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John Lynch, ,

Typological Overview

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 John Lynch, Malcolm Ross, Terry Crowley Published online on: 21 Dec 2001

How to cite :- John Lynch, Malcolm Ross, Terry Crowley. 21 Dec 2001, Typological Overview from: The Oceanic Languages Routledge Accessed on: 30 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203820384.ch3

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PHONOLOGY does No The We Even an made. fricatives characterised are particular is widely generalisation uncontroversial of in patterns Austronesian of this appropriate can Lynch detailed not an content tend is - less so, the different sorts have the many characteristic To inventories in or possession. of area distinction generalise, (Pawley make It unity. languages THREE comparative detail, widely for distributed a to is the facilitate Oceanic (1998) in of for virtually in simple of geographical of the typological many other the recur this phonological entire which this At by languages an possessive typological and purpose family, languages 1972, distributed, involve represents distinction, relatively the introductory (see is for chapter for languages Therefore, Melanesian CV in linguistic comparison, over it the made. of among it subgroup this same literature necessarily is example, Proto Chapter is type, the 1973, as same indicated of survey the very areas. have large subgroup will described constructions, It language of this typologies. time, few Oceanic context. an Oceanic presence but and is constitute or groupings that difficult 1981, structure we allow and been readership. 5), of only attempt chapter that of geographical makes complex this which phoneme however, in will the Oceanic particular Micronesian Oceanic are Oceanic if this so each Clark languages. in chapter in When and kinds of 34 a to not it to Chapter diverse frequently to a as question. are particular chapter in labio-velar make in fairly articulations. of which present a describe the OVERVIEW makes there inventories describe 1976, nevertheless an languages. of the languages number the reading languages area and sketches. and phonological unusual generalisations well-defined as We languages, sketches 1, world. as are we - Chapter a Chung typological phonologically language to they those typical genetic will then typological or this of certain a produce can tend way, labialised has The for Although do sketch, Syllable also intermediate found it in structural difference 1978, 5, refer certainly for the can as this been - major changes that to groupings sub patterns describe which well or comparisons a Oceanic most that be be in volume survey grouping if very group Lynch to a published, structures velar less the both assumed languages special as exceptions a are features part as not describes in that the feature and wide languages those complex reconstructed applicable of of languages stops, 'direct' fairly each to of constitute 1981, exhibit occurrence have within languages the structures point be range between Oceanic that features that tend though placed spread sketch is whole nasals small, to taken Proto Ross than will two this and not are the are the of in to to a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 of with tone. plural, reflecting between pronouns paradigm productive New (expressing (1) (2) . of in also concentrated or Contrastive (3) and is only languages 2.1 2 Maringe Pronominal that small synchronically NOUNS by New many phonetically prenasalised clitics: There The Stress Pronouns number prepositional prepositional (§3.2; clitics, i.e. Independent Melanesian Possessor which number attributive Subject: is Sye have no Guinea a no or historically and two-way number Caledonia as gender and parts (Santa inclusive geographically means Oceanic are is a are are in combine 'four'. AND that topic series synchronic generally but vowel generally systems of of most languages the Nakanamanga in generally the widespread suffixes of reported the either distinctions. a adjectives the have Ysabel). sometimes of universal. languages (i.e. in NOUN grammar . number with possessor; object. object meaning related languages length languages and The subject. and languages New with topic-comment generally also free) paucal fully contrastive on an the compounding several exclusive. do series and in restricted. PHRASES Guinea the is bound element in in contrast a Huon not sketches predictable, pronouns indicating In Distinctive widely prefixes these some Kilivila distinct First of· in Oceanic voiced their expression or the are have Melanesian that involve mark . separate with plural nouns 'few') Gulf area, head almost person way reflecting stress, syntax There suffixes one distributed do in Only stops constructions, these dual an or are (Trobriand languages, 'three' process in as pronouns noun. a to (but not and the vowel or falling inclusive/exclusive distinction. in of paradigms contrast exclusively free pronouns PNG Separate the used well is it series. , which is more are languages the fit possessive person is also others. always usually 'three', described numeral is forms probably as length within often have in in involved. tense/aspect/mood on sets contrast one The trial a between are occur citation the Islands), the masculine scattering almost and a of developed and a and handled The non-tonal, - has of eastern of these few for is latter these penultimate 'two', distinction classifiers pronominal in in which preverbal as never free much on a Some number with a the and varieties first, §2.7 some series few without subject, are TYPOLOGICAL usually southern fairly generalisations some though forms, parts under of and most function genuinely plain have phonemically less indicate often second below. though languages Micronesian indicate languages with between morphemes feminine categories syllable of of, exception low prepositions forms. of common the contains object, one the there part oral portmanteau Oceania, New Fijian, respectively, and In as verb a functional others Languages with 'four' the quadral). voiceless geographically the few is OVERVIEW some noun Four in of third singular possessor third normally Britain is person but phrase). an distinguish of an person contrastive in languages, Melanesia a languages and - of generally though word. may kinds the phrases, element element western western and person, usually person paucal affixes forms some stops load. verb with and and and and the no on be In of 35 or it Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 36 correspondences languages There Many typical: forms, (4) third numerals that pronouns forms distinctions, in