has reneged on cuts in food aid. Repeated appeals by works to provide assistance and agreements and created a charade the World Food Programme (WFP) protection to refugees and displaced that has now cost the UN close to and UNHCR for greater humanitarian people in Africa, Asia, Europe and the $700 million, kept the Maghreb aid have largely fallen on deaf ears. Americas. www.nrc.no/engindex.htm region in a constant state of tension In November 2006 WFP warned of and forced the Sahrawi refugees the refugees’ critical food insecurity The Internal Displacement Monitoring to remain in the camps for another and pointed out that almost two Centre (IDMC) is part of NRC fifteen years. Morocco has massively thirds of Sahrawi women in the and is an international non-profit invested in the berm – a barrier of camps suffer from anaemia and one organisation that monitors internal earth, rock and sand, reinforced with in three children under five years of displacement caused by conflicts. anti-personnel and anti-tank mines, age from chronic malnutrition. There www.internal-displacement.org trenches and radar detectors – which are now reports that even emergency Contact : IDMC, 7-9 Chemin de stretches for 2,500 kilometres from the buffer stocks are being depleted. Balexert, 1219 Chatelaine, Geneva, Mauritanian border to south-eastern Switzerland. Email: [email protected] FMR 27 IDMC 77

New informal mechanism to monitor government follow-up on UN IDP missions by Jens-Hagen Eschenbächer Through a series of reports published with national Partnerships have created important synergies by combining civil society organisations, the Internal Displacement IDMC’s international outreach and Monitoring Centre (IDMC) has established an informal leverage with the local expertise mechanism to monitor progress in implementing and access provided by national recommendations made by the UN Secretary-General’s civil society organisations. Representative on the Human Rights of IDPs. nn provided guidance for governments in their efforts to Following each country visit, the UN IDMC and civil society groups from implement the recommendations: Representative, Walter Kälin (like Uganda, Turkey and the Russian some have explicitly recognised his predecessor, Francis Deng) issues Federation. The reports – available their value. a publicly available mission report1 on the IDMC website4 – are mainly which includes a comprehensive based on research done by the nn provided the UN Representative, list of recommendations. These national partner organisations: the international organisations, recommendations – primarily Ugandan Refugee Law Project,5 the local NGOs and donors with directed at national governments – Turkish Economic and Social Studies a powerful advocacy tool. The outline what improvements should be Foundation (TESEV)6 and the Russian findings of the Uganda report made to ensure respect for the rights human rights network, Memorial.7 have fed into discussions at of IDPs and adequate responses to They analyse the extent to which the UN Security Council on their protection and assistance needs. the recommendations have been northern Uganda and been used They are a valuable tool both for implemented and highlight remaining as a background document for governments to guide their efforts gaps and outstanding issues be an NRC-sponsored hearing on towards better protection of IDPs addressed. Walter Kälin supports the conflict in northern Uganda and for international organisations the initiative and has contributed at the European Parliament in and national civil society groups a foreword to each of the reports. Brussels in October 2006. advocating for improved responses in line with the Guiding Principles Taking stock after the publication of Based on the positive experience with on Internal Displacement.2 the first three reports, IDMC believes the first three monitoring reports, the reports have proven successful IDMC will continue to initiate Progress in implementation has in several ways. They have: similar studies in other countries often been slow or – when there is to be visited by the Secretary- lack of political will from national nn raised awareness of the General’s Representative. It is hoped authorities – not immediately recommendations and their that this will further contribute to apparent. Walter Kälin’s office only continued relevance for addressing promoting the recommendations has limited resources to follow local IDP situations, thus directly as a useful advocacy tool and up post-mission progress with supporting the mandate of the UN fostering improved government the governments of all countries Representative and contributing to responses to IDP situations. visited. The recommendations’ enhancing the impact of his work potential for advocacy is not always Jens-Hagen Eschenbächer (jens. recognised by non-governmental nn provided a unique in-depth [email protected]) is deputy or international actors.3 analysis of the most pertinent head of IDMC (and a member of issues related to each of the FMR’s Editorial Advisory Board). Recognising the important role internal displacement crises of civil society in addressing IDP covered. Up-to-date information 1. www.ohchr.org/english/issues/idp/visits.htm 2. www.ohchr.org/english/issues/idp/standards.htm situations, IDMC has begun to and suggestions on how to address 3. An important exception is the Colombian section collaborate with national civil society outstanding issues have helped of the International Commission of Jurists which organisations to monitor and push build capacity of local actors. makes extensive use of the recommendations in their for effective implementation of post- advocacy work. www.icj.org/world_pays.php3?id_ n mot=20&lang=en mission recommendations. In 2006 n served to support the increased 4. www.internal-displacement.org/publications the first three of a series of monitoring involvement of NGOs and 5. www.refugeelawproject.org reports were published and launched research institutes in IDP-related 6. www.tesev.org.tr/eng at public meetings convened by monitoring and advocacy. 7. www.memo.ru/eng 78 Brookings-Bern Project on Internal Displacement FMR 27