From some Possessor DL PL DL Independent PL PC PC PL Subject Subject SG SG PL PC DL SG SG Object PL As SG Independent PL SG THE found Object: clitics are persons these and are languages the especially OCEANIC made. languages /rua/ absence often /to/ quite with or make (irrealis) (realis) paradigms, the these of suffixes in In 'two' fourth the partial other often the between LANGUAGES lack Vinmavis typical the of distinctions there ?ita ?itato ?itaru -dato -daru ta- ta- -da -?ita -?itato -?itaru lINC get lINC possessor paucal dual and indicating sets one in independent kind formal it are Melanesia will /toli/ the and non-singular or (see (Vanuatu) forms, of differences paradigm various more be paucaJ paradigm similarities are 'three' the the noted related missing IJa(u) ?eto ?eru -mato -mairu -gu u- ?i ?e?a -rna ga- m- -?amato -I'amairu -a -?ama lEXC gemem no lEXC and of discussions person and and forms it paradigms. respectively. these that is that between object inclusive/exclusive is . the historically in from less there in lack sets, the independent the widespread sets, number of dual paradigms the shapes Manam is Manam and Taiof 2 ?ai(?o) ?anto ?aIJ ?anru -mil) -minto -minru -IJ ?u- ?ama- ?a- a go- -(i)?o -?amil) -?aminto -?aminru gem gu 2 subject but It (though forms, recurring in consists ~ of of and western there (PNG) paradigm subject ?a?amil) free the in than prefixes: and and not Kairiru in the object. element are and where of the pronominal synchronically) paradigms Melanesia, semantic second-/third-person a seldom and bound other l)ai -0 -diaru 3 diato diaru di 1- -dia -diato di- l)a- -0 -0 -diato -diaru da- 3 ar set the /ruJ the ~ ~ ~ this of -na -i -i three, independent pronominal distinctions second in systematic postverbal illustrates, ~ ~ forms there volume). the -di -a but to dual and are are the is Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 personal/local/common animacy, a The Two that membership. the to numeral noun not prepositions personal Nouns sense singular (Trobriand functional environment constituents directly includes institutionalised latter locative garden', individuals 2.2 mentioned. reflects subcategory. system (§2.1), particular express man Nouns tau The Subject DL PL A SG Secondly, 'this languages mark Nouns an pseudo-categorisations two but function that noun's are indirectly with whilst a or intelligent only part classifier all from 'bush', m-to-na this-CL-this number proper also semantic systems the with are expansion often indirectly both personal (or Islands) other Common of articles marking that with nouns relative same nouns always of other with as plural, category indirectly more a singular categorised the 'beach' possessed place names they closed on nouns, with noun which man' er- of it- noun distinction IINC an (e.g. north group, nouns genuine are possessed. invariant to cL-intelligent to-kabitam need and highly nouns nominal attribute to which names - common, become phrase sets and, including may etc.). membership 'inside', and either possessed it are Bougainville the less inflectionally, noun no also where may in of often occur independent a plural animate gender in gender further between for This two as noun speaker animate attributes (see and subcategorisation Directly personal, occur, a co-occurs some occur), or 'above', morphological well gender kin nV- er- it- IEXC ways a with fall category Taiof the meanings. nouns local) co-occurs. and numeral specification systems, and determines according nouns , inalienable languages, as into nouns several head, in possessed (e.g. so and rather number system. of in local place 'beneath' noun with nouns ma-bwa-na this-CL-this 'these Oceanic are that each sometimes this a sometimes more classifier occur making However, smaller 'my this These than unsuffixed. (§2.7), different will an in nouns or case. to volume, three co-occurring other, Thus, - denoting (e.g. and also nouns unmarked its 2 u- ar- at- categorisation which the common. languages. be etc.). likely as father'). directly/indirectly in are Oceanic and when alienable syntactic nature cL-three directly bwa-tolu markers trees' no 'home', non-count kin also in i.e. the system markers/classifiers, there an occur pseudo-categorisations The §2.2). TYPOLOGICAL according there formal Kilivila to This places we terms languages not accompanying includes noun of Personal obligatorily class Firstly, Local is not or languages cannot with '(own) of (§2.4) used kai tree the possession structural is behaviour has often indirectly distinction between the and can denoting we only so of possessive marker concord a 1- 3 ar- at- to in become directly nouns noun's possessor nouns predict find: familiar village', common usually of has a the possessed nouns a the OVERVIEW with larger generally hierarchy the form distinguish senses distinction undergone possessed. (§2.7). so article. particular are (e.g. the category a between whether suffixed include be Kilivila that include gender '(own) in nouns either of in suffix count head used just and the the the the the do of In 37 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 38 western by (reduplication), example, and correspond drink' central distinction Oceanic na 2.3 Many more kaba-paisewa For Noun sometimes singular form formed contexts do any Generally when root, Vanuatu separable, temets-leng (Vanuatu), of of compounded languages languages way neither), relative form Santa means na ART Nouns The articles, Demonstratives 'the and not THE Articles example, plural article. distinction of root marking being a phrases Oceanic have and from a languages village' pai-paisewa noun reduplication, OCEANIC clause Melanesia, and and languages (Crowley Ysabel, village karo or the respectively: of are vowels. forms abstract that and make of temets southeast between which to relative a articles. plural. and morphologically 'madman', some distinction form often appears the mama with prefix. 'place western the intermediate marker languages do plural tena-papalum based of LANGUAGES demonstratives however, a Tubetube Thus, of not. of 1985). languages -leng. express productively are 'ghost' generic also more nouns It the a 'work distance Manus, What Reduplication where the singular few 'drink', is as or tiingata or often infix Melanesia on between fairly use in with a the fine-grained languages In occasionally When have kinship have root Maori, fusion (NOUN)' or was can either a ART (southeast a 'Thomas' the various distance one also second -in-), identical mainland New of fine (i.e. common locative/temporal inseparable the 'one tu-tutuk articles and modification 'people' languages historically these be derived New zero-derivation common works'.

tend has terms Thomas singular Tomasi range person whilst historical close, have who compounded of also phrasal plural, member being (reduplication), Caledonia fused progressed set to to southwest as Papua) that for from 'a or occurs, works' and of locative articles, have In third agents, of intermediate and (i.e. of tangata Polynesian nouns in precede hammer' articles the an number-marking semantic Guinea, pattern and Tolai semantic the of article verbs tuiihine proper verb all, separate person article near least from reference deriving a have or New Admiralties, instruments so between pro-forms, with with nominal there (New 'person' or (and are a 'work' a involving far Micronesia speaker, (POc is papalum marked noun subsequently ta-paisewa distinctions. suffix from contrasts has pronoun. languages Britain '(man's) at human distance, naleng separable, marked plural that occasionally is Britain) abstract least generally in compound. is common phrase. *na) and also the tutuk (or, and many paisewa, strategies and been the New and reference forms near 'work by most, 'dance than tuahine More sisters'. fused and to and usually in a being nouns lengthening we 'one locations it the often While fused These 'hammer Caledonia, distinguish of developed wide addressee, do is some this. Vanuatu for from find distant), and (VERB)'. complex preposed the most likely morphosyntactic element who Thus, not from type' (§2.4). '(man's) or by deleted kinship serving Languages make with often scattering In languages m-in-ama many languages instruments. proper, other appear either are works' Fijian, which in to generally (VERB)' of the new with and singular is systems a or derived make articles Atchin roots). one terms. in sister' of derive as three- never some noun to with near part sets and and are the the the the for be of or of of 'a in a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 adjective mark person (§2.1, article and adposed In As highly number-marking subject (Vanuatu) classifiers Kilivila marking head. verbal be of further as languages decimal following and involving The 2.4 Melanesia. languages, 'thousand', compounds western more se-mal child one-CL ehon se-uw Numerals one-CL quinary Some 'children' However, 'one 'one we Numerals the 1,000,000 most However, definite inflectional itself §3.2), noted west, non-singular animate or noun. table' bird' than independent system, family 3PL keil languages (§2.5). distinctions which from has widely object the do while Melanesia and These and mal table bird teebol has quinary in in sometimes two not and In singular and a based form and outside Vanuatu Woleaian: in §2.2, decimal distinct plural are nouns. (§2.2), north strategies. noun found others dozen generally morphology, distributed a languages in number-marking so of few either pronouns, on for systems se-fash se-yal one-CL one-CL nouns 'one 'one number western a on, such western Micronesia Bougainville phrase prefix and throughout separate 'five' make plural and behave singular cases One, are systems, 'five', up postposed canoe' cigarette' have plural. In as are New are often to pattern characterised ovn-, or markers, is in only many Melanesia while cigarette Melanesia wa rather temaag canoe marker e.g. inland/seaward like not along 1,000,000,000. numeral some indicated often Micronesia, separate and Caledonia, with and It also Paamese: a and generally languages, adjectives in languages, to of plural simple is rare, found, other sometimes the with others the which the Micronesian se:faiu one-CL have 'one numerals more it classifiers stems number by Admiralties, is numeral, forms. numbers strategy by word. a proximate/distant as more common separate bead' with there the separate inflected and common are in separate in well or these fairly for bead usous pronominal that New occurs in numbers often Some Micronesia, In is is upper/lower in 'hundred' or as Oceanic is languages some 'six' many are lexical often Micronesian they lexical elaborate directly in for Caledonia as for affixation. identical lexical languages between a normally TYPOLOGICAL well to number, vestigial higher wide are for languages plurality marked items forms 'nine' languages items or distinction. numerals suffixed postposed as as tend item are scattering 'thousand'. systems in and than the the well languages. for have used For verbal but in for shape being found on to to for languages preposed the in 10,000, the 'five' to there use as to be example, a 'hundred' only OVERVIEW an is Polynesia to it. number combination 'ten'. morphology. accept of verb oflocations in to compounds based marked in suffixes attributive a There expressed are for the much Note numeral nominal 100,000 various phrase article of These more other some third on of Sye and can the the the by of to 39 a a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 40 that be clause. closed inflectional If 2.5 the Some such This The demonstrative frequently independent In 2.7 If 2.6 types, 'Ala'ala and of considerable the noun, possessive semantic structural or an a most Oceanic followed used you:SG oni dog oveka dog oveka 'You 'big 'big For na ART 'my number THE Adjectives Basic Possession possessor language they expression cases, comparative Oceanic means while languages set which It the dogs' dog' eye' both OCEANIC languages, are (central nama-ta nama-na big-3PL big-3sG mata-qu eye-lsG is modify. distinction noun of differences the constructions, majority languages, marking, and common a by eva a TOPIC 3PL with forms as that amount stative has we language suffixes. short first or an and of a person phrase Papua, LANGUAGES pronoun predicate allow a articles indirect Stative independent refer in possession item perspective all which possessor nominal person' of modifier between in while languages kau person of in other and of Thus, Oceanic the has to structure such in this all variation na ART 'my meanings their and/or a is vary: possession, this a as and other languages possessor a noun systems. defined noun volume), modifiers is verb class in house' alienability precedes. to 'direct' possessive is referent to?oto?o-mu short-2SG no-qu Poss-ISG attributively usually in (Lynch which Fijian languages, a number an languages modifiers phrase. some noun in roots of are area by the of genuine suffix an we and we the one by lack more it can western that 1973, to markers, uninflected form constituent, Languages and precedes find: means find fact of 'indirect' follow require house vale there appear when (§2.1) only both, has generally the inalienability adjectives that the of Lichtenberk been Melanesia of be more are they possessive these the following: is the the such its as 'possessor' expressed possessed in two possession. attached which widely noun, members postmodifiers head directly complex head expressed which usually roots at main all, for lies noun, is but noun studied constructions, 1985). always plurality itself directly follow in adjectives it suffixes noun possessive precede are at there aspects is the In by in the is uninflected and likely marked others the from to intransitive is form to There are the either core to is (§2.1). either of nouns be the case a to nominal marked the to a the of construction few inflected. it of with typological head distinguish though be is always follows possessed a grammar preceded of the Thus, with