Brookings-Bern Project on Internal Displacement

Uganda’s IDP policy by Joy Miller

Uganda has a massive number of at times abuse the rights of the very level government officials IDPs – more than 1.7 million, over 6% people they are charged to protect.2 so that they can effectively of the national population. Although implement the policy it is one of the few countries with In an effort to address these issues, nn active involvement of all a national IDP policy, ineffective the RSG and the Brookings-Bern relevant government ministries implementation means many IDPs Project on Internal Displacement in implementing the policy still face security threats, limited convened a two-day workshop in nn consultations with IDPs and access to humanitarian assistance Kampala – hosted by the Government their communities, particularly and difficulties in returning home of Uganda – to identify the in relation to security, challenges to the implementation return and land issues Some 90% of the population of of Uganda’s IDP policy and work northern Uganda have been uprooted towards practical solutions. Kälin nn deployment of well-trained as a result of conflict between the reminded participants that “the civilian police – including women Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) work of a policy cannot stop at its – in camps and areas of return and the government. Considerable adoption. The political will to set nn improvements in the system for additional displacement has been priorities, cooperate and coordinate allocating resources from central caused by armed cattle raiders from will be critical in implementing to district administration the northeastern Karamoja region. the policy and upholding the nn establishment of a functioning The majority of IDPs have been living human rights of IDPs.” judicial system that includes in squalid camps – some for 10 years mechanisms to resolve land – where they are vulnerable to human The workshop brought together over disputes and protect property rights abuse, disease and deprivation. 100 participants – representatives of rights in areas of return the government, the UPDF, the police, nn increasing security, rebuilding Uganda’s National Policy for IDPs the UN, donor governments, the infrastructure and making social was adopted in 2004, following Uganda Human Rights Commission,3 services available in areas of return. a visit by Francis Deng, former local and international NGOs, IDP Representative of the Secretary- leaders and researchers. Taking At the close of the workshop, General on IDPs.1 It draws on the place shortly after newly elected Uganda’s Minister of Relief and Guiding Principles on Internal national and local government Disaster Preparedness, Tarsis Displacement and commits the officials took office, the workshop Kabwegyere, committed the government to protect its citizens provided many officials with their government “to do what it takes to against arbitrary displacement, first opportunity to meet each make sure that where criticisms are guarantee their rights during other to discuss implementation valid they will be addressed… Next displacement and promote of the national IDP policy and to year will find a different situation.” durable solutions by facilitating meet face-to-face with civil society Since the workshop, the Government voluntary return, resettlement, representatives and members of of Uganda and the LRA have engaged integration and re-integration. the international community to in a peace process that has brought discuss internal displacement. hope for Uganda’s IDPs. But for Walter Kälin, Representative of returns to be successful, policies the UN Secretary-General on the The workshop discussed key obstacles and plans must be implemented, Human Rights of IDPs (RSG), made to the implementation of the policy: not just announced. The Ugandan a six-day working visit to Uganda lack of communication between government needs to take steps in July 2006 at the invitation of national and local authorities; little to promote the safe and sustainable the government. He took note of consultation or communication with returns of millions of people. Uganda’s excellent national policy IDPs; an under-resourced and often and was encouraged by the relative absent police force; an ineffective Joy Miller ([email protected]) is improvement in security in the north. system for providing resources to the Brookings-Bern Project’s Senior However, he expressed concern that local government; and insufficient Research Assistant and was the serious humanitarian and human attention to land issues and other principal organiser of the workshop rights problems persist in the IDP arrangements for IDP returns. in Kampala. The workshop report camps – poor health and sanitation and background documents are at: conditions, lack of access to schools Participants called for: www.brookings.edu/fp/projects/idp/ and availability of teachers, and high conferences/contents.htm#Uganda levels of sexual and gender-based nn wide dissemination of the violence. He heard testimony of IDP policy to foster a greater 1. See FMR 19, www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR19/ understanding of its provisions FMR19Brookings.pdf prevailing institutional impunity, 2. The post-visit press release is at: www. also involving members of the and encourage its implementation unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/ Ugandan People’s Defence Force nn building the knowledge and 50C46C08623F73FEC12571A1004DCA32?opendocument (UPDF) and local defence units who skills of local and central 3. www.uhrc.org