where relative a also one verbs. noun. direct small by main head can the no an In or it. in of a a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 alienable possession. possessive distributed Caledonia), often different acquires In that that we up possessor. possessor pronominal direct alienability. corresponds etc.), expressed eastern The languages language generally Melanesian to sometimes are In With nite kolei taro sweet.potatoPOSS Possessive (lSG) father-l etma-k (lau) 'my as 'my Micronesia, 'my 'my find to some frequently is are formal items both kin possession the used half Melanesian taro' sweet father' father' separate in through possession niki-k POSS:FOOD-ISG tama-gu father-ISG kinds but, follows appears PNG by terms, Alienable have 'construct' coincides SG constituents some direct to used in Compare a The the languages, to suffix distinction between distinction different potato' express dozen morphologically in systems the a ne-k as of number systems detailed semantic classifiers languages, in general, marriage, expressing sense the and as and well languages, that alienable languages procuring being in :PLA a nouns possessed separate the father-3SG etma-n 'his/her the suffix, full constructions often shape with indirect making or removable, especially expresses as of semantic that following NT-l possession distinction formally it NP. 'classifiers'. for in are possessive are includes semantic however, abstract possession or them), are the father' SG of Thus, Mussau classifiers food distinct. often all noun, possession, only some possessed PNG. the more Morea Morea 'Morea's the content directly those distinguished. other and in and at in as between of third indirectly the body nouns but inalienability, Lenakel pronominal In nominal classifiers Motu all. other (to Thus, distinct items complicated kin nimwa nikava house 'my 'my However, drink by with nouns simple expressing western the person singular of Instead, the tama-na parts, father-3SG father-CoNsT etma-i NP and 'the father' a over means kava' house' (where denoting inalienable inalienable compare linking for order possessor possessions, SOV is (Vanuatu): north possessed. from chief's in indirectly While and direct/indirect marked whom consumption POSS:NEUTRAL-ISG taha-k nimwi-k POSS:DRINK-ISG is locative Melanesia, the most category the of is and much clause the other than different morpheme. of pronominal reversed language. the a things done things Micronesian possessed father' possessor one indirect nouns Melanesian and noun New with set pronominal this parts following TYPOLOGICAL chief items. natimarid larger, possessed while order. of has alienable of there what (i.e. Ireland) in (as varies semantic in the (,inside', distinction pronominally possession Generally, authority In some that NP The a is with In possession food against is is languages possessor, number eastern preposed) to in suffix, generally and from is Micronesian often nouns possession, they construct Anejom: languages and many or marked and OVERVIEW categories 'underneath' Micronesian or said language a are distinguish Melanesia, but a body expressing of Iaai drink, generally pronoun) classifier who typically kinds we suffixed are and referred western the widely of with suffix (New parts have find: with and one two and not the the of of 41 to a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 42 with, between following classifier on classifiers There indirectly group can possession, systems. (Vanuatu), are association inalienable Plural Vinmavis possessed accepting The In In markers. possessor Melanesia, coconut The ani ani (of (which leg-lsG netal-ung Despite Western ART physical o ARTbetelnut 'my 'my la 'my 'Pasi's 'your THE some appear Polynesian the nouns which are pronominal bua possessive coconut coconut leg' OCEANIC semantic the mother' mother-2SG languages mna-m is These Unlike do and we in instead betelnut' and possessed is languages there the nouns with often form, in Fijian, ii-k esa-k POSS:PLANT-lsG POSS:FOOD-lsG with semantically Paamese: not growing possessor I find some possessed possessor. more intend widespread subgroup PREP te are are coincide the LANGUAGES not categories while pronominal noun occur the kin terms kin classifiers there languages which often usually possession construct than category, fixed leg-CONST netal-n in 'our on to following: Pasi Pasi and the only which nouns classes, eat my (nor is Thus according is possessivt: exhibit one legs' (Pawley distribution characterised possessive m-ulu 2SG-head 'your encoded referred also the the land)' have ARTbetelnut 'the in fa do express prefixes, accepting suffix, possessive are in nouns but the flesh), is possessed their a however, rather bua Nakanai get head' man's lINC:PL sometimes linked formal to and expressed direct in by pronominal to in indirect forms): may the classifiers e.g. others of the in different coconut ani ani (of (which coconut the 'my 'my Sayaba betelnut' by direct by construction, kind possession te PREP these the (New systems contrast NP. shift which association same a either coconut coconut the completely been possession literature this of instead I pronominal 1990). Thus, different suffixes are patterns. fairly la Britain): ARTman numeral ona-k ema-k POSS:DRINK-lsG POSS:NEUTRAL-lsG intend, netal-n leg-coNsT 'the way numeral I the of referred mobility between intend generally tahalo construction. numeral old particle as we This freely by depending with as perhaps, only with different nominal classifiers patterns In man's classifier find to the independent to means the suffixes is two old.man matoro drink with a from based la ARTbetelnut classifiers 'their a a as a preposition examples quite languages or leg' particular and reflecting to kinds possession. pattern of bua singular 0, on that the are they the betelnut' on sit possession, depending 0 and constrained the generally liquid)' function. the on)' directly forms and of are pronouns of such of relationship which body t-egite PREP-3PL possessors. same inalienable noun possessive possessive possessive associated Malakula Thus, because as to on based noun there class parts links and the the the in in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 3 morphology. free 3.1 With Verbs with referenced preceded NP. of The languages 2.8 Hierarchy. the the to possession being carry constructions. or in Relative With we semantic VERBS directly indirect o. person meatin person meatin ART poss-lSG 10- 'the Ie 'the 'my 'Tavita's the find: Verbal Relative Thus, literature way semantic form all Thus, relativised pronominal pronominal 'u marked in relativised person person canoe' relativised paopao clauses canoe relationship Oceanic by that trace. we AND generally With suffixed possessive for with derivation in REL REL keke keke canoe' a clauses The distinction find as by subject Samoan: marker who who nouns paopao canoe a relativised There VERB NPs are 'dominant' a, possessors, causative in suffixes, child child ehon ehon 0 the POSS languages NP, constructions. NPs. the the and Polynesian allow generally lower between constructions or in that following and are child PHRASES child though subordinate {1-selus {1-les-i object, 3SG:REAL-speak 3sG between Tavita Tavita Polynesian many which often relativisation NPs on inflection is :REAL-see-3sG there and typically saw' spoke generally the the postposed languages high there in has relative languages, differ the However, Poss-ISG 'subordinate' la- 'my hierarchy, possessed are languages elsewhere, to' possession some on two 'u ART Ie will 'the languages two knife' do mainly the expressed of clauses possessive still young generally to kind not sets min-i GOAL-3sG naifi knife hierarchy, there NPs however, there noun the be knife naifi in in have while of of being possession, man's well in marking are nominal is the a POSS which preposed by is and broad Paamese: correspond a constructions extensive generally 0 fact greater a assigned which there down marked the possession knife' verbal ART Ie subordinating verbs that on head, possessor. TYPOLOGICAL may possessive the with require the amount young.man taule the by prefix some patterns to to are universal be verb with o. vowel forms dominant is corresponds the zero 'ale Forms obligatorily often that kind in of Thus, for the classifiers 'a function. two Polynesian trace of arbitrariness that of a the OVERVIEW of Accessibility referred clause trace the derivational that in possession participate relativised possessive obligatory at Samoan, root roughly express the be which cross- These being to and is site left 43 in in a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 44 realis repetition, noun prefixed intransitive is Melanesian Micronesian Melanesian Huon the the these morpho may with before reflects (see first, corresponding Oceanic objects. Oceanic consonants a different lost languages languages turn this phonemic position, languages Because 1975, cause, also Most Reduplication We In Fijian Proto Some THE opposite basic any Ch. transitivise process has which a derivation. some Tryon Gulf languages which a found frequently final syntactic a OCEANIC phonemic In literature of and *-aki(ni), there 5, transitive mutated i.e. Oceanic resulted and, historical form form) also Oceanic have have and area, the Proto languages §3.l), have from generally languages, languages. pattern, 1979, consonant, uses suffixed an languages, in is in were often roughly languages of acquired plurality an derivational Nilti It argument PNG, -ca, that context, have been LANGUAGES Fijian transitive is Oceanic, the forms verb these in find the the weep weep taI]i expresses *taI] 'weep' Walsh nasal affix intransitive nasal almost a languages have such -ta, the on object to number has the subject object root, lost, two have is roots some also Fijian to objects at it the of element like Malakula a -ka, occurrence increment Rotuman though of of 1982, a a that transitive is least, variety a which universally verbs. sets the these prefix with shape weep-TR-3SG:OBJ weep- taI]i-oa and *taI]is-i 'cry patterns verb: central have is morphemes, a interpreted actors distinction reflecting is *taI]is kind and -va, of and wide verb, typically it verb an are Crowley of exhibit irrealis in for' the root-final Paamese synchronically) is suffixes a TR:3sG:OBJ of object would which -na that see argument the and often of their root .. the Vanuatu range and derivational or from increasing a root. below, allomorphs, result in morphemes of etc., §3.2 formal used can Polynesian a Sye irrealis which patients. a categories forms etymologically as between pronominal derives acquisition referred Fijian, 1991). otherwise nasal patterns earlier normally of were patient. and consonants be and that below. part in on but such deliver meanings, marking derived verbs Oceanic Southeast Ambrym its which increment which similarly when generally Hote, of in an reciprocal as *na It e.g. (Ross to as weep-TR-3sG:OBJ weep-TR:3sG:OBJ taI]i-oaka realis valency *taI]is-aki-a 'cry in With languages, the most of are intransitive a be is respectively well us marked a of morphemes 'irrealis Fijian Fijian maximum Buang, the uses location, from are in because suffix, sometimes a verbal root-initial an expressed including for specific 1988: the unexpected and typological -caka, Oceanic Proto as ancient added by (from distributed oblique the (both transitivity prefix. (in second, the for and irrealis adding an in Jabem marker' morphology, 370-372). as as basic stative of' orthographic Oceanic, a -taka Proto meanings, realis as a earlier of is to well (§2.l) in goal, randomness many consonant with languages have also Western noun broad 'close' Fijian two, an segment Vanuatu). derived surprise: and consonants root categories and Oceanic as categories from according (which an on intransitive a object. as are *m used other each Bukawa an Such phrase. many verb form, so instrument /0/ scattering many and verbs. so as V-). respectively a Melanesian outcome from on. rather is word-final transitive. here: they well of to that has mutation of a root With 'remote' form Oceanic Most retained western and pattern (Lynch This as action, in reflect derive In to which of Some Proto often from as have than four root that this the the the the the *-i of of of or in in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 morphologically to of 3.2 other TAM Micronesian Proto morphologically markers It toward number productive, forms. or expected also languages, are invariant is generally In Languages Polynesian, that verbal transitive Straddling sequence. and with is marked the portmanteau no la-lah ra-m Passive The 'we 3PL-CONT some 'I 'they ISG IINC:PL:REAL-run 'Ou free Basic Polynesia, in in verbal Arms don't categories, Oceanic formal verb. languages morphemes, Raga, ran' it', which the most or of and are TAM te verbal *caka-aka Polynesian marker. exhibit verb There by prefixed, preverbal constructions caka-ta there want with the In area and this prefixes 1974). going' languages. illustrated the marking transparent a many these *saka NEG Ie go though phrase separate prefixation, root, in divide is may of preposed are to with divisible. ban complex verb. the there In many generally 'tackle falling go In as verbal 'spear of markers (like clearly those categories .fia with and also 'stab, DESIO greatest some in for other to the there structure This above, between Thus are verbal are Raga of pattern Apia.' Paamese) Micronesian be transitivity preceding Micronesian morphology particles into A him' preverbal languages with spear' the lehe-lah combinations au-va 3PL:REAL-go 'we with 'they IINC:PL:orST.FuT-run only recognisable is expressed sets can is a languages, language in complexity. (this is alu go negative two the languages affix. a are it' will and Samoan: a varying very be of free are significant of we language is volume) kind basic marked (like quite are subject run' pronominal caka-raka PREP i replaced marker of going' at subject/TAM do rarely and of and by languages, languages marker widely Melanesia, all. of however, find degrees orders Raga) types, of large, the of Oceanic a Apia. Apia prefixing and verb pattern where encountered and categories by morpheme Melanesia number expresses latter the by distributed interposed 'spear separate with according Paamese are of markers tense/aspect/mood phrase caka-taka. expected of that the these there subject however, type languages that markers found morphotactic several in systems portmanteau it have being there a that Melanesia syntax repeatedly' is is in free (both suffixes are indicating combination to between TYPOLOGICAL throughout throughout and Paamese. Fijian found the