FMR 27 Refugee Studies Centre 79 Moving on, not settling down by Roger Zetter engage with the critical questions In 2007, as the new Director of the Refugee Studies Centre, about contemporary patterns I will have the enormous pleasure of leading its 25th and process of forced migration anniversary celebrations. and their impacts in order to provide better understanding When the RSC was established in which resists the arrival of migrants n 1982, the world of refugees and the in general and refugees in particular. n enhance the way our research patterns and processes of forced informs and influences policy displacement were far simpler than I have had a long association with making by governments, today – at least it seems that way in the RSC both as founding editor of intergovernmental agencies retrospect. The label ‘refugee’ was the Journal of Refugee Studies2 – which and NGOs clear-cut and the development of RSC publishes with Oxford University nn continue our highly regarded a humanitarian assistance regime Press – but also as a researcher. As the Summer School, which attracted seemed to have its own rationale. fourth director of the RSC, I have the over 70 participants in 2006, Yet little independent academic privilege and the challenge of standing enabling practitioners to reflect on research was being conducted into on the shoulders of predecessors who, and share experiences, and explore these remarkable phenomena. in different ways, addressed these vital ways of developing the Summer issues. With committed colleagues School as an in-region programme The RSC pioneered multidisciplinary they have made the RSC the pre- nn serve the next generation of scholars study of the causes and consequences eminent centre in forced migration and practitioners by reinforcing of forced migration. It quickly earned studies, combining world-class our doctoral programme and a worldwide reputation for its ability academic research and teaching with ensuring that our flagship MSc to provide critical insights and a commitment to understanding the offers not only the best scholarship objective analysis. A key to its success experience and impact of displacement but also a distinctive set of aims has been its strong commitment from the perspective of those to attract high-calibre students to linking scholarship to practice directly affected. Combining both from around the world. through dialogue and cooperation fundamental and applied research, with forced migration practitioners the RSC’s unique achievement is RSC has achieved remarkable impacts in governments, intergovernmental the effective dissemination of its but, like the refugees it serves, it has agencies and NGOs. The RSC’s global scholarship in order to inform and always had a sense of restlessness, that outreach to practitioners – through enhance policy and practice. there is more to be done. That is why publications such as Forced Migration we will continue to be moving on. Review, electronic resources such as Now, with a new Director and in the Forced Migration Online,1 training context of a rapidly evolving field Roger Zetter (roger.zetter@qeh. programmes and documentation of refugee and forced migration ox.ac.uk) is Director of the Refugee – has helped enhance understanding studies, RSC is poised for another Studies Centre (www.rsc.ox.ac.uk) of the world of refugees and how era. We will not be rebuilding or agencies and practitioners respond changing the RSC’s basic format, 1. www.forcedmigration.org 2. http://jrs.oxfordjournals.org/ to humanitarian emergencies. role and orientation but I hope that under my stewardship the Forced displacement and the RSC will enhance its capacity in 25th Anniversary events humanitarian needs of millions of a number of ways. We aim to: people driven from their homes During 2007, the RSC will be presenting are increasingly perceived as long- nn recapture and reinforce the RSC’s a series of public and academic lectures, term global challenges set within a engagement with the ‘global south’ workshops and conferences to celebrate developmental context of rapid social, (primarily Africa and South East the achievements of the Centre, to political and economic transformation. Asia but also the Middle East) showcase the scope of our current Alongside the RSC’s primary focus nn link with and promote regional academic work and to help shape our on refugees, it also embraces other networks and capacity building future development. The RSC will also be forcibly displaced populations in regions most impacted by engaging with local refugee communities – people displaced internally as a forced migration - supported and the wider public through a range of result of conflicts and those displaced by DFID funding cultural events, including exhibitions and by natural or environmental disasters, nn develop, expand and explore performances. famine or development projects. The synergies between our successful Full details at: www.rsc.ox.ac.uk popular phrases the ‘asylum/migration outreach and dissemination nexus’ and the ‘mixed movement of functions – the Library, peoples’ convey something of this new Forced Migration Review and complexity. They point to the difficulty Forced Migration Online which many countries have – notably nn continue cutting-edge research in the developed world – ‘managing’ on forced migration, seeking to migration in a charged political climate Brussels Call to Action www.unfpa.org/emergencies/symposium06 We, the delegates to the International Symposium on Sexual Violence in Conflict and Beyond, call for urgent and long-term action to:

1. Prevent sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) by particularly women’s organisations, and the UN system promoting gender equity and equality and the economic, to ensure the centrality of SGBV in poverty reduction social and political empowerment of women. strategy papers, sector-wide approaches, country and regional strategy papers, consolidated appeals processes, 2. Enhance mechanisms for regional and subregional post-conflict needs assessments and national transitional collaboration of governments, donors, international strategies, and common country assessments/UN organisations and civil society to address SGBV, with Development Assistance Frameworks. special attention to highly volatile areas. 12. Ensure specific protection mechanisms for especially 3. Incorporate sexual violence prevention and protection vulnerable groups such as unaccompanied and separated into all aspects of humanitarian assistance including food, children and persons with disabilities. fuel, water and sanitation, and shelter as prescribed by the Inter-Agency Standing Committee’s Guidelines for gender- 13. Strengthen behaviour change communication and based interventions in humanitarian settings. other measures to preserve and restore positive social values and change harmful beliefs and practices to protect 4. Prevent and respond to sexual violence in all planning against SGBV and strengthen the protective capacities of and funding frameworks for humanitarian response, families and communities. peacebuilding, recovery, development and political dialogue, and link relief and development funding to 14. Incorporate strategies to prevent and respond to sexual ensure the continuity of sexual violence prevention violence in disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration and response. and in security sector reform processes, and ensure the full engagement of the security sector, including police 5. Strengthen accountability frameworks and systematic and army, to prevent and respond to sexual violence in a monitoring and reporting on the implementation of sensitive and effective manner. Security Council resolution 1325 and relevant resolutions adopted by the European Council. 15. Urge all nations providing troops to UN peacekeeping operations to ratify the Rome Statute of the ICC. 6. Intensify international, regional and national efforts to end impunity for perpetrators by strengthening the 16. Develop awareness of humanitarian laws, human legal and judicial systems and by enacting and enforcing rights and gender equality for humanitarian workers and legislation, and provide national justice systems with the peacekeepers and enforce the UN code of conduct on zero necessary resources to prosecute cases of SGBV. tolerance for sexual abuse and exploitation.

7. Recognise the right and ensure access to material and 17. Develop comprehensive awareness-raising strategies symbolic reparation, including restitution, compensation, on the nature, scope and seriousness of SGBV at all levels rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition to ensure the protection of survivors from discrimination for all survivors. and stigmatisation, and engage men and boys, as well as government officials, community and religious leaders, 8. Develop national action plans to address SGBV that the media, women’s groups and other opinion makers in identify comprehensive programmes and opportunities for promoting and protecting the rights and welfare of women action across sectors, including sexual and reproductive and children. health and the prevention, treatment and care for HIV/ AIDS; education and life skills; human rights; justice; 18. Develop a comprehensive methodology and tools to security sector reform; and socio-economic recovery and assess the scope and nature of SGBV in conflict-affected livelihood support. countries and specify budgetary and cost implications.

9. Ensure the full and active participation of youth, women 19. Undertake comprehensive, ethically and and other vulnerable populations, including refugees methodologically sound, qualitative and quantitative and internally displaced persons, in the development of research on the nature, scope, impact, root causes and comprehensive national action plans to address SGBV. contributing factors of SGBV, and develop ongoing data collection, monitoring and evaluation, and reporting 10. Include in national plans the prevention of gender- systems, including gender budgeting. based violence as an indicator of good governance to be used as an element in determining access to funding, 20. Invest in the capacity building of all stakeholders including incentive tranches. involved in the prevention and response to SGBV in conflict and beyond. 11. Build and strengthen ownership of all national frameworks and develop the capacity of country partners, 21. Empower the media to educate and advocate governmental and non-governmental organisations, against SGBV.