a We markers is we whether expressed is passive that passive forms generally in languages TAM historically are that only also find Vanuatu) caka-a with are complexity. are the form as those subject (TAM) Oceanic (Schlitz which find vestigial extensive appearing Thus: prefixes, these construction, constructions. Melanesia. well. often Micronesia, last by Polynesian essentially of have is OVERVIEW caka-va 'spear of portmanteau respectively: in not subject of related morphemes (§2.1). precede marking Melanesia. Languages no 1985: languages the marking, preposed which while prefixed In patterns in it', longer TAM some fixed 'dive 152; to The and and this not but an In 45 in is a a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 46 morphemes; with constituents (this (Choiseul): directional of are are languages In Postverbal the with phrase. southern 3.3 derived The In the languages These Even markers. the Serial suffixes, distributed. negative share from a such It Melanesia E-gwau-heni-gu Ra When Another I Ni-ro-kan 3SG-scold-give-l 'I 'He more 'I ISG:DIST.FUT-NEG often THE prefixed verb, Verb postverbal 'object' final bound volume) ergativelabsolutive is have will the nominal ko-qisu-me so, ISG:REAL-carry-hither verb are also scolded cases, Both OCEANIC from as and likely markers, cognate Thus, a meanings serialisation we element series not with (Crowley brought pronominal object more pronominal enclitics, the morphemes constructions They quite than markers, commonly cannot find: central some features earlier it a the try clitic to arguments, initial in clear me verb is of LANGUAGES be easily with as to verb common can Paamese, of as also some are badly.' of verbal singular or SG verb Vanuatu eat directional be a with 1987, with well verb verb while are the be their constituent suffix I-eat verb is object better common recognisable the separated bad-PAST dikadika- case-marking occurring are syntactically .' phrase of recognised illustrated verbs as an phrase at in and roots for Early the phrase where yam.' than plural various (§2.1). often a is and least incorporated markers often analysed serial a some kavia VIs-lei try-NEG2 a expressed final verb 'come' generic constituents. in single in for boundaries 1993, va. :CONT two having the is from When languages many category less in types verb verb serialisations coconut kuda. manner as often in are intransitive, discontinuous forms, like members this and verbs. set as Sperlich serial object languages the by spoken construction tightly is there meanings of are object enclitics an of yam ouh. Motu 'go' Roviana the a the like verb. adverbs and bound tense-aspect-mood of aspect encountered verb where is to one in languages in meaning only 1993, may bound slhe Goi 'S/he third Taiof clause: postverbal be there (cf. other This Micronesia, that constructions which that form, than negative (this incorporated morpheme, verbs to a is itself person §3.3). is (this 3SG:IRR-walk-thither Hamel partial is languages, have are the be structure to as going this volume) no 'hither' typically ma-zo-Za of in are be one incorporated not volume) the suffixes, For bound than western marker morphemes a inflectional invariably set New 1993, transitivised. wide uninflected completely to which either example, verb of by non-third. into and, and is Susuka or and carries object Caledonia, object the ro-/-tei range most and Melanesia. Bradshaw others Samoan. the typically 'thither'. enclitic than where are takes fact into in prefixes verb in village.' marker, forms, consists the presumably obvious of predictable are Languages languages surrounds as preverbal Susuka. Susuka Babatana the that relevant, the Oceanic suffixed parts or phrase. In carries widely clause 1993). These shape these free. verb they Iaai and and of of in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 (3) (4) (2) (1) transitivity nuclear Although recur between prefixes, single argument, arguments choose in verbs. 'core' question Despite Serial The movement. Manner: the actions Causative: the e.g. If Directional/Positional: two transitive. Sequential: of in it set constructions, that Kai they he Kail Ki-ro-va-tei 2SG:IRR-NEG Kaik Meatin you person 'He 'Won't 'They 'You 'The first. second, objects, equivalents verbs is whilst syntactic 'nuclear' Oceanic verb of the any transitive, to of was movement this are is hit people arguments The the a-muas 3PL:REAL-hit 3SG:REAL-walk fJ-mual 2SG:REAL-hit-J ko-muasi-nau a killed transitivity the usually constructions If have you other the serial in structurally The the walking me variety, e.g. PL kail while second it object second others, languages. first serialisations, is go subtypes, first down.' in the rowed verbs the argument I-go-NEG2 where intransitive, the construction. implied: dancing?' 3PL:REAL-row or a-valus some verb other verb (i.e. same pig we verb of without moving only of the is have hither.' the the linked. the by is can not in the the expresses pig vuas languages. languages SG:OBJ position expresses depending subject: These the transitive, being Oceanic first hitting first the verbs 3SG:REAL-disappear fJ-suai. serial so first identify being where object/person the first 3SG:REAL-die 2SG:IRR-dance kf-hol? fJ-emat. Some determined. In same verb verb the types verb moving remain many nau-va construction au-maio 2PL:REAL-come reached verb J it.' movement, SG:REAL-go seen.' languages how The the only subject the expresses is subject. certain on languages may is are subject languages, verbs second the types whether separate prefixed. object/person allow as is be all action or semantic A a object differ the are are determined movement, behaves object core of result expresses purposive allow a down netan. second words the the single bound illustrated Some of serialised in of constructions, the of of second: serial the first types TYPOLOGICAL the is just just and that languages set the together first the the extent relationship the by first verb like verbs of action of one below usually verbs movement. subject result the verb second verb serialisation subject a to of is construction, single to and was which all make that but of from the intransitive and OVERVIEW independently share of the the have between have performed. follows both component some and verb), subject There a Paamese. the direction action just contrast subject only object which verbs, verbs have and one the the are the of of or 47 a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 48 This can do Jabem that the (5) Gulf constructions constituents in despite independent the being with now referred between second or slot languages earlier actions, languages grammaticalised, find: Compare languages. Despite this prefixes 'action many not Other Indeed, There hana-hedali BITE-break only 'break THE extent following then'). event The Ambient: be alone. feature be some categorisation of only morphologised find (Huon causative 2SG:IRR-count-OBJ Ki-hulf-n 'Count serialised. this, slot involving PNG, OCEANIC analysed or to occurring which second of being nuclear languages expressed with of the of verbal some are In such the as actions The the in in and within coincides their verbs. southeast Gulf, other some classificatory this element the following the same a non-Austronesian the some is yet widespread, languages although verb as serial serial LANGUAGES constructions, as categories serialisation, teeth' implicit not having process serialisation chickens involving teeth' a in PNG) than is of Paamese In adverbs. amount by other have structurally is as found certainly languages, conjunction these either construction. Papua construction certain with the often (b), and derivational in serial and evolved is (third hana-loloya BITE-tear 'tear of what prefixes. first: languages correctly.' complete languages, or of a anywhere tu- Tawala, chicken ato the occurring of serial and and southern Paamese 'finish', lack patterns. languages freedom adverbial that not verb which with 'action verbs person teeth expanded can languages the Lewo some into with exhaustive: there of verb appear Thus constructions These the suffixes. north which be for or PL kail suggests expressing serial have else Vanuatu independently can derivational these singular) in involving What in teeth' one in the is serialised postmodification analysed causative serialisation, constructions of all Oceanic verb prefixes coast even to which in central appear a of he-mal. 3SG:IRR-be.correct feet, central verbs involve verb forms or variety we be the PNG, that tu-hedali STEP-break languages 'break have phrase. a more ofPNG, subject typically becoming may completive feet': are lexically Oceanic constructions. expressing languages as earlier are Vanuatu, serial can verbs as affixes Vanuatu, which of evolved the widely as with begin verbal of derived the In other be are a of verbs classificatory such these verb serialised some find may and better verbs determined subgroup. the the of are restricted second not with encountered, that there types aspect a hitting derivational verbs various from in as with are derivational feet' second more system classificatory languages and even universal analysed Thus, we Oceanic the Loniu have found of is tu-loloya member STEP-tear 'tear verbs a which the or former actions, find, thoroughgoing same serialisation. The to related some never set verb kinds. of sequence prefixes in first (Admiralties), that been with with echo-subject we are for of languages existence as of Lenakel suffixes. prefix, in occupy verbs suffixation is ambiguity verb verbs or structural generally the adverbial occur meaning, example, currently of In what prefixes. the the Oceanic further cutting hana• Huon serial many ('and in must feet' with sub- that But the are we an as In in of is Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 than restricted Note as TVX However, coreferencing in VSO VOS SOY SVO abbreviatory other arguments Equational 4.2 4.1 4 Paamese: various Vanuatu A with regular In CLAUSE wide being languages discourse. It The Mail R-im-vin R-im-vin Mail 3SG-PAST-go 'Mail 3SG-PAST-go 'He 'He] Verbal Verbless are is that no many New Gela Ireland, Fijian, Admiralty central Caledonia, Sarmi inflectional clear presence went variety constituent subject went languages, subjects. intervening found 3SG:REAL:COP is to (vf) clauses pronominal other clauses: Georgia, (this sentences a certain Bougainville, STRUCTURE that coast, and clauses that conventions: and Anejom chief.' Clauses and subject some of marker in of volume). than SVO Islands, drank most in southeast have basic the he2 categories and kani kani and parts orders an a a which core Bougainville, some few verb. copula are topic): and independent order objects genetically (this drank often this Micronesia. instead constituent kava.' ofPNG, r-im-amnuumw ES-PAST-drink m-im-amnuumw 3SG-PAST-drink most arguments generally Bougainville, are object. Choiseul, both S Santa However, construction, Papua, volume), chief asuv. is consist is kava.' = it distributed are geographically Markham of optional subject, subject becomes Ysabel, and most more the most pronoun some orders expressed some only Mail Mail 'Mail it in Loyalty echo-subject diverse is and some frequently in T southeast Markham some switch-reference geographically much Valley, generally obligatory. is of = the Santa 3SG:REAL:NEG ro-vi-tei nikava. nikava. kava kava is as object encountered topic, the a New not present Islands, by subject languages sample verb of most Ysabel. Siasi simple a Solomons, Polynesia, are Valley, expressed prefix Britain. assumed V chief.' phrase, Thus, or widely and = realised islands, Kiribati, of as object verb juxtaposition in on there can languages. Madang past TYPOLOGICAL follows. l-COP-NEG2 the that compare the with distributed most by Yapese. phrase, be as most affirmative, marks Oceanic is many this independent pronouns second indicated noun a its Vanuatu, coast, (Note New order copula. The contrast 0 clitics the New of phrases pattern, verb. subgroup. = OVERVIEW the noun SOY Britain, following has chief asuv. by though object, Caledonia, some In or following using or Thus: arisen order are phrases as certain affixes focus. coast, New New with well X rare The the as 49 in is = Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 50 predication topicalisation phrase gap Choiseul, constituents allow orders, languages constituent Madang referenced First, Polynesian topicalisation. variations may postnominal subject clause-final a generally interrogative Languages nominal prepositions postpositions features, object Morobe word suffix, core case languages Roviana marked few intransitive clitics is absolutive nominal Samoic result a It Most Oceanic Oceanic However, THE (an languages be with kind syntactic only might order which affixes the whose which but OCEANIC unmarked preceded nominal of is in adjectives. in subgroups Oceanic coast, arguments languages associated having and have of on NPs wh-questions languages, movement at one PNG, there contact not order Solomon languages holds' with focus languages subject. may and, and phrase follow be a most on adjectives split and occurs, referent the is roles, This of few Santa are argument, overt this T, the is what argued LANGUAGES postpositions. arguments. however, Papua follow (see the by position. possessor-possessed languages in TVX topic, possessor-possessed marked considerable ergative (Chafe by with Oceanic then When respectively in verb, has have Of volume) that with ergatively, Islands marking a some with VOS but Ysabel. order a with of is are we Ch. a peripheral (Motu, the pattern. subject become have non-Austronesian wh-question the one introduced that and do its the this constituents languages the the ergative might are generally 1976:50), by and the 1, VO languages, pattern not verb OV has have exact that subject and preposed distinction the 'topic', for these is possessed-possessor aberrant §4.1). If VSO Sinagoro, occurrence freedom order or a have and not Maringe an grammaticalised are expect a is subject transitive same (e.g. - fairly object 'leaky' marking. postverbal topic of present absolutive for of nominative-accusative usually respectively are an is There is then other SVO are less is have to typically in marking, this genitive also Tawala, case T languages, the adequate order permitted in from fixed between simply genitive and Maisin) morpheme typologically exhibiting in (Santa is clause-initial languages T well-behaved SOY, order. the type subject of verbs first in are ergative-absolutive these markers. temporal by the in object In as the a prepositions morpheme basic order position two southeast these marked constructions, have cross-referencing time are VO where with these VSO declaratives. 'framework Ysabel), characterisation, have languages, subject being immediately in before and those constructions, roles. a order generally subtypes: in in constituent which the language. inflectionally In or - mixture languages some optional an 'well-behaved' which the or languages, by some some position argument). is is associated belonging in TVX and object Papua). the which This for re-introduced, a VOS in verb in have unpredictable. rather that verbs prefix, whereas verb treated of within constituents their object of - There example, while genitive strict is preceding patterns order ergative The phrase). or these precedes orders, is typically usually this languages in more they In on for but marked than phrase marking intransitive formal both a and to Second, with OV SOY order still as being Fijian are which of as marked in the several languages, in the likely associate a the the and of constructions. most postpositions, but has Bougainville, the languages a that peripheral ergative often having discourse, an can accusatively (although VO verb. mixture (e.g. marking. Tongic marking subject to Third, basic object number marked and absolutive their in the when generally dominant a object to they Oceanic reasons. topic, occur. and subject. express special after Takia, which be many Some main word post- there with by core and and and OV the the are the by of of of of or is A - it a a a Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 marker marked preposed negative have and The initial TAM discontinuously. In 4.4 to Non-core subject/TAM adposition The like 4.3 Motu, these to verb. peripheral forms case often case allow a There Na-musau house house house In ruma ruma ruma Most languages 'I 'in 'under 'on ISG:REAL-sing Negative Verbal Raga, the expression languages dozen of markers. free sang a Thus, categories. typically those marker, such the which top multi-purpose also OV verb, an with Oceanic element top-3SG:poSS-POSTP underside-3SG:posS-POSTP lalo-na=i lata-na=i inside-3sG:posS-POSTP henu-na=i particles, is nominal form the house' where arguments the of and members. NP clauses: languages. as languages in tends a clauses markers, has the house' a that though recurring song.' the Paamese: while of being to a of preverbal prefix. Typically, In the possessive languages appears be New house' (lit. to postpositions negation following: arguments have the languages peripheral be used in prepositions subject/TAM (lit. being OBL en oblique in 'at which Oceanic appearing negative Caledonia, a many This tendency extensive some free (lit. the as 'at particles postverbally. the tends sauen. song expressed have an noun the have house's form. 'at in preposition form that PNG first Polynesian languages object (cliticised marker arguments a the house's less between to in clause however, express in phrase lost markers element inflectional (e.g. It is languages the be house's Oceanic inside') is than of by generally the This closely still generally case Rotuman what are underside') that means do with these these as languages, half original are occupies have follows generally pattern top') not of ai, is we languages it morphologically a a related prefixation, used categories VO and of is mark which dozen larger morphotactically locative might interposed and marked transitive complex languages, these is the in a negation marked peripheral to preverbal found some sets a genuine contracts want verb semantically for the element forms with TYPOLOGICAL clause-finally. of negation constructions between suffixes negation expression to Polynesian root. both by prepositions, and is free call adpositions, bound and slot, functions adposed to marked as with separable postpositions forms, a i precedes the on its is pseudo-transitive while fairly after to to languages generally of verbs, head. OVERVIEW TAM languages) each be In by constituents, involving the with subject a), with the empty with languages expressed from a the negative markers other Thus we there c1ause- second affixed closer in other verb. also way that find and the the an as as 51 in is Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 52 postverbal being The Vinmavis). there parallel complement language, In morpheme. An well Some declaratives, 5.2 5.1 5 Polar structural content and word IMPERATIVE Fijian, Au Pe Ni-ro-lesi-ko-tei. k-a-s-apwah NEGI 3NSG-CONT-PL-not Ki-hiteni 'I 'They 'There 2SG:DIST.FuT-say 'I ISG:DIST.FUT-NEG ISG 'How THE Interrogative Imperative imperative sometimes bipartite will will as class questions is languages expressed innovations. questions OCEANIC languages na FUT tripartite will are the slot not not is and negative as Thus, Prohibitions wii water no is or not negative negated the you see of come.' sega a NEG the verb 'do sentences water.' a the are express LANGUAGES nominalisation: as eating.' questioned typically we you.' AND following sentences NEG2 re say negative how', patterns markers, questioned that There a phrase generally find ni SUBORD he-mukave? 3SG:DIST.FUT-do.how clause l-see-2SG-NEG2 it?' markers complement INTERROGATIVE usually n-tVlJtn-len NOM-eat-NOM negation have the are is involve polio NEG3 often questioning constituent, are marking, is e.g. even following encountered. laka come expressed are constituent. expressed inflectional display scattered by has one an generally to hither maio means interrogative language, no with this. in a interjection. though as different simply marking Paamese: geographically, Thus, Generally, prefixes Thus of a SENTENCES a quite k-a-s-tvlJin 3N 'They subordinate single a interrogative Lewo SG-CONT-PL-eat negative we through different in marker form at are find Except (e.g. interrogatives Southwest all, preverbal (Vanuatu; eating.' of in or verb, that an clause: negation Takia, so in Paamese: in verbs only intonation shape these does TVX with Tanna Early constituent a Paamese, meaning' belong not from from preverbal clearly the languages 1994) move (Vanuatu) change negated declaratives. language in do represent and in Lenakel, the from subject what', which (§4.2) same from verb two the the to Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 03:21 30 Sep 2021; For: 9780203820384, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203820384.ch3 marking these being preposition. 6 clauses, any Oceanic instead linked shape subordinating 'say' COMPLEX linking marking languages. a to by subset by with of demonstratives, languages a small morphemes interdependence subordination, There the functions. subordinate of SENTENCES Relative range those set is generally of often encountered of conjunctions. at It and clause all. categories is clauses and not in a The reason do subordinate single uncommon inflectional markers, structural not to in that clauses There verbs main have subordinator are for of is relationship for clauses. markers especially expressed are marking example, widespread locution clauses often Conjoined that often between expressed or to are in complicated between use be subordinate perception. expresses TYPOLOGICAL often perform simply of sentences main a clauses similar by lexical juxtaposed other means a systems clauses and wide may or OVERVIEW verb are functions subordinate identical of be generally range typically meaning of a without shown causal overt of 